# Timelines text-to-spreadsheet.ndf Script for processing http://Timelines.ws # www.BillHowell.ca 10Dec2011 # uses QNial programming language www.nial.com copyright of Nial Systems Limited and Queens University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada /home/bill/Howell - history timelines/Timelines text/Timelines 3300 BC - 1899 AD.txt start end Description references -3300 nend The beginning date of the Mayan calendar. (L.C.-W.P.p.2-3) -3300 nend Around this time the inhabitants of Sumer in present day Iraq adopted the practice of storing tokens in sealed clay jars. The tokens represented the counts of foodstuffs, livestock , and land. The stored tokens provided a more permanent record but required that jars be broken in order to examine the record. Then someone hit on the idea of making marks in the soft clay covers of the jars to represent the tokens inside. Archeological evidence shows that the marked jars led almost immediately to a system of marks on clay tablets. (I&I, Penzias, p.42) -3300 nend Archaic cylinder seals [of Sumeria] of this time were later collected by financier Pierpont Morgan. (SFC, 2/15/97, p.D1) -3300 nend In 1991 German hikers Erica and Helmut Simon found a well-preserved prehistoric corpse, dated to about this time. He was later named Oetzi (Frozen Fritz). He was found on Sep 19, 1991, in a glacier on the Hauslabjoch Pass, about 100 yards from Austria in northern Italy. It was kept at the Univ. of Innsbruck for study. In 1998 analysis indicated that the Ice Man had internal parasites and carried the woody fruit of a tree fungus as a remedy. Tattoos on the body were also found to be placed over areas of active arthritis. A flint arrow was also found in his back. In 2007 forensic researchers said he died either from hitting his head on a rock when he passed out or because his attacker hit him in the head. (SFC, 12/25/98, p.A4)(SFEC, 5/7/00, p.T4)(WSJ, 2/3/04, p.A1)(AP,8/29/07) -3300 -3200 In 1998 clay tablets were reported from this date from the tomb of an Egyptian king named Scorpion. The tablets had writing that recorded linen and oil deliveries as a tithe to the king. The tomb was in a cemetery at Gebel Tjauti in Suhag province, some 250 miles south of Cairo. Egyptologists John Coleman Darnell and wife Deborah discovered the tableau in 1995. (SFC, 12/15/98, p.C5)(SFC, 4/16/02, p.A4) -3300 -1000 The earliest known civilizations occupied the Aegean world. The Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations rose and fell over this period. (eawc, p.1) -3250 nend King Scorpion ruled Upper (southern) Egypt. Evidence of wine was found in his tomb and scientists believed it was produced in Jordan and transported by donkey and boat to Egypt. (AM, 5/01, p.54)(SFC, 10/27/05, p.A2) -3200 nend Semitic people come to the area around Byblos, Lebanon. It was then called Gebal and the people Giblites, who with flat axes cut timber from the mountains. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.174) c -3200 nend A white limestone vase was made depicting Sumerians offering gifts to the goddess Innin along with scenes of daily life in Uruk. It survived for thousands of years and came to be called the Sacred Vase of Warka. (SFC, 6/13/03, p.A12)(WSJ, 9/18/03, p.D6) -3200 nend Archeological evidence indicates that the Sumerians used wheeled transportation. (eawc, p.1) -3200 nend The Sumerians developed pictographic writing about this time. (SFEC, 11/14/99, p.A6) -3200 nend The National Museum of the American Indian in New York City has Valdivian female figurines from Ecuador that date back to 3200BC. (SFC, 12/4/94, p.T-3) -3200 -2500 Henges, enormous ditches enclosing circular constructs dating to this period, were enigmatic features of Neolithic and Bronze age Britain. In 2008 researchers dating cremated bones concluded that Stonehenge was initially established as a ?domain of ancestors,? and that burials were a major component in all its stages. (SFC,11/11/97, p.A12)(SFC, 5/30/08, p.A6) -3200 -2200 The Orkney Island village of Skara Brae was inhabited during this period. A huge storm in 1850 revealed its ruins. Inhabitants were settled farmers who ate sheep, cattle, grain and fish. (www.orkneyjar.com/history/skarabrae/)(SFEC, 3/23/97, p.T3) -3200 -2000 The Cycladic culture, a network of small, sometimes fortified farming and fishing settlements that traded with mainland Greece, Crete and Asia Minor, flourished during this period. It is best known for the elegant figurines: mostly naked, elongated figures with arms folded under their chests. It was eclipsed by Crete and Mycenaean Greece. (AP, 12/31/06) -3200 -1600 The Indus Valley civilization grew up along the banks of the Indus River in what is now Pakistan. The cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Dara showed the development of multi-level houses and city-wide plumbing. A natural disaster that altered the course of the Indus River appears to have brought about the collapse of this civilization. (eawc, p.1) -3100 nend Menes, the legendary first pharaoh of Egypt, ruled upper Egypt from Nekhen before he conquered lower Egypt and moved his capital to Memphis. (NG, May 1985, p.586) c -3100 nend The upper and lower kingdoms were united to form the 1st Dynasty of Egypt. The fertile Nile Valley and prevailing environmental conditions led to the formation of villages along the river?Upper Egypt in the south and Lower Egypt in the north. These villages grew into 'kingdoms' centered around Naqadah (later Hierakonopolis) in the south and Behdet (later Buto) in the delta. According to tradition, the upper and lower kingdoms were united into one centralized government by King Menes around 3100BC. However, modern scholars are unsure whether King Menes was actually several kings, including Narmer and Aha. Menes' reign lasted a substantial 62 years before being killed by a hippopotamus (again according to tradition). The 1st dynasty lasted until about 2890BC. (HNQ, 11/2/00) c -3100 nend In the protodynastic period of Egypt "Scorpion" ruled and was followed by Narmer. In 2002 Jan Assmann authored "The Mind of Egypt: History and Meaning in the Time of the Pharaohs. (R4,1998)(SSFC, 4/28/02, p.M4) -3100 nend Cuneiform writing emerged in Mesopotamia. The wedge-shaped characters were used to record the first epics in world history, including "Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta," and the first stories about "Gilgamesh." (eawc, p.1) -3100 nend Writing was related to Sumerian language. (V.D.-H.K.p.10) -3100 nend The first known incarnation of Stonehenge, the ancient stone monument in the south of England, is thought to have been built by native Neolithic peoples around this time. Archaeological interpretation of the site is primarily based on a series of modern excavations carried out since 1919. The studies have concluded that there were three different building periods representing markedly different materials and methods. Stonehenge I was primarily an earthen structure built by native Neolithic peoples using deer antlers as picks. Two entry stones were also placed to the northeast of the circle, one of which (the "Slaughter Stone") survives in the latest monument. (HNQ, 3/3/01) -3100 -2770 The Archaic Period of Egypt. Narmer united Egypt and hieroglyphic writing developed. (eawc, p.1) -3100 -2700 In Egypt the limestone "Stele of the Serpent King" has a bas-relief of a falcon in profile above a nearly abstract curving stroke of a snake. It is now in the French Louvre. (WSJ, 1/29/98, p.A16) -3063 nend In 2010 Swiss archaeologists in Zurich said they have unearthed a 5,000-year-old door that may be one of the oldest ever found in Europe. Using tree rings to determine its age, they believed the door could have been made in the year 3,063 BC, around the time that construction on Britain's world famous Stonehenge monument began. (AP, 10/20/10) c -3050 -2890 In Egypt Hor-Aha ruled and was followed by Djer, Djet, Den, Anedjib, Semerkhet, and Qa'a. These rulers comprised the 1st dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/egyptdynasties.html) -3022 nend In Peru the pyramids of Aspero on the Pacific coast dated to about this time. (AM, 7/05, p.20) c -3000 nend Evidence of human habitation in the Yosemite Valley of California. (SFEC, 5/18/97, Z1 p.4) -3000 nend In California radiocarbon tests indicated human habitation at the SF bay side foot of San Bruno Mountain back to this time. (SFEC,12/29/97, p.A13) c -3000 nend Bison Hunter villages around Middle Lake in Modoc Ct., Ca., were carbon-dated to this time. (SFEC, 5/10/98, p.T9) -3000 nend An earthen mound at what later was known as Watson Brake, La. in the US was dated to this time. (SFC, 9/19/97, p.A3) c -3000 nend Maize and other crops were introduced in the lowlands of what is now northern Belize. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.A) -3000 nend The use of coca in Bolivian culture can be traced back to at least this time. It is commonly called hoja sagrada, or sacred loaf. (SFC, 6/29/00, p.A12) -3000 nend In Britain timber temples were constructed about this time prior to stone circles. Remains of one was found in 1997 at Stanton Drew in Somerset that measured 443 feet on the outer diameter. (SFC,11/11/97, p.A17) -3000 nend In 2009 archeologists identified a site named "Bluehenge," dating to about this time, about a mile (2km) away from Stonehenge. It was named after the color of the 27 Welsh stones that were laid to make up a path. The stones were gone but the path of holes remained. (AP, 10/3/09) -3000 nend Chur, the capital of the Swiss canton of Graubunden, dates back to this time. (Wired, Dec. '95, p.76) -3000 nend The fishing village of Daixi at the eastern end of the Qutang Gorge in China is the site of a Neolithic culture from this time. (NH, 7/96, p.58) -3000 nend Ships transported timber from Byblos to Egypt. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.156) c -3000 nend Thoth developed the Egyptian calendar whose year begins with the autumn equinox. The year was divided into 12 months of 30 days with 5 or 6 days added at the end but not counted as a part of any month. (K.I.-365D) -3000 nend The Egyptians used reed brushes on papyrus to write hieroglyphics. (SFC, 7/26/04, p.F4)(K.I.-365D.p.31) c -3000 nend Ayurveda, a holistic Indian science, had its beginnings. It later taught that the balancing of the mind, spirit and body is the secret of health, vitality, longevity and beauty. (SFC, 4/25/00, p.C6) c -3000 nend Hatha Yoga, a combination of mind and body exercises, began in India about this time. (SSFC, 4/18/04, p.D16) -3000 nend The earliest 6-sided dice date to about this time from a site in northern Iraq. (WSJ, 10/27/06, p.W5) c -3000 nend In the area of present Lithuania at the end of the 3rd millennium a new wave of nomadic cattle-raisers moved in from the south and south-west and brought with them a corded pottery culture. (DrEE, 10/12/96, p.2) c -3000 nend In Macedonia the town of Ohrid was established on Lake Ohrid, the 2nd deepest lake in the world. (SFC, 8/9/99, p.A8) c -3000 nend A Neolithic temple at Mnajdra, Malta, dates to this time. (AM, 7/01, p.15) c -3000 nend The goddess as a cultural figure began losing power about this time as the process of reading and writing developed. In 1998 Dr. Leonard Shlain published "The Alphabet Versus the Goddess: The Conflict Between Word and Image." (SFC, 1/19/99, p.B1) c -3000 nend On the Orkney mainland the 12 Stones of Stennes were built about this time. (SFEC, 3/23/97, p.T3) c -3000 nend Gold and silver began to be refined via cupellation, a process that produces 300 parts lead for every part silver. (NH, 7/96, p.50) c -3000 nend Bituminous surface deposits were exploited in the Near East as early as this time. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.56) -3000 nend It is suspected by Earth scientists that the sun shone particularly brightly about this time. This episode is called the Altithermal, and may have contributed to the rise of the early civilizations. Another similar high heat episode occurs around 1000 CE. (NOHY, 3/90, p.127) c -3000 nend Scientists say that the weather changed about this time and that the first El Nino Pacific Ocean temperature flip occurred. Analysis of Peruvian coastal middens of this period indicated a diet change from tropical mollusks to cold water mollusks. The idea was first proposed in 1983 and evidence was added from Japan and Greenland. Skeptics claim that the change was due to mollusks harvested from now vanished warm water lagoons. (SFC, 9/13/96, p.E2) -30000 nend Urartu existed in eastern Anatolia starting about his time until it was defeated and destroyed by the Medes. (http://www.atmg.org/ArmenianFAQ.html#q6) c -3000 nend The Osceola mudflow from Mt. Rainier, Wa., struck. It was estimated to have been 60 times as massive as the 1985 mudflow in Columbia that killed 23,000 people. (SFEC, 11/10/96, p.A16) -3000 -2800 The Burckle Crater, an undersea crater, formed during this period by a very large scale comet or meteorite impact event. It is located to the east of Madagascar and west of Western Australia in the southern Indian ocean and is estimated to be about 30 km (18 mi) in diameter. In 2006 the Holocene Impact Working Group believed that it was created when a comet impacted in the ocean, and that enormous megatsunamis created the dune formations which later allowed the crater to be pin-pointed. As not only the Bible, but other ancient writings from various cultures make reference to a 'great flood', it is hypothesized that these legends are associated with this event. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burckle_Crater) -3000 -2500 On Malta the Tarxien phase is marked by the collapse of the temple culture. (AM, Jul/Aug '97 p.44) -3000 -2000 Bronze might have been invented in ancient Afghanistan around this time. True urban centers rose in two main sites in Afghanistan--Mundigak, and Deh Morasi Ghundai. Mundigak (near modern day Kandahar) had an economic base of wheat, barley, sheep and goats. Also, evidence indicates that Mudigak could have been a provincial capital of the Indus valley civilization. Ancient Afghanistan was a crossroads between Mesopotamia, and other Civilizations. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) -3000 -2000 Early Minoan civilization, centering around Crete, named after the legendary Cretan king. Early, middle, and late are periods divided by Sir Arthur Evans. Pottery was decorated with incised or pricked patterns filled in with white powdered gypsum to make a pattern on a black background up to this time. Early Minoan I began to make colored decoration. Ornament was restricted to simple geometrical patterns. The pottery was made without a wheel. In this period short, triangular daggers in copper are found. In Early Minoan II Pottery designs are more free and graceful, simple curves appear. The potter's wheel was introduced. Rude and primitive idols in marble, alabaster, and steatite are found, but the use of flint and obsidian was not wholly abandoned. Early Minoan III begins to show seals with a kind of hieroglyphic signs upon them, apparently imitated from Egyptian seals. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.15) -3000 -2000 In Scotland the Clava cairns, a mile from Culloden, are 3 sizable stone burial chambers encircled by stone monoliths. (SFEC,12/797, p.T4) -3000 -2000 Ebla, Syria, was a commercial capital of this era. In 1975 tens of thousands of cuneiform tablets were found that supported Ebla's role. (WSJ, 9/30/99, p.A26) -3000 -1700 In China?s Late Neolithic, Longshan period, a walled settlement existed at what was later called the Puchengdian Ruins of Henan province. (Arch, 1/05, p.12) -3000 -1500 The city of Harappa flourished as part of the Indus Valley civilization in Pakistan. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.A) -3000 1200 C The Bronze Age. (MT, 3/96, p.5) -2980 nend Egypt?s tomb of King Den, dated to about this time, was later found to show evidence of mummification. (AM, 9/01, p.13) -2890 -2686 This is the period of Egypt?s 2nd Dynasty. Hotepsekhemwy ruled and was followed by Raneb, Nynetjer, Weneg, Seth-Peribsen and Khasekhemwy. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) c -2850 nend In China Emperor Fushi decreed that people would be identified with a formal family name as well as a familiar first name. (SFEC, 5/18/97, Z1 p.6) -2800 nend The Bronze Age began. (WH, 1994, p.12) c -2800 nend In Britain Stonehenge Phase I saw the construction of the henge's bank and ditch. A pair of upright stones formed a ceremonial entrance with a larger stone opposite. 56 small pits encircled the whole area. (HT, 3/97, p.22) -2800 nend In Cyprus the town of Palaepaphos, 11 miles inland from modern Paphos, was founded about this time. It later became the site of a temple of Aphrodite, the ancient goddess of beauty who, according to mythology, was born in the sea off Paphos. (AP, 3/21/06) -2772 nend In Egypt the 365 day calendar was introduced. (eawc, p.1) -2750 nend Gilgamesh, a Sumerian King, ruled the city of Uruk (Babylonia) about this time, which had grown to a population of over 50,000. Gilgamesh was the subject of many epics, including the Sumerian "Gilgamesh and Enkidu in the Nether World" and the Babylonian "Epic of Gilgamesh." In 1844 Westerners discovered an epic poem based on Gilgamesh on stone fragments in Mosul, Iraq. In 1853 clay tablets inscribed with the tale were found in Nineveh, the former capital of Assyria. 5 Sumerian versions were later acknowledged. George Smith completed his translation of the Epic in 1874. In 2004 Stephen Mitchell published ?Gilgamesh: A New English Translation.? Derek Hines authored ?Gilgamesh.? (eawc, p.1)(SFC, 12/14/04, p.E4)(ON, 11/07, p.4,6)(Arch, 5/05, p.16) c -2750 nend Queen Paubi lived in the city of Ur in Mesopotamia. (WSJ, 3/15/00, p.A24) c -2750 nend In the Orkney Islands a chambered tomb, Maes Howe, near the Stones of Stennes was constructed. It also exhibits a collection of stone carved Viking runes. The tomb was vandalized and rebuilt in 9th century Norse times. (SFEC, 3/23/97, p.T3)(SFEM, 10/10/99, p.24) -2737 nend Chinese emperor Shen Neng prescribed marijuana tea to treat gout, rheumatism, malaria and poor memory. (WSJ, 2/8/05, p.D7) -2700 nend The Chinese developed India ink, mixing soot from pine smoke and lamp oil with gelatin of donkey skin and musk. (SFC, 7/26/04, p.F4) -2700 nend Domesticated maize in Mexico goes back to this time. (SFEC, 4/18/99, Z1 p.2) -2700 -2200 In southern Russia a group of Novotitarovskaya steppe nomads roamed the Caucasus. (Arch, 9/00, p.12) -2700 -700 The Harappan civilization flourished in the Indus and Ganges valleys. (Reuters, 3/15/06) -2698 nend The beginning of the Chinese calendar. Feb 19,1996 begins the Year of the Rat and the year 4694. (enRoute, 2/96, p.24)(SFEC, 2/2/97, DB. p.7) -2686 -2181 This is the period of Egypt?s 3rd Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2686 -2668 Sanakhte, the older brother of Djoser, founded Egypt?s 3rd Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2686 -2181 Chairs in the early dynasties of Egypt stood on what looked like animals' legs. Low reliefs of Egypt?s Old Kingdom, now in the French Louvre, enumerate an ideal meal to be taken to a tomb. (SFC, 5/11/96, p.E-4)(WSJ, 1/29/98, p.A16) -2668 -2649 Djoser (Dzoser, Zoser) was the 2nd ruler of Egypt?s 3rd Dynasty. The first step pyramid was designed for Dzoser by Imhotep. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2650 -2180 Egyptian wall paintings included information on beer production. In 2004 Japan?s Kirin Brewery produced a beer dubbed ?The Old Kingdom Beer.? (WSJ, 10/14/04, p.A1) -2649 -2643 Sekhemkhet was the 3rd ruler of Egypt?s 3rd Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2643 -2637 Khaba was the 4th ruler of Egypt?s 3rd Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2637 -2613 Huni was the 5th ruler of Egypt?s 3rd Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2627 nend Parts of Caral, a city in the Supe Valley of Peru, was built about this time. The 170-acre site, 14 miles from the coast, was discovered in 1905 but not dated till 2001. The city had pyramids up to 70 feet tall and its population was believed to have reached about 3,000. (SFC, 4/27/01, p.A3)(SFC, 6/15/01, p.D6)(AM, 7/05, p.19,25) -2620 -2500 A polychrome stele of Egyptian Princess Nefertiabet depicts her dining in a one-shoulder leopard-skin gown. It is now in the French Louvre. (WSJ, 1/29/98, p.A16) -2620 -2500 An Egyptian painted limestone statue of a "Seated Scribe" dates to this period. It is now in the French Louvre. (WSJ, 1/29/98, p.A16) -2613 -2589 Snefru (Snofru), son of Huni, was the 1st king of Egypt?s 4th Dynasty. Snefru?s scribes left a description of 40 ships bearing timber arriving to Egypt from Byblos. On Mar 9,1925, the Egyptian Ministry of Public Works announced the discovery of the 5,000-year-old tomb of King Sneferu. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.156)(HN,3/9/98)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2601 nend In Egypt Nik?ure, the son of a pharaoh, died and left what was later recognized as the oldest Last Will and Testament. "Being of sound mind and body?" He left his wealth to his wife, 3 children and to another woman. (SFEC, 8/6/00, Z1 p.2) c -2600 nend Tombs of the priest Kai were built about this time in Egypt. In 1999 they were found in a cemetery west of Cheop's pyramid. (SFC, 5/27/99, p.A18) -2600 -2500 British archeologists reported in 2007 that houses found at Durrington Walls near Stonehenge, the world's largest known henge (an enclosure with a bank on the outside and a ditch inside), were radiocarbon dated to this time. (AFP, 1/30/07) -2600 -1900 The Indus Valley Civilization flourished with Harappa as one of its great cities. Undeciphered Indus Valley script on inscribed seals and molded tablets have been found there. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.C) -2589 -2566 Khufu (Cheops), son of Snefru and Queen Hetepheres, ruled as the 2nd king of Egypt?s 4th dynasty. Khufu built the Great Pyramid. It rose about 100 feet. Two more were built for his 2 wives, Henutsen and Meryetes. Laborers reportedly went on strike to get a daily ration of garlic. (eawc, p.1)(SFC, 1/3/98, p.A8)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2550 nend In 2006 a scientist proposed that beginning about this time Egyptians started to use cast concrete in their pyramids. His evidence was taken from samples of the Khufu pyramid. The proposal was controversial in that concrete was later used to restore pyramids. (SFC, 12/1/06, p.A12) -2550 -2400 The "Standard of Ur," a tapered box with rows of people depicting a battle and its aftermath, was made about this time. (WSJ, 5/22/03, p.D8) -2566 -2558 Djedefre (Radjedef) succeeded his father Khufu and ruled as the 3rd king of Egypt?s 4th Dynasty (2528BC-2520BC). (R4,1998)(Arch, 7/02, p.9)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2558 -2532 Khafre ruled as the 4th king of Egypt?s 4th dynasty. His pyramid is the 2nd largest on Egypt?s Giza Plateau. The Sphinx was built under his rule. In 1996 a 4,500 year-old perfectly intact alabaster statue of Pharaoh Khaefre was part of a 1996 show on loan from Cairo at St. Petersburg, Florida. In 2002 Christine Zivie-Coche authored "Sphinx: History of a Monument." (WSJ, 1/16/96, p. A-16)(WSJ, 1/10/03,p.W7)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2532 -2504 Menkaure ruled, son of Khafre, as the 5th king in Egypt?s 4th dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2504 -2500 Shepseskaf, son of Menkaure, ruled as the 6th king in Egypt?s 4th dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) c -2500 nend Aryan followers of King Yama crossed the Aoxus River from Central Asia into Tajikistan and created a new calendar with the new year (Now Roz, Now-Ruz) marked by spring. This was later celebrated by people in Iran and Afghanistan. (SSFC, 3/31/02, p.A22) c -2500 nend African settlers came to the Canary Islands about this time and brought with them a whistling language later known as "silbo Gomero." (SFC, 11/14/03, p.D5) -2500 nend Cycladic figurines on the islet of Keros were deliberately smashed around this time. In 2006 new research led scientists to believe that Keros was a hugely important religious site where the smashed artwork was ceremoniously deposited. The sea-faring Cycladic culture consisted of a network of small, sometimes fortified, farming and fishing settlements that traded with mainland Greece, Crete and Asia Minor. It became renowned for its elegant flat-faced marble figurines. (SFC, 1/10/06, p.D7)(AP, 12/31/06) -2500 nend A 330-foot-tall Egyptian pyramid was erected about this time and came to be known as the ?Bent? pyramid, located outside the village of Dahshur. In 2009 travelers were given access to its inner chambers. (SFC, 3/17/09, p.A2) -2500 nend A flute made of vulture bone from this time is on exhibit at the Paris Museum of Music. (SFEC, 9/14/97, p.T7) -2500 nend Wooden sandals represent the oldest shoes on exhibit in Toronto at the Bata Shoe Museum, and are from an Egyptian tomb estimated to be 4,500 years old. (SFE, 10/1/95, p.T-10) c -2500 nend The tomb of an Egyptian child from about this time was found to contain toys that included miniature pins and balls and a wicket, the first evidence of bowling. (SFC, 7/28/97, p.A3) -2500 nend The first signs of human habitation at Trier (Germany) date to this time. (SFEC, 4/30/00, p.T8) c -2500 nend In India excavations in 2000 revealed a walled city of the middle 3rd millennium at the Dholavira site in Gujarat state. (AM, 11/00, p.22) -2500 nend The Jiroft culture (later Assyria, Persia, southeastern Iran) flourished about this time. (Arch, 5/04, p.51) -2500 nend On Malta by about his time the megalithic temples were no longer in use. (AM, Jul/Aug '97 p.47) -2500 nend In 2006 researchers reported a 4,500-year-old burial in Mexico that showed front teeth ground down so they could be mounted with animal teeth. It was the oldest example of dental work in the Americas. (SFC, 6/14/06, p.A2) -2500 nend The Nuraghic Civilization thrived in Sardinia. (SFEC, 1/30/00, p.T4) -2500 nend Troy II, the second oldest discernible settlement on the site of the mound of Hissarlik in northwest Turkey, a good 1200 years before the estimated date of the Trojan War. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.49) -2500 nend By this time the Sahara desert looked much as it does today. (ATC, p.109) -2500 -2000 The Magan-period of Oman. Numerous slag heaps and third millennium remains from mining and smelting have been found at the oasis village of Maysar in central-eastern Oman. Magan supplied copper ingots to the seafaring merchants of southern Mesopotamia. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.49)(Arch, 9/00, p.48) -2500 -2000 Scotland?s Ring of Brogar in Orkney?s West Mainland dates to about this time. In 2005 36 of the original 60 stones remained standing. The original stones stood in a perfect circle 340 feet in diameter. (SFEC, 3/23/97, p.T3)(SSFC, 11/13/05, p.F10) -2500 -1500 Cities flourished in the Indus Valley. (WH, 1994, p.12) -2500 -1500 Mohenjo-Daro in southern Pakistan was an early urban center. As many as 40,000 people lived there (AM, May/Jun 97 p.74)(AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.D) -2500 -1300 In the Dhofar region of Oman, a fortress was built at Shisur next to a permanent spring and used up to 1500CE. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.52) -2500 -800 The Saqqaq people, the earliest known culture in southern Greenland, thrived over this period. In 2010 scientists sequenced the DNA from four frozen hairs of a Greenlander who lived among the Saqqaq around 2,000BC. He appeared to have originated in Siberia and was unrelated to modern Greenlanders. (Reuters, 2/10/10) -2498 -2491 Userkaf, grandson of Djedefre, ruled as the 1st king of Egypt?s 5th dynasty. He built a pyramid complex at Saqqara. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty5.html) -2494 nend Pharaoh Khafre, builder of the second largest of the Giza Pyramids, died around this time. (AP, 10/18/10) -2491 -2477 Sahure ruled as the 2nd king of Egypt?s 5th dynasty. He built a pyramid complex at Abusir. He established an Egyptian navy and sent a fleet to Punt and traded with Palestine. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty5.html) -2477 -2467 Neferirkare, brother of Sahure, ruled as the 3rd king of Egypt?s 5th dynasty. In 1893 local farmers discovered hieratic papyrus at his pyramid complex consisting of some 300 fragments. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty5.html) -2467 -2460 Shepseskare ruled in Egypt, according to the Turin King-list, for 7 years. Some seal impressions dated to his reign have been found at Abusir. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2460 -2453 Neferefre ruled as the 5th king of Egypt?s 5th Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2450 nend The Troy treasure discovered by Heinrich Schliemann in 1873 was dated to a Bronze Age Troy of about this time. (SFC, 4/16/96, p.A-9) -2453 -2422 Niusserre (Nyuserre) ruled as the 6th king of Egypt?s 5th dynasty. In 1893 local farmers discovered hieratic papyrus at his pyramid complex consisting of some 300 fragments. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2422 -2414 Menkauhor ruled as the 7th king of Egypt?s 5th dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2414 -2375 Djedkare ruled at the end of the 6th dynasty. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/04_06/05.html) c -2400 nend A site at Chien-kou near Handan of China's Longshan culture shows strong evidence of warfare between communities. (NH, Jul, p.30) c -2400 nend In Egypt the bas-reliefs lining the Mastaba of Akhethetep depict the rural life of a prosperous landowner. The chapel is in the French Louvre. (WSJ, 1/29/98, p.A16) -2400 nend Dagan, a name that appears in early Mesopotamia, and that enters into the composition of proper names in Babylonia about this time. Dagan was later a name for head of the Philistine pantheon. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.99, p.104) -2400 nend The Mesopotamian city of Nagar (in northeastern Syria) became the powerful state of Nagar about this time. (MT, summer 2003, p.11) -2400 -2200 Archeologists in 2008 said evidence from Stonehenge dating to this period indicated that the site was used as a place of pilgrimage for the sick. (WSJ, 9/23/08, p.A26) -2400 -1500 Late Danish Neolithic: In the Ertebolle Culture amber pendants were shaped as animals. This includes the Dagger Period of Northern Europe. (PacDis, Winter/?97, p.8)(http://tinyurl.com/9usqn) -2375 -2345 Unas ruled at the end of Egypt?s 6th dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2355 -2195 This is the period of Egypt?s 6th Dynasty. (AM, 7/05, p.14) c -2350 nend Akhethetep, a high ranking official, lived about this time. His mastaba tomb is located in Saqqara, Egypt. (AM, 11/04, p.72) -2348 nend Jul 17, "My Bible also revealed that Noah came ashore on Mt. Ararat on the 17th day of the seventh month, 2348BC." In 1999 William Ryan and Walter Pitman authored "Noah's Flood: The New Scientific Discoveries about the Event That Changed History." They demonstrate how the rising Mediterranean broke through a natural dam in the Bosporus Strait and flooded a freshwater lake that expanded into the Black Sea. [see 5,600BC] (NG, Nov. 1985, edit., p.559)(NH, 12/98, p.13) -2348 nend Nov 25, Biblical scholars have long asserted this to be the day of the Great Deluge, or Flood. [see Jul 17, 2348] (HN, 11/25/98) -2345 -2333 Teti ruled Egypt as the 1st king of the 6th dynasty. In 2008 archeologists discovered a pyramid in Saqqara dating to about this time. It was said to belong to Queen Sesheshet, the mother of King Teti. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm)(AP, 11/11/08) -2345 -2181 In Egypt the "Striding Figure of Meryrahashtef," a 22.5 inch nude statue of a minor 6th dynasty official, was made. (WSJ, 1/16/02, p.A14)(Arch, 9/02, p.61) -2334 -2279 Sargon I (2371BC-2315BC) founded and ruled the city-state of Akkad, after he left the city of Kish where he was an important official. He was the first ruler to maintain a standing army. His empire lasted less than 200 years. (http://tinyurl.com/ctv5f) -2333 nend Userkare ruled in the 6th dynasty of Egypt between Teti and Pepi. He is believed to be a proponent of the group that killed Teti. (www.ancient-egypt.org/kings/0602_userkare/history.html) -2333 nend Go-Chosun (Kojoson) refers to the Korean Empire founded by Tangun in 2333 BC that succeeded the first kingdoms of Hwan Gook (7,197 BC) and Bae Dal (3,898 BC) (also known as Gu Ri). The people of Go-Chosun were referred to by the Chinese as "the eastern bowmen." Chosun means "The Land of the Morning Calm." (www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=Chosun)(Econ, 3/31/07, SR p.8) -2332 -2283 Pepi I ruled as the 3rd king of the 6th dynasty. A pyramid of Queen Ankh-sn-Pepi, wife of Pepi I, was discovered in 2000. The "Pair Statue of Queen Ankh-Nes-Meryre II and her son Pepi II Seated" was part of an Egyptian show on view at the NY Met in 1999. (WSJ, 9/21/99, p.A24)(SFC, 4/3/00,p.A10)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2320 nend Sargon conquered the independent city-states of Sumer and instituted a central government. (eawc, p.2) c -2300 nend Phoenicians, a seafaring people, began living along the Levantine coast. (SFC, 6/24/99, p.A14) -2300 nend Sumerian cuneiform texts mention the land of Magan (possibly Oman) as a source of copper and diorite for the states of Mesopotamia. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.49) -2300 nend A culture traceable to Siberian ancestors made its way eastward across Alaska and through the Arctic to Ellesmere Island's Bache Peninsula. From there Greenland lies just 25 miles across open water in summer or solid sea ice in winter. (NG, 6/1988, 762) -2300 nend The Hmong people lived on the central plains of China. The gradually moved to the mountains of Indochina and Burma and then to Laos and Thailand. (SFC, 6/9/96, DB p.2) -2300 nend A civilization later called the Bactria Margiana Archeology Complex existed about this time in what later became Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Evidence of writing was found at the Annau ruins in 2000. (SSFC, 5/13/01, p.A12) -2300 nend Cultural exchange began between the Indus Valley civilization and Mesopotamia. (eawc, p.2) -2291 -2254 Naram-Sin ruled Akkad. He defeated a rebel coalition in Sumer and re-established Akkadian power. He re-conquered Syria, Lebanon, and the Taurus mountains, destroying Aleppo and Mari in the process. During his reign the Gutians sacked the city of Agade and eventually destroyed all of Sumer (southern Iraq). During his reign Naram-Sin campaigned against the region of Magan (Oman). (http://tinyurl.com/ctv5f) -2278 -2184 Pepi II ruled in Egypt as the last king of the 6th dynasty and the last significant king of the Old Kingdom. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2183 nend Merenre II followed Pepi II as ruler of Egypt. He ruled for just over a year and was murdered. Nitocris, his sister-wife, took rule. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty6.html) -2183 -2180 Nitocris (Nitiqret), the wife-sister-wife of Merenre, rule Egypt. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty6.html) -2254 -2230 Shar-Kali-Sharri, son of Naram-Sin, ruled Akkad. He fought to preserve the realm but it disintegrated under rebellion and invasion. (http://tinyurl.com/ctv5f) -2205 -1766 In China the Hsia Dynasty unfolded. No archeological evidence has confirmed this. [see 2100BC-1600] (eawc, p.2) -2200 nend In what is now Bahrain settlements and temples of the city state of Dilmun, known as the city of the gods in ancient Sumerian literature, were found by Danish archaeologists in the 1950s. A culture contemporary with the city state of Dilmun (now Bahrain) was found in 1959 on the island of Umm-an-Nar off of Abu Dhabi. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.48) -2200 nend In Greece Indo-European invaders, speaking the earliest form of Greek, entered the mainland. (eawc, p.2) -2200 nend In the Peruvian Andes a native culture built a 33-foot pyramid about this time with an observatory marking the summer and winter solstices. In 2006 archeologists working at the Buena Vista site believed that fisherman from the coast had moved to the site to grow cotton for making fishing nets. (SFC, 5/15/06, p.A2) -2200 nend A statue of the Sumerian king Entemena of Lagash was made about this time. The head was later lost and in 2003 the remaining body was looted after the fall of Baghdad. In 2006 it was returned to Iraq?s National Museum. (SFC, 7/26/06, p.A3) -2183 -2181 Nitocris (Nitiqret), the wife-sister-wife of Merenre, ruled Egypt. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty6.html) -2181 -2161 Egypt?s 7th and 8th dynasties ruled during this period. Wadjkare ruled in Egypt?s 7th dynasty and was followed by Qakare. Eusebius has a 7th Dynasty that consisted of five kings of Memphis, who reigned for 75 days and an Eighth Dynasty that consisted of five kings of Memphis, who reigned for 100 years. no_source -2181 -2040 Egypt?s First Intermediate Period. It began with the collapse of the Old Kingdom due to crop failure and low revenues due to pyramid building projects. This seemed to coincide with a period of cooling and drying. (eawc, p.2)(Econ, 12/20/03, p.114)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2160 -2140 Egypt?s 9th and 10th Dynasties ruled over this period from the capital at Herakleopolis. Pharaohs included Meryibre, Merykare, Kaneferre, and Nebkaure. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2145 nend Idin-Dagan, a king of Babylonia. and his son Isme-Dagan. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.104) -2137 nend Oct 22, This is the date of the earliest recorded eclipse according to the Shu King, the book of historical documents of ancient China. Two royal astronomers, Hsi and Ho, failed in their duties to predict the eclipse due to too much rice wine and were executed. (SCTS, p.27) -2134 -2117 Intef I (Antef I) ruled in Egypt?s 11th Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2134 -1991 Period of Egypt?s 11th Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2130 nend By this time Sumer regained its independence from Akkadian rule but did not revert to independent city-states. Sumer was ruled from Ur. (eawc, p.2) -2117 -2069 Intef II (Antef II) ruled in Egypt?s 11th Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2113 nend Ur's golden century began when King Ur-Nammu expanded the Sumerian empire and made his capital the wealthiest city in Mesopotamia. Ur-Namma was the founder of the Third Dynasty of Ur. He made sure Magan (Oman) boats could freely come and go from Ur?s harbor. (AP, 4/15/03)(Arch, 9/00, p.46) -2100 nend Byblos ( Pre-Phoenician city) was burned to the ground probably by the Amorites. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.156) -2100 nend The Sumerian King List was written. It recorded all the kings and dynasties ruling Sumer from the earliest times. Eridu was named as the earliest settlement and archeological evidence seems to confirm the claim. (eawc, p.2) -2100 nend Gudeo served as governor of Lagash (Iraq). (Arch, 9/00, p.46) c -2100 nend Stonehenge Phase II incorporated 60 "bluestones" from the Preseli Mountains in southwest Wales, about 135 miles away. 90 bluestones were set up in a horseshoe shape within a circle of another 60. Some 500 years after Stonehenge I fell into disuse, builders created a radically different Stonehenge with dozens of stone pillars weighing up to 4 tons. (HT, 3/97, p.22)(SSFC, 12/24/00, p.T5)(HNQ, 3/3/01) -2100 nend Amorites came from the Arabian peninsula and were the first important Semitic settlers in the area of Damascus. They established many small states. (SFEC, 11/21/99, p.A26) c -2100 -1900 In Stonehenge Phase III the builders encircled the bluestones with sarsen stones, a sandstone (probably from a quarry in Avebury, 20 miles away). These were topped by caps and the bluestones were re-arranged and dug into the ground. The axis of the circle was also re-calculated so that one way Stonehenge points to the summer solstice at sunrise and lined up the other way it points to the winter solstice at sunset. (HT, 3/97, p.22)(SD) -2100 -1600 Xia Dynasty of China. The Ba people controlled salt production on the Yangtze River. They then slowly migrated upstream and in 316BC were subjugated by the Qin. Fuling was a burial site for the kings of Ba. Fengdu was the first capital of Ba. The 1996 Tujia minority claim descent from the Ba. (NH, 7/96, p.31) -2100 -1600 The protohistoric Xia period. [see 2205-1766] (WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20) -2100 -2000 Some 15,000 tiny Golden rings, estimated at 4,100 to 4,200 years old, were found in 2005 near Dabene, Bulgaria. They were attributed to proto-Thracians, ancestors of the Thracians, who lived in the area until they were assimilated by invading Slavs in the 8th century. (SFC, 8/17/05, p.A2) -2070 nend In China the Xia period began according to results from government funded studies in 2000 CE. This was about the middle of the prehistoric Longshan culture. (SFC, 11/10/00, p.D4) -2069 -2060 Intef III (Antef III) ruled in Egypt?s 11th Dynasty for 8 years. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2068 nend Shulgi, king of Ur, accepted gold from the king of Magan (Oman). (Arch, 9/00, p.47) -2060 -2010 Mentuhotep II (Nebhetepre), son of Theban Inteff III, ruled for about 39-51 years in Egypt?s 11th Dynasty. (http://tinyurl.com/9nr3e)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2040 -1782 In Egypt the period of the Middle Kingdom began with its capital at Thebes. It lasted to 1782BC. About this time "The Plea of the Eloquent Peasant" was written calling for a benevolent ruler. (eawc, p.2)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2013 nend Sumerians built the Ziggurat at Ur (later Iraq) to draw closer attention to the god of the moon. (SSFC, 4/25/04, Par p.5) -2010 -1998 Mentuhotep II, son of Mentuhotep I, ruled in the 11th Dynasty of Egypt for about 12 years. (http://tinyurl.com/b97e3)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2000 nend The first agricultural tribes appeared on the Bactrian Plain (Afghanistan). (NG, 3/90, p.62) -2000 nend Bronze-age mounds from this time in Turkman SSR indicate that Central Asians built cities around oases and developed a flourishing civilization with monumental architecture, sophisticated gold and silver craft, and irrigation agriculture. (NG, 3/90) c -2000 nend At Arbor Low in Derbyshire, England, a Bronze Age stone circle was constructed. (SFEM, 10/11/98, p.21) c -2000 nend Silbury Hill, located on the prehistoric site of Avebury (named after nearby Avebury, England), is the largest prehistoric mound in Europe. The artificial hill, which rises up 130 feet, was constructed over three separate phases beginning at least 4,000 years ago. Although the shape of the mound is similar to smaller earthen constructions used for burials, its purpose remains a mystery. (HNQ, 6/8/01) -2000 nend The initial phase of what scientists call Stonehenge III was begun about 100 years after Stonehenge II with the lentil structure familiar to modern visitors. The builders continued improvements on Stonehenge III up until about 1550BC, well before historical records of the Druids or the Romans. Both Stonehenge and a neighboring circular monument were added to UNESCO's World Heritage List--a listing of cultural and natural sites--in 1986. (HNQ, 3/3/01) -2000 nend For as many as 4,000 years, the salty sand of the Taklimakan Desert in China held well-preserved mummies wearing colorful robes, boots, stockings and hats. The people were Caucasian not Asian. The bodies have been exhumed from the Tarim Basin of Xinjiang province since the late 1970s. (SFC, 5/6/96, p.C-1) -2000 nend Balathal, outside the city of Udaipur in northeast India, was a Chalcolithic village. The people used copper tools and weapons. Terra-cotta figurines of bulls have been found at the site. It was abandoned and reoccupied c340BC. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.B) -2000 nend Legends from Mecca indicate that the prophet Abraham built the Kaaba about this time. The Kaaba is a shrine meaning cube in Arabic, that enclosed the idols of their gods. Religious rituals were performed around the Kaaba which had a black stone embedded into a corner, said to be a gift to Abraham from the angel Gabriel for his belief in one god. By CE 500 more than 360 idols were housed within the Kaaba. (ATC, p.57) -2000 nend About this time the Egyptians domesticated the cat in order to catch snakes. Advances in astronomy enabled the Egyptians to predict the annual flooding of the Nile. (eawc, p.2) c -2000 nend An Egyptian painting on an interior tomb wall depicted 6 men scrubbing, wringing and folding a cloth. (SFC, 10/11/97, p.E3) -2000 nend It was later believed that emeralds were first mined in Egypt about this time. (WSJ, 2/7/07, p.A12) -2000 nend By this time Baltic amber reached the Mediterranean and was found in ancient Mycenaean shaft graves. (PacDis, Winter/'97, p.10) -2000 nend The Timucuan Indians lived on Cumberland Island, Georgia, back to this time. (Sky, 4/97, p.43) -2000 nend The Hittites lived around what is now Cappadocia. They mixed with the already-settled Hatti and were followed by the Lydians, Phrygians, Byzantines, Romans and Greeks. The name Cappadocia comes from the Hittite for "land of pretty horses." (SFEC, 9/14/97, p.T14) c -2000 nend In India Tantra, a quasireligious doctrine, dates back to this time. Its first texts were in Sanskrit and the original adherents practiced ritual copulation. (WSJ, 12/7/98, p.A1) -2000 nend The Ikom monoliths in Nigeria, phallic-shaped pieces of volcanic rock largely ignored for centuries, were said to date back to about this time. In 2007 they were added to the World Monuments Fund's (WMF) list of sites in danger and are on the "tentative" list for possible inclusion in UNESCO's World Heritage Site list. (AFP, 12/26/07) -2000 nend In 2007 a temple dating to about this time was unearthed on the northern coast of Peru, making it one of the oldest finds in the Americas. The mural filled temple, called Ventarron, sits in the Lambayeque valley, near the ancient Sipan complex unearthed in the 1980s. (AP, 11/11/07) -2000 nend In 2008 researchers reported that the earliest known gold jewelry made in the Americas had been discovered in southern Peru. The gold necklace, made nearly 4,000 years ago, was found in a burial site near Lake Titicaca. (AP, 3/31/08) c -2000 nend The Sumerian goddess Inanna was a fertility figure. (SFEC, 9/27/98, BR p.7) c -2000 nend A palace was built at Qatanah, 12 miles south of Damascus, Syria, that was discovered in 1999. (SFEC, 11/21/99, p.A6) -2000 -1790 The wooden statue of chancellor Nakhti and carved face of governor Hapidjefai date to Egypt?s Middle Kingdom. They are now in the French Louvre. (WSJ, 1/29/98, p.A16) -2000 -1600 In Mesopotamia the Old Babylonian period began after the collapse of Sumer, probably due to an increase in the salt content of the soil that made farming difficult. Weakened by poor crops and lack of surplus goods, the Sumerians were conquered by the Amorites, situated in Babylon. The center of civility shifted north. The Amorites preserved much of the Sumerian culture but introduced their own Semitic language, an early ancestor to Hebrew, into the region. (eawc, p.2) -2000 -1600 The Middle Minoan period. Middle Minoan I finds polychrome decoration in pottery with elaborate geometrical patterns; we also discover interesting attempts to picture natural forms, such as goats and beetles. There then follows some great catastrophe. Middle Minoan II includes the period of the great palace of Phaestos and the first palace of Knossos. This period also includes the magnificent polychrome pottery called Kamares ware. Another catastrophe occurs. The second great palace of Knossos was built and begins the Middle Minoan III. It was distinguished by an intense realism in art, speaking clearly of a rapid deterioration in taste. Pictographic writing was clearly developed, with a hieratic or cursive script derived from it, adapted for writing with pen and ink. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.17) -2000 -1600 In Oman a transitional culture known as early Wadi Suq. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.49) -2000 -1500 The events of the Indian Ramayana epic, written around 500BC, supposedly took place about this time period. (AM, 7/04, p.50) -2000 -1550 The Babylonians built an empire. (WH, 1994, p.12) -2000 -1500 In Greece the Minoan civilization, named after the Cretan ruler Minos, reached its height with central power in Knossos on the isle of Crete. The culture was apparently more female-oriented and peaceful than others of the time. (eawc, p.2) -2000 -1000 Early preclassic period of the Maya. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.B) -2000 -1000 In Italy Indo-Europeans slowly began to inhabit the north by way of the Alps. They brought the horse, the wheeled cart, and artistic knowledge of bronze work to the Italian peninsula. The Greeks and the Etruscans occupied different regions of the peninsula during the 8th century. (eawc, p.2) -2000 -500 Aryan tribes lived in Aryana (Ancient Afghanistan). The City of Kabul is thought to have been established during this time. Rig Veda may have been created in Afghanistan around this time. Evidence of early nomadic iron age in Aq Kapruk IV. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) -1997 -1991 Mentuhotep III, the last king of the 11th Dynasty of Egypt. He was the son of Imi, a secondary wife of either Mentuhotep II or III. His name is missing from most king?s lists. (http://tinyurl.com/e37kx)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1995 nend In 2005 Chinese archeologists reported their find of a 4,000 year-old container in northwestern China of noodles made from millet. (SFC, 10/13/05, p.A2) -1991 -1962 Amenemhet I (Amenemhat I) founded Egypt?s 12th Dynasty of Egypt and ruled for some 30 years. In 2007 Prof. Jahi Issa and Salim Faraji authored ?The Origin of the Word Amen: Ancient Knowledge the Bible Has Never Told,? in which they argued that the word Amen is derived from a pre-dynastic Egyptian culture found in the Sudan with roots in the ancient name for pharaoh, Amen, spelled in some cases as Amun. (http://www.ancient-egypt.org/history/11_13/12.html)(SSFC, 12/2/07,p.A2) -1991 -1783 Egypt, time of the Twelfth Dynasty, the peak of the Middle Kingdom when the Pharaohs won back some of the power which the monarchs of the Old kingdom had enjoyed. It ended with the Middle Kingdom in 1786BC. During the period power was somewhat distributed through the social classes. Religion shifted from a wealth-based system to one based on proper conduct. (eawc, p.3)(www.ancient-egypt.org/history/11_13/12.html) -1980 -1971 Sesostris I (Senusret I) became co-regent with Amenenhet I. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/11_13/12.html) -1971 -1929 Sesostris I (Senusret I) ruled during Egypt?s 12th dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1929 -1926 Amenemhet II ruled in the 12th Dynasty of Egypt as co-regent with his father Sesostris I. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/11_13/12.html) -1926 -1892 Amenemhet II held sole rule during Egypt?s 12th Dynasty. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/11_13/12.html) -1900 nend King Melchizedek ruled Salem before it became Jerusalem. He charged everybody in his domain a flat 10% tax. (SFEC, 4/6/97, Z1 p.5) c -1900 nend The "Epic of Gilgamesh" was redacted from Sumerian sources written in the Babylonian semetic. The legend was written about 1,600BC. (eawc, p.3)(SFC, 11/18/99, p.C6) -1900 -1500 During this period a Semitic group of nomads migrated from Sumer to Canaan and then on to Egypt. They were led by a caravan trader, the Patriarch Abraham, who became the father of the nation of Israel. Ishmael was a son of Abraham had by Hagar. Isaac was a son of Abraham by Sarah. Hebrews trace their lineage through Isaac, Arabs through Ishmael. (eawc, p.3)(NW, 11/02, p.55) c -1898 -1866 In Egypt the Sphinx of Tanis was made. It was later moved to Paris. (WSJ, 10/7/98, p.A20) -1897 -1878 Sesostris II (Senusret II), son of Amenenhet II, ruled as co-regent in Egypt?s 12th Dynasty. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/11_13/12.html) c -1890 nend Sinuhe, a professional soldier of high rank in Egypt, serving in the army of Amenemhat II was faced with a change in political power and left Egypt. He fled to Byblos, where he was befriended by a local ruler named Ammienshi, who governed the land of Retenu. He later returned to Egypt, now ruled by Senusret. (L.C.-W.P.p.21-32) -1878 -1841 Senusret III (Sesostris III) ruled as Egypt?s 5th king in the 12th Dynasty. He built a funerary complex to link himself with Osiris, lord of Abydos. Khakaure was Senwosret?s throne name. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/11_13/12.html) -1842 -1797 Amenemhet III ruled as Egypt?s 6th in the 12th Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1800 nend By this time the Old Babylonians employed advanced mathematical operations such as multiplication, division and square roots. Their duodecimal system, based on 12 and 6 to measure time, is still used today. (eawc, p.3) c -1800 nend In Egypt walls of limestone were marked with alphabetic inscriptions in the Wadi el-Hol (Gulch of Terror). In 1993 the graffiti markings were discovered by Egyptologist John Coleman Darnell and his wife Deborah and later traced to Semitic people, possibly mercenary soldier scribes or Canaanite workers, living in the area. (SFEC, 11/14/99, p.A6)(SFC, 11/23/99, p.B10) -1800 nend About this time Abraham buried his wife, Sarah, in a cave in Hebron. The area later became known to the Jews as the Tomb of the Patriarchs and to Muslims as the Ibrahimi Mosque. (SFC, 12/4/08, p.A27) -1800 -1400 The Second Semitic period. Macalister has five historic divisions to cover his excavation of Gezar (Vol. ii, pp. 128-241). This period in pottery shows Egyptian and Cypriotic influence, and here for the first time painted ornament becomes prominent. The figures are outlines in broad brush strokes, and the spaces are filled in afterwards, wholly or partly, with strokes in another color. The subjects are animals, birds, fishes, and geometrical patterns generally, and there can be little doubt that they are crude local imitations of models of Late Minoan ware, directly imported into the country. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.122) -1798 -1786 Amenemhet IV ruled in the 12th Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1792 -175000 Hammurabi, king of Babylon, established a code of laws during this period that became known as the Code of Hammurabi. They were inscribed on a basalt column, later found at Susa, Iran. One of the laws was that if a married woman was caught lying with another man, both should be bound and thrown into the river. (WH, 1994, p.13)(SFEC, 10/20/96, Z1 p.2)(Econ, 4/12/08, p.91) -1790 nend Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep IV sent a major expedition to Punt during the 8th year of his reign. In 2010 scientists used mummies of baboons to identify the region of Punt as either the lowland area of eastern Sudan or the area where Ethiopia and Eritrea confront each other. (SFC, 5/8/10, p.A8) -1785 -1782000 Queen Sobeknefru (Nefrusobek) ruled in the 12th Dynasty of Egypt. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1782 -1779 Wegaf ruled at the beginning of Egypt?s 13th Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1782 -1650 Egypt?s XIII Dynasty was marked by a period of decay, loss of unity, and many short-lived rival Pharaohs. This lasted through the Sixteenth Dynasty. Over 70 kings are listed in this dynasty and their dates are not well known. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/11_13/13.html) -1782 -157000 Egypt?s Second Intermediate Period. Also dated from 1640-1540. no_source -1800 nend Vesuvius erupted about this time and entombed settlements 15km northwest of the volcano. The Avellino event left evidence at the Nola site that people were able to flee the eruption. (Econ, 3/11/06, p.73) -1766 nend In China the Shang Dynasty, the 2nd dynasty of the country according to tradition, began. It flourished on the banks of the Yellow River from about 1400BC-1027BC. The period is known for its use of bronze containers, oracle bones and human sacrifice, which ended shortly after the collapse of the dynasty. (eawc, p.3) -1763 nend Hammurabi, the Amorite King, conquered all of Sumer. He wrote a "Code of Laws" that contained 282 rules including the principles of "an eye for an eye" and "let the buyer beware." It was one of the first codes of law in world history, predated only by the Laws of Lipit-Ishtar. (eawc, p.3) c -1760 nend Hor ruled in the early part of Egypt?s 13th Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1750 nend Hammurabi established a code of laws. One of the laws was that if a married woman was caught lying with another man, both should be bound and thrown into the river. (WH, 1994, p.13)(SFEC, 10/20/96, zone 1 p.2) -1750 nend Hammurabi died but his empire lasted another 150 years when the Kassites, a non-Semitic people, conquered most of Mesopotamia with the help of light chariot warfare. (eawc, p.3) c -1750 nend The 1st evidence for the lapidary engraving wheel appeared about this time. (Arch, 9/00, p.18) -1750 -1540 The Hyksos from Syria and Palestine occupied Egypt and introduced the horse and chariot. Taking advantage of the unsettled state of Egypt, Asiatic invaders from Palestine entered Egypt and set themselves up as kings, even adopting Pharaonic titles and customs. The Jewish historian Josephus claims to quote the words of an Egyptian chronicler, Manetho, in describing this period of foreign rule. The Hyksos, whoever they were, had a 'blitz-weapon' - the horse drawn chariot which they had copied from the horse-rearing Mitanni of northern Mesopotamia. And the Mitanni in turn got the horse from Persia, together with the art of riding it. In 2005 Arthur Cotterrell authored ?Chariot,? a history of the chariot. (eawc, p.3)(WSJ, 6/17/05, p.W6)(L.C.-W.P.p.55-56) c -1747 nend Khendjer, a Hyksos king, ruled in northern Egypt. (R4,1998)(http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/history12-17.htm) c -1745 nend Sobekhotep II ruled in the 13th Dynasty of Egypt. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1741 -1730 Neferhotep I ruled in the 13th Dynasty of Egypt. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/11_13/12.html) -1730 -1720 Sobekhotep IV ruled in the 13th Dynasty of Egypt. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/11_13/12.html) c -1720 nend The Hyksos in northern Egypt dominated the Delta and founded their capital Avaris (Tanis). (http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/history12-17.htm) -1704 -1690 Ay ruled in Egypt?s 13th Dynasty. He was succeeded by Neferhotep II and Nehesy in the 14th Dynasty. (R4,1998)(www.ancient-egypt.org/history/11_13/12.html) -1700 nend Canaanites, before the Hebrew conquest, built a massive wall about this time when Jerusalem was a small, fortified enclave. Archeologists first discovered the 26-foot-high wall in 1909 and later believed it to have been part of a protected passage built from a hilltop fortress to a nearby spring that was the city's only water source and vulnerable to marauders. (AP, 9/3/09) -1700 nend Nubia is known as the Kingdom of Kush in the Bible. By this time the Nubians had established sizable cities with a class society of workers, farmers, priests, soldiers bureaucrats and an aristocracy with technological and cultural skills on a level with other advanced civilizations of their day. (MT, 10/95, p.10-11) -1700 nend Knossos was first destroyed by an earthquake. Mycenae, the great city of the Peloponnesus, was another earthquake victim about this time. (SFC,12/9/97, p.A8) -1700 -1250 Troy VI, the bronze age settlement of the site of the Trojan War. The inhabitants probably spoke Luvian, an Indo-European language related to Hittite. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.49-50) -1700 -1100 This is the Shang Dynasty period of China. [see 1766BC] (Arch, 9/00, p.34) -1696 -1686 Neferhotep, the 22nd king of the 13th Dynasty, ruled Egypt. He was the son of a temple priest in Abydos. In 2005 archeologists unearthed a statue of him. His name means "beautiful and good." (AP, 6/5/05) -1690 nend A kernel of corn was found in 1997 in the McKuen Cave in Eastern Arizona that dated to this time. (SFEC, 4/18/99, Z1 p.2) -1674 nend Sheshi, a Hyksos ruler, conquered Memphis (Egypt). Shesi ruled at the beginning of the 15th Dynasty and was succeeded by Yakubher, Khyan, Apepi I, Apepi II, Anather in the 16th Dynasty, Yakobaam, Sobekemsaf II in the 17th Dynasty, and Intef VII. The Hyksos invaded Egypt in horse-drawn chariots. (WH, 1994, p.13)(http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/history12-17.htm) -1664 -1559 Egypt was ruled for a century by the Hyksos, a warrior people from Asia, possibly Semitic in origin, whose summer capital was in the northern Delta area. In 2010 an Austrian archaeological team used radar imaging to determine the extent of the ruins of the one time capital of Egypt's foreign occupiers underneath the green farm fields and modern town of Tel al-Dabaa. (AP, 6/20/10) -1663 -1555 The period of Egypt?s 15th Dynasty. In Egypt the 15th, 16th and 17th dynasties ruled simultaneously. no_source c -1650 nend Egypt?s 14th Dynasty kings ruled mostly from the Western Nile Delta. Their dates are not well known and they may have been contemporary with the 13th Dynasty. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/14_17/14.html) -1650 nend The volcano Thera, or Santorini in the Aegean Sea, erupted. Akroteri, a Minoan city on the south part of Thera, is being excavated. About 3-6 feet (1-2 m) of ash fell on the city which had a population of about 30,000. The explosion of Thera about this time released energy equal to 200,000 H-bombs. In 1939 Spyridon Marinatos authored ?The Volcanic Destruction of Minoan Crete.? (NH, 5/96, p.3)(AM, 7/00, p.41)(http://tinyurl.com/7ywyr) -1600 -1250 An earthen mound on the southern Mexico-Guatemala border dated to this period and was considered part of a chiefdom center of the Mokaya people. (Arch, 1/06, p.43) -1640 -1540 Egypt?s 2nd Intermediate Period. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/14_17/index.html) c -1633 nend Tao I ruled in Egypt?s 17th Dynasty. In Egypt the 15th, 16th and 17th dynasties ruled simultaneously. (http://tinyurl.com/avkno) -1628 nend The palace at Knossos, Crete, is depicted in the opening of the 1996 book: "Europe: A History" by Norman Davies. (WSJ, 11/18/96, p.A10) c -1600 nend The Nebra disk, a 12-inch bronze and gold disk from this time, was evidence of ancient German astronomy. It recorded images of the sun, moon and 32 stars. (AM, 3/04, p.42) c -1600 nend Chocolate originated in northern Honduras. (SFEC, 5/16/99, BR p.8) c -1600 nend The Middle Helladic - Late Helladic I. This archeological period describes the settlement patterns of Greece at about this time. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.6) -1600 nend The Phaestos Disc (Phaistos) of terra-cotta found in the excavation of the Cretan palace of Phaestos dating to the Middle Minoan III. It is a roughly circular tablet, 15.8-16.5 cm. in diameter. On each face is a spiral band of four coils, indicated by a roughly drawn meandering line; and an inscription, in some form of picture-writing, has been impressed on this band, one by one, from dies, probably resembling those used by bookbinders... On one face of the disc there are 119 signs; on the other face there are 123. they are divided in what appear to be word-groups... by lines cutting across the spiral bands at right angles. These word-groups contain from two to seven characters each. There are forty-five different characters employed. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.83) -1600 nend In Egypt a revolution against Hyksos rule began in the south and spread throughout the country. (eawc, p.3) -1600 nend The Kassites, a non-Semitic people, conquered most of Mesopotamia with the help of light chariot warfare. (eawc, p.3) c -1600 nend Mounded royal tombs containing artifacts from this time were found in the ruins of the city of Kerma from ancient Nubia. (MT, 10/95, p.10-11) -1600 -1000 In India the Early Vedic period of Indian civilization unfolded. (eawc, p.3) -1600 -1200 The Mycenaean civilization on the Greek peninsula emerged. It was named after the leading Greek city of this period. (eawc, p.2) 1600 -1250 An earthen mound in southern Mexican-Guatemala border dated to this period and was considered part of a chiefdom center of the Mokaya people. (Arch, 1/06, p.43) -1600 -1300 Messenia, the home of King Nestor, mentioned in Homer's Iliad, is the site of a well excavated palace that dates to this period. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.6) -1600 -1300 In Oman a transitional culture known as late Wadi Suq. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.49) -1600 -1400 Late Minoan period. Late Minoan I pottery is distinguished from the earlier period by the convention that its designs as a rule are painted dark on a light background. The palace of Phaestos was rebuilt. Fine frescoes and admirably sculptured vases in steatite are found. In Late Minoan II the naturalistic figures become conventionalized, and a degeneration in the arts sets in which continues into Late Minoan III. At the end of Late Minoan II an invasion from the mainland occurs apparently resulting in the destruction of the Knossos. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.17) -1600 -1500 Art pieces attributed to the Xia Dynasty of China are on exhibit at the Shanghai Museum. These include an ax blade, a three legged food vessel, and 3 wine vessels. (WSJ, 5/9/96, p.A-16) -1600 -1500 In India the Aryans invaded the Indus Valley region. In 1999 researchers reported that gene patterns confirmed that Caucasoid invaders entered India between 1000 and 2000BC. (eawc, p.3)(SFC, 5/26/99, p.C2) -1600 -1400 In 2010 Russian researchers said traces of a previously unknown Bronze Age civilization have been discovered in the peaks of the Caucasus Mountains thanks to aerial photographs taken 40 years ago. The civilization dated from the 16th to the 14th centuries BC, high in the mountains south of Kislovodsk. The decorations and forms of bronze items found in the area indicated that the civilization is linked to the Kuban civilization, which was discovered at the end of the 19th century at the foot of Mount Kazbek. (AFP, 10/11/10) -1595 nend The Hittites captured Babylon and retreated. They left the city open to Kassite domination which lasted about 300 years. The Kassites maintained the Sumerian/Babylonian culture without innovations of their own. (eawc, p.4) -1575 -1532 Ipepi (Apophis) ruled as a Hyksos 17th Dynasty king of Egypt. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/14_17/15.html) -1574 nend Tao II ruled in the 17th Dynasty of Egypt. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1573 -1570 Kamose ruled as a Hyksos 17th Dynasty king of Egypt. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/18_20/index.html) -1570 -1546 Ahmose, Pharaoh of Egypt, ruled in Egypt?s 17th Dynasty. His sister-wife was Queen Ahmosep-Nefertary. During his reign he defeated the Hyksos led by Apophis. Ahmose engaged the Hyksos at their city of Avaris, and the city of Sharuhen for three years. (L.C.-W.P.p.64)(AM, 7/01, p.52)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1570 -107000 Egypt?s New Kingdom Period. Thebes (which encompassed the site known today as Luxor) was the chief city of Egypt. Pharaohs began to abandon royal pyramids in favor of hidden tombs in the Valley of the Kings at Thebes. A bust of the Royal scribe Meniou was made in limestone during Egypt?s New Kingdom. It is now in the French Louvre. (AM, 7/01, p.58)(WSJ, 1/29/98,p.A16)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1570 -107000 Egyptian wall paintings included information on beer production. In 2004 Japan?s Kirin Brewery produced a beer dubbed ?The New Kingdom Beer.? (WSJ, 10/14/04, p.A1) -1551 -1524 Amenhotep I (Ahmenophis), son of Amasis I (Ahmose), ruled at the beginning of the 18th Dynasty of Egypt. Inscriptions indicate that he engaged the Nubians in the land of Kush. Some of the southern foes were evidently cave-dwellers (troglodytes), since the inscription goes on to say that 'His majesty captured the Nubian Troglodyte in the midst of his army. (NG, 9/98, p.17)(L.C.-W.P.p.66)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) c -1550 nend During the beginning in Egypt?s 18th Dynasty the Opet Festival celebrated the Theban triad of the sun and creator Amun, his consort Mut, and their son Khonsu. (Arch, 7/02, p.36) -1550 nend A wealthy young teenager, later dubbed "The Boy with the Amber Necklace," was buried near Britain's mysterious Stonehenge monument at about this time. Scientists in 2010 determined that he came from the Mediterranean hundreds of miles away, proof of the site's importance as a travel destination in prehistoric times. (AP, 9/29/10) -1550 nend In India writing disappeared for a time with the destruction of the Indus Valley civilization. (eawc, p.4) -1550 -1295 During Egypt?s 18th Dynasty private people began building small pointy pyramids above their tombs. (Arch, 9/02, p.56) -1550 -1200 The Late Bronze Age. (MT, 3/96, p.2) -1532 -1522 Khamudi (Aseth) ruled as a Hyksos 15th Dynasty king of Egypt. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/14_17/15.html) -1240 -1518 Tuthmosis I (Thutmose I) ruled at the beginning of the 18th Dynasty of Egypt. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1518 -1504 In Egypt Tuthmosis II ruled in the 18th Dynasty. Hatshepsut was married to her sickly half-brother when she was about 12. (ON, 10/99, p.7)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1504 -1450 Tuthmosis III, a son of one of the lesser wives of Tuthmosis I, ruled in the 18th Dynasty. In the 15th cent. BC Thutmose III led his army from Egypt to Megiddo and outflanked the chariots of the Canaanite forces that had revolted against him. [see 1479-1426] (WSJ, 4/17/97, p.A20)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1500 nend Before this time in India the sap of the palmyra palm was used to make a fermented drink later called a "toddy" by the English. (SFEC, 6/22/97, Z1 p.5) -1500 nend Domesticated dogs companied people to Timor, New Guinea and Australia by about this time. The dogs reverted to a feral existence and in Australia became dingoes. (NH, 11/1/04, p.14) -1500 nend The Shang dynasty began in China. (WH, 1994, p.13) c -1500 nend Stonehenge, a circle of large stones in southern England, was constructed to observe the seasons. (NG, March 1990, p.110) c -1500 nend Linguistic evidence shows that the Canaanites (now more commonly known as the Phoenicians) were non-Jewish Semites whose language was almost identical with Hebrew. (MT, Spg. '97, p.12) c -1500 nend Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt and established a calendar with Egyptian features but based on a seven day week. The later 8-day Sukkot festival commemorates the fall harvest and the wandering of the Hebrews in the Sinai desert after the Exodus. In 1998 Jonathan Kirsch authored "Moses: A Life." Miriam was the sister of Moses and led the celebration following the crossing of the Red Sea. [see 1280BC] (K.I.-365D, p.58)(SFEC,10/19/97, p.A26)(SFEC, 12/13/98, BR p.5)(WSJ,4/7/00, p.W17) c -1500 nend Egyptian tombs show paintings of apparently Cretan messengers and merchants, called by the name Keftiu, bearing Cretan goods: and in addition we find the actual tangible goods themselves, deposited with the Egyptian dead. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.17) c -1500 nend A boy named Djehuti-Irdis (13) died in Thebes. In 2000 a biopsy confirmed that he died of pneumonia. (SFC, 1/3/01, p.A13) -1500 nend By this time the kingdom of Kush was established south of Egypt. The Kushites were dark-complexioned Negroids. (eawc, p.4) -1500 nend In 2009 Spain's scientific research agency (CSIC) announced that a tomb decorated with 3,500-year-old paintings was discovered in Luxor by Jose Manuel Galan, a Spanish Egyptologist. The person was in the service of the 18th dynasty Queen Hatshepsut, the most powerful female pharaoh and who ruled for 21 years from 1479 to 1458 BC. (AFP, 3/17/09) c -1500 nend In 1978 Greek grave robbers at Aidonia dug into ancient tombs believed to be a 3,500BC-year-old palatial cemetery of the Mycenaeneans. The looters plundered 18 graves but left one undisturbed. Objects from the single pit provided archeologists evidence to match the objects of an attempted 1993 sale. (SFC, 8/13/96, p.B2) -1500 nend Chersonesos on the edge of Sevastopol was the Greek world's most northern colony. (SFC,12/19/97, p.F6) -1500 nend The Laws of Manu, a Hindu sacred text, dated to about this time. It sanctified the caste system of India. (www.fordham.edu/halsall/india/manu-full.html)(Econ, 10/6/07, p.15) c -1500 nend In 2002 in southern Italy a settlement was found dating to this time on the River Sarno 6 miles northeast of Pompeii. It was abandoned after being destroyed by a flood in the 6th century BC. It was uncovered by archeologists in 2000. (SFC, 3/22/02, p.A10)(Arch, 7/02, p.15) -1500 nend A court to play ulama was built about this time in Chiapas, Mexico. Olmecs used latex balls for the game. The Olmecs processed rubber using latex from rubber trees mixed with juice from the morning glory vine. The rubber was used to make a bouncy ball for their ball games. (SFC, 6/19/99, p.A9)(Econ, 4/24/04, p.81) -1500 -1400 The Canaanite "Poem of Aqhat," a work of seasonal writing, dates to this time. (SFEC, 1/31/99, BR p.9) -1500 -1200 The Late Bronze Age. The Amorites in the time of Moses came from northeast Syria. The languages of northeast Syria and Palestine appear to have been 1/3 Semitic, 1/3 Indo-European and 1/3 Hurrian. (MT, Spg. '97, p.11) c -1500 -1200 The Persian prophet Zoroaster (Zarathustra) founded the religion known as Zoroastrianism. The principal beliefs included the existence of a supreme deity called Ahura Mazda and a cosmic struggle between the spirit of good, Spenta Mainyu, and the spirit of evil, Angra Mainyu. Later adherents to Zoroastrianism are represented by the Parsees of India and the Gabars of Iran. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.35)(www.livius.org/za-zn/zarathustra/zarathustra.htm) -1500 -1100 Evidence found in 1998 revealed terraced farming for corn back to this time in northeast Mexico on a hilltop overlooking the Rio Casa Grandes. (SFC, 3/13/98, p.A11) -1500 -1000 Nubia was colonized by Egypt. (MT, 10/95, p.10-11) -1500 -400 This period of Greek history was covered by Charles Freeman in his 1999 book "The Greek Achievement." (WSJ, 8/31/99, p.A20) -1500 -300 The Lapita archaeological culture of the Western Pacific. It represents an Austronesian-speaking Neolithic population that colonized Oceania. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.22) -1479 nend Thotmosis II died. He was succeeded by Queen Hatshepsut and his step-son Thotmosis III. Queen Hatshepsut, the only woman to have reigned as a pharaoh, ruled Egypt as 18th Dynasty regent for Thutmose III. Her name translates as "The Foremost of Noble Ladies." In 1996 Joyce Tyldesley authored "Hatshepsut, The Female Pharaoh." (AFP, 4/21/06)(ON, 10/99, p.8)(AP,6/5/05)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1479 -1425 Thotmosis III ruled as pharaoh of Egypt. His initial reign was under the guidance of his mother, Queen Hatsheppsut. (AFP, 4/21/06) -1471 nend Tuthmosis III of Egypt built rafts on the Lebanese coast, put them on wagons, and transported them to the Euphrates in order to cross the river and defeat the King of Mitanni. This was his eighth campaign in the thirty-third year of his reign. This was well over 250 miles. He died in the fifty-fourth year of his reign. An inscription at Napata in Nubia tells us about this. (L.C.-W.P.p.87-89) c -1470 nend The 97-foot obelisk at Karnak, Egypt, was erected as part of a sun dial and cast its shadow on a temple of the sun god Amun Ra. (AM, 3/04, p.42) -1458 nend In Egypt Queen Hatshepsut, mother of Tuthmosis III, died. Tuthmosis III, in his early thirties, declared war on the Prince of the Syrian city of Kadesh, who had organized a confederacy in Palestine and Syria. Tuthmosis defeated the Syrians following an 8 month siege of Megiddo. In 2007 Egyptian archaeologists said the mummy of an obese woman, who likely suffered from diabetes and liver cancer, has been identified as that of Queen Hatshepsut, Egypt's most powerful female pharaoh. Hatshepsut, who ruled Egypt in the 15th century B.C., was known for dressing like a man and wearing a false beard. But when her rule ended, all traces of her mysteriously disappeared, including her mummy. Discovered in 1903 in the Valley of the Kings, the mummy was left on site until 2007, when it was brought to the Cairo Museum for testing. (ON, 3/01, p.11)(AFP, 4/21/06)(AP, 6/27/07) -1450 -1300 The Hittite culture reached its highpoint and dominated the territory North and East of Babylon including Turkey and northern Palestine. By this time the Hittites have constructed a mythology with a state pantheon. (eawc, p.4) -1453 -1419 Amenhotep II (Amenophis II), son of Tuthmose III, ruled in the 18th Dynasty. In the same Giza stele which describes his prowess with a 33-foot oar, there is an account of his skill as a archer. There is no doubt that he did conquer the Asiatic powers of Djahi, Retenu, Mitanni, and 'God's Land'. (L.C.-W.P.p.91-92)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1419 -1386 Tutmosis IV, son of Amenhotep II, ruled in Egypt?s 18th Dynasty with his son as co-regent. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1400 nend Around Greece after the destruction of Knossos the Mycenaean civilization replaced the Minoan. Bronze weapons, war scenes on art, Cyclopean defense walls and the burial of male warriors with their weapons indicates that the Mycenaeans were militaristic. The horse drawn chariot emerged about this time. The Mycenaeans dominated the Aegean world for about 200 years. (eawc, p.4) -1400 nend Michael Ventris (d.1956) and John Chadwick (d.1998 at 78) in 1956 published "Documents in Mycenaean Greek." This was a translation of Greek writings known as Linear B discovered by Sir Arthur Evans at the Minoan palace of Cnossos [Knossos] in 1900 and dated to 1400BC. (SFC, 12/8/98, p.B6) c -1400 nend The Temple of Hatshepsut was built in Luxor. (SFC,11/20/97, p.B2) -1400 nend The tomb of Kha Mirit from this time was later put on display in the Egyptian Museum in Turin, Italy. (SSFC, 1/22/06, p.E6) -1400 nend In 2010 Israeli archaeologists said a newly discovered clay fragment from the 14th century BC is the oldest example of writing ever found in antiquity-rich Jerusalem. Dig director Eilat Mazar of Hebrew University said the 2-centimeter-long fragment bears an ancient form of writing known as Akkadian wedge script. (AP, 7/12/10) -1400 nend Sumerian writing remained pictographic until about this time. (SFEC, 11/14/99, p.A6) c -1400 nend A major earthquake occurred in the Middle East. (SFC,12/9/97, p.A9) -1400 -1200 Chinese pictorial script first appeared during the Shang dynasty. (SFC, 5/8/06, p.A1) -1400 -1200 The spread of the debased Cretan culture over Southern Asia Minor, Cyprus, and North Syria must have been due to the movements of peoples, one incident in which was the sack of Knossos (and the collapse of the island of Thera): and this is true, whether those who carried the Cretan art were refugees from Crete, or were the conquerors of Crete seeking yet further lands to spoil. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.18) -1400 -1000 The Third Semitic period, historic period of pottery which includes the time of the Philistine supremacy. The designs had in fact become 'hieratic', and the fine broad lines in several colors had given place to thin-line monochrome patterns... this change can be most easily accounted for by the assumption that the art passed from one race to another. And the sudden disappearance of fine-line technique coincides so completely with the subjugation of the Philistines, that we can hardly hesitate to painted ware displaying the peculiar Third Semitic characters 'Philistine'. no_source -1400 -400 The Olmecs, who called themselves Xi, were the earliest known civilization of Mesoamerica. They influenced the subsequent civilizations of the Maya and Aztec. They inhabited the Gulf Coast region of what is now Mexico and Central America. Their capital was San Lorenzo, near the present day city of Veracruz. (WSJ, 1/16/96, p. A-16)(SFC, 8/2/05, p.A2) -1391 nend Amenhotep III (Amenophis III), son of Tuthmose IV, began ruling Egypt about this time and continued to about 1351. His reign marked the culmination of the 18th Dynasty. In 2010 a red-granite top half of his statue was discovered at the site of his funerary temple in the southern city of Luxor. (AFP, 10/2/10)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenhotep_III) -1384 nend In China P'an Keng founded the city of Anyang. A mature culture with writing and art was developed by this time. (eawc, p.4) -1350 -1336000 Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) ruled during the 18th Dynasty Amarna Period of Egypt. He became concerned about abuses in the Osiris cult. He posited a new monotheistic religion dedicated to the worship of the sun. His wife was Nefertiti, daughter-in-law of Amenophis III and Queen Tiye. He moved the capital from Thebes to El-Amarna. After his death the capital was moved back to Thebes, and his successor, a young boy named Smenkhkare reigned for three years. The city of Amarna later vanished. (NG, 9/98, p.17)(WSJ, 7/17/00,p.A33)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1350 nend The 1st recorded smallpox epidemic took place during an Egyptian-Hittite war. Hittite warriors caught the disease from Egyptian prisoners. The king and heir were fatally infected and the empire fell apart. (SFC, 10/19/01, p.A17)(NW, 10/14/02, p.46) -1345 nend Tutankhamen (King Tut), Egypt?s boy king, was born. His wet nurse was named Maia. (SFC, 1/25/97, p.A7)(USAT, 1/20/04, p.6D) -1345 nend The Ebers Papyrus indicated the medical use of willow bark. It contained salicylic acid, an ingredient of modern aspirin. (SSFC, 10/24/04, p.M6) c -1340 nend A bust of Nefertiti was made that later ended up in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin. (SFC, 7/7/96, T5) -1336 -1334 The period of the 18th Dynasty under Smenkhkare. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1334 -1325 Tutankhamen (10), son of Akhenaten, was Pharaoh of Egypt. Aye, became regent while Tut was growing up and effectively ruled the country. (SFC, 1/25/97, p.A7) c -1330 nend The capital of Amarna was abandoned. In 2004 it was reported that black plague bacteria was found in the remains of fossilized fleas from Amarna. (AM, 7/04, p.12) -1330 nend A memorial to the servant who suckled Tutankhamen was reported found by French archeologists in 1997 at the Saqqara necropolis 13 miles south of Cairo. Hieroglyphics and a relief that showed a woman with breast and nipple exposed pay tribute to Maya, "who fed the body of a god." (SFC,12/897, p.A18) -1323 nend Tutankhamen died about this time at age 19. It was later suspected that the young prince was killed on his way to Egypt under the orders of Ay or Horemhab. Howard Carter discovered the tomb of Tutankhamen in 1922. In 2005 a CT scan indicated that Tut was not murdered by a blow to the head, nor was his chest crushed in an accident. His death remained a mystery. In 2005 a researcher reported evidence that analysis of wine jugs found in his tomb indicated that the wine was red. In 2007 his face was made public for the first time. In 2010 scientists reported that a study of his mummy revealed that King Tutankhamun suffered from a cleft palate and club foot, likely forcing him to walk with a cane, and died from complications from a broken leg exacerbated by malaria. (SFC, 1/25/97, p.A7)(SFC, 10/27/05, p.A2)(AP, 11/4/07)(AP, 2/16/10) -1323 -1321 King Ay succeeded Tutankhamun. In 1931 a ring was found by Percy Newberry in a Cairo antiquities shop that bore an inscription indicating that Aye and Ankhesenaten were married. (SFC, 1/25/97, p.A7)(www.ancient-egypt.org/history/18_20/18.html) -1321 nend Aye died after three years on Egypt?s throne and the walls of his tomb showed another woman, Tiy, as his wife. (SFC, 1/25/97, p.A7) -1321 -1295 A soldier named Horemhab succeeded King Ay. Some regard him as the last Pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty while others think he was the founder of the 19th. Horemhab is thought to have prevented the dynastic marriage of Ankhesnamun, the widow of Tutankhamun, to prince Zananza, son of the Hittite king, Suppilliliumas. Documents discovered at the Hittite capital of Boghaz-Koy in Turkey prove beyond doubt that the young queen was writing to Suppililiumas imploring him to send her one of his sons so that she might make him King of Egypt. (L.C.-W.P.p.107-110)(NG, May 1985,p.598)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty18e.html) -1315 -1201 In 2010 the intricately decorated tomb and coffin of Ken-Amun, the overseer of the royal records during the 19th Dynasty (1315-1201 B.C.), was found near Ismailia, 75 miles (120 kilometers) east of Cairo. (AP, 4/14/10) -1300 nend Late Helladic III. An archeological period of ancient Greece. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.6) c -1300 nend China introduced books around this time. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R55) -1300 nend The oldest know shipwreck dates to about this time, the era of the fall of Troy and reign of King Tut. It was found off the southern coast of Turkey at Uluburun (Big Nose/Cape) by Dr. George Bass in 1984. [see 4431BC] (MT, 3/96, p.2) -1300 nend A 50-foot boat was discovered in 1992 at Dover, England. (AM, Jul/Aug '97 p.13) -1300 nend The Lapita people took once again to the open seas about this time, pushing east past the Solomon Islands to the Bismarck archipelago and beyond to Vanuatu, Fiji and Samoa. Theses Southeast Asian peoples had headed south from Taiwan to Papua New Guinea and as far as the main Solomon islands, where they stopped some 40,000 years ago. (AFP, 11/9/10) -1300 1200 A sprawling Assyrian administrative center was discovered by Dutch archeologists in 1997 in Rakka, 340 miles north of Damascus. The site included a 15-foot high 2-story building with 2 bathrooms, 2 toilets and a tiled floor. (SFC,12/9/97, p.B3) -1300 -1100 From the late Shang Dynasty (13th to the 11th century BC), a pair of 33-inch-tall ting tripod vessels, will be part of the traveling exhibit from the National Palace Museum, Taipei. [see 1600BC-1100] (WSJ, 12/29/95, p.A-11) -1300 -1100 A 9-foot-tall bronze standing figure from this time was found in 1986 at a 'sacrificial pit" at Sanxingdui in Sichuan province. (SFC, 6/15/00, p.E1) -1300 -612 The Assyrians, a Semitic people, established an empire that spread out from Assur in northern Mesopotamia. (eawc, p.4) -1300 -300 The Omani Iron Age. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.49) -1295 -1294 Ramesses I ruled during Egypt?s 19th Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty18e.html) -1294 -1279 Sethi I (Seti I), son of Rammeses I and the father of Rammeses II, ruled during Egypt?s 19th Dynasty. He restored the ancient gods of Egypt, such as Amun-Re, Ptah, Seth, and Osiris. At Abydos he built a splendid temple to Osiris. Sethi claims to have inflicted a victory against the Hittite king, Mursillis II, the successor to Suppililiumas, at the towns of Yenoam and Bethshael. Seti overran Palestine, made peace with the Hittites in Syria, opened mines and quarries, and enlarged the Temple of Amun-Re at Karnak. His tomb was discovered in 1817. (NG, 9/98, p.17,19)(AM, 7/01, p.56)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty18e.html) -1295 -1272 The Hittite king Muwatalli II signed a treaty with Alaksandu, ruler of the Arzawa land known as Wilusa (northwest Turkey), which became Wilios in Bronze Age Greece and then slurred to Ilios for Homer?s Iliad. (Arch, 5/04, p.40) -1292 nend Horemheb, the last pharaoh of Egypt?s 18th Dynasty, died about this time and was buried in the Valley of the Kings. (Arch, 9/02, p.61)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horemheb) -1292 nend An Egyptian scribe documented that a couple of construction worker twins went off a beer binge. They left their wives at home to chase available women and didn't show up for work. Their brother-in-law was the chief engineer on the job and did not fire them. (SFEC, 4/20/97, Z1 p.5) -1280 nend Ramesses II, about this time, built a fortress temple named Zawiyet Umm el-Rakham (the rest house of the mother of vultures). (Econ, 12/19/09, p.133) -1280 -1200 Moses lived about this time. We cannot be certain when Moses lived except that it was obviously before the Jews settled in Palestine, when they were still wanderers. The general opinion seems to be that it was at some time within the period of Ramesses and his son. The father-in-law of Moses was a Midianite. Moses reportedly died at Mount Nebo. (L.C.-W.P.p.123)(MT, Spg. '97, p.11)(WSJ, 5/11/00, p.A24) -1279 -1213 Ramesses II (the Great) ruled during Egypt?s 19th Dynasty. Seti I named him co-ruler early in his life. His capital city was Qantir, 75 miles north of Cairo. A detailed map of the city was created in 1998. His colossal statue, removed from Memphis, now greets the visitor when he leaves Cairo's main railway station. There are huge statues of Ramesses in the Luxor temple... and most gigantic of all, the seated colossi at Abu Simbel. He enlarged the Karnak temple on a scale which makes human beings... look and feel like ants. The tomb of Queen Nefertari, wife of Ramses II, Pharaoh of the 19th dynasty, was discovered in 1904. (L.C.-W.P.p.104,113)(V. Sun, 11/3/95,p.A-20)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty19.html) -1275 nend Ptahmes, the mayor of Memphis, served about this time as army chief, overseer of the treasury and royal scribe under Seti I and his son and successor, Ramses II. Archeologists in 2010 discovered the tomb of Ptahmes at Saqqara. Foreign expeditions in 1885 had made off with pieces of the tomb, whose location was soon after forgotten. (AP, 5/30/10) 1 -1240 The Trojan War is usually dated to this period. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.49) c -1274 nend Battle of Kadesh, in the fifth year of his reign Ramesses moved to meet and destroy the forces of the Hittite king, Muwatallis, grandson of Suppililiumas. Here some 70,000BC-100,000 armed men clashed in fury... The battle lasted two days... and was decisive in that the Hittite advanced no further. The Hittites fought off the invading Egyptians. This reflected the power gained from trading metals abundant in Turkey. Ramesses left his mark on a cliff face by the Nahr al Kalb (Dog River) when he marched north from Egypt to battle the Hittites. (L.C.-W.P.p.116-119)(eawc, p.5)(NG, Aug., 1974, p.157) -1270 nend At Abu Simbel, Egypt, Ramses II constructed The Great Temple in his own honor and the Small Temple in honor of his wife Nefertari. Engulfed by sand over the centuries, the temples lay hidden until discovered by a Swiss traveler in 1813. The temples are moved under a 4 year UNESCO project when in 1964 the rising waters behind the Aswan High Dam threaten to drown them. (NG, May 1985, p.591) c -1260 nend A pottery fragment from this time was found in 2004 near Natadola in western Fiji. It was believed to have been made by the Lapita people, who populated Polynesia. (Arch, 1/05, p.11) -1267 -1237 King Hattusili III ruled the Hittites. He wrote a letter to the king of Ahhiyawa (thought to be Mycenaean Greeks) and mentioned that Wilusa was once a bone of contention. (Arch, 5/04, p.40) -1250 nend By this time the Assyrians committed themselves to conquering the Kassite Empire to the south. (eawc, p.4) -1250 nend Some scholars believe that the Mycenaeans waged a successful war with the Trojans of western Asia Minor. (eawc, p.5) c -1250 -1200 Under the direction of Moses the Hebrew people returned to Canaan from Egypt after wandering for several years in the Sinai desert and began the conquest of Canaan. The conquest took some hundred years and after victory they parceled the land of Canaan into tribal territories under a government known as an amphictyony. (eawc, p.5) -1250 -1150 This time frame is referred to as the Initial Olmec Period of southern Mexico. (Arch, 1/06, p.42) -1250 -1000 Troy VIIa, another discernible era on the site of the Trojan War. Evidence shows that Troy V was destroyed by fire and that Troy VI saw the establishment of an entirely new principality. An earthquake hit the thriving city of 5-6 thousand people, but after the crisis, the same people returned and repaired the city. The renovated Troy VIIa lasted some seventy years and was then destroyed by a conflagration. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.49-50) -1225 nend The Assyrian ruler, Tukulti-Ninurta, captured Babylon and the region of southern Mesopotamia, but their control did not last long. (eawc, p.5) -1225 nend Earliest known Illyrian king, Hyllus, died. (www, Albania, 1998) -1225 -1175 Earthquakes during this period toppled some city-states and centers of trade and scholarship in the Middle East. Jericho, Jerusalem, Knossos and Troy were all hit. (SFC,12/9/97, p.A8)(SSFC, 12/17/00, p.A19) -1213 nend Ramesses II (the Great) Pharaoh during Egypt?s 19th Dynasty, died. In 1976 his mummy was shipped to Paris, where it was treated with radiation and chemicals for protection against bacteriological damage. (NG, 9/98, p.16,22,32)(www.ancient-egypt.org/history/18_20/19.html) -1213 -1203 Maremptah (Merenptah), the 13th son of Rammeses, ruled during Egypt?s 19th Dynasty. He is mainly attested to by three great inscriptions, including 80 lines on a wall in the Temple of Amun at Karnak, a large stele with 35 readable lines from Athribis in the Delta and the great Victory Stele from his ruined mortuary temple at Thebes, with 28 lines. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty19a.html) -1203 -1200 Amenmesse (Ammenemes) about this time led Egypt as the 5th ruler of the 19th Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty19a.html) -1200 nend Afghanistan, near Sheberghan at Tillya Tepe, a temple for the worship of fire was built. (NG, March 1990,V.I. Sarainidi p.62) -1200 nend The first outbreak of human plague may have been the scourge that struck the Philistines in the 12th century BC. The Old Testament account mentions "mice that mar the land." (NG, 5/88, p.678) -1200 nend The tradition of the Mokaya people at coastal Chiapas and Guatemala came to a sudden end about this time. This appeared to coincide with the rise of the Olmec people. (Arch, 1/06, p.43) -1200 nend The end of Mycenaean civilization. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.73) -1200 nend Indian ink became increasingly popular. Other cultures developed inks from berries, plants and minerals. (SFC, 7/26/04, p.F4) -1200 -1194 The period of the 19th Dynasty under Seti II. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty19a.html) -1200 -1020 The Israelites were ruled by the Judges in a period of relative stability until a Philistine invasion in 1050. (eawc, p.5) -1200 -1000 The archeological evidence later confirmed that a collection of small settlements appeared in the eastern parts of the highlands of Palestine later known as the West Bank. (AM, 9/01, p.30) -1200 -400 The Olmecs built impressive cities and established trade routes throughout Mesoamerica, that included settlements at La Venta and Tres Zapotes. (SFEC, 5/17/98, p.T12) c -1200 -300 In Peru a pre-Columbian culture flourished over this time in the Andes site of Chavin de Huantar. (SFC, 12/21/00, p.A20) -1200 -300 The Olmec people ruled southern Mexico and northern Central America. (WSJ, 7/2/96, p.A12) -1194 -1188 The period of the 19th Dynasty under Siptah. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty19a.html) -1187 -1185 Queen Tawosret (Taweseret) ruled during Egypt?s 19th Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty19b.html) -1186 -1184 The period of the 20th Dynasty under Sethnakhte (Setnakht). (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty20.html) -1184 -1153 The period of the 20th Dynasty under Ramses III. After Ramessu III ascended the throne of Egypt, he fought back two major attacks from the northern countries. Ramses III defended his kingdom from foreign invasion in three separate wars, reorganized Egyptian society into classes based on occupation and built a funerary temple based on the Ramesseum. Ramses, son of Setnakht, twice defended Egypt against invasions from Libyan tribes and in his 8th year from a coalition of migrants referred to in records as the "Sea Peoples." The great Battle against the Sea Peoples was captured in a magnificent picture which Ramesses III caused to be sculpted on the walls of his great temple at Medinet Habu in Thebes. (L.C.-W.P.p.104,126)(R.M.-P.H.C.p.21)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty20.html) no_source -1184 nend Jun 11, Greeks finally captured Troy. This corresponds to excavation levels VIi or VIIa at the site of Hisarlik, Turkey [see 1150BC]. (SC, 6/11/02)(Arch, 5/04, p.37) c -1182 nend Ramessu III beat back a more formidable attack by northern countries. An inscription describing this war was engraved on the second pylon of the temple of Medinet Habu. The inscription describes how the northerners were disturbed, and proceeded to move eastward and southward, swamping in turn the land of the Hittites, Carchemish, Arvad, Cyprus, Syria, and other places of the same region. The Hittites and North Syrians had been so crippled by them that Ramessu took the opportunity to extend the frontier of Egyptian territory northward... the twofold ravaging of Syria left it weakened and opened the door for the colonization of its coast-lands by the beaten remnant of the invading army. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.23) c -1179 nend Ramessu III beat back a Libyan invasion in his fifth year, this invasion was accompanied by war galleys from the northern countries. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.22) -1178 nend Apr 16, In 2008 researchers suggested that this was the date that Odysseus struck with arrows, swords and spears, killing those who sought to replace him, as he returned from the Trojan War. (AP, 6/23/08) c -1176 nend Peoples of the sea arrived to the Lebanese coast (c1200-1182). They came probably from the Aegean. They toppled the Hittites, destroyed Ugarit on the Syrian coast and swept south to Egypt where Ramesses III stopped them. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.174) -1175 nend Rameses III built his temple palace at Medinet Habu. (eawc, p.5) -1153 nend Ramesses III of Egypt died, and was succeeded by a series of weak ghost-kings. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty20.html) -1153 -1147 The period of Egypt?s 20th Dynasty under Ramses IV, son of Ramesses III. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty20.html) -1150 nend Troy fell about this time. Estimated date for the beginning of the Aeneid. [see 1275-1240BC] After King Agamemnon, leader of the Greeks, returned home to Mycenae he was killed by his wife Clytemnestra and her lover. In 2006 Cathy Gere authored ?The Tomb of Agamemnon.? (V.D.-H.K.p.60)(Econ, 3/11/06, p.78) -1150 -1000 This time frame is referred to as the Early Olmec Period of southern Mexico. (Arch, 1/06, p.42) -1147 -1143 The period of Egypt?s 20th Dynasty under Ramses V, son of Ramesses IV and Queen Ta-Opet. His mummy indicates that he died of smallpox at about age 35. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty20.html) -1143 -1136 The period of Egypt?s 20th Dynasty under Ramses VI. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty20.html) -1136 -1129 The period of Egypt?s 20th Dynasty under Ramses VII. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty20.html) -1129 -1126 The period of Egypt?s 20th Dynasty under Ramses VIII. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty20.html) -1126 -1108 The period of Egypt?s 20th Dynasty under Ramses IX. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty20.html) c -1116 nend In China an imperial decree stated that it was a requirement of the heavenly powers that people regularly take a moderate amount of alcoholic drink. (SFEC, 8/9/98, Z1 p.8) -1114 -1076 Tiglath-Pileser I ruled the Assyrian empire. (eawc, p.5) 1111 -255 Chou dynasty in China. (V.D.-H.K. p.7) -1108 -1099 The period of Egypt?s 20th Dynasty under Ramses X. During his reign workers went on strike for wages not paid. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty20.html) -1100 nend The Phoenician alphabet containing only consonants was in use. (V.D.-H.K.p.25) -1100 nend By this time the Mycenaeans were overtaken by Dorian invaders who used iron weapons. Greek culture then entered unto a "Dark Age" period characterized by the disappearance of writing and a decline in architecture that lasted to about 800BC. (eawc, p.5) c -1100 -1000 The first Greek tribes settled on Crete around the 11th century BC. (WSJ, 3/20/97, p.A17) c -1100 -1000 In Britain Stonehenge Phase IV the path across the henge ditch was extended into the fields and over the hill to the River Avon. (HT, 3/97, p.22) -1100 -700 The Phoenicians traded around the Mediterranean. (WH, 1994, p.13) -1100 -265 The Zhou period in China. [see 1027-771] (WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20) -1094 -1064 The period of Egypt under Ramses XI. He was the last king of the 20th Dynasty and the New Kingdom. Upon his death Hrihor and Smendes divided Egypt between themselves. Hrihor, the high priest of Amon ultimately usurped the sovereignty and become founder of the Twenty-first Dynasty. In Lower Egypt, the Tanite noble Nesubenebded, in Greek Smendes controlled the Delta. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.29)(Arch, 5/05, p.21) -1085 nend After 1085 BC, Egypt split between a northern 21st dynasty claiming national recognition reigning from Tanis and a line of Theban generals and high priests of Amun who actually controlled the south from Thebes. Relations between the two authorities were peaceful. The Tanites were driven from power by Libyan warriors who established their own 22nd Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty20.html) -1080 -945 High priests ruled Egypt from the capital of Thebes. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1075 nend Wenamun, a priest of Amun, moved from Egypt to Byblos during the rule of Ramesses XI. This was recorded in the Golenischeff papyrus found in 1891CE at El Khibeh in Upper Egypt. It is the personal report of the adventures of an Egyptian messenger to Lebanon. Zakar-Baal was governor of Byblos. (www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Luxor) -1069 -945 This is the period of Egypt?s 21st Dynasty. The capital moved from Tanis to Libyan, to Nubia, to Thebes, to SAIS, and then back to Nubia and Thebes. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -1069 -664 A black-bronze statue of the falcon-faced god Horus, now in the French Louvre, dates to this time. (WSJ, 1/29/98, p.A16) -1064 -1038 Smendes ruled as the 1st king of Egypt?s 21st Dynasty. (Arch, 5/05, p.21) -1050 nend The Philistines invaded Israel from the North. Facing annihilation the Israelites instituted governmental reform and asked Samuel, the last of the Judges, to select a king. (eawc, p.5) -1045 nend The Zhou King Wu subdued the Shang. [see 1027BC] (Arch, 9/00, p.37) -1034 -981 Psusennes I was the 2nd king of Egypt?s 21st Dynasty. (Arch, 5/05, p.21) -1031 nend The Centennial Stump, a giant sequoia, started its growth, and was cut down in 1874CE. (K.I.-365D, p.146) no_source -1027 nend In China the last Shang ruler, Chou Hsin, was conquered by Wu-wang, and the Chou Dynasty began. It lasted to 221BC and is typically divided into three periods. (eawc, p.5) -1020 nend In Israel Samuel selected Saul to be king and unified the tribes into a nation. Saul faced many losses against the Philistines and eventually committed suicide. David in his campaigns against the Philistines proved victorious. (eawc, p.6) -1027 -771 In China this was the Western Chou period. (eawc, p.5) c -1010 970 King David, the 2nd King of Israel, ruled. He had succeeded Saul. (WUD, 1994, p.369) -1005 nend King David's conquest of Jerusalem. In 1995 Israel launched a 17 month celebration of the event. (WSJ, 9/25/95, P. A-1) -1004 nend David became the king of Israel. He ruled from Hebron before moving his capital to Jerusalem. He began to build a centralized government based in Jerusalem and implemented forced labor, a census and a mechanism for collecting taxes. In 2000 Jonathan Kirsch authored "King David: The Real Life of the Man Who ruled Israel." According to the Bible the census under David was followed by a plague that left some 70,000 Israelites dead. (SFC, 9/15/00, p.A4)(SFC, 12/31/00, BR p.8)(Econ, 12/22/07,p.97)(SFC, 12/4/08, p.A27) c -1000 nend Irrigation canals were made in the Tucson basin of the American Southwest. (SFEC, 4/18/99, Z1 p.2) c -1000 nend A Bronze Age salt mine of this time in Hallstatt, Austria, had a pine and spruce staircase that survived into the 21st century. (Arch, 1/05, p.10) c -1000 nend The British Bronze Age site Flag Fen, estimated to about this time, was accidentally discovered in 1982 by archaeologist Francis Pryor. Flag Fen is the site of some of the most recent and unusual discoveries of ancient British culture. In 1982 archaeologist Francis Pryor tripped over a piece of wood while walking along a dyke in the Fenlands near Peterborough. Noticing that the wood showed signs of deliberate shaping, he poked around in the peaty, wet soil and soon discovered a series of posts. The wood was set deeper into the ground than the surface of a nearby Roman road, so Pryor knew the wood had to have been placed into the ground well before the Roman engineers arrived on the scene. (HNQ, 5/12/01) c -1000 nend An Indo-European group of people moved east to live in what later became Xinjiang province of western China. They left well-preserved Caucasian mummies of this age and 1,300 year old texts written in an unknown Indo European tongue. Some evidence showed that they had come from the steppes north of the Black and Caspian seas as the area filled with Iranian immigrants. They settled in the Tarim Basin on the edges of the Taklimakan Desert. They area has also been named Inner Asia, Chinese Turkistan and East Turkistan. The Uighers of Xinjiang sometimes show physical features that reflects Tocharian blood. (SFC, 2/27/98, p.A2) c -1000 nend In China's southwest one of the world's great cities flourished, and then inexplicably vanished, leaving no trace behind in the historical records. In 2001 excavations at Jinsha village began to uncover extensive artifacts. (AFP, 7/10/05) -1000 nend The Chinese invented kites about this time that could carry scouts on reconnaissance missions. (NPub, 2002, p.2) c -1000 nend The fertile bottom land of the Copan River valley attracted agriculturists to the region more than 3,000 years ago. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.29) c -1000 nend The Phoenicians and other Semites of Syria and Palestine began using graphic signs representing letters. Aleph meaning ox was the sign that represented a sound such as that heard in the pronunciation of the o in bottle, known as a glottal stop. (AHD, 1971, p.1) -1000 nend Ahiram, king of Byblos, had inscribed on his sarcophagus: "His abode in eternity." (NG, Aug., 1974, p.154) -1000 nend Chaldians traced their origins to about this time in Babylon. (SFC, 9/30/00, p.A12) c -1000 nend A brightly colored papyrus of this time depicting a Theban housewife's life after death was found by Herbert Winlock at Thebes in 1912. (WSJ, 12/27/95, p. A-8) -1000 nend Bone lesions in the mummified body of the priest of Ammon from a tomb of the Egyptian 21st dynasty, have been recognized as probably caused by tubercle bacilli. (WP, 1951, p.5) -1000 nend About this time Kush became independent from Egypt. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.167) -1000 nend Israel became a kingdom. (WH, 1994, p.13) c -1000 nend Three-thousand-year-old archives were found in Jerusalem on Mar 13, 1935, confirming biblical history. (HN, 3/13/98) c -1000 nend The Samaritans broke away from the mainstream of Judaism about this time. They believed that God chose Mount Gerizim as the site for the Jews to build their temple. (SFC, 2/14/98, p.A21) c -1000 nend The Garamantes, a tribal people descended from Berbers and Saharan pastoralists, inhabited the area of the Fazzan in southern Libya. (AM, 3/04, p.24) c -1000 nend The first typical Baltic culture of brushed pottery formed at the turn of the last millennium BC in eastern Lithuania. It was the time when the first hill forts and barrows appeared and the cremation of the dead was introduced. (DrEE, 10/12/96, p.2)(TB-Com, 10/11/00) c -1000 nend In India the Rig Veda, the first Vedic literature was written. (eawc, p.6) c 1000 nend The original Hindu calendar in India was based on a lunar cycle and dated back to this time. (SFC, 1/1/00, p.A18) -1000 nend The Sushruta Samhita, an early text of Ayurvedic medicine, was compiled by Sushrut, the primary pupil of Dhanvantri, about this time. In 2003 India moved to assess the country?s herbs systematically in a program called the Golden Triangle Partnership. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurveda)(www.ccras.nic.in/gtp.htm) -1000 nend The Illyrians were Indo-European tribesmen who appeared in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula about 1000 BC. Albanians derive their name from an Illyrian tribe called the Arber, or Arbereshë, and later Albanoi, that lived near Durrës. (http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/illyria/) c -1000 nend In Kyrgyzstan the capital city of Bishkek was founded. (MT, Spg. '99, p.4) -1000 nend The great Olmec Ceremonial Center, in Tabasco, Mexico, was built about this time. It continued to be used till about 600BC. (RFH-MDHP, p.241) -1000 nend The Olmec kings are thought by some to be responsible for the invention of the ancient Mayan ballgame that often left the loser dead. (Hem, Dec. 94, p.125) 1k BC The settlement at Canton Corralito on the southern Mexico-Guatemala border covered at least 60 acres by this time and was believed to be a colony of the Gulf Olmec people. (Arch, 1/06, p.44) c -1000 nend In Pakistan some of the monuments at the Uch Monument Complex in the Punjab date to this time. (SFEC, 8/28/98, p.T4) -1000 nend In Thailand Ban Prasat pottery from the site at Prasat Hin Phanom Wan dates to this time. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.H) c -1000 nend A major earthquake struck along the Carmel-Gilboa fault system about this time. The Hebrew city of Har Megiddo, located at the strategic Nahal Iron Pass - the only route where chariots could speed between Egypt and Syria, was destroyed in the quake. This event is likely one described by John of Patmos in the Book of Revelations, where a great quake takes place at Armageddon. (SFC,12/9/97, p.A8) c -1000 nend In Peru the tomb of a Huayakuntur Indian of this time was found in Ayabaca province in 1999. (SFC, 11/13/99, p.A12) -1000 nend The Phoenicians inhabited Sardinia. (SFEC, 1/30/00, p.T4) -1000 nend Bronze age nomads erected mysterious megaliths throughout regions of Mongolia and southern Siberia about this time. Some scholars believed them to be the work of Iron Age peoples who appeared by 700BC. (Arch, 1/06, p.17) c -1000 nend Troy at Hissarlik in northwest Turkey was destroyed by fire and abandoned. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.50) -1000 nend A cemetery containing the remains of 25 Lapita people in Teouma, Vanuatu, dated to about this time. (Arch, 1/06, p.11) -1000 -975 In 2008 Israeli archeologists found a Hebrew inscription in proto-Canaanite script on a pottery fragment at a site believed to the biblical city of Sha?arayim (Two Gates). The city was located on a hill above the Valley of Elah, where the bible says David slew Goliath. (SFC, 11/17/08, p.A10) -1000 -900 The search for the 10 lost tribes of Israel, who were dispersed in the tenth century BC when the Assyrians conquered part of the Holy Land, is depicted on a CD titled The Myth of the 10 Lost Tribes, by Creative Multimedia Corp. (New Media, 2/95, p.84) -1000 -900 Archeologists in 2005 reported that 2 lines of an alphabet had been found inscribed in a stone in Israel, offering what some scholars say is the most solid evidence yet that the ancient Israelites were literate as early as the 10th century B.C. The stone was found in July, on the final day of a five-week dig at Tel Zayit, about 30 miles south of Tel Aviv. (AP, 11/10/05) c -1000 800 The kingdom of Habushkia was likely centered on the headwaters of the Great Zap River in western Turkey. (AM, 7/00, p.50) -1000 -600 This was the late Vedic period in India. The Aryans were integrated into Indian culture and the caste system emerged. (eawc, p.6) -1000 -500 Oct 31, The Celts of Ireland, Great Britain and northern France celebrated Oct. 31 to Nov 2 as their New Year which they called Samhain. The Druid harvest event incorporated masks to ward off evil ones, as dead relatives were believed to visit families on the first evening. The Catholic holiday of All Hallows' Day (aka All Saints' Day) was instituted around 700 CE to supplant the pagan event and Pope Gregory III made the Nov 1 date official. In the 9th century Nov 2, the last day of Samhain, became All Souls' Day. Halloween was transplanted to the US in the 1840s. (WSJ, 10/28/99, p.A24)(WSJ, 10/29/99, p.W17) -1000 300 Middle preclassic period of the Maya. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.B) -1000 -1 In Thailand a cemetery at the Noen U-Loke site has revealed jewelry, bronze and iron tools and pottery. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.G) c -1000 1000 BE A civilization in Amazonia, called Patiti or Enin by archeologists, dug channels for an elaborate crop irrigation system. (SFEC, 12/6/98, p.T12) -993 -984 Amenope was the 4th king of Egypt?s 21st Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -984 -978 Osochor was the 5th king of Egypt?s 21st Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -978 -959 Siamun was the 6th king of Egypt?s 21st Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -970 nend King David of Israel died about this time. In 2000 Robert Alter authored "The David Story: A Translation with Commentary of 1 and 2 Samuel." In 2005 Robert Pinsky authored ?The Life of David.? (WUD, 1994, p.369)(SFEC, 4/30/00, BR p.10)(SSFC, 10/23/05, p.M1) -965 nend Solomon became king of Israel. He was intent on completing the plans of David to make Jerusalem stand out and to affirm the religious commitment of the people. He undertook expensive building projects that included the building of the temple in Jerusalem and raised taxes with increased forced labor to his ends. (eawc, p.6) -959 -945 Psusennes II was the 7th and last king of Egypt?s 21st Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -955 -587 The Ark of the Covenant, the sacred chest built by Moses containing the Ten Commandments, disappeared from Jerusalem during this period. Legend in Ethiopia holds that the Ark was stolen by Menelik I, son of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, and taken to Aksum where Orthodox Christian monks have watched over it ever since. (SFC, 1/31/98, p.A18) -950 nend Hiram I, king of Tyre, joined two islands and built an impregnable city in the sea. He sent to David, king of Israel, and later to Solomon, the materials to build palaces and the first great temple of Jerusalem. The building of Solomon's temple is described in the First Book of Kings in the Bible. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.163)(WH, 1994, p.13) c -950 nend The Queen of Sheba lived about this time. Local legends from Ethiopia name her Makeda and claim that she was from there. Archeologists have found inscriptions from the ancient Sabean kingdom but no mention of Makeda or Bilqis, the local name for Sheba in Yemen. The Koran claims she ruled from Yemen. (WSJ, 5/2/97, p.A1) c -950 nend The Kebra Negast, a 14th cent. Ethiopian text, claims that the Queen of Sheba came from Ethiopia to see Solomon and that he tricked her into sleeping with him and bearing him a son. (WSJ, 5/2/97, p.A6) -950 nend Peanuts have been traced back to this time in Brazil and Peru. (SFEC, 1/10/99, Z1 p.8) -948 -927 The Egyptian Pharaoh Shishak (Sheshonq) founded Egypt?s 22nd Dynasty. He destroyed many Israelite cities, including Rehov, Megiddo and Hazor. Sheshonq I supported Jeroboam against King Solomon's son, Rehoboam. (WSJ, 12/31/97, p.A4)(SFC, 4/11/03, p.A9)(Arch, 5/05, p.21) 945 -712 Period of Egypt?s twenty-second dynasty. It is often referred to as the Libyan Bubastite Dynasty. Manetho lists the kings of this Dynasty as being from Bubastis which is located in the eastern delta (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) c -938 nend Israel?s King Solomon died about this time. The northerners, unwilling to subsidize the financial difficulties of Jerusalem and the national court, separated from the southern people. This created Israel to the north with its capital in Samaria, and Judah to the south with its capital in Jerusalem. Solomon?s son Rehoboam ruled in the south. Only the tribes of Juda and Benjamin remaining faithful to Rehoboam. Jeroboam, the son of Nathan an Ephraimite, ruled 10 tribes in the north. (eawc, p.6)(www.newadvent.org/cathen/08340a.htm) -930 nend Sheshonq I, ruler of Egypt, campaigned in Palestine about this time laying tribute upon the king of Judah. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -924 -909 Osorkon I ruled Egypt as the 2nd king of the 22nd Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -909 -894 Takelot I ruled Egypt as the 3rd king of the 22nd Dynasty. His reign saw the beginning of another fragmentation into 2 power bases. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) c -900 nend Trade between East Africans and Arabs probably began about this time. (ATC, p.141) -900 nend The Maya site named Blackman Eddy in Belize was occupied from this time to about 1000CE. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.B) c -900 nend In Honduras archeologists in 1997 discovered burial caves that date to this time. A cave from the same period was discovered in 1994 near the Talgua River, known as the Cave of the Glowing Skulls. The new cave was called the Cave of the Spiders. (USAT, 2/12/97, p.9D) c -900 nend A group of people in northern Nigeria produced distinct statuettes in baked clay. Their culture is called the Nok culture after a village where the first statuette was found in 1931. The culture may have lasted to about 900CE. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.168) c -900 nend Anuradhapura (Sri Lanka) was founded about this time. It served as the capital from the 3rd century BC to the 11th century AD. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.D)(Arch, 7/02, p.32) c -900 nend The Fossum panel was carved on a rock outcropping in Sweden about this time and depicted 2 Bronze Age figures with raised axes. (NH, Jul, p.32) -900 -840 The Assyrians expanded their empire to the west. By 840 they conquered Syria and Turkey, territory that had formerly belonged to the Hittites. (eawc, p.6) c -900 -800 Ahab was king of Israel. Pottery, a 4-entry gate at Megiddo, and other structures at Hazor and Gezer are similar to others in the time of Ahab. This kind of data has prompted "the Finkelstein correction," which pushes archeological evidence attributed to David and Solomon more to the time of Ahab and Jezebel, his wife from Phoenicia. (WSJ, 12/31/97, p.A4) c -900 -800 Joash was King of Judah in the 9th century. Joash and Ashyahu are common variations of the same name. The temple priest Zechariah was a contemporary to Joash and was put to death by Joash after a dispute. In 1997 a 13 word pottery fragment was dated to this time with the words: "Pursuant to the order to you of Ashyahu the King to give by the hand of Zecharyahu silver of Tarshish to the House of Yahweh. Three shekels." (SFC,11/4/97, p.A8) -900 -800 Sican and Siculian farmers settled the valleys of central Sicily. (WSJ, 6/9/99, p.A24) -900 -750 Villanovan cultures in Italy. From their hamlets Etruscan cities grew. The name comes from Villanova, a site near Bologna where the culture's artifacts were first unearthed more than a century ago. (NG, 6/1988, p.710, 719) -900 -700 In 2008 archeologists found pottery in Tyre, Lebanon, that was used by Phoenicians during this period. (AP, 11/12/08) -900 -500 This time frame is referred to as the Late Olmec Period of southern Mexico. (Arch, 1/06, p.42) -900 -400 The Etruscan period of Italian prehistory. For about 500 years the Etruscans dominated most of the country from Rome to the Po Valley. Apa means father in Etruscan. It means exactly the same in Hungarian. (NG, 6/1988, p.705)(NG, 10/1988, member's forum) -894 -883 Shoshenq II ruled Egypt during the 22nd Dynasty. He is though to have co-regent during the period between Osorkon I and Takelot I. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -883 -885 Osorkon II ruled Egypt as the 5th king of the 22nd Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) 883 859 Ashurnasirpal II. This Assyrian ruler established the new capital city of Kalhu (Nimrud). (AM, 7/00, p.50) -880 nend There was a very high inundation of the Nile in the 3rd year of the reign of Osorkon II. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) 858 824 Shalmaneser II, Assyrian ruler. (AM, 7/00, p.50) -845 nend During the 15th year of the reign of Egypt?s Takelot II there was warfare in the north and south and great convulsion broke out in the land. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -841 nend In China a Zhou king died. (SFC, 11/10/00, p.D4) -841 -815 Takelot II ruled Egypt as the 6th king of the 22nd Dynasty. (Arch, 5/05, p.21) -835 -783 Shoshenq III ruled Egypt as the 7th king of the 22nd Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -814 nend Carthage was founded by Phoenician traders. (SFEC, 4/12/98, p.T5) 814 -813 Elissa-Dido, Princess of Tyre, Jezebel's grandniece, fled to North Africa after her brother, King Pygmalion, murdered her husband, Tyre's high priest. She was said to have then founded Carthage on a hilltop now called Byrsa. Byrsa means Oxhide and it was said that Elissa could have as much ground as could be covered by the hide of an ox. She cut the hide into narrow strips and so claimed the whole hill. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.174)(SSFC, 12/10/00, p.T8) 812 -783 Hada-Nirari III, Assyrian king enumerated the Philistines among the Palestinian states conquered by him. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.63) -810 805 Sammuramat ruled Assyria as Queen. (eawc, p.6) -803 nend Hadad-Nirari, Assyrian king, conquered the Palestinian states including the Philistines. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.63) c -800 nend Large villages with dome-shaped "pit houses" were constructed in the American Southwest and the inhabitants made plainware pottery bowls. (SFEC, 4/18/99, Z1 p.2) -800 nend Nimrud, capital of Assyria, 500 miles east of Byblos, sample of ivory carving from a piece of furniture depicting a woman in a window wearing an Egyptian wig. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.171) c -800 nend The Zhou of China were driven east by nomads. (Arch, 9/00, p.37) c -800 nend In Greece increased trade and governmental defense fortifications allowed for the emergence of city-states to emerge from tribal communities. These grew up among market places and included Athens, Thebes and Megara on the mainland. (eawc, p.6) -800 nend In Guatemala some structures at San Bartolo dated to about this time. (AM, 7/05, p.51)(http://sanbartolo.org/research.htm) c -800 nend The Jewish city of Sepphoris was founded about this time. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.64) -800 nend Kingdom of Kush in northern Sudan near present day Karima; its monarchs ruled all of Egypt as the pharaohs of the XXV Dynasty. (NG, May 1985, R. Caputo, p.607) -800 nend The twenty-fifth dynasty, as noted by Manetho, consisted of three Ethiopic kings. The seat of the empire was originally at Gebel Barkal, or Napata. They subsequently conquered the whole of Egypt. The first monarch of this line was called Sabaco by the Greek writers; the second Sebechos, or Suechos, his son; the third was Tarkos or Taracus. (RFH-MDHP, A. Layard, 1853, p.62) c -800 nend A great change in climate overcame Europe around this time. (SFEC, 5/2/99, p.T4) -800 -750 The Iliad epic was set down by Homer in about the first half of the 8th century, some five centuries after the war it purportedly reports. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.44) c -800 -700 The period of Homer, reputed author of "The Iliad" and "The Odyssey." (WUD, 1994, p.679) -800 -700 The time of Hesiod, the first Greek poet to name himself. His work included "The Theogony" and "Works and Days." (WUD, 1994, p.666)(eawc, p.7) c -800 -700 The Greeks and the Etruscans occupied different regions of the Italian peninsula during the 8th century. (eawc, p.2) -800 -700 Bubastis was the capital of 8th century BC Egypt. (AM, 7/04, p.12) -800 -700 The Languedoc region of France has produced wine since this time. Langue d'oc refers to the language of Occitan spoken in the region. Greeks began planting vineyards in Languedoc around 600BC. (WSJ, 2/09/99, p.A20)(SSFC, 6/17/01, p.T10)(WSJ, 5/30/03, p.A3) -800 -600 In India the Brahmans, a priestly caste, began to emerge. (eawc, p.7) -800 -500 In India the Upanishadic philosophy began with the writing of the Upanishads. Doctrines of rebirth and the transmigration of souls began to appear. (eawc, p.7) -800 -500 The Archaic period of Greece. It was marked by developments in literature, the arts, politics, philosophy and science. The Peloponnesian city of Corinth, Sparta and cities along the coast of the Aegean flourished. Most of the cities were similar in their political evolution except for the elite dictatorship in Sparta. Most of the cities began as monarchies, evolved to oligarchies, were overthrown during the age of tyrants and eventually established democracies. (eawc, p.6) -800 -500 The Celtic Hallstatt Culture spread across Europe. It was an early iron-using culture named after an Austrian burial site found in the mid-19th century. (NGM, 5/77) -800 -500 Zazacatla in central Mexico covered less than one square mile between during this period. Inhabitants of Zazacatla adopted Olmec styles when they changed from a simple, egalitarian society to a more complex, hierarchical one. Much of it was later covered by housing and commercial development extending from Cuernavaca. (AP, 1/25/07) -800 -500 Texts called Southwest Script dating to this period were later discovered in Portugal. Most experts have concluded they were authored by a people called Tartessians, a tribe of Mediterranean traders who mined for metal but disappeared after a few centuries. Some scientists have proposed that the composers were other pre-Roman tribes, such as the Conii or Cynetes, or maybe even Celts who roamed this far south. (AP, 2/28/09) -800 -300 Scythians dominated the vast lands stretching from Siberia to the Black Sea. Those who roamed what later became Kazakstan and southern Siberia were known as the Saka. (AM, 5/01, p.32) c -800 200 The Mayan city of Takalik Abaj, in later day Guatemala, served as one of the most important economic and cultural centers of pre-Columbian times. (NG, May, 04, p.70) c -800 200 Saba culture (Yemen) was a major economic player in the trade routes from India to the Mediterranean during this period. (Arch, 1/05, p.56) -783 -773 Pami (Pemay) ruled Egypt as the 8th king of the 22nd Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -782 nend Urartian king Argishti the First founded Erebuni, the military and administrative center of the state of Urartu, situated in the location of present-day Yerevan, Armenia. (www.anahit.am/regions/yerevan/)(SSFC, 10/17/04, p.D8) -776 nend In Olympia Greece the Olympic Games were born after Iphitos, king of Elis, asked the Delphic Oracle how to save Greece from civil war and plagues. The answer was to revive the Olympics from their mythological roots. Together with Lycourgos of Sparta and Kleosthenes of Pisa a sacred truce was concluded and the games declared at Olympia. The historian Pausanias (c150CE) wrote: "The Olympic victor must not win with money but the fleetness of foot and the strength of body." In the Pankration, a combination of wrestling and boxing, biting and eye-gouging were forbidden. Adult women were discouraged from attending the games under the penalty of being hurled from the cliffs of Mount Typaion, opposite the stadium (SFC, 7/14/96, p.T1)(WSJ, 7/19/96, p.R16) -773 -735 Shoshenq IV ruled Kush as the 9th king of Egypt?s 22nd Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -771 nend In China the Chou Dynasty faced difficulty when King Yu alienated the noble class who refused to answer his call for help against invading barbarians. King Yu was killed and the nobles installed a new leader. The capital was moved eastward to Loyang and the "Western Chou" period ended. (eawc, p.7) 771 -471 The Spring and Autumn Period. Jingzhou was the capital of the Chu Kingdom. (AMNHDT, 5/98) 771 221 The Eastern Zhou period. The power of the Zhou court waned and frequent state wars took place. (AM, 7/01, p.62) -753 nend Apr 21, Rome was founded. The traditional date for founding by Romulus as a refuge for runaway slaves and murderers who captured the neighboring Sabine women for wives. Archeological evidence indicates that the founders of Rome were Italic people who occupied the area south of the Tiber River. (HFA, '96, p.28)(V.D.-H.K.p.61)(eawc, p.7)(HN, 4/21/98) -750 nend Greeks invent symbols for vowels. (V.D.-H.K.-p.25) 750BC The era of the Greek poet Homer. (MT, 10/95, p.10-11) c -750 nend Two Phoenician ships from Tyre carrying amphorae filled with wine sank some 30 miles off the coast of Israel. In 1999 a team led by Robert Ballard discovered the ships at a depth of about 1,500 feet. (SFC, 6/24/99, p.A14) -750 -719 Piye (Piankhy) ruled Kush (Nubia). In 722 he extended his rule to Egypt. Kashta, ruler of Kush, had begun a campaign against Egypt. With the help of his son, Piankhy, he was successful and Piankhy became pharaoh of Egypt. The Nubian King Piye conquered the weakened and disunited Egypt and became the first of several Nubian Pharaohs who ruled a unified Egyptian and Nubian state for the next century. (eawc, p.7)(MT, 10/95, p.10-11)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) c -750 -700 The long-running Lelantine War between Chalkis and Eretria, the 2 largest cities on the island of Euboia, was named after the name of the plain that both cities claimed. The two cities had jointly founded Cumae in Italy (c750). When they fell out, the war between them split the Greek world in two. (Arch, 1/05, p.34)(www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9047711) c -750 -700 Greeks adopted hoplite gear and the phalanx for warfare over this period. (Arch, 1/05, p.33) -750 -600 Greek colonies exert strong influence over newly urbanized Etruscans. (NG, 6/1988, p.710) -750 117 In 2005 Robin Lane Fox covered this period in his book ?The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian.? (Econ, 11/5/05, p.91) -747 nend Feb 26, Origin of Era of Nabonassar. (SC, 2/26/02) -745 -727 Tiglath-Pileser III ruled as the Assyrian king. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.63) -742 nend The time of the Hebrew prophet Isaiah. (MofB, A&E TV, 9/7/96) -740 nend A population of people that came to called Tibetans moved to the Tibetan plateau about this time. In 2010 researchers claimed that people known as the Han and Tibetans had both come from a single ethnic group which split about this time. (Econ, 7/17/10, p.50) -740 -725 Pedubaste I was the 1st king of Egypt?s 23rd Dynasty. Egypt?s rule in this period is not very clear. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -738 nend Mittinti, king of Ashkelon revolted, trusting to the support of Rezon of Syria. But the death of Rezon so terrified the king that he fell sick and died. His son Rukipti, who reigned in his stead, hastened to make submission. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.63) -735 -712 Osorkon IV ruled Egypt as the 10th and final king of the 22nd Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) c -734 nend Rezon of Syria, and Pekah of Samaria were in league, whereas Ahaz of Jerusalem had become a vassal of the king of Assyria. The Philistines had attached them selves to the Syrian league, so that Tiglath-Pileser came up with the special purpose of sacking Gaza. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.63) -732 nend Tiglath-pileser III, an Assyrian, took Damascus and killed Rezin. He then captured many cities of northern Israel and took the people to Assyria. The Egyptian troops had at one time joined forces with Damascus, Israel and some other states to resist Shalmaneser III at Qarqar. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -729 nend Greek colonists settled in Catania, Sicily. (SFC, 6/2/03, p.A11) -725 -720 Tefnakhte I, a prince of western Egypt, ruled as the 1st king of the 24th Dynasty, known as the Sais Dynasty. He attempted to stop an invasion by organizing other Northern Kings with him against invaders from the south. This southern force was comprised of Piankhi?s Nubian forces that wanted to gain control of all of Egypt. The four northern armies under Tefnakht, Osorkon IV of Tanis, Peftjauabastet of Hernopolis, Nimlot, and Input of Leontopolis all enjoyed a relatively easy time in their conquering of the people down to the south, but Piankhi was actually drawing them down. When Tefnakht's forces finally reached Memphis they were massacred and Tefnakht conceded to Piankhi. Tefnakht and the four other leaders were allowed to remain governors of their territories under the new Pharaoh Piankhi. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -722 nend Hoshea, the king of Israel, sent messengers to Osorkon in Egypt. He was requesting help against Assyria?s Shalmaneser V. No help was sent. Samaria was captured and the Israelites were taken away to Assyria. The Assyrians conquered Israel and left nothing behind. The Hebrew kingdom of Judah managed to survive. Descendants of the Israelites not exiled by the Assyrians were later known as the Samaritans. (eawc, p.7)(WSJ, 10/13/00, p.W15)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -722 nend Piye (Piankhy) marched north from Nubia and began his conquest of Egypt where he founded the 25th Dynasty. He consolidated his rule over Egypt and Kush and became the 1st king of the 25th Dynasty. It has been suggested that he revived pyramid building for royals in Egypt, a tradition that had gone extinct for over eight centuries. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html)(Arch, 9/02, p.55) 722 -481 In China the Ch'un Ch'iu period began. It was characterized by a deterioration of the feudal system and a collapse of central authority. (eawc, p.5,7) -721 nend About this time as the northern Israelite kingdom failed, Hebron remained the capital of the southern Israelite kingdom of Judah. (SFC, 12/4/08, p.A27) 721 -705 Sargon II ruled as king of Assyria. (AM, 7/01, p.33) c -720 nend Some Jewish tribes went missing after being sent into exile by the Assyrians under Tiglath-Pilesar III. In 2002 Hillel Halkin authored "Across the Sabbath River: In Search of a Lost Tribe of Israel," an account of the search for the lost tribes that included the Gadites, Reubenites and tribe of Manasseh (Menashe) and its possible relationship to the Kuki-Chin-Mizo people of Burma. (WSJ, 8/8/02, p.D10)(SSFC, 8/11/02, p.M2) -720 -715 Wahkare Bakenranef ruled in Egypt as the 2nd king of the 24th Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) 715 642 Judah absorbed refugees from the Assyrian conquest an achieved the attributes of a state. (AM, 9/01, p.32) -713 nend Azuri, king of the Philistine city of Ashdod, refused to pay tribute and endeavored to stir up the neighboring princes to revolt. Sargon [of Assyria] came down and expelled Azuri, and established in his stead Azuri's brother, Ahimiti. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.64) -712 -698 Shebaka of Nubia ruled in Egypt. Some consider him the 1st king of the 25th Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -710 nend Hanunu of Gaza was in the revolt against the king of Assyria which led to the battle of Raphia, the first struggle between Egypt and Assyria. Hanunu, the king of Gaza, fled to Sebako (Shebaka), king of Egypt; but returned and, having made submission, was received with favor. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.71) -708 nend Lampis of Sparta won the pentathlon becoming the 1st Olympic winner in the long jump. (NH, 6/03, p.12) -705 -681 Sennacherib, Assyrian king, also had trouble with the Philistines. Mitinti's son, Rukipti, had been succeeded by his son Sarludari, but it seems as though this ruler had been deposed, and a person called Zidka reigned in his stead. Sennacherib found conspiracy in Zidka, and brought the gods of his father's house, himself, and his family into exile to Assyria, restoring Sarludari to his former throne. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.64) 705 -681 At the same time the Ekronites had revolted against the Assyrian. Their king, Padi, had remained a loyal vassal to his overlord, but his turbulent subjects had put him in fetters and sent him to Hezekiah, king of Judah, who cast him into prison. The Ekronites summoned assistance from North Arabia and Egypt, and met Sennacherib at El-Tekeh. Here they were defeated, and Sennacherib marched against Ekron, slaying and impaling the chief officers. Padi was rescued from Jerusalem... Sennacherib then cut of some of the territory of Judah and divided it among his vassals... (R.M.-P.H.C.p.64) 705 -681 Sennacherib ruled the Assyrians and built a new capital in Ninevah where he began to form a library of Sumerian and Babylonian tablets. He managed to subdue the entire region of western Asia. (eawc, p.7) -701 nend The Assyrian King Sennacherib laid siege to Jerusalem. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.16) -700 nend Homer's time. [see 800BC-700] (NG, Aug., 1974, p.172) c -700 nend The White Horse of Uffington, England, a 365-foot long and 130-foot high image scratched into a chalk hillside, was dated to this time from pottery at the site. The shape is typical of the La Tene art style that spread across Western Europe between the 5th and 1st centuries BC. (AM, 9/01, p.40,43) -700 nend A three foot tall bust of Pharaoh Shabako of Egypt was on loan from Cairo at St. Petersburg, Florida. (WSJ, 1/16/96, p. A-16) c -700 nend In what later became Iraq, the huge bearded head of a large winged-bull dating from this time was made. (SFC, 1/31/98, p.A9) -700 nend Tarquinia was the cultural capital of the Etruscans. Around 700BC, only half a century after the Greeks rediscovered writing, literacy burst across Etruria. The Etruscans had no g sound, so they made it a c. That's why we have abc rather than alpha, beta, gamma. (NG, 6/1988, p.708,726) -700 nend Arabs made earth bricks later know as adobe as early as this time. The word adobe comes from the Arab word "at-tub." (SFC, 8/21/96, p.A8) -700 nend King Hezekiah, about this time, constructed a 1,750-foot tunnel to bring water into Jerusalem. Archeologists in 2003 dated plant fragments in the tunnel's plaster to this time +/- 100 years. In 1880 a tablet known as the Siloam inscription was found in the tunnel. It had been installed to celebrate the moment the two construction teams met underground. The tablet was taken by the Holy Land's Ottoman rulers to Istanbul. It was later placed in the collection of the Istanbul Archaeology Museum. In 2007 Jerusalem's mayor asked the Turkish government to return the tablet. (SFC, 9/11/03, p.A6)(AP, 7/13/07) c -700 nend Nomadic Kimmerians attacked Phrygia. Strabo later reported that Midas committed suicide at the time of the Kimmerian invasion. (AM, 7/01, p.33) c -700 nend A Phrygian king, possibly Midas, ruled into his 60s and was buried in what came to be called the Tumulus Midas Mound at Gordion (later central Turkey). Midas was linked with the worship of the goddess Matar. (AM, 7/01, p.27) -700 -600 A migration of the Cimmerians and Scythians took place in the seventh century BC. These were nomadic tribes from the Russian steppes, who made their way round the eastern end of the Caucasus, burst through into the Moghan plains and the basin of Lake Urmia, and terrorized Western Asia for several generations, till they were broken by the power of the Medes and absorbed in the native population. It was they who made an end of the Kingdom of Urartu, and the language they brought with them was probably an Indo-European dialect answering to the basic element in modern Armenian. (http://tinyurl.com/btq4l) -700 -600 The Armenians, an Indo-European people, migrate from the west to mingle with the people of URARTU. It was ruled by kings of the Orontid dynasty as a satrapy of the Persian empire until the defeat of Persia by Alexander the Great. (CO Enc. / Armenia) -700 -600 The earliest Chinese records of divination using the I Ching date from this period. (NH, 9/97, p.12) -700 -600 The search for the 10 lost tribes of Israel, who were dispersed in the tenth century BC when the Assyrians conquered part of the Holy Land, is depicted on a CD titled The Myth of the 10 Lost Tribes, by Creative Multimedia Corp. (New Media, 2/95, p.84) -698 -690 Shebitku, nephew of Shebaka, ruled in Egypt as the 2nd king of the 25th Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) no_source -690 nend The underground burial chamber of a warrior prince in the Etruscan town of Veio dated to about this time. It was decorated with roaring lions and migratory birds. (AP, 6/16/06) -690 -664 The Nubian Pharaoh Taharqa, brother of Shebitku, ruled over the upper Nile Nubian-Egyptian state. He is mentioned in the Bible as a pyramid builder. A sculpture of the Kushite king was discovered in the basement of "God's House Tower," an archeological museum, in England in 2000. (MT, 10/95, p.10-11)(SFC, 2/16/00,p.A8)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html)(Arch, 9/02, p.55) -689 nend Sennacherib of Assyria destroyed Babylon, but his son rebuilt it. (eawc, p.7) -687 nend The Lyrid meteor shower was recorded for the first time in Chinese records. It averages about 10-15 shooting stars per hour and occurs on 4/22 in 1994. (PacDis, Spring/'94, p. 40) -681 -668 Esarhaddon, son of Sennacherib became monarch of Assyria after his father was assassinated. "I had monuments made of bronze, lapis lazuli, alabaster... and white limestone... and inscriptions of baked clay... I deposited them in the foundations and left them for future times." (R.M.-P.H.C.p.65)(MofE, 1978, p.1) c -680 nend Inhabitants of Paros island (Greece) colonized the northern Aegean island of Thasos, seizing its abundant timber and gold mines. Soldier-poet Archilochus of Paros took part in the colonization of Thasos as well as in conflicts with Naxos. (Arch, 1/05, p.30,34) -671 nend Esarhaddon [of Assyria] recorded a victory over lower Egypt at the cliff face of the Nahr al Kalb (Dog River), between Beirut and Byblos. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.157) -668 nend The Gymnopaedia was introduced in Sparta. It was a yearly celebration during which naked youths displayed their athletic and martial skills through the medium of war dancing. The custom was introduced concurrently with the introduction of naked athletics, oiling the body for exercise so as to highlight its beauty. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnopaedia) 668 -627 Ashurbanipal succeeded Sennacherib as ruler over Assyria. He continued to develop the library and by the time he finished, there were more than 22,000 clay tablets collected. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.65)(eawc, p.7) -664 -610 Psammetichus ruled in Egypt as the 1st king of the 26th Dynasty. He did not gain control of Egypt until his 9th year of rule. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) c -662 nend The Assyrian Empire collapsed and Egypt enjoyed about a century of independence. (eawc, p.7) c -660 nend Governor Ment (Mentuemhet) served as governor of Upper Egypt, mayor of Thebes, and 4th prophet of Amun. (SFC, 5/4/05, p.E5) -660 nend This is the mythical date of the ascension of Japan's first emperor, Jimmu Tenno. He is said to have been descended from Amaterasu, the sun goddess, who came from the eye of the god Izanagi. (HN, 2/11/97)(Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(Econ, 9/9/06, p.42) -657 nend A 2nd influx of Phoenicians surged into Carthage about this time. (NG, 8/04, p.46) -657 -525 Period of Egypt?s Dynasty 26. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -655 nend Psammetichus, 26th Dynasty king, gained control of Egypt in his 9th year of rule. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -654 -657 Tantamani (Tanwetamani) ruled in Egypt as last Cushite king and the last of the king of the 25th Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty25.html) -650 nend Babylon by this time was again prosperous following its destruction in 689 by Sennacherib of Assyria. (eawc, p.7) -650 nend The Transylvanian Dacians are first known from their contacts with the Greeks about this time. (WSJ, 6/18/97, p.A20) c -650 nend The time of Archilochus, Greek poet. (WUD, 1994, p.78) c -650 nend Greece began using the drachma for currency. (SSFC, 11/11/01, p.F4) -650 nend The Chinese licensed lady lovers. This is considered as the 1st example of legalized prostitution. (SFC, 11/4/00, p.B3) -650 -500 In Greece it was the age of the tyrants. (eawc, p.6) -650 -550 Graves from the Umbrian city of Terni, north of Rome, were dated to this period. The people were known as the Umbri-Nartes and had lived in the region from the Bronze Age up to the Roman conquest. (AM, Jul/Aug '97 p.18) -648 nend Ashurbanipal destroyed the newly rebuilt city of Babylon. (eawc, p.7) -642 nend The first horse race on record was in the Olympic Games of Greece and the first prize was a "woman of well-rounded domestic skills." (SFEC, 8/2/98, Z1 p.8) -642 nend Invading Arabs established a military settlement on what later would become Cairo, Egypt. (NG, May 1985, p.584) -640 nend In Egypt a burial chamber at the necropolis of Saqqara dating back to this time was uncovered in 2009. The chamber contained 8 sarcophagi. (WSJ, 2/12/09, p.A9) -640 nend In Greece the Spartan form of government, adapted from the Dorians, was heavily influenced by militarism. The Messenian wars initiated Sparta's fear of change. They remained isolated by banning trade and discouraging travel outside their territory. Alcaeus, Greek lyric poet, was born in Mytilene on the island of Lesbos. His lyrics expounded on contemporary politics, love, hymns to Apollo and Hermes, and some drinking songs. (eawc, p.8) c -640 nend The 1st coins were minted in Lydia (later part of Turkey), and featured face to face heads of a bull and lion. (SSFC, 12/3/00, WB p.2) -639 -609 King Josiah reigned in Israel. The biblical account of Israel's origin was possibly drafted during this time. The leadership reinstituted the exclusive worship of the god of the Israelites centered on the Temple in Jerusalem. (AM, 9/01, p.30,31) -631 nend The city of Cyrene, in what later became Libya, was first developed by the Greeks. It was later settled by the Romans and destroyed in the earthquake of 365. (SFC, 9/11/07, p.A16) -626 nend The time of the Jewish prophet Jeremiah. He was the last political prophet and went to Egypt at the end of his life. (MofB, A&E TV, 9/7/96) -625 nend Thales born in Miletus, (west coast of Anatolia, today Turkey) considered to be the first philosopher and scientist (of Greece). Said to have predicted eclipse of 585BC. Thales proposed a single universal principle of the material universe. Two remarkable ideas: a)he did not resort to animistic explanations for what happens in the world b)he assumed that the world was a thing whose workings the human mind could understand. He maintained as a first principle that the external world and the internal mind must have much that is in common, how else could that external world be intelligible to the internal mind. The name of this commonality was reason. (V.D.-H.K.p.31, 33, 216) -625 nend The first Greek coins were stamped with the likeness of a wheat head to show that wheat had been used for money before the use of coins. (SFC, 7/6/96, p.E4) -620 nend Ostia was founded about this time at the mouth of the Tiber River. Nearby salt flats provided a valuable source of salt for preserving meat. Around 400BC it was conquered by Rome and turned into a naval base. (SSFC, 5/11/08, p.E8) -616 nend Tarquinius Priscus became the first Etruscan to rule Rome. Legend has it that he was followed by Servius Tullius and Tarquinius Superbus. (NG, 6/1988, p.710,735) -614 nend The Babylonians (particularly, the Chaldeans) with the help of the Medes, who occupied what is today Iran, began a campaign to destroy the Assyrians. (eawc, p.8) -612 nend Ninevah (Mesopotamia), the cradle of Assyrian kings for 2,500 years, fell to the Babylonians and Medes. The Chaldeans, a Semitic people, then ruled the entire region thereby issuing in the New Babylonian period that lasted to 539BC. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.174)(SSFC, 2/11/01, p.C1)(SFC, 3/31/03, p.W5) -612 nend Sappho, Greek lyric poet of Lesbos, was born. She is the most famous female poet of the ancient world and is inscribed in the "Palatine Anthology" among the Muses, rather than among the great lyric poets, in the 2nd century BC. Her poetry explored female sexuality and love in a male dominated society. (eawc, p.8) -610 -595 Nekau II (Necho), son of Psammetichus I, ruled in Egypt as king of the 26th Dynasty. Under his rule Palestine became an Egyptian possession. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -609 nend The biblical king Josiah of Judah was slain on Har (Mt.) Megiddo (root of Armageddon) about this time when he was betrayed by Pharaoh Necho, whom he had approached to stop from going to war on the side of the Assyrians against the Babylonians. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.180)(WSJ, 4/17/97,p.A20)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -606 nend In Cairo the Ben Ezra Synagogue was established. (WSJ, 3/15/00, p.A1) -605 -562 Nebuchadnezzar II ruled in Babylon. He undertook some monumental building projects that included the Hanging Gardens. The New Babylonian Revival used glazed bricks for building thereby creating a colorful city. The king was fond of spinach. (SFC, 12/25/98, p.B5)(SFC, 3/24/00, p.B3) c -604 -531 Lao-tzu (Laozi), Chinese philosopher, author of the "Tao Te Ching" (Tao-te-jing) and founder of Taoism (Daoism) lived about this time. He encouraged people to live simply and according to nature. Taoism is one of the three major "spiritual ways" of China and has influenced Chinese thought--in religion, politics, the social system and the arts and sciences--for more than 2,000 years. The other two "spiritual ways" of China are Buddhism and Confucianism. "To lead the people, walk behind them." "The greater the number of laws and enactments, the more thieves and robbers there will be." "Quarrel with a friend -- and you are both wrong." (SFEC, 2/22/98, Z1 p.8)(AP, 5/4/98)(WSJ, 12/26/00, p.A9)(AM, 7/01,p.62)(HNQ, 11/5/01) c -600 nend Aesop said: "We hang the petty thieves, but appoint the great ones to public office." (SFEC, 3/15/98, Z1 p.8) c -600 nend Turquoise was first mined in the American southwest about this time and began to show up in Mesoamerica. (Arch, 1/05, p.27) c -600 nend The Etruscans, believed to be natives of Asia Minor, established cities that stretched from northern to central Italy. They developed the arch and the vault, gladiatorial combat for entertainment, and the study of animals to predict future events. (eawc, p.8) c -600 nend The Greeks established city-states along the southern coast of Italy and the island of Sicily. They contributed letters to the Roman alphabet, religious concepts and artistic talent as well as mythology. (eawc, p.8) -600 nend The great Olmec Ceremonial Center in Tabasco, Mexico, was abandoned about this time. (RFH-MDHP, p.241) c -600 nend The Zapotec city of Monte Alban was founded in the Oaxaca valley. (SFEC, 10/3/99, p.A24) c -600 nend From about this time the Maya gradually sculpted the land to channel water to a growing population. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.A) c -600 nend Analysis of pottery from this time indicated that Mayans made cocoa drinks as early as this time. (SFC, 7/22/02, p.A4) -600 nend Cyrus I, king of Anshan, was succeeded by his son Cambyses I who reigned until 559 BC. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambyses_I) -600 nend The first polo game was recorded in north Persia about this time. (Hem., 7/95, p.87) c -600 nend Zoroaster introduced a new religion in Bactria (Balkh), also known as ancient Afghanistan. Zoroastrianism is a Monotheistic religion. [see 1500BC-1200BC] (www.afghan, 5/25/98) -600 nend Phoenicians in the pay of Pharaoh Necho II circled Africa, according to Herodotus. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.160) c -600 -500 Epimenides, Cretan philosopher, is said to have originated the Liar paradox, by proclaiming that ?All Cretans are liars.? (Econ, 10/4/03, p.77) -600 -500 The first democratic governments were established in a few Greek city-states during the sixth and fifth centuries BC. (V.D.-H.K.p.299) -600 -500 Rome by this time was the dominant power in its surrounding area. The conservative government consisted of a kingship, that resembled the traditional values of the patriarchal family; an assembly, composed of male citizens of military age; and a Senate, comprised of elders who served as the heads of different community sects. The Palatine is one of the seven hills of Rome (eawc, p.7)(SFC,12/26/97, p.C22) -600 -500 The nomadic Scythians bordered the Hallstatt Culture in the East. They introduced to the Celts the custom of wearing trousers. (NGM, 5/77) -600 -290 The Samnites, an Oscan-speaking people, controlled the area of south central Italy during this period. (AM, 3/04, p.36) -600 -200 The Sarmatians were a nomadic tribe that occupied a homeland that stretched from Russia's Don and Volga rivers east to the Ural mountain foothills. The held a sun-worshipping belief system and buried useful objects with their dead for the journey in the unknown afterlife. (SFC, 1/28/97, p.A5) -600 600 In 1999 Arthur Cotrell published "From Aristotle to Zoroaster," an A to Z companion to the classical world over this period. (SFEC, 1/17/99, Par p.6) -595 -589 Psammetichus II (Psamtik II), son of Nacho II, ruled in Egypt as a 26th Dynasty king. Psamtik II built the temple of Hibis in the al-Khargah oasis, 310 miles south of Cairo. It was built to worship Amun and contained statues of Amun's wife, Mut. (SFC, 7/16/99, p.D3)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) 595 -339 In Greece 4 Sacred Wars were fought for the control of Delphi over this period. (SSFC, 8/8/04, p.D7) -594 nend In Greece Solon, the great elegiac poet, was appointed chief magistrate of Athens. His reforms included political and economic adjustments which led to dissatisfaction in the upper and lower classes. (eawc, p.8) -593 nend The time of the prophet Ezekial. He prophesied the return to the promised land after the destruction of the temple and exile to Babylon. (MofB, A&E TV, 9/7/96) -593 nend The Nubians were defeated by a resurgent Egyptian dynasty after which they moved their capital from Napata to Meroe. (Arch, 9/02, p.56) -589 -570 Apries, son of Psamtik II, ruled in Egypt as a 26th Dynasty king. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -587 nend King Nebuchadnezzar sacked Jerusalem. (SFC, 1/31/98, p.A18) c -587 nend Ezra the scribe and Nehemiah, the Persian-appointed governor of Jerusalem, arrived from Babylon. (SFC, 9/6/04, p.A4) -586 nend Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon, ruler of Mesopotamia, destroyed Jerusalem and recorded his deeds at the Nahr al Kalb (Dog River) cliff face between Beirut and Byblos. He destroyed the first Temple, built by Solomon and took the Jewish people into captivity. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.157)(SFC, 12/31/96, p.A11)(Econ, 12/20/03, p.26) -586 nend Ezekial, in exile at Babylon, described Tyre as it was before Nebuchadnezzar's attack in the Bible: (Ezekial 27:1-25). This time is known as the "Babylonian Captivity." (NG, Aug., 1974, p.162)(eawc, p.8) c -586 nend The Menashe tribe was lost following the Jewish exile in this year. Jews dispersed across Europe and North Africa. In the 1990s members of Shinglung community from the province of Mizuru in India claimed to be the children of Menashe and began returning to Israel. (SFC, 1/12/00, p.A10)(SFC, 5/10/00, p.A13) -585 nend May 25, The first known prediction of a solar eclipse was made [by Thales]. A historically registered eclipse occurred during the savage war between the Lydians and the Medians. The event caused both sides to stop military action and sign for peace. The date of the eclipse coincides with the date in Oppolzer's tables published in 1887. (SCTS, p.27)(HN, 5/25/98) -585 nend May 28, A solar eclipse, predicted by Thales of Miletus, interrupted a battle [a Persian-Lydian battle] outside of Sardis in western Turkey between the Medes and Lydians. The battle ended in a draw. [see May 25] (HN, 5/28/98)(HN, 5/28/99) -585 nend In Miletus, Greece, the founding city of philosophy, Thales predicted a total eclipse of the sun. He was the founder of the Milesian school, and taught that all things are composed of moisture. He was the first to propose a rational explanation of the cosmos. By the end of the 6th century, philosophers began to inquire into the nature of being, the metaphysical nature of the cosmos, the meaning of truth, and the relationship between the divine and the physical world. (eawc, p.8) c -585 nend The Greeks settled in the area of Varna, later part of Bulgaria, on the Black Sea and were followed by the Romans, Byzantines and Turks. (SFEC, 2/1/98, p.T3) 585 572 Bc Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon began his 13 year siege of Tyre. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.157) -580 -500 Pythagoras was born on Samos. He journeyed to S. Italy, and was driven out of Croton to the Bay of Taranto where he starved himself to death. He believed in the transmigration of souls, and is said to have discovered the mathematical ratios in musical harmonics. (V.D.-H.K.p.34) -574 -570 Apries, 26th Dynasty king Egyptian ruler, conducted campaigns against Cyprus and Phoenicia. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -573 nend Nemea, 70 miles from Athens, became the site for the Olympic games. (SFC, 9/25/00, p.A6) -570 nend Feb, General Amasis (Ahmose II), proclaimed Pharaoh of Egypt by his soldiers, defeated Apries and his Aegean mercenaries and forced his retreat. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -570 nend Oct, General Amasis (Ahmose II) defeated King Apries a 2nd time and took control of a united Egypt. Apries sought refuge abroad and later turned up at the court of Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -570 -526 Amasis (Ahmose II), proclaimed Pharaoh by his soldiers, ruled Egypt as the 5th king of the 26th Dynasty. Amasis consolidated Greek merchants to the area of Naukratis. This made for easier control, and created a lucrative income for the crown in the form of taxes. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -567 nend Apries, former ruler of Egypt, marched on Egypt at the head of a Babylonian army, but once again, Amasis defeated him, this time capturing the former king. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) c -566 nend c468BC Simonides, a Greek poet, was also called Simonides of Ceos. He created one of the first information spaces with his "memory palaces." (WUD, 1994, p.1328)(Wired, 2/98, p.101) -565 -545 The island of Cyprus was under Egyptian control. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.20) -563 nend Apr 8, Buddha (d.483BC), Siddhartha Gautama, was born in Northern India. [Nepal] Raja Suddhodana, king of the Sakyas in the 6th century BC, is best known as the father of Buddha. The kingdom of the Sakyas was on what is now the border of Nepal and India. Buddha was born in about 563 BC. The birthplace of the Indian prince Siddhartha, who became the monk Buddha, was believed to have been discovered by archeologists in 1996. Lumbini, Nepal, birthplace of Buddha, was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997. [see May 15] (http://eawc.evansville.edu, p.9)(V.D.-H.K.p.21)(WSJ, 2/6/96,p.A-1)(SFC, 9/1/96, DB p.30)(SFC,12/5/97, p.B2)(HN, 4/8/98)(HNQ, 3/30/99) -563 nend May 15, Wesak Day, also known as Buddha's birthday. [see Apr 8] (SFC, 5/15/03, p.A3) -560 -546 The rule of Croesus in Lydia. The first coins were produced in Lydia under Croesus. It was a kingdom in western Turkey. Croesus made a treaty with the Spartans and attacked Persia and was defeated. (SFEC, 1/19/96, Parade p.5)(WUD, 1994, p.345)(WSJ, 11/11/99, p.A24) -559 nend Cyrus the Great (d.530BC), the son of Cambyses I, began his rule Persia. Cyrus II established his capital at Pasargadae. (Arch, 5/05, p.12)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great) -551 nend Confucius (d.479BC), K'ung Fu-tzu [K'ung Fu-tse], Chinese philosopher, was born in Chufu, China. His followers transcribed his conversations in 20 books called the "Analects" following his death. He was an accountant and later taught the importance of centralized authority and filial piety. Like Aristotle, he believed the state to be a natural institution. He was the 11th child of a 70-year-old soldier. "All eminence should be based entirely on merit." "The way of a superior man is three-fold; virtuous, he is free from anxieties; wise, he is free from perplexities; bold, he is free from fear." "To see the right and not do it is cowardice." "Shall I teach you what knowledge is? When you know a thing, to hold that you know it; and when you don't know a thing, to allow that you don't know it. This is knowledge." (SFC, 8/10/96, p.E4)(http://eawc.evansville.edu, p.9)(SFC, 3/28/98,p.D3)(AP, 6/17/98)(SFEC, 2/27/00, Z1 p.2)(SFEC, 7/9/00, Z1 p.2)(SFC,1/2/04, p.D8) c 550 nend Emperor Justinian built the St. Catherine monastery in the Sinai Desert to honor St. Catherine, an Alexandrian martyr who was tortured to death for converting to Christianity. The site was thought to be the place where Moses saw the Miracle of the Burning Bush. (SFEC, 8/28/98, p.T6) -550 nend Cities were founded in the Po Valley and expansion followed into Campania (by the Etruscans). (NG, 6/1988, p.710) -548 nend The Greek Temple of Apollo was destroyed. Amasis, ruler of Egypt, is said to have financed its rebuilding. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -546 nend In Greece the first of the Athenian tyrants, Peisistratus, replaced Solon as the ruler. (eawc, p.9) -546 nend The Persians destroyed Egypt?s alliance with the Chaldeans, Lydia and Sparta by first capturing Lydia then the Chaldaeans. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -543 nend Colonists from northern India subdued the indigenous Vaddahs (Veddah) of Sri Lanka, known in the ancient world as Taprobane and later called Serendip. Descendants of those colonists, the Buddhist Sinhalese, form most of the population. (SFC, 6/20/96, p.A8)(SFC, 9/22/97, p.A10) -543 1815 The Mahavamsa (600BC-400CE), Great Chronicle, describes the history of the Sinhalese people (Sri Lanka) over this period. The 1st part, from King Mahasena, which dates back to the legendary 5th century BC King Vijaya, was written by King Dhatusena's brother, the venerable thera Mahanama in the 6th century CE. (Arch, 7/02, p.31)(www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/mahavamsa/) -540 nend The population of Xanthos in Lycia (later Turkey) committed mass suicide rather than face slavery under invading armies. (SFEC, 1/17/99, p.T5) -540 -486 In India Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, lived. [see 480BC] (eawc, p.9) c -540 -470 The Greek philosopher Heraclitus, "the obscure," of Ephesus (486BC) lived about this time. For him reality is flux which originated out of fire (as opposed to the "stable reality" of Parmenides). Plato credits him with saying "One cannot step into the same river twice." (WUD, 1994, p.662)(eawc, p.10) -539 nend Babylon, under Chaldean rule since 612BC, fell to the Persians. Cyrus the Persian captured Babylon after the New Babylonian leader, Belshazaar, failed to read "the handwriting on the wall." The Persian Empire under Cyrus lasted to 331BC, when it was conquered by Alexander the Great. Cyrus returned some of the exiled Jews to Palestine, while other Jews preferred to stay and establish a 2nd Jewish center, the first being in Jerusalem. The Cyrus Cylinder was created following the Persian conquest of Babylon, when Cyrus overthrew the Babylonian king Nabonidus and replaced him as ruler, ending the Neo-Babylonian Empire. It was discovered in 1879 and became considered as the world's first declaration of human rights. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.174)(eawc, p.8,9)(http://tinyurl.com/lma678)(AFP,2/7/10) c -539 nend Cyrus the Great founded Persia?s Achaemenian Empire which he expanded into India, Libya and Egypt. Pasargadae was his first capital. (SFEC, 7/5/98, p.T4) -537 nend Cyrus the Persian campaigned west of the Indus River. (eawc, p.9) -535 nend Control of Corsica heralded the greatest extent of Etruscan influence. (NG, 6/1988, p.710) -533 -330 The Achaemenid dynasty ruled over Persia. It stretched from the time of Cyrus the Great to the death of Darius III. (AHD, 1971, p.10) -532 nend Polycrates became tyrant of the isle Samos, an Ionian city-state near Miletus. (V.D.-H.K.p.34) -530 nend Dec, Cyrus the Great, ruler of Persia, died in battle, fighting the Scythians along the Syr Darya. He was succeeded by his son, Cambyses II, who managed to add to the empire by conquering Egypt, Nubia, and Cyrenaica during his short rule. {Persia} (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great) -530 nend In Greece Pythagoras, mathematician and philosopher, and his followers founded the city of Croton and combined philosophy and literature with political activity as the foundation of their community. He is credited with the Pythagorean theorem and the Pythagorean table of opposites, the "dualism" that underlies Greek thought. In 2008 Kitty Ferguson authored ?The Music of Pythagoras,? which surveyed the ideas that have been thought of as Pythagorean. (eawc, p.9)(WSJ, 5/17/08, p.W8) -528 nend May 25, Buddha overcame Mara, and attained the Awakening. (V.D.-H.K.p.22) -528 nend May, Buddha (563-483) sat cross-legged under the great Bo tree. The Great Truth consists of the Four Noble Truths: 1)man's existence is full of conflict, sorrow, and suffering. 2)All difficulty and pain is caused by man's selfish desire. 3)There can be found emancipation and freedom-NIRVANA. 4)The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to liberation: The middle way, known as the Eightfold Path: right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right mode of living, right endeavor, right mindfulness, and right of concentration... (V.D.-H.K.p.22) -526 -525 Psammetichus III ruled for a short time as the last king of Egypt?s 26th Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -525 nend Cambyses, king of Persia, met and defeated the Egyptians in front of their city at Pelusium just a few weeks after the death of Pharaoh Amasis. This marked the beginning of Egypt?s 27th Dynasty. Psammetichus III tried to revolt against Cambyses and was killed. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -525 nend On the island of Samos, Greece, castles were built. Samos was the site of the Temple of Hera, one of the 7 ancient Wonders of the World. (SFEC, 7/20/97, p.T10) c -525 nend Acroliths, or partial statues, of Olympian deities were later found in Morgantina in central Sicily that were made by Greeks and dated to this time. (SFC, 4/4/98, p.A13) -525 nend Greek drama grew out of the Dionysian festivals. (eawc, p.9) -525 -522 Cambyses II, son of Cyrus and ruler of Persia, served as the 1st ruler of Egypt?s 27th Dynasty. Cambyses added to his Persian empire by conquering Egypt. During his rule an army sent to Siwa Oasis was overcome by sandstorm and buried. Herodotus said the army numbered 50,000 men. A Jewish document from 407 BC known as 'The Demotic Chronicle' speaks of the Cambyses destroying all the temples of the Egyptian gods. Herodotus informs us that Cambyses II was a monster of cruelty and impiety. (eawc.edu, p.9)(Arch, 9/00, p.18)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -524 -456 Aeschylus, Greek poet and dramatist, lived about this time: "Everyone's quick to blame the alien." (AP, 10/12/98) -525 -465 Aeschylus is credited with being the inventor of drama and for introducing a second actor into the plays held every year in Athens in honor of Dionysus. His plays are considered to be the beginning of tragic drama. His stories were drawn from conflicts between the individual and the cosmos. Late in his career he wrote his plays in groups of three. These included the "Oresteia," "Prometheus Bound" and the "Danaides." In the Danaides only the first play, "The Suppliant Women," has survived. It was about 50 sisters who fled 50 cousins they were supposed to marry. (V.D.-H.K.p.51)(WSJ, 7/10/97, p.A13)(eawc, p.9)(WSJ, 12/5/01, p.A18) 522 nend Mar, Bardiya (Smerdis), another son of Cyrus and pretender to the throne, seized power in Persia as Cambyses was returning home. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -522 nend Aug, Cambyses II, son of Cyrus of Persia and the 1st ruler of Egypt?s 27th Dynasty, died from a dagger wound in Syrian Ecbatana. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) c -522 nend Sep 4, Pindar (d.~443), Greek poet, was born. (WUD, 1994 p.1094)(MC, 9/4/01) -522 nend Sep, Darius hastened to Media, Persia, and with the help of six Persian nobles, killed Bardiya (Smerdis), another son of Cyrus, who had usurped the throne. Darius defended this deed and his own assumption of kingship on the grounds that the usurper was actually Gaumata, a Magian, who had impersonated Bardiya after Bardiya had been murdered secretly by Cambyses. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -522 nend A revolt broke out in Egypt following the death of Cambyses, but it was put down by a Persian general named Darius, who succeeded Cambyses. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -522 nend Darius the Great (558-486), son of Hystaspes, succeeded Cambyses as emperor of Persia. He engaged in many large building programs including a system of roads and instituted the first postal system. (WUD, 1994, p.367)(eawc.edu, p.9)(ON, 4/04, p.9) -522 nend The Greek Temple of Apollo was begun on the island of Naxos on the orders of the tyrant Lygdamis. It was never completed. (SFEC,12/21/97, p.T6) c -522 nend Zoroaster died during a nomadic invasion near Balkh [ancient Afghanistan]. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) -522 -486 Darius the Great expanded the Achaemenid (Persian) empire to its peak, when it took most of Afghanistan, including Aria (Herat), Bactriana (Balk, and present-day Mazar-i-Shariff), Margiana (Merv), Gandhara (Kabul, Jalalabad and Peshawar), Sattagydia (Ghazni to the Indus river), Arachosia (Kandahar, and Quetta), and Drangiana (Sistan). The Persian empire was plagued by constant bitter and bloody tribal revolts from Afghans living in Arachosia (Kandahar, and Quetta). (www.afghan, 5/25/98) -521 nend Darius of Persia made Susa his administrative capital. He restored the fortifications and built an audience hall (apadana) and a residential palace. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -521 nend The name Armenian was mentioned for the first time in the Behistan (Behistun) inscription of the Mede (Persian) Emperor Darius from this year: "I defeated the Armenians." (http://www.atmg.org/ArmenianFAQ.html#q6)(ON, 4/04, p.7) -521 -486 The Persians under Darius fought the Scythians in a series of battles. (AM, 5/01, p.33) -520 -519 Darius of Persia authorized the Jews to rebuild the Temple at Jerusalem, in accordance with an earlier decree of Cyrus. The Hebrew?s began to rebuild Solomon?s Temple destroyed in the sack of 586BC. The Second Temple in Jerusalem was begun. It was remodeled many times and destroyed in 70CE. (SFC, 5/23/95, p.A-10)(eawc, p.10)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -520 -486 Darius, ruler of Persia, occupied Egypt and is considered the 2nd ruler of the 27th Dynasty. During his rule a canal from the Nile River to the Red Sea, probably begun by Necho I in the 7th century BC, was repaired and completed. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -519 nend Darius put down a third rising in Susiana, Persia, and established his authority in the east. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -519 nend Darius of Persia attacked the Scythians east of the Caspian Sea and a few years later conquered the Indus Valley. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -518 nend Pindar (d.438BC), considered by some as the greatest Greek lyric poet, was born in Cynoscephalae, Boeotia. His odes celebrated the games held at religious festivals. Athletic victory served as the ground for his poetic fancy and religious, moral and aesthetic insights. (eawc, p.10) -518 nend Darius visited Egypt and put to death its satrap, Aryandes. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -518 nend Persian leader Darius the Great founded Persepolis as his ceremonial capital. (SSFC, 11/27/05, p.A26) -517 -509 Darius the Persian conquered the Indus Valley region. (eawc, p.10) -516 nend Trilingual texts were chiseled on the cliffs at Behistun by Darius. no_source -515 nend Mar 10, The building of the great Jewish temple in Jerusalem was completed. (HN, 3/10/98) -515 nend Parmenides of Elea was born. He founded the Eleatic school in the Phocaean colony in southern Italy. He was the first to focus attention on the central problem of Greek metaphysics: the nature of being. For Parmenides the laws governing the universe are stable and change is merely an illusion. (eawc, p.10) -513 nend Darius, after subduing eastern Thrace and the Getae, crossed the Danube River into European Scythia, but the Scythian nomads devastated the country as they retreated from him, and he was forced, for lack of supplies, to abandon the campaign. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -510 nend In Greece Hippias, the son of Peisistratus, succeeded his father and was overthrown by a group of nobles with the help of Sparta. (eawc, p.10) -510 -490 In Egypt the temple of Hibis was rebuilt during the reign of Darius. (SFC, 7/16/99, p.D3) -509 nend The Romans overthrew King Lucius Tarquinius and established a republic with rule by the senate and the people of Rome (SPQR - Senatus Populusque Romanus). (V.D.-H.K.p.61)(http://eawc.evansville.edu, p.10)(Econ, 11/6/04, p.85) -509 nend The Fall of the Tarquin dynasty in Rome marked the beginning of Etruscan Decline. (NG, 6/1988, p.711) -508 nend In Greece Cleisthenes, the father of Athenian democracy, ruled Athens. His reforms granted full rights to all free men of Athens. (eawc, p.10) c -504 nend The Philistine city of Ekron burned to the ground. Archeologists in 1996 discovered a stone block inscribed with the city's name and its kings. The city is referred to in the biblical book of I Samuel, which tells of the Philistine capture of the Ark of the Covenant and transport to Ekron. A plague later afflicted the city and the ark was sent back to Judea. (SFC, 7/11/96, p.A10) c -500 nend The El Pilar Maya site in Belize was founded about this time. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.D) -500 nend Confucius composed the Analects about this time. 5 things constitute perfect virtue: gravity, magnanimity, earnestness, sincerity, kindness. (PC Comp. 12/94, p.278) -500 nend The game of Go was devised in China about this time. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.128) -500 nend The Chinese learned to ferment soybean around this time. The fermentation removed toxins and made soy easier to digest. It had already been used for thousands of years as fertilizer. (SSCM, 8/13/06, p.6) c -500 nend In 2004 Egyptian archeologists uncovered the limestone sarcophagus of Badi-Herkhib, the elder brother of a governor of Bahariya, who lived around 500 B.C. (AP, 12/12/04) c -500 nend The use of characters for writing spread to Greece where vowels were added and the basis for all Western alphabets was established. The Greeks invented a reed pen. (I&I, Penzias, p.45)(SFC, 7/26/04, p.F4) c -500 nend The height of Greek sculpture began with the work of Phideas. His masterpieces include the statue of Athena in the Parthenon, the Parthenon reliefs, and the statue of Zeus in the Temple of Olympian Zeus. The 2nd most important sculptor, Myron, is renowned for his statue of the discus thrower. (eawc, p.10) c -500 nend In India the city of Varanasi was also known as Kashi and Benares and has been a center of civilization for 2,500 years. It is the home of the Hindu god Shiva. (SFEC,11/23/97, p.T4) c -500 nend Lars Porsena ruled as the Etruscan king in central Italy. His capital, Clusium, was later believed to lie under the rubble of the Tuscan city of Chiusi. (Econ, 11/6/04, p.85) c -500 nend The Garamantes of southern Libya began constructing underground tunnels to link shafts to sandstone aquifers. (AM, 3/04, p.27) c -500 nend Phoenicians founded Tripoli about this time. (SSFC, 6/27/04, p.D12) c -500 nend The Persians developed a mail system that was later described by Herodotus for its efficiency. (ATC, p.34) c -500 nend Monumental ceremonial centers on the Peruvian coast were abandoned about this time. The period was later found to correspond with an increase in el Nino frequency, (AM, 9/01, p.18) c -500 nend Copper concentrations in the Greenland ice core indicate that twice the normal level was produced at this time. (PacDis, Fall/'96, p.48) c -500 nend North African people settled in present-day Nigeria and began making iron tools. (ATC, p.2) c -500 nend The Charsadda site (aka Bala Hisar) in northern Pakistan was initially occupied during the Achaemenid period. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.C) c -500 nend The city of Hund in northern Pakistan was founded about this time on the banks of the Indus River. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.C) -500 nend The Carthaginians inhabited Sardinia. (SFEC, 1/30/00, p.T4) -500 nend In Thailand black Phimai pottery and bracelets indicate that the site of Prasat Hin Phanom Wan was occupied at this time. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.G) c -500 nend Camels from Asia began showing up in North Africa. (SFEC, 5/17/98, Z1 p.8) c -500 nend A major earthquake occurred in the Middle East. (SFC,12/9/97, p.A9) c -500 -400 Before the rise of Rome, the Etruscans had the most powerful nation in ancient Italy. The Etruscans (who called themselves the Rasenna) inhabited central Italy and greatly influenced the Romans in terms of language, architecture and even fashion (evidence points to the toga as an Etruscan invention). Unfortunately, no Etruscan literary works survive, so most documentation comes from Greek and Roman literary sources as well as archaeological evidence. Their military and political power was eroded over the course of the 5th century BC with Rome rising as the dominant power on the peninsula in the 4th century BC. (HNQ, 2/8/01) -500 -400 A Byzantine shopping mall was uncovered in 1998 in Jerusalem at the site of a new mall. One inscription read "For the victory of the Blues" in Greek. It was a reference to the competing factions of Blues and Greens at horse races. (SFC, 7/7/98, p.A8) -500 -400 The Tairona civilization established a city (Teyuna) later known as Ciudad Perdida (lost city) east of Santa Maria, Colombia, about this time. Its ruins were only rediscovered in 1975. (AM, 11/04, p.19) -500 -300 Small groups of Nok people began to search for new land to settle to the south and east of present day Nigeria. (ATC, p.136) -500 -300 Cival, about 25 miles east of the much better known city of Tikal, was discovered in 1984. It was abandoned about 100 CE. Artifacts at the site dated to this time. (LAT, 5/5/04) c -500 -200 In India the Mahabharata, of which the Bhagavad-Gita is a part, was put into its final form. (PC Comp. 12/94, p.278)(eawc, p.10) -500 -50 The Celtic La Tene culture was named after a Swiss site on Lake Neuchatel where a cache of richly ornamented artifacts were discovered. (NGM, 5/77) c -500 100 Qataban flourished in the 5th-1st centuries BC in what is now southern Yemen. Qataban had a democratic form of government and gained rule over a large area, but its influence and dominions shrank with the emergence of the Himyarites late in the 2nd century BC. Qataban was conquered by Saba' in the early centuries CE. (HNQ, 7/20/00) -500 200 The Nok people lived in the area of present day Nigeria and used iron tools. Evidence indicates that the Nok were making iron as early as 450BC. Their language became the root of the 300 distinct languages spoken in central and southern Africa. The legendary "Dinya Head" is a life sized terra cotta of a woman with plaited hair. (ATC, p.110,136)(WSJ, 6/14/96, p.A12) c -500 500 A Tequesta burial site, discovered in Florida in 1998 and known as the Miami Circle, dated to this time. (AM, 9/01, p.18) -500 800 The bulk of the material at the Plain of Jars in northern Laos dated to this period. Jars up to 9 feet tall were later found to contain tools and human remains. (AM, 7/05, p.31) -499 nend Athens and Eretria supported an Ionian revolt against Persian rule. (AP, 7/9/05) -496 nend Sophocles (d.406BC), the 2nd Greek dramatist after Aeschylus, was born about this time. He is considered by some as the greatest of the Greek dramatists. His works include: "Oedipus Rex" and "Antigone." (eawc, p.11)(SFC, 1/10/04, p.D6) -496 -406 Sophocles added valuable elements to the developing tragic drama. His work involved all men in the tragic elements of life. His work included the drama Philoctetes. It was about how the Greeks needed the aged Philoctetes and his magic bow to capture Troy, but had exiled him to a remote island. They send Neoptolemus, son of Achilles, to secure the bow by deceit and trickery. In 1990 the play was rewritten by Seamus Heaney, 1995 Nobel poet laureate, as "The Cure at Troy." (V.D.-H.K.p.51)(LSA, Spg/97, p.14)(WSJ, 12/3/97, p.A20) -495 -429 Pericles, Athenian leader during the early years of the Peloponnesian Wars. (V.D.-H.K.p.55) -494 nend In Rome the first victory of the plebeian class over the patricians resulted in an agreement between the two classes to allow the plebeians to elect officers, and tribunes with the power to veto any unlawful acts of the magistrates. (eawc, p.10) -492 nend Goujian, the king of Yue (later part of China?s Zhejiang province), was taken prisoner after a disastrous campaign against King Fuchai, a neighbor to the north. After a few years Fuchai let him return home as his vassal. (Econ, 12/4/10, SR p.3) -492 nend Darius put his son-in-law, Mardonius, in charge of a Persian expedition against Athens and Eretria, but the loss of the fleet in a storm off Mount Athos forced him to abandon the operation. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -490 nend Sep 2, Phidippides of Athens set out on his 26-mile run that inspired the Marathon. Phidippides was sent to seek troops from Sparta to help against the invading Persian army. The Spartans were unwilling to help, until the next full moon, due to religious laws. On Sept. 4th, Phidippides returned the 26 miles Marathon without Spartan troops. (MC, 9/2/01) -490 nend Sep 9, First Persian attack on Greece. Greeks led by Miltiades defeated the Persians at the Battle of Marathon. Pheidipiddes, a hemerodromi or long-distance foot messenger, was dispatched to run 26 miles from marathon to Athens to announce the victory. He reached Athens and proclaimed: "Rejoice! We conquer!" The he dropped dead. In the Battle of Marathon Darius the Great of Persia was defeated by the Greeks. The Greeks initiated the war when Persia, the strongest power in western Asia, established rule over Greek-speaking cities in Asia Minor. [see Sep 12] (HFA, '96, p.38)(V.D.-H.K.p.49)(SFC, 7/14/96, p.T7)(eawc, p.10) -490 nend Sep 12, Athenian and Plataean Hoplites commanded by General Miltiades drove back a Persian invasion force under General Datis at Marathon. [see Sep 9] (HN, 9/12/98) -490 nend Empedocles (d.430BC), Greek philosopher, was born. He is best known for being the originator of the cosmogenic theory of the four classical elements. An important idea in ancient Greek philosophy is that "Nothing comes from nothing", so that what exists now has always existed, since no new matter can come into existence where there was none before. An explicit statement of this, along with the further principle that nothing can pass away into nothing, is found in Empedocles (ca. 490-430 BC): "For it is impossible for anything to come to be from what is not, and it cannot be brought about or heard of that what is should be utterly destroyed." (Econ, 2/7/09, p.72)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_of_mass) -490 nend A Persian force under Datis, a Mede, destroyed Eretria and enslaved its inhabitants but was defeated by the Athenians at Marathon. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -490 -479 The Greco-Persian War is commonly regarded as one of the most significant wars in all of history. The Greeks emerged victorious and put an end to the possibility of Persian despotism. (eawc, p.10) c -490 -430 The Greek philosopher Zeno of Elea proposed a number of paradoxes to support the claim of Parmenides that the world was a motionless, unchanging unity. The race between Achilles and the tortoise is one example. (WUD, 1994, p.1660)(SFC, 7/14/97, p.E5) -486 nend The first stretch of the north-south Grand Canal was begun and completed by about 400BC. It became fully navigable in the 14th century. (WSJ, 10/25/99, p.A50)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R51)(Econ, 5/22/10, SR p.12) -486 nend Darius, ruler of Persia, died. His preparations for a 3rd expedition against Greece were delayed by an insurrection in Egypt. He was succeeded by his son Xerxes. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -486 -465 Xerxes the Great, king of Persia, ruled Egypt as the 3rd king of the 27th Dynasty. His rule extended from India to the lands below the Caspian and Black seas, to the east coast of the Mediterranean including Egypt and Thrace. Persia?s great cities Sardis, Ninevah, Babylon, and Susa were joined by the Royal Road. East of Susa was Persopolis, a vast religious monument. To the north of Persia were the Scythians. (V.D.-H.K.p.49)(eawc, p.11)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27a.html) c -485 nend Athenian democracy was accompanied by an intellectual revolution with beginnings in Sophism. Sophists situated ethics and politics within philosophical discourse, which before was limited to physics and metaphysics alone. Protagoras, the leading Sophist, stated: "Man is the measure of all things." For him all truth, goodness, and beauty are relative to man's necessities and inquiries. In opposition to the Sophists emerged Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, each of whom offered alternatives to the Sophist's relativism. (eawc, p.11) -484 -420 Herodotus was the first historian to lay out a coherent story. He authored the 9-book history of the Graeco-Persian War: "Researches into the Causes and Events of the Persian Wars," and the "The Histories of Herodotus." He also wrote a book dedicated to his travels through Egypt. (V.D.-H.K.p.53)(SFC, 3/26/97, p.A12)(eawc, p.11) -484 -420 Herodotus claimed that the Etruscans were Lydians who had immigrated to Italy from Asia Minor. But modern scholars believe the Etruscans evolved from an indigenous population of Iron Age farmers of the Villanovan culture. (NG, 6/1988, p.710) -484 -420 The Greeks always called the Etruscans the Tyrrhenians, after the prince Tyrrhenus who, according to Herodotus, led them to the shores of Etruria. (NG, 6/1988, p.718) -484 -420 Herodotus mentioned gold-digging ants and that some were kept at the palace of the Persian king. It was later learned that the Persian word for marmot is equivalent to mountain ant, and that marmots in the Dansar plain of northern Pakistan bring up gold dust from their burrows. (SFC, 11/25/96, p.A10) -484 -406 Euripides was an Athenian tragedian who brought the gods and heroes down to earth. He presented pictures of human life that were sometimes tragic, sometimes comic, but always and undeniably real. [see 480-406] (V.D.-H.K.p.52) -487 nend Sep 23, Greek dramatist Euripides, was born. He wrote "Medea" and "The Trojan Women." His plays used a device called "Deus ex Machina," literally "God from a machine." Today the term refers to sudden events that come from nowhere to advance the plot. [see 484-406, 480-406] (MC, 9/23/01) -483 nend Themistocles, fearing destruction at the hands of the Persians, persuaded his fellow Athenians to build a navy of one hundred triremes. He also oversaw the fortification of the harbor at Piraeus, which then replaced Phaleron as the port of Athens. (www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture7b.html)(AM, 7/05, p.12) -483 nend Gautama Siddhartha Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, died about this time in Kushinagar, in northern India. (eawc, p.9)(SSFC, 10/14/07,p.A15)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautama_Buddha) -482 nend Goujian, the king of Yue (later part of China?a Zhejiang province), marched north with some 50,000 warriors and attacked King Fuchai putting his kingdom to the sword. (Econ, 12/4/10, SR p.3) -481 -221 The Waring States period of the Chou Dynasty. [see 475-221] The states of Ch'in and Ch'u emerged as the primary competitors in the struggle to found an empire. During this period a 4-tiered class structure emerged consisting of lesser nobility (including scholars), the peasant farmers, the artisans, and the merchants, who held the lowest position in society. This was also known as the period of the Hundred Schools of Thought with the emergence of several schools of political philosophy that included: Confucianism, Taoism, Mohism and Legalism. (eawc, p.5,11) -480 nend Aug 9, The Persian army defeated Leonidas and his Spartan army at the battle Thermopylae, Persia. In 1998 Steven Pressfield authored: "Gates of Fire, An Epic Novel of the Battle of Thermopylae." In 2006 Paul Cartledge authored ?Thermopylae: The Battle That Changed the World.? (HN, 8/9/98)(SFEC, 11/29/98, BR p.3)(WSJ, 11/11/06, p.P11) -480 nend Sep 20, Themistocles and his Greek fleet won one of history's first decisive naval victories over Xerxes' Persian force off Salamis. Persia under Xerxes attacked Greece. Athens got burned but the Athenian fleet under Themistocles trapped and destroyed the Persian navy at Salamis. Phoenician squadrons were at the heart of Xerxes' fleet; the king of Sidon was among his admirals. 31 states of the Hellenic League fought Xerxes. (V.D.-H.K.p.49), (NG, Aug., 1974, p.174)(HN, 9/20/98)(WSJ, 4/26/99,p.A18) -480 nend Oct 20, Greeks defeated the Persians in a naval battle at Salamis. [see Sep 20] (HN, 10/20/98) -480 nend Xerxes performed a sacrifice at the site of Troy on his way to battle the Greeks. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.50) -480 nend The Acropolis temples were destroyed during the Persian invasion. The ruins lay untouched for 30 years until 447, when Pericles initiated a reconstruction program. (WSJ, 12/14/00, p.A24)(WSJ, 2/19/02, p.A22) c -480 nend Vardhamana Mahavira, the semi-legendary teacher who reformed older doctrines and established Jainism, died. He is regarded as the 24th and latest Tirthankara, one of the people to have attained personal immortality through enlightenment. Jainism was founded as a dualistic, ascetic religion as a revolt against the caste system and the vague world spirit of Hinduism. (WUD, 1994, p.762,1488,1580) c -480 nend Herodotus said marijuana was cultivated in Scythia and Thrace, where inhabitants intoxicated themselves by breathing the vapors given off when the plant was roasted on white-hot stones. (WSJ, 2/8/05, p.D7) -480 -406 Euripides, Greek tragic dramatist. He authored "Medea," "Alcestis," "The Cyclops," "The Trojan Woman," and "The Bacchae." His drama dealt with situations that were analogous to human life. In 1997 Greek archeologists claimed to have discovered the island cave where he worked. [see 484-406, 487] (WSJ, 1/10/97, p.A9)(WUD, 1994, p.492)(USAT, 1/15/97, p.9A)(LSA,Spg/97, p.14)(EEE, p.12)(WSJ, 12/31/97, p.A8) -479 nend Aug 27, A combined Greek army stopped the Persians at the battle at Plataea. (V.D.-H.K.p.49)(NG, Aug., 1974, p.174) -479 nend Confucius (b.551BC), K'ung Fu-tzu [K'ung Fu-tse], Chinese philosopher, died. In 2008 Kung Te-cheng (b.1920), the 77th lineal descendent of Confucius, died in Taiwan. In 2006 Kung Yu-jen, the 80th lineal descendent was born. (WSJ, 11/1/08, p.A6) -479 nend In China the philosopher Mo-tzu (d.438BC), founder of Mohism, was born. He taught a message of universal love and compassion for the common plight of ordinary people. (eawc, p.11) -478 nend Athens led other Greek states in the formation of the Delian League to provide money for a common defense against Persia. Athens used much of the money for building projects that included the Parthenon. The League continued even after the end of the Greco-Persian War and transformed into a naval empire with Athens as its leader. (eawc, p.11)(Econ, 7/11/09, p.19) 475 -221 The Waring States period. [see 403-321BC] (SFC, 4/10/97, p.A16) -474 nend The Etruscans were routed by the Greeks of Syracuse in a sea battle off Cumae near Naples. (NG, 6/1988, p.739) c -470 nend Hanno the Navigator, Carthaginian sailor, described his encounters with ?hairy, wild people? on the west coast of equatorial Africa. (ON, 11/04, p.11) c -470 -469 Jun 5, Socrates (d.399BC) was born in Athens. He served as an infantryman during the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta. A sophist (teacher of philosophy), he claimed not to know anything for certain and used the interrogatory method for teaching. He left no written works. He was a major critic of popular belief in Athens and was the protagonist of Plato's dialogues. "Education is the kindling of a flame, not the filling of a vessel." [3rd source has him born in 469] (V.D.-H.K.p.43)(CFA, '96, p.48)(WU, p.1350)(Hem., 1/97, p.96)(eawc,p.11) -469 nend Sophocles (d.406BC), the 2nd Greek dramatist after Aeschylus, was born. He is considered by some as the greatest of the Greek dramatists. His works include: "Oedipus Rex" and "Antigone." (eawc, p.11) -467 nend A meteorite crashed to earth and convinced Greek philosopher Anaxagoras that heavenly bodies were not divine beings. He became the world's earliest figure to be indicted for atheism. (WSJ, 11/21/03, p.W4) -465 nend Xerxes the Great, king of Persia, was assassinated. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27a.html) -465 -424 Artaxerxes, son of Xerxes I, ruled Persia in the Achaemenis dynasty and Egypt as the 4th king of the 27th Dynasty. The books of Ezra and Nehemiah remember his warmly because he authorized their revival of Judaism. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27a.html) 461 -429 In Athens this was the "Age of Pericles." Athenian democracy reached perfection and the court systems were completed. A jury system was put in place with the jury serving as the absolute authority in judicial matters. (eawc, p.11) -460 nend Herodotus turned back in frustration at the first cataract at Aswan. He stated: "Of the source of the Nile no one can give any account." (NG, May 1985, p.629) -460 nend Democritus born in Abdera, SW Thrace. First proposed theory of atoms as the basic particle of all matter. Only bare fragments of his work survive. (V.D.-H.K.p.38) -460 -400 Thucydides lived about this time. As author of the History of the Peloponnesian Wars, he inserted into his history speeches by important war figures that he made up. He also wrote on the Athenian slaughter of the Melians. He is associated with the historical view that cycles of growth, expansion and decline are a natural part of international life. In 2005 Perez Zagorin authored ?Thucydides: An Introduction for the Common Reader.? (WSJ, 5/13/98, p.A20)(WSJ, 1/19/06,p.D8)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thucydides) -455 nend Artaxerxes, ruler of Persia, put down a revolt in Egypt. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27a.html) c -450 nend The golden plate known as the "Phiale Mesomphalos" was made. In 1998 it was valued at $1.2 million and held by US Customs. (WSJ, 10/8/98, p.W14) -450 nend In 2006 archaeologists in Bangladesh said they had uncovered part of a fortified citadel at Wari, northeast of Dhaka, dating back to this time that could have been a stopping off point along an ancient trade route. (Reuters, 3/15/06) -450 nend Roman law was codified in the twelve tablets. The law allowed the plebeians to have knowledge of their relationship to the law. The plebeians were primarily farmers, craftsmen and tradesmen with foreign backgrounds. The patricians made up the aristocracy. (V.D.-H.K.p.67)(eawc, p.11) -450 nend Herodotus journeyed to the Scythian lands north of the Black Sea and heard tales of women who were fierce killers of men. He named these women "Amazons," from a Greek word meaning without one breast. Legend had it that one breast was removed in order to carry quivers of arrows more conveniently. (SFC, 1/28/97, p.A1,5) -450 nend The Nok people of present day Nigeria began making iron tools. (ATC, p.110) -450 nend Epicharmus, Sicilian Greek comic poet, died: "The wise man must be wise before, not after." (AP, 12/29/97) 448 -380 In Greece Aristophanes, considered by some as the greatest Greek comedy writer, lived. His work includes "The Clouds" and "Lysistrata." Greek comedy like Greek tragedy originated in the Dionysian festivals. In Lysistrata he described how Greek women abstained from sex until their men stopped fighting in the Peloponnesian war. (EEE, p.12)(SFC,11/8/97, p.A10) -447 nend Athens under Pericles initiated a reconstruction program that included the construction of the Parthenon on the Acropolis. (WSJ, 2/19/02, p.A22) -447 -432 The marble friezes of the Parthenon were carved. (AM, 5/01, p.14) -444 nend Ikos of Tarentum won the Olympic Pentathlon. He gave up sex as part of his training regimen. (WSJ, 2/8/06, p.A1) c -444 -360 Agesilaus II, King of Sparta: "If I have done any deed worthy of remembrance, that deed will be my monument. If not, no monument can preserve my memory." (AP, 10/29/97) -440 -420 Sophocles composed his tragedy "The Trachinian Women." It described what happened when he put on the robe woven by his wife Deianeira. In 1680 Pierre Puget made his bronze sculpture of Herakles (Hercules) struggling in the burning tunic. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.55) -438 nend The Parthenon was built atop the Acropolis in Athens, Greece. (SFC, 7/14/96, p.T7) -434 nend The Greek philosopher Anaxagoras suggested that the sun is just a ball of fire about as large as the Peloponnesus, floating in the air about 4,000 miles above the Earth. He believed that the Earth was flat and thereby estimated the diameter of the sun to be about 35 miles. (SCTS, p.3-4) -433 nend In China the Marquis Yi of Zeng died about this time. His tomb was discovered in 1978. (WSJ, 9/27/96, p.A16) -432 nend An Athenian devised a 19-year "Metatonic cycle" to reconcile the lunar and solar years. (SFC, 11/29/03, p.D2) -431 nend Euripides wrote his tragedy "Medea," based on the legend of the sorceress Medea, daughter of Aeëtes, King of Colchis, and wife of Jason, whom she assisted in obtaining the Golden Fleece. It describes how Jason abandoned the sorceress Medea to marry Glauke, a Corinthian princess. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.55)(WUD, 1994, p.890) 431 -404 The Peloponnesian war between Athens and Sparta. It was finally won by Sparta. Athenian trade was destroyed and democracy was overthrown as Athens surrendered to Sparta as a subject state. Sparta assumed dominance over the Greek world and replaced many democracies with oligarchies. In 1972 Geoffrey de Ste. Croix (1910-2000), British Marxist historian, authored "The Origins of the Peloponnesian War." He pinned the cause of the conflict on the Spartans. (V.D.-H.K.p.50)(EEE, p.12)(SFC, 2/15/00, p.A21) -430 nend Thucydides in his History of the Peloponnesian War tells how the Spartans attempted to destroy the city of Plataia with a flaming mixture of pitch and sulfur. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.57) -430 nend Legend has it that the Greek philosopher Empedocles (b.430) climbed Mount Etna only to leap into its crater in despair. It is said that he jumped in out of frustration because he couldn?t figure out how the volcano worked. Empedocles was the author of a work called "On Nature." (PacDisc. Spring/?96, p.26)(WSJ, 8/21/01, p.A17) -430 -410 A mysterious disease killed one-third of the Athenian population. Thucydides, who was stricken but recovered, described the plague in Athens (likely an outbreak of typhus fever) in Book 2 of his History of the Peloponnesian War. (NH, 6/97, p.11)(WSJ, 9/9/06, p.P8) -429 nend Pericles (b.490BC), Athenian statesman, died of the plague. (WUD, 1994, p.1071)(NH, 6/97, p.10) -427 nend May 21, Plato (d.347BC), Greek philosopher, was born. His work included the "Republic," and the dialogues "Critias" and "Timaeus" in which he mentioned the island empire of Atlantis. He claimed that an Egyptian priest confided information about Atlantis to Solon, the Athenian legislator, whose memoirs Plato claimed to have read. In 1998 2 books on Atlantis were published: "Atlantis Destroyed" by Rodney Castleden and "Imagining Atlantis" by Richard Ellis. (HN, 5/21/98)(WSJ, 6/26/98, p.W9) -424 nend Thucydides in his history of the Peloponnesian War tells how the Spartans used pitch and sulfur against the Athenians at Delium. In this 7th year of the war unexpected Boeotian horsemen charged on the right flank of Athenian hoplite column causing many Athenians to flee. Socrates and Alcibiades retreated into the woods and survived. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.57)(SSFC, 9/21/03, p.M6) -415 nend Greece undertook its Sicilian Expedition. The overseas adventure destroyed Athenian power and freedom. (WSJ, 1/19/06, p.D8) -411 nend Aristocratic Athenians, including students of Socrates, overthrew Athen?s democracy in conspiracy with Alcibiades. The oligarchic junta lasted only a few months. (Econ, 12/19/09, p.63) -410 nend Darius II, ruler of Persia, quelled a revolt in Media but lost control of Egypt. He secured much influence in Greece in the Peloponnesian War through the diplomacy of Pharnabazus, Tissaphernes, and Cyrus the Younger. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27a.html) -407 nend Euripides wrote "The Bacchae" while residing at the court of the king of Macedon. He had left Athens in the last years of its war against Sparta. The play dealt with the violent introduction of the cult of Dionysos into the city of Thebes. (WSJ, 12/31/97, p.A8) -406 nend Athenian admirals abandoned scores of shipwrecked sailors after a victory over the Spartans at Arginusae. A storm prevented the ships assigned to rescue the survivors of the 25 disabled or sunken Athenian triremes from performing their duties, and a great number of sailors drowned. (Econ, 1/23/10, p.16)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Arginusae) -406 nend Euripides (b.480/484), Greek tragic dramatist, died. His plays included Phedre, which tells the story of a queen?s incestuous love for her stepson. (EEE, p.12)(Econ, 6/20/09, p.89) -406 nend Sophocles (b.496/97BC), the 2nd Greek dramatist after Aeschylus, died. He is considered by some as the greatest of the Greek dramatists. His works include: "Oedipus Rex" and "Antigone." (eawc, p.11)(SFC, 1/10/04, p.D6) -405 nend Aristophanes wrote his play ?The Frogs.? It tells how Dionysus, the god of theater, travels to Hades with his slave Xanthias to bring back the shade of a great playwright who will revive the declining art of drama and make the world a better place. (WSJ, 7/23/04, p.W1) -405 nend Persian rule of Egypt ended. (eawc, p.9) -404 nend Another coup toppled Athen?s democracy. Leaders included Critias and Charmides, relatives of Plato. Oligarchs conducted a reign of terror for much of a year before Athens reclaimed its democracy. (Econ, 12/19/09, p.63) -404 nend Artaxerxes II succeeded Darius II over Persia but was challenged Cyrus the Younger. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27a.html) -404 -399 Amyrtaios, believed to be a Libyan, ruled Egypt following the death of Darius II from Sais as the 1st and only ruler of the 28th Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27a.html) 404 -338 Sparta is not able to persist in the rule of Greece. Power over Greece shifts from Sparta to Thebes and then to numerous other city-states, none able to maintain rule over such a large empire. (http://eawc.evansville.edu) 403 -321 During the Waring States period in China, the Pu people buried wedged wooden coffins into the cliffs a 1,000 feet above the Yangtze River in Jingzhu Gorge. [see 475-221BC] (NH, 7/96, p.36,37) -401 nend Oligarchs in Athens schemed a 3rd coup but failed. (Econ, 12/19/09, p.63) -401 nend In the Battle of Cunaxa Cyrus attempted to oust his brother Artaxerxes from rule over Babylon. Greek forces, hired to help Cyrus, were left stranded when Cyrus died. The Greek army elected Xenophon to lead them back home. Xenophon later authored his ?Anabasis? (expedition up country), which told the story of return home. In 2005 Tim Rood authored ?The Sea, The Sea,? an analysis of Xenophon?s life story following his death. (WSJ, 5/4/05, p.D10) -400 nend In 2007 a 2,400-year-old golden mask that once belonged to a Thracian king was unearthed in a timber-lined tomb in southeastern Bulgaria. (AP, 7/17/07) c -400 nend In southern Greece the Phigaleians built a temple in tribute to Apollo for restoring their homeland taken by invading Spartans. The temple of Apollo Epikourios near Bassai was said to have been designed by Iktinos. (Arch, 9/00, p.16) c -400 nend The first temple known to be dedicated to the "supreme" Zeus was constructed about this time. In 2003 a 2,400BC - year-old headless marble statue was found along with 14 columns depicting eagles, one of the symbols of Hypsistos Zeus, the chief deity of ancient Greece. (AP, 8/2/03) -400 nend In India Panini's "Sutra," the earliest Sanskrit grammar, was written. (EEE, p.12) c -400 nend In a wave of Celtic expansion tribes poured through the Alps into Italy. (NGM, 5/77) -400 nend Korean farmers about this time brought rice to Japan. (Econ, 12/19/09, p.66) -400 nend By this time the Sarmatians were occupying outposts of the Roman empire in the Balkans. (SFC, 1/28/97, p.A5) c -400 nend A nomadic tribal chief was buried at Pazyryk in southern Siberia. This tomb in the Altay Mountains was later found and discovered to contain wool fabrics, a carpet, a saddle of felt and leather, felt figures of swans, a horse harness with carved wooden rams' heads. and a fleece in near perfect condition. The origin of the carpet with its 1,125,000 knots is under debate. It might have come from Assyria or Iran. (NG, 5.1988, pp. 567-569) -400 -300 In China the Zhuangzi, the 2nd great Taoist text, was compiled. (WSJ, 12/26/00, p.A9) -400 -300 The Chinese began suffering from fierce attacks of nomadic herdsmen, the Hsiung-nu, from the north and west. They began to build parts of what came to be called the Great Wall for protection. (SFEM, 10/12/97, p.24) c -400 -300 The Greeks founded Neopolis (Naples), their "New City" in the 4th century BC They carved blocks of tufa stone to build the city structures and left behind cavernous quarries. Centuries later the Romans turned the quarries into cisterns and connected them with tunnels. Water was brought in from the Serino River in the hills of Avellino, 96 miles to the north. This provided the water supply until 1883. (SFEC, 1/26/97 , p.T9) -400 -300 Tamassos was the capital of one of 11 kingdoms on Cyprus that were abolished at the end of the 4th century and replaced by a unified administrative system. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.20) -400 300 Aeneas the Tactician in his siege craft manual advised generals defending city walls to throw burning bags of linen fibers treated with sulfur and pitch on the enemy. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.57) -400 -300 The Greek writer Ephorus referred to the Celts, Scythians, Persians and Libyans as the four great barbarian peoples in the known world. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.11) -400 -300 King Bardhylus united Illyria, Molossia (Epirus) and part of Macedonia. The Illyrian kingdom reached its peak. (www, Albania, 1998) -400 -300 A mint of this time served Chersonesos on the Crimean peninsula with a population of 10,000 to 20,000. (SFC,12/19/97, p.F6) c -400 300 Praxiteles sculpted Aphrodite, the 1st known sculpture of a nude woman. (SFC, 6/3/00, p.D4) c -400 300 Archestratus was a 4th century Greek Sicilian. His writings included recipes of the time. (SFC, 3/31/99, p.A8) -400 300 Theophrastus, a natural historian, wrote a treatise on pyrophoric minerals. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.58) c -400 -200 The "creative" phase of classical Greek geometry. The subject was studied by Prof. Wilbur Richard Knorr (d.1997 at 51) of Stanford who wrote: "The Evolution of Euclidean Elements," "Ancient Sources of the Medieval Tradition of Mechanics," "The Ancient Tradition of Geometric Problems," and "Textual Studies in Ancient and Medieval Geometry." (SFC, 3/20/97, p.A24)(SFEC, 3/30/97, p.D5) -400 250 The Yayoi culture is identified by its pottery. Mongoloid people from Korea entered Japan and mixed with the older Jomon populations. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.34,38) c -400 1100 Anuradhapura served as the capital of Sri Lanka (Ceylon) during this period. (SFC, 9/16/96, p.A9) -399 nend Feb 15, Socrates was condemned to death on charges of corrupting the youth and introducing new gods into Greek thought. A tribunal of 501 citizens found Socrates guilty of the charge of impiety and corruption of youth. Socrates b.(469BC) had been the teacher of two leaders who were held responsible for the Greek?s loss to Sparta in the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC). Plato?s Apology, Crito, and Phaedo describe Socrates? trial, imprisonment and death. (eawc, p.11)(HNQ, 3/21/00) -399 nend May 7, Socrates (b.469BC), Greek philosopher, committed suicide. He had been indicted for rejecting the Gods acknowledged by the State, of bringing in strange deities, and of corrupting the youth. In 2007 Emily Wilson authored ?The Death of Socrates.? (www.crystalinks.com/socrates.html)(WSJ, 11/24/07, p.W8) -399 -393 Nepherites served as the 1st ruler of Egypt?s 29th Dynasty. During his rule he entered into an alliance with Sparta against the Persians. A gift ship to Sparta was lost at Rhodes, which had defected to the Persians. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -396 nend Roman legions sacked the Etruscan city of Veio, after a ten-year siege, ended the city's long conflict with Rome. (NG, 6/1988, p.711)(SFC, 6/17/06, p.A12) -395 nend Agesilaos of Sparta ravaged northwestern Turkey. (Arch, 7/02, p.8) -394 nend Athens, Greece, declared an embargo on Megara about this time. The ensuing 27-year struggle left the Athenians humiliated and Magara?s ally, Corinth, triumphant. (Econ, 10/21/06, p.70) -393 -380 Hakoris served as the 2nd or 3rd ruler of Egypt?s 29th Dynasty. There is some confusion because a king named Psammuthis ruled in 393BC. During Hakoris? reign there was a 3 year war with Persia. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -391 -377 Hecatomnus, satrap of Caria, ruled over Mylasa about this time. The Persian king Artaxerxes II Mnemon appointed Hecatomnus as satrap of this part of the Achaemenid Empire. A 2,800-year-old tomb and carved coffin, decorated with reliefs of a bearded reclining man, believed to be Hecatomnus, was discovered in 2010. (AP, 8/13/10)(www.livius.org/he-hg/hecatomnids/hecatomnus.html) -387 nend Rampaging bands of Celts captured Rome and then settled down to a life of agriculture in the Po Valley. (NGM, 5/77) -384 nend Aristotle (d.322 BC) was born in Stagira, Macedonia. He entered Plato's Academy at age 17. After several years as tutor to Alexander the Great he returned to Athens and founded the Lyceum. [see Mar 7, 322 BC] (V.D.-H.K.p.44,45)(WSJ, 9/30/98, p.A16)(NH, 12/98, p.10)(SFC,8/13/02, p.A13) 384 -322 Demosthenes, Greek statesman: "He who confers a favor should at once forget it, if he is not to show a sordid, ungenerous spirit." (AP, 10/4/00) -382 -336 Philip II of Macedon, king of Macedonia (359-336), and father of Alexander the Great. (WUD, 1994, p.1081) -380 nend Nepherites II, son of Hakoris, served as the 4th and final ruler of Egypt?s 29th Dynasty. He reigned for only 4 months before being overthrown. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -380 nend In Egypt a giant stone was set at the Nile's exit into the Mediterranean by order of Pharaoh Nektanebo I. A smaller stela noted the name of the city as Herakleoin. The city was submerged by an earthquake around 800CE. In 2001 the stones were pulled from the sea. (SFC, 6/8/01, p.A9) -380 -362 Nectanebo served as the 1st ruler of Egypt?s 30th Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -380 700 The site at Tra Kieu, Vietnam, is believed to be Simhapura, the former capital of an Indianized Cham kingdom. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.H) -373 nend The Greek city of Helike was destroyed by an earthquake. Historians recorded that rats, snakes and weasels had abandoned Helice just days before the quake struck. (NH, 10/02, p.78)(WSJ, 5/16/08, p.A6) -373 nend The Persian army moved to attack Egypt. They abandoned the effort when the Nile flooded over the Delta. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -373 -288 In China the Confucianist Meng-Tzu (Mencius) lived. He departed from the ideas of Confucius by positing a theory of just rebellion against immoral rulers. [see 371-289BC] (EEE, p.12) -371 nend Jul, Sparta, led by King Agesilaus II, was decisively defeated in the Battle of Leuctra by the Thebans under Epaminondas (47), commander of the Boeotian League, which was an alliance of 11 city states in central Greece. (HNQ, 10/24/00)(ON, 9/06, p.1) -371 -289 Mencius, Chinese philosopher: "The great man is he who does not lose his child's heart." [see 373-288BC] (AP, 11/19/98) -370 nend Epaminondas, commander of the Boeotian League, led an army into the Peloponnese and captured the prefecture of Messenia, which had been ruled and enslaved by Sparta for 3 centuries. (ON, 9/06, p.3) c -369 nend c286BC Chuang-tzu (Zhuang Zhou), Chinese philosopher and writer. His work included the spiritual masterpiece "Inner chapters." "Rewards and punishments are the lowest form of education." (AP, 11/11/97)(NH, 7/00, p.59)(SSFC, 2/18/01, DB p.35) -367 nend In Rome the first plebian consul was elected to the assembly. The Plebeians also became eligible to serve as lesser magistrates, formerly a position reserved for the aristocratic class. Because an ancient custom allowed promotion from the magistracy to the Senate, the patrician-dominated Senate was broken. (EEE, p.12) -367 -348 Aristotle studied under Plato at the Academy in Athens. He left Athens to travel for 12 years and returned to Macedonia where he tutored Alexander, son of Philip for 3 years. It was Plato who said that "A woman is only a lesser man." (V.D.-H.K.p.44,45)(SFEC, 10/20/96, Z1 p.2) -367 -283 Ptolemy I (Soter), founder of the Macedonian dynasty of Egypt. He ruled Egypt from 306-285. (WUD, 1994, p.1162) -365 -360 Teos, son of Nectanebo, served as the 2nd ruler of Egypt?s 30th Dynasty. He failed in an attempted attack on Persia and was deserted by the Egyptians and Greek mercenaries. He fled to Persia where Artaxerxes II gave him refuge. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -364 nend Gan De, noted Chinese astronomer, reported a viewing of Jupiter and one of its 16 moons. (SFC, 4/10/97, p.A16) -363 nend Artaxerxes III (Ochus), son of Artaxerxes II, became king of Persia. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -362 nend Epaminondas, commander of the Boeotian League, confronted an army of Spartan and Athenian troops near Mantinea. The Boeotians won the battle but Epaminondas died from a javelin wound. (ON, 9/06, p.3) -360 nend Greek philosopher Plato, in his "dialogues" from about this time, said an island he called Atlantis "in a single day and night... disappeared into the depths of the sea." He described Atlantis as "an island situated in front of the straits which are by you called the Pillars of Hercules." In 2011 a US-led research team, using a satellite photo of a suspected submerged city, suggested a site just north of Cadiz, Spain, as the site of Atlantis. (Reuters, 3/12/11) -360 -343 Nectanebo II served as the 3rd and final ruler of Egypt?s 30th Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) 359 336 Philip II ruled the Kingdom of Macedonia. He founded Plovdiv, Bulgaria. (WUD, 1994, p.1081)(SFC, 7/18/96, p.E1) -358 nend Illyrians were defeated by Philip II of Macedonia. (www, Albania, 1998) -356 nend Alexander the Great (d.323) was born in Pella, Greece. Alexander also married the daughter of Darius, whom he defeated in 333, and a Sogdian princess while staying firmly attached to his comrade, Hephaistion. Alexander later married a barbarian princess, Roxana, the daughter of the Bactrian chief Oxyartes. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great)(WSJ, 5/15/98,p.W11)(SFC, 7/29/09, p.A4) -354 nend Demosthenes wrote a series of speeches, later called the Philippics, which urged Athenians to defend the city against Philip of Macedon. (ON, 9/00, p.12) -352 nend The Greek Mausoleum of Helicarnassus was built. It was destroyed by an earthquake in the 1300s. (WSJ, 10/10/01, p.B1) -350 nend First evidence of humans in southwest Colorado: corn pollen. Nomadic hunter-gatherers planted crops in the spring, then left to forage and hunt over the summer, returning in the fall to harvest and seek shelter in caves for the winter. They made baskets of yucca fibers, sometimes waterproofed with pitch from piñon pine. (HN, 2/11/97) c -350 nend The zi were probably living in Colorado caves. Their present name comes from a Navajo word meaning "the ancient ones" or "the ancient enemy." (HNQ, 7/1/01) -350 nend Babylonian tables of astronomical numbers regularly use zero. (V.D.-H.K.p.28) c -350 nend The time of Praxiteles, Greek Athenian sculptor. (WUD, 1994, p.1129)(AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.19) c -350 nend The new philosophy of the Cynics emerged led by Greek philosopher Diogenes (404-323). He argued against conventional life and that people should live naturally and strive for self-sufficiency. (eawc, p.13)(SFC, 10/29/08, p.G2) c -350 nend Temples in Greece began to be used by ill worshippers hoping for a cure from the gods. These were later considered as the first hospitals. (SFEC,6/11/00, Z1 p.2) c -350 nend The kingdom of Illyria emerged in the region of Shkoder in what is now Albania. (CO, Grolier's Amer. Acad. Enc./ Albania) -350 nend The Chavin civilization had a settlement at this time on the north-western coast of Peru. The elite of this civilization tracked the movement of the sun throughout the year. (Econ, 3/3/07, p.84) -350 -338 In China Shang Yang ruled the Ch'in Dynasty. He operated against the assumptions of a theory of absolute aggression justified by the "School of Law." (EEE, p.12) -350 -283 Kautilya, Indian political advisor, lived about this time. He is generally called Chanakya (derived from his father's name "Chanak") but, in his capacity as author of the Arthashastra, is generally referred to as Kautilya derived from his clan's name "Kotil" (Kautilya means "of Kotil"). He was a master of the shrewd act of diplomacy. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chanakya) 348 -345 Aristotle lived and taught in Assos, (later Behramkale), Turkey, before he was summoned to teach Alexander in Macedonia. (SFC, 10/6/05, p.E8) -347 nend Plato (b.427BC), the most distinguished student of Socrates, died. His real name was Aristocles. Plato meant broad and he was known to have broad shoulders. He was a prolific writer and considered by some as the most important of all Greek philosophers. His works were all in dialogue form and include: the "Apology," the "Symposium," the "Phaedo," the "Phaedrus," and the "Republic." (EEE, p.12)(SFEC, 9/28/97, Z1 p.2) -343 nend Artaxerxes III of Persia led a successful campaign against Egypt and Nectanebo II fled to Ethiopia. Artaxerxes appointed Pherendares as satrap of Egypt and returned to Babylon laden with treasures. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) 343 -332 In Egypt the Persians ruled for a 2nd time. (eawc, p.13) -343 -338 Artaxerxes III (Ochus), king of Persia, served as 1st ruler of Egypt?s 31st Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -342 nend Menander (c.~291), Greek playwright, was born about this time in Athens. He wrote more than 100 plays, but many of his works have been lost. A 9th century manuscript from a Syrian monastery contains 200 verses from Menander's play "Dyskolos" ("The Grouch"). In 2003 a scholar reported another 200 verses in the document appear to be by Menander. (AP, 12/6/03)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menander) 341 -270 Epicurus, Greek philosopher born [342BC] in Samos, held that happiness is the supreme good. He had studied under Democritus and was a confirmed atomist. His happiness is interpreted to mean the avoidance of pain. (V.D.-H.K.p.71)(eawc, p.14) -340 nend Aristotle argued for the spherical shape of the Earth in his "On The Heavens." (BHT, Hawking, p.2) -340 nend In 1962 a papyrus scroll was found in a grave, about five miles northwest of Thessaloniki. It was part of a rich cemetery belonging to the ancient city of Lete. The original several yards of papyrus, rolled around two wooden runners, was found half burnt. It dates to around 340 BC, during the reign of Philip II of Macedon, father of Alexander the Great. (AP, 6/1/06) c -340 -265 Zeno of Citium, aka Zeno the Stoic, was born in Cyprus. [see 335-263] (WUD, 1994, p.1660) c -340 200 Balathal near Udaipur in northeast India was reoccupied by a new people who built a massive rampart around the site and later abandoned it. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.B) -338 nend In Greece Philip of Macedon conquered the country and was succeeded by his son 2 years later. Athens ceased to be a major power from this point on. Philip?s League of Corinth was composed of impotent Hellenic states that had lost their collective freedom at the battle of Chaeronea. (eawc, p.13)(WSJ, 12/26/97, p.A7)(WSJ, 4/26/99, p.A18) -338 nend Philip II erected Olympia?s Philippeion in Athens following his victory at Chaeronea. The round marble building was completed by his son, Alexander. (AM, 7/04, p.24) -338 nend Artaxerxes III (Ochus), king of Persia, was murdered by his own commander Bagoas. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -338 nend Arses, the youngest son of Ochus, succeeded his father as king of Persia. He served as the 2nd ruler of Egypt?s 31st Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -336 nend King Philip II, the father of Alexander the Great, was murdered at a theater in Aigai in northern Greece. (AP, 8/29/09) -336 nend Alexander inherited the throne of Macedonia and all of Greece. He went to see the Oracle of Delphi but was initially refused entry. He forced his way and dragged the seeress into the temple. Plutarch wrote: "As if conquered by his violence, she said, 'My son, thou art invincible.'" "That is all the answer I desire," replied Alexander. He began his campaign to acquire new territory in Asia at age 22. Within 4 years he conquered the entire Persian Empire. (V.D.-H.K.p.50)(NG,Jan,1968 , p.1,4)(eawc, p.13) -336 nend Arses, king of Persia and ruler of Egypt?s 31st Dynasty, was murdered by his commander Bagoas. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -335 nend Aristotle opened the Lyceum in Athens which was devoted to scientific work. He invented the science of logic, and divided the sciences into different fields distinguished by subject matter and methodology. He believed in the innate inferiority of slaves and females. He wrote the "Nicomachean Ethics," a book about virtue and its reward, happiness. He identified circularity in reasoning as the "fallacy of the consequent" i.e. A good man is one who makes the right choices. Greek archeologists claimed to have found the Lyceum site in 1997. (V.D.-H.K.p.44,45)(USAT, 1/15/97, p.9A) -335 -332 Darius III was raised to the throne of Persia by the eunuch Bagoas, who had killed the 2 previous rulers. Darius in turn had Bagoas murdered. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) c -335 nend c263BC Zeno the Stoic set up a school in Athens at the Stoa Poikile (Painted Colonnade), and taught that happiness consists in conforming the will to the divine reason, which governs the universe. Thus a man is happy if he fully accepts what is and does not desire what cannot be. Zeno was a Phoenician from Kition on Cyprus. He taught that "events were destined to repeat themselves" in endless cycles. [see 340-265] (V.D.-H.K.p.71)(NG, Aug., 1974, p.189)(SFC, 7/14/97, p.E5) -334 nend Alexander (22) left Pella, Greece, with 30,000 foot soldiers and 5,000 cavalry and proceeded to conquer western Asia including Miletus and Samos. His favorite horse was named Bucephalus. At Gordium, where King Midas is fabled to have held court, Alexander solved the puzzle of the Gordian knot by severing it with his sword. (V.D.-H.K.p.50)(NG, Jan, 1968 , p.1,4,6)(ON, 1/01, p.9) c -334 nend Seleukos I, a general under Alexander the Great, founded Antioch on the banks of the Orontes River. (AM, 11/00, p.69) -333 nend Alexander first confronted Darius, king of Persia, and defeated him at the battlefield of Issus. During the Renaissance German painter Albrecht Altdorfer (1480-1538) painted a depiction of the battle. (NG, Jan, 1968 , p.18)(WSJ, 5/15/98, p.W11) -333 nend Alexander the Great (353BC-323BC), married a barbarian (Sogdian) princess, Roxana, the daughter of the Bactrian chief Oxyartes. Alexander also married the daughter of Darius, whom he defeated in 333, while staying firmly attached to his comrade, Hephaistion. (V.D.-H.K.p.68)(Hem., 2/97, p.116)(WSJ, 5/15/98, p.W11) -333 nend Alexander?s forces overcame the Pisidians of Sagalassos. (AM, 11/04, p.38) c -333 nend Hittite lands and the village known as Ancyra (later Angora, Ankora) was conquered by Macedonians led by Alexander the Great. (HNQ, 4/15/02) -332 nend Jul, In Phoenicia Alexander stormed the island of Tyre by building a causeway to the island. He then besieged the city of Gaza. He moved on to conquer Egypt and founded Alexandria. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.71), (NG, Aug., 1974, p.162)(Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.167) -332 nend Alexander entered Egypt and founded Alexandria. A fishing village at the site was called Rhakotis. In 2007 archeologists found evidence of urban settlement at Alexandria dating back to about 1,000 BC. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html)(AP, 7/26/07) 332 -63 The Hellenistic period in Israel. (AM, 9/01, p.32) -331 nend Sep 23, Alexander's scouts encountered the camp of King Darius near Guagamela. The force numbered 25,000 horsemen, 50,000 foot soldiers, 200 chariots and 15 war elephants. (ON, 1/01, p.11) -331 nend Oct 1, Alexander the Great decisively shattered King Darius III's Persian army at Gaugamela (Arbela), in a tactical masterstroke that left him master of the Persian Empire. (HN, 10/1/98) -331 nend Alexander left Egypt and left Cleomenes of Naukratis in charge. This position was later claimed by Ptolemy. When Alexander died, Ptolemy's generals divided the kingdom. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -331 nend Alexander conquered the Persian Empire and made his way to India and conquered part of it. (eawc, p.13) -331 nend The Achaemenid King of Persia, Darius III, died in Bactria. Bessus, the satrap of Bactria had him murdered. (AHD, 1971, p.10)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -331 nend Alexander reached Persopolis, the capital of Persia, and burned it. (V.D.-H.K.p.50)(Econ, 9/17/05, p.48) -330 nend Alexandria became the capital of Egypt. (SSFC, 5/9/04, p.A17) c -330 nend Euclid showed that an infinite number of Prime numbers exists, but occur in no logical pattern. (SFC, 11/23/98, p.A3) -330 -320 A Temple of Zeus was built at Nemea, Greece, on the foundations of an earlier temple. (SSFC, 8/21/05, p.B2) -329 nend Alexander the Great took Samarkand [in what is now Uzbekistan]. Its ancient name was Marakanda. (WUD, 1994, p.1264) -329 -326 After conquering Persia, Alexander the Great invaded Afghanistan. He conquered Afghanistan, but failed to really subdue its people. Constant revolts plagued Alexander. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) -327 -326 Alexander the Great passed through the Indus Valley and installed Greek officials in the area. (eawc, p.13) -326 nend Alexander crossed the Indus river at Hund and then the Jhelum river and defeated King Porus at the edge of India. This was his last great battle. (NG, Jan, 1968, p.56) -326 nend The Charsadda site (aka Bala Hisar) in northern Pakistan was besieged by Alexander. It then passed from Mauryan to Indo-Greek, Parthian, Sassanian, and Kushan rule. The pagan Kalash of Pakistan later claimed to be descendants of Alexander's soldiers. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.C)(WSJ, 4/30/98, p.A17) -325 nend Pytheas (c380BC-310BC), Greek merchant, geographer and explorer, made a voyage of exploration to northwestern Europe around this time. He traveled around Great Britain, circumnavigating it between 330 and 320 BC. He claimed to have sailed past Scotland and mentioned a land called Thule, where the surrounding ocean froze and the sun disappeared in winter. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pytheas) 325 -300 Flavius Josephus, historian of the first century, wrote that a Samaritan Temple was built (on Mt. Gerizim) that was a copy of the Second Temple of Jerusalem. Josephus dated it to the late part of the fourth century. The temple's first chief priest is said to have been Manasseh, a Jewish priest who married a Samaritan woman named Nikaso. The Jewish elders forced Manasseh to choose between the Jewish Temple or his wife. He chose his wife and her father, Sanballat, built for Manasseh a copy of the Jewish temple on Mt. Gerizim. (SFC, 5/23/95, p.A-10) -323 nend Jun 10, Alexander died in Persia at Babylon at the age of 32. His general, Ptolemy, took possession of Egypt. Apelles was a painter in Alexander's court. He had been commissioned by Alexander to paint a portrait of Campaspe, Alexander's concubine. Apelles fell in love with Campaspe and Alexander granted her to him in marriage. In 1984 Curtius Quintas Rufus authored "the History of Alexander." In 1991 Peter Green authored "Alexander of Macedon, A Historical Biography." ?Alexander the Great? by Norman F. Cantor (d.2004) was published in 2005. (BS, 5/3/98, p.12E)(WSJ, 2/11/00, p.W6) (ON, 1/01, p.11)(SSFC,12/25/05, p.M3) -323 nend The Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, a Graeco-Roman seaport (later in Turkey), was completed after 125 years of construction. It was acclaimed the most beautiful structure in the world and considered one of the 7 architectural wonders of the ancient world. Its ruins were discovered in 1869 by archeologist John T. Wood (d.1890). (ON, 11/00, p.3) -323 nend The Greeks ruled Bactria (Northern Afghanistan) (www.afghan, 5/25/98) -323 nend The death of Alexander provided an opportunity for an independent state in India. Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya dynasty, the first Indian empire with its capital in Patna. (eawc, p.13)(SC, 5/18/02) -323 -285 Ptolemy I Soter, son of Lagus and commander under Alexander, ruled Egypt as the first king of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Under his rule the library of Alexandria was commissioned. (www.crystalinks.com/ptolemaic.html)(http://tinyurl.com/bodry) -323 -30 In Greece this period is called the Hellenistic Age, the time from Alexander's death to Roman rule. The principle work on this period is "Hellenistic Athens" by Prof. William Scott Ferguson (1875-1954). In 1995 Prof. Christian Habicht published "Athens from Alexander to Antony" in Germany. An English edition was translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider in 1997. (WSJ, 12/26/97, p.A7) -323 -30 Ptolemy and his descendants ruled over Egypt. This era came to be known as the Ptolemaic period. At the ancient library of Alexandria Callimachus of Cyrene was the first to catalog writings alphabetically. (Enc. of Africa,1976, p.167)(SFC, 11/4/96, p.A11)(SFEC, 11/10/96,Parade p.13) -323 -30 During the Hellenistic Age the Grand Theater of Ephesus was built into the side of Mt. Pion and could hold 24,000 spectators. (SFEC, 1/18/98, p.T7) -322 nend Athens was brought under the control of the Macedonian empire. Demosthenes was sentenced to death, but he escaped and sought refuge on the island of Calauria, where he committed suicide after troops followed him. In 1927 Charles Darwin Adams authored "Demosthenes and His Influence." (ON, 9/00, p.12) -322 nend Mar 7, Aristotle (d.322 BC) died. His writings included treatises on logic, metaphysics, ethics, politics, rhetoric and natural sciences. He first described language in terms of subject and predicate as well as parts of speech. Aristotelian logic is based on a small number of unambiguous constructs, such as, "if A, then B": the truth of one implies the truth of another. This celebrated rule gives Aristotelian reasoning the power to establish facts through inference. The constructs also included A=A, representing that every entity is equal to itself. He defined politics as the science of the sciences that looks after well-being. His writings included "De Generatione Animalum." His "Historia Animalium" was later translated by D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson." "Hope is a waking dream." The opening of his "Metaphysics" began: "All men by nature desire to know." (V.D.-H.K.p.44,45)(I&I, Penzias, p.73)(Hem., 1/96, p.11)(LSA,Spg/97, p.6)(EEE, p.12)(AP, 8/9/98)(WSJ, 9/30/98, p.A16)(NH, 12/98,p.10)(SFC, 8/13/02, p.A13) -322 nend The Mauryans ruled over India. (WH, 1994, p.13) -320 nend c235BC In China the philosopher Hsun-tzu, the founder of Legalism, lived. He was an orthodox Confucianist and believed strongly in moral education. He repudiated any belief in a spiritual realm and believed that human beings are evil by nature. (eawc, p.13) -316 nend The Ba people on the Yangtze River were subjugated by the Qin. (NH, 7/96, p.31) -316 nend The Ch'in conquered Shu and Pa (modern-day Szechuan) and gained a serious advantage over the Ch'u. (eawc, p.13) -315 nend Thessaloniki, Greece, was founded about this time and flourished during the Roman and Byzantine eras. In 2008 Greek workers discovered around 1,000 graves, some filled with ancient treasures, while excavating for a subway system. Some of the graves, dated from the first century B.C. to the 5th century A.D., contained jewelry, coins and various pieces of art. (AP, 3/11/08) -312 nend Appius Claudius, the Blind, as consul began the building of the Via Appia. The historian Procopius states that the road was completed at this time. It ran due south from Rome to Capua. (V.D.-H.K.p.69)(SFC, 6/3/96, p.E5) -312 nend King Glauk of Illyria expelled the Greeks from Durrës. (www, Albania, 1998) -310 nend Aristarchus of Samos founded Hellenistic astronomy. Contrary to Aristotle he said that the earth and all the other planets revolve around the sun. [see 300BC-200BC] (eawc, p.14) -310 nend Pytheas (b.c380BC), Greek merchant, geographer and explorer, died about this time. He made a voyage of exploration to northwestern Europe around 325 BC. He traveled around a considerable part of Great Britain, circumnavigating it between 330 and 320 BC. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pytheas) -309 nend Heracles, the illegitimate teenage son of Alexander the Great, was murdered about this time during the wars of succession and buried in secret. (AP, 8/29/09) 309 247 Ptolemy II (Philadelphus). He ruled Egypt from 285-247?. (WUD, 1994, p.1162) -304 nend Cnieus Flavius, a commoner, brought justice to Rome by stealing a calendar. He posted his purloined tablet in the Roman Forum. The letters A-H corresponded to an 8-day Roman market-day cycle. (SFEC, 9/27/98, BR p.5) -304 nend In India Chandragupta traded 500 war elephants to Seleucus in exchange for the Indus region and lands immediately to the West. (eawc, p.14) -301 nend The generals of Alexander fought the Battle of Ipsus in Phrygia that resulted in the division of the Greek Empire into 4 divisions ruled by Seleucus, Lysimachus, Cassander and Ptolemy. Greek cities revolted against Macedonian rule but to no avail. (eawc, p.13) c -300 nend In 2005 a well-preserved and colorful mummy from the 30th pharaonic dynasty was unveiled at Egypt?s Saqqara pyramid complex. (SFC, 5/4/05, p.A1) -300 nend Euclid compiled his "Elements of Geometry." Included was his demonstration for "regular partitioning." (V.D.-H.K.p.37)(WSJ, 12/9/96, p.B1) c -300 nend In Greece Epicureanism and Stoicism originated in Athens. Both Epicurus and Zeno, the Stoic, believed in an individualistic and materialistic philosophy. Neither believed in spiritual substances. The soul was thought to be material. The Epicureans believed that pleasure is the highest good, and that only by abandoning the fear of the supernatural can one achieve tranquility of mind. The Stoics believed that tranquility of mind was only achieved by surrendering the self to the order of the cosmos. (eawc, p.14) -300 nend Kautilya (aka Chanakya), an Indian statesman and scholar, authored the Artha-Shastra (the Science of Material Gain) at the end of the 4th century BC. This is the first known treatise on government and economy. (www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Ancient/Kautilya.html) -300 nend In Ireland 2 men were murdered about this time. In 2005 their preserved remains were found in a peat bog. One dubbed Clonycavan Man was about 5 feet 2 inches and used hair gel. The other, dubbed Oldcroghan Man, stood 6 feet 6 inches. "Oldcroghan Man was stabbed through the chest. He was then decapitated and his body cut in half while Clonycaven Man had his head split open with an axe before he was disemboweled. (Reuters, 1/7/06) -300 nend Carthago Nova (Cartagena, Spain) had coins minted in the Greek style. One face bears the image of Melqart, chief god of Tyre, the other face shows a horse and palm tree, emblems of Carthage. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.171) -300 nend Spain was named by the Carthaginians about this time as Ispania, meaning land of rabbits. The Romans changed the name slightly to Hispania, which evolved to Espana (Spain). (SSFC, 12/19/10, p.M2) c -300 nend As early as this time, travelers went to Petra in the northwest corner of the Arabian peninsula for its abundant spring water. (ATC, p.55) c -300 nend Palur in eastern India near Chilika Lake has yielded red-and-black-ware potsherds, one of which had the image of a boat. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.B) -300 nend Dura-Europos, a Greek colony was built on the Euphrates in eastern Syria. (SSFC, 6/28/09, p.A8) c -300 nend By about this time iron-working had spread all along the savanna belt of West Africa. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.168) -300 nend Seleucia was founded about this time in southeastern Turkey as a Greek settlement by Seleucus I Nicator one of Alexander?s generals. Seleucia was on the west bank and Apamea on the east bank of the Euphrates River. In 64 BC it was conquered and ruled by the Roman Empire and with this shift the name of the city was changed into Zeugma, meaning "bridge-passage" or "bridge of boats." (Arch, 9/02, p.62)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeugma_(city)) -300 250 Late preclassic period of the Maya. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.B) c -300 -200 Aristarchus, Greek philosopher of the late 3rd cent., proposed the Sun as the center of the universe. [see 310BC] (NH, 9/96, p.70) c -300 -200 Apollonius, Greek poet emigrant from Alexandria to Rhodes, and author of the "Argonautica." (HH, 1932, p.498)(SFC, 9/15/97, p.E3) c -300 -200 In China an emperor dispatched the sailor Hsu Fu to search the Pacific Ocean for the "drug of immortality." He came back empty-handed after the first trip and set out again never to return. (SFEC, 8/17/97, Z1 p.3) c -300 -200 In China Qu Wan, a poet and official, despaired on the possibility of justice in this world and threw himself into a river. (WSJ, 9/24/97, p.A20) c -300 -200 In Egypt scientists of the Univ. of Calif. Berkeley expedition of 1899 uncovered hundreds of crocodile mummies encased and stuffed with papyrus covered with writings from the ruins of the city of Tebtunis. The site dated from the 3rd century BC when Ptolemy the Great ruled. (SFC, 12/4/96, p.A4) -300 -200 In 2006 archaeologists at the San Bartolo site in Guatemala dated Mayan hieroglyphs painted on plaster and stone to this period. (Reuters, 1/5/06) -300 -200 The city of Berenice on the Mediterranean coast (later in Libya) was named by the Greeks. (SFC, 6/15/99, p.C6) c -300 -200 Andronicus Livius, a Roman actor of the 3rd cent. BC improvised silently and originated pantomime. (SFC,12/27/97, p.C3) -300 -200 During the 3rd century BC Mongolia became the center of the Hsiung-nu empire. (www.gobiexpeditions.com) -300 -200 In Thailand Ban Chaibadan on the Pasak River is one of several sites that has archaeological remains that show the development of a complex society. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.G) -300 -64 Antioch served as the capital of the kingdom of Syria. (WUD, 1994 p.66) -300 -68 The Dead Sea Scrolls of Qumran, Jordan, date to this period. The scrolls are usually identified with the Jewish-monkish cult, the Essenes, know for their pathological aversion to stool. In 2004 Chicago Prof. Norman Golb authored ?Who Wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls.? In 2009 Israeli scholar Rachel Elior theorized that the Essenes, did not exist. She suggested they were really the renegade sons of Zadok, a priestly caste banished from the Temple of Jerusalem by intriguing Greek rulers in 2nd century BC. When they left, they took the source of their wisdom - their scrolls - with them. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.74)(WSJ, 5/15/98, p.W11)(SFC, 9/6/04, p.A4)(TIME,3/17/09) -300 -68 The Dead Sea Scrolls dating to this period were discovered by Bedouin at the caves of Qumran in Jordan in 1947. The scrolls predated the Christian gospels, but contained many similarities. They also contained some differences from the traditional (Masoretic) text of the Hebrew Bible. In 1955 Edmund Wilson published "The Scrolls from the Dead Sea." In 1998 Hershel Shank published "The Mystery and meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls." From 1978-1998 over 6,000 books were written about the scrolls. The discovery date was later contested as were many of the historic circumstances surrounding the scrolls [see Jordan 1947]. (WSJ, 5/15/98, p.W11)(WSJ, 6/22/98, p.A20) -295 nend The Battle of Sentinum. Etruria was defeated by Rome and the Etruscan decline continued for more than 200 years. (NG, 6/1988, p.739) -290 nend Ptolemy I of Egypt authorized the construction of the Pharos Lighthouse in Alexandria. It became one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. (www.unmuseum.org/pharos.htm) -290 nend The 110-foot Colossus of Rhodes, one of the ancient seven wonders of the world, was built to the sun god Helios. (AM, 7/00, p.16) -287 nend In Rome the plebeians passed a law that allowed the decisions of the assembly to override the Senate. (eawc, p.14) -287 nend Theophrastus (b.c371BC), Greek philosopher, died. He produced the 1st known work on plant reproduction ?De historia plantarum. He was a contemporary of Aristotle and succeeded him as head of the Lyceum. (www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/e01/01a.htm)(Econ, 11/12/05, p.88) -287 -212 Archimedes, Greek mathematician, physicist and inventor. He discovered the principles of specific gravity and of the lever. His works included "Method of Mechanical Theorems" and "On Floating Bodies." He named the number, later known as pi, as the Archimedes Constant. Scientists in 2000 began translating the Floating Bodies treatisse from a single known parchment copy, dating to about 1000CE, that was scraped and reused for a prayer book. (SFC, 10/30/98, p.A7)(SFEC, 3/14/99, p.C5)(SFC, 10/14/00, p.C1)(SFC,5/23/05, p.A4) -285 -246 Ptolemy II (b.c309BC, Philadelphus) of Macedonia served as the 2nd king of Egypt?s Ptolemaic Dynasty. During his reign (285-247) he founded the Cyprian port of Famagusta and built a canal to link the Nile to the gulf of Suez. (NG, 8/04, Geographica)(www.crystalinks.com/ptolemaic.html) -280 nend The Achaean League was reformed along political lines. It had been a confederation of Achaean cities formed for religious observances and was broken up by the Macedonians. (AHD, 1971, p.10) -280 nend Li Ssu, Legalist scholar, was born in the kingdom of Ch?u, later a region of China. (ON, 9/04, p.1) -279 nend The Pharos at Alexandria was constructed. The lighthouse, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, was toppled by an earthquake in 1303CE. It was rediscovered by archeologists in the waters off Alexandria in 1996. (SFEC, 4/5/98, Par p.20)(SFC, 11/4/96, p.A11)(WSJ, 10/10/01, p.B1) -279 nend The Celts plundered the shrine at Delphi and then retreated north to Thrace. The Thracians later routed the intruders. (NGM, 5/77) -278 nend Qu Yuan (b.~340BC), Chinese poet and scholar, died. His poems included ?The Lament,? written following the capture of Yingdu, capital of Chu, by General Bai Qi of the state of Qin. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu_Yuan) -273 -232 Ashoka, the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, ruled India, an area of a million sq. miles, and 50 million people. He was the most impressive ruler of the Maurya dynasty and was strongly disposed in favor of Buddhism, which orientation showed positively in his public policy. (V.D.-H.K.p.21)(EAWC, p.14) -270 nend The Nubian royals opted for burial at Meroe about this time and pyramids were built there for some 700 years. (Arch, 9/02, p.56) -269 nend The Roman system of coinage was established. (eawc, p.14) -265 nend Rome completed its domination of the entire Italian peninsula and began its pursuit of a larger empire that resulted in a series of wars with other nations. (eawc, p.14) -264 nend Rome initiated the Punic Wars with Carthage, an oligarchic empire that stretched from the northern coast of Africa to the Strait of Gibraltar. The primary cause was the Carthaginian expansion into the Greek cities of Sicily. Carthage was forced to surrender its control over the western region of Sicily and this marked the end of the first Punic War. The three Punic Wars: 264-241 BC, 218-202 BC, 149-146 BC, also known as the Carthaginian Wars, finally resulted in the destruction of Carthage and Roman control of the western Mediterranean. (eawc, p.14)(HNQ, 8//00) -262 nend War broke out between Carthage and Rome. Three long wars lasted till 146BC when Carthage was destroyed by Rome. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.167-8) -261 nend Rome captured a Punic quinquereme. In two months they copied it plank by plank and built 100 like it and eventually the Roman fleet was able to defeat the Carthaginians. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.178) -260 nend Ashoka, the 3rd ruler of the Mauryan empire (India), converted to Buddhism after defeating the Kalinga region. He began promoting Buddhist teaching throughout the subcontinent and beyond to Sri Lanka and even Greece. (www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/04/ssa/ht04ssa.htm) -259 nend Qin Shi Huangdi (d.210BC), the emperor who unified China, was born about this time. He became ruler of Qin at age 13. In 2006 Tan Dun?s opera ?The First Emperor,? premiered at the NY Metropolitan with Placido Domingo as the Emperor. It was based on the life of Qin Shi Huang (First August and Divine Emperor). (WSJ, 12/27/06, p.D8)(Econ, 9/8/07, p.87) -256 nend The Carthaginian city of Kerouane was sacked by the Romans. (NG, 8/04, p.48) -251 nend Aryan Hindus occupied Ceylon. [see Sri Lanka] (eawc, p.14) -250 nend About this time Eratosthenes ascribed the difference between the positions of the noon sun at Alexandria and at Styrene at the summer solstice as due to the curvature of the Earth and not due to the proximity of the sun. He thereby calculated the radius of the Earth to be about 4,000 miles. The modern value is 3963 miles. (SCTS, p.6) -250 nend About this time Aristarchus of Samos, a Greek astronomer, proposed the idea of a sun-centered cosmology. (Econ, 9/24/11, p.106) -250 nend In India a general council of Buddhist monks was held in Patna, where the canon of Buddhist scripture was selected. (eawc, p.14) -250 nend In India Emperor Ashoka ordered a sculpture of four Asiatic lions about this time. The image later became a model emblazoned on India?s passports and currency. (WSJ, 6/27/07, p.A9) c -250 nend In Patan, Nepal, the 4 corners are marked by stupas said to be constructed on orders of Emperor Ashoka. (WSJ, 1/22/98, p.A17) -250 nend In Persia about this time two brothers, Arashk (Arash Pers. Arsaces, Lat.) and Tirdat (Tiridates), with their forces under the command of five other chiefs, occupied the district of upper Tejen. Arashk (Arsaces) was to become the first king of the Ashkanian (Arsacid or Parthian) dynasty. In 2005 the Ashkali community in Kosovo claimed roots to this period. (www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/History/ashkanian/parthian.htm) -250 nend A finely burnished red pottery was introduced by the Parthians into northern Oman. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.53) -250 -150 Punic wars between Rome and Carthage. [see 264BC & 146BC] (V.D.-H.K.p.63) -250 1400 The city of Jenne-jeno on the inland delta of the Niger River (Mali) was inhabited over this period. Iron tools similar to that of the Nok people indicate that Nok craftspeople had come to this site. It was discovered by archeologist in 1977. (ATC, p.110) -247 nend Li Ssu left Ch?u and traveled to Ch?in, a kingdom where Legalist doctrines were practiced. He found employment with Lu Pu-wei, the king?s grand councilor, who was compiling an encyclopedia. Lu Ssu soon became tutor to Prince Zheng, heir to the throne of Ch?in. (ON, 9/04, p.2) -246 nend Jan 9, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, 2nd king of Egypt?s Ptolemaic Dynasty, died. (www.crystalinks.com/ptolemaic.html) -246 nend In China the Ch'in completed the Chengkuo canal connecting the Ching and Lo rivers. This created a key agricultural and economic area in western Szechuan. About the same time the last Chou ruler was deposed. (eawc, p.14) -246 nend Qin Shihuangdi (13), became the head of Qin, one of 7 major Chinese states. (AM, 9/01, p.35) -246 -222 Ptolemy III Euergeter served as Egypt?s 3rd ruler of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. In 2010 archeologists discovered a temple, thought to belong to Queen Berenice, wife of King Ptolemy III who ruled Egypt in the 3rd century B.C. Archeologists believed that the temple might have been dedicated to the ancient cat-goddess Bastet. (www.crystalinks.com/ptolemaic.html)(AP, 1/19/10) -241 nend Mar 10, The Battle of Aegusa in which the Roman fleet sank 50 Carthaginian ships occurred. (HN, 3/10/98) -241 nend The Romans incorporated Sicily as a province. (AM, 11/00, p.12) -240 nend Jun 19, Eratosthenes estimated the circumference of Earth using two sticks. (DTnet, 6/19/97)(HN, 6/19/98) -239 -169 Ennius, Roman poet: "A friend in need is a friend indeed." (SSFC, 5/18/03, Par p.26)(WUD, 1994, p.474) -238 nend The Romans occupied Sardinia. (SFEC, 1/30/00, p.T4) -238 227 The Parthians (238 B.C.-A.D. 227) ruled the Persian Empire despite attempts by the Roman Republic (133-27 B.C.), the Roman Empire (27 B.C.-A.D. 476) to conquer it. During the centuries-long struggle, border towns and provinces in the Near East passed back and forth like Alsace-Lorraine or the Polish Corridor would in nineteenth-and twentieth-century Europe. Rarely in the history of human conflict has a feud such as the one between the empires of Rome and Persia lasted so long and accomplished so little. (HNQ, 12/22/00) -236 nend Archimedes, according to the Roman architect Vitruvius, built his first elevator about this time. (SFC, 8/23/08, p.F4) -234 -149 Cato, Roman statesman and historian: "If you are ruled by mind, you are a king; if by body, a slave." (AP, 1/11/99) -233 nend General Quintus Fabius Maximus led a Roman victory against the Ligurian tribes northwest of Italy. (ON, 9/05, p.6) -232 nend King Agron died, the Illyrian throne was occupied by Queen Teuta. (www, Albania, 1998) -231 nend King Qin Shihuangdi (28), head of one of 7 major states, embarked on a series of campaigns that in 10 years created China. The king of Ch?in invaded Han. (AM, 9/01, p.35)(ON, 9/04, p.3) -230 nend Celtic warriors were repelled at Pergamon. The king of Bithynia had invited some 20,000 Celts as mercenaries and after 50 years of pillaging they were repelled and settled in Galatia. (NGM, 5/77) -230 nend The capital of Han fell. Its king and entire extended family were massacred. Han was absorbed by Ch?in and under Li Ssu?s direction was transformed into a Legalist state. (ON, 9/04, p.3) -228 nend The Kingdom of Chao fell to the Ch?in. (ON, 9/04, p.3) -225 nend The Kingdom of Wei fell to the Ch?in. (ON, 9/04, p.3) -225 nend Polybius, a Greek historian, described the naked gaesatae, Celtic spearmen, at the Battle of Telamon, northwest of Rome where the Romans defeated the Celts. (NGM, 5/77) -224 nend An earthquake reportedly broke the Colossus of Rhodes at his knees. (AM, 7/00, p.16) -223 nend The Kingdom of Ch?u fell to the Ch?in. Li Ssu had the royal family spared. (ON, 9/04, p.3) -222 nend The Kingdom of Yen fell to the Ch?in. The royal family was slaughtered. (ON, 9/04, p.3) -222 -205 Ptolemy IV Philopater served as Egypt?s 4th ruler of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/ptolemaic.html) -222 -196 The Romans showed up at the site of Milan and subdued the Gauls after 26 years of butchery. Mittaland was Latinized to Medioland, i.e. middle of the plain, and later transformed to Milano. (SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T12) -221 nend The Kingdom of Ch?i fell to the Ch?in and Li Ssu advised King Zheng that there were no other countries worth conquering. King Zheng proclaimed himself Shi Huangdi, ?First Emperor of the World Under Heaven.? (ON, 9/04, p.3) -221 nend The Qin (Ch?in) unified China at the end of the "Warring States." King Zheng engaged in a process of unifying 7 kingdoms in China under a central bureaucracy. He killed most of the people in the 6 rival kingdoms and buried alive 400 scholars whose loyalty he questioned. The 1998 Chinese film "The Emperor?s Shadow" was directed by Zhou Xiaowen. It was a historical drama of the first emperor (Ying Zheng or Jiang Wen) of a united China. The 1999 film "The Emperor and the Assassin," directed by Chen Kaige, was about Zheng. (eawc, p.5,14)(NH, 7/96, p.31)(WSJ, 9/27/96, p.A16)(SFC, 6/24/98,p.E3)(SFEC, 12/12/99, Par p.11)(SFEC, 1/16/00, DB p.42) -221 -206 Qin Shi Huang ruled as the first emperor of China. His tomb is in X?ian, one of the ancient capitals of China, and is guarded by thousands of life-sized terra-cotta soldiers. He fixed Chinese script of 2,500 characters. The Great Wall of China was completed under Shi Huangdi and his minister Li Ssu. In 2001 it was found that the Great Wall extended into Gansu province to Xinjiang and measured 4,470 miles. The wall was extended during the Ming Dynasty. In 1990 Arthur Waldron authored ?The Great Wall of China.? (WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20)(SFC, 2/23/01, p.A20)(ON, 9/04, p.3)(WSJ,5/10/06, p.D12) -221 220 A section of the Great Wall was built during the Qin (221-206 BC) and Han (206 BC to 220 AD) dynasties in northeastern Jilin province. In 2009 the Xinhua news agency reported the discovery of this section, 11km (6.7 miles) further east than what was previously thought to be the wall's terminus. (AFP, 9/22/09) -218 nend The Romans renewed their efforts against Carthage as Carthage expanded into Spain. This 2nd Punic War lasted 16 years (202BC) at the end of which Carthage was forced to surrender all of its territory to Rome except for its capital city in North Africa. (eawc, p.15)(HNQ, 8/9/00) -218 nend Hannibal crossed Portugal on his way to storm Rome. (SSFC, 9/29/02, p.C11) 218 -201 Numidia, ancient Roman name for part of northern Africa roughly equivalent to modern Algeria. In the Second Punic War (218-201 BC) between Carthage and Rome, western Numidia supported Carthage. King Masinissa of eastern Numidia joined the Romans. With the victory of Rome, Masinissa controlled all Numidia. (WWW, Encarta, 12/19/98) -217 nend Jun 21, Carthaginian forces led by Hannibal destroyed a Roman army under consul Gaius Flaminicy in a battle at Lake Trasimenus in central Italy. Hannibal of Carthage attacked Roman Consul Flaminio at Tuoro on Lake Trasimeno in Umbria. Hannibal's army of Numidians, Berbers, Libyans, Gascons, and Iberians was down to one elephant after crossing the Alps with 39. His army of 40,000 drove the Romans into the lake where 15,000 died as opposed to 1,500 of Hannibal's men. Two nearby towns were named Ossaia (boneyard) and Sanguineto (bloodied). (SFEM, 10/12/97, p.37)(HN, 6/21/98) -217 nend During the Second Punic War Rome appointed Quintus Fabius Maximus as dictator to stave off Hannibal?s Carthaginian army. (ON, 9/05, p.6) -216 nend Aug 2, Hannibal Barca of Carthage won his greatest victory over the Romans at Cannae. Hannibal seized a grain depot in the small village of Cannae in order to lure the Romans to battle. Having crossed over the Alps, Hannibal's forces defeated the Romans at the Trebia River and also at Lake Trasimene. Thereafter, the Romans were unwilling to commit a large force to attacking Hannibal. However, Hannibal's spies had learned two Roman consuls shared command of the legions and attempted to goad the more impetuous of the two into battle at Cannae. (HN, 8/2/98)(HNQ, 11/16/00) -214 nend In China the building of the Great Wall was begun. It was designed to keep out the destitute and starving nomadic Hsiung Nu people. (eawc, p.15) -214 nend Guangdong province became a part of China. (WSJ, 9/16/99, p.A26) -213 nend Minister Li Ssu convinced Ch?in King Zheng to outlaw all philosophies except Legalism. Some 500 Confucian scholars resisted and were buried alive. A number of Confucian and Taoist libraries were burned. (ON, 9/04, p.4) -212 nend Archimedes (b.287BC), Greek mathematician, died. Legend holds that he was killed by a Roman soldier during an invasion of Syracuse, because he was too busy doing calculations to obey the soldier?s orders. (SFC, 5/23/05, p.A4) -211 nend Roman legions overran the Greek settlement of Morgantina on Sicily. (SFC, 4/4/98, p.A13) -210 nend Qin Shi Huang (b.259BC), the first emperor of China, died while on a journey. His death was kept quite until the entourage returned home. He was buried near the city of Xi'ab in Central China with some 7-8,000 larger-than-life terracotta soldiers. The soldiers had real weapons and each had distinct facial features. Villagers found the 1st terracotta figure in 1974. [see Jul 11, 1975] Qin Shi Huangdi provided his empire with a uniform script, currency, a measuring system and a bureaucracy. (Smith., 4/95, p. 33,34)(WSJ, 3/11/97, p.A20)(HN, 7/11/01)(Econ,9/8/07, p.87) -210 nend Crown Prince Fu Su, an anti-Legalist, committed suicide on orders from a forged message. Prince Hu-hai was installed as the Second Emperor. Chief eunuch Chao Kao and Li Ssu shared power at first but Chao Kao gained the backing of Hu-hai. (ON, 9/04, p.4) -208 nend Ch?in Chief eunuch Chao Kao had Li Ssu arrested and condemned to death. Most of Li Ssu?s reforms, including standardized writing, measurement and money, survived for over 2,000 years. (ON, 9/04, p.4)(EWH, 1968, p.57) -207 nend In China the Ch'in Dynasty ended. (eawc, p.14) 207 -195 In China Han Kao-tzu (Liu Ping), a man of humble origins, became the first ruler of the Former Han Dynasty. The dynasty lasted to 9CE. (eawc, p.15) -206 nend Rome destroyed Carthaginian forces at the Battle of Metaurus in northern Italy. (ON, 9/05, p.7) -206 25 In 2003 China's Xinhua News Agency reported that archaeologists in western China had discovered five earthenware jars of 2,000BC-year-old rice wine in an ancient Han dynasty tomb (206BC-25CE), and its bouquet was still strong enough to perk up the nose. (AP, 6/21/03) -206 220 The Han Dynasty ruled in China. The Western Han period. In the early Han period Prince Liu Sheng had a jade suit made of 2,498 pieces sewn together with gold thread for his death. Jade was also used to make plugs for his bodies orifices. (NH, 7/96, p.31)(WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20)(WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20)(WSJ,9/27/96, p.A16) -205 -180 Ptolemy V Epiphanes served as Egypt?s 5th ruler of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. He became ruler at age 5 following the death of his father. He married Cleopatra I and died at age 29 while putting down insurgents in the Delta. His wife became regent for their young son. (www.crystalinks.com/ptolemaic.html) -204 nend The sacred stone of Cybele, the Great Mother, was brought to Rome, and her worship was established. (RFH-MDHP, p.206) -204 -202 Greece and most of Asia Minor came under the control of the Romans after the Roman victory over Carthage in the 2nd Punic War. (WSJ, 12/26/97, p.A7)(ON, 9/05, p.7) -203 nend Hannibal and his army returned home to defend Carthage against Roman forces. (ON, 9/05, p.7) -203 nend Quintus Fabius Maximus, Roman general and dictator, died shortly before Hannibal?s final defeat. The name Fabian has come to mean ?using a cautious strategy of delay and avoidance of battle.? (ON, 9/05, p.7) -202 nend The Han Dynasty began in China. (ATC, p.33) -202 nend Roman forces under Scipio Africanus defeated Hannibal of Carthage on the Plains of Zama in northern Tunisia. (NG, 8/04, p.44)(www2.cs.uh.edu/~clifton/hannibal.html) c -200 nend Trade between the Arabs and East Africans on the Indian Ocean was established. It took this long to learn the seasonal winds known as the monsoons to sail across the Indian Ocean. Between Nov. and March the monsoon blows from the northeast. Between April and Oct. the monsoon blows from the southwest. (ATC, p.141) -200 nend The Chinese natural history classic "Erya" said that the Yangtze River was teeming with baiji, a freshwater white dolphin. By 1998 the baiji were on the verge of extinction. (SFC, 3/23/98, p.A8) c -200 nend At this time the Chinese were using the sternpost rudder to steer their ships. (ATC, p.12) c -200 nend The Egyptian priest Hor cared for the ibis galleries. His writings explained that hundreds of people were involved in the animal mummification business at Saqqara. (AM, 9/01, p.29) c -200 nend The Greek Venus de Milo statue of marble was sculpted about this time. It was found in 1820 on Melos and is now in the Louvre. [2nd source says 2,500 years old] (WUD, 1994, p.1586)(SFEC, 3/9/96, Z1 p.5) -200 nend In Greece Skepticism arose under the influence of the Carneades. It had close ties to Sophism and taught that because all knowledge is achieved through sense perception, nothing can be known for sure. [see Heisenberg 1901-1976] (eawc, p.15) c -200 nend Drawings in stone of this time showed women milking elk in what later became northern Iran. (SFEC, 7/19/98, Z1 p.8) c -200 nend In Mexico migrations began toward the area north of Lake Texcoco where the urban center of Teotihuacan developed. (SSFC, 5/6/01, p.T8) c -200 nend A Sanskrit marriage manual dates back to this time (SFEC, 11/17/96, Z1 p.2) -200 -100 The excavation of Pergamon (now Bergama), Turkey, in 1876 by German archeologist uncovered a monument called the Great Altar with a frieze of the mythological hero Telephos. The Telephos Frieze recounts the story of Telephos, a son of Herakles and legendary founder of Pergamon. It is viewed as political propaganda legitimizing the rule of Pergamon's Attalid lineage (after Attalos, its first king's father). (WSJ, 1/16/96, p. A-16)(SFC, 5/4/96, p.E-1) -200 -100 The Silk Road made the city of Ashgabat, Turkmenistan rich. Spice and silk merchants stopped here on their way from China to Europe. (WSJ, 7/11/96, p.A1) -200 500 The Tunisian city of Leptiminus was a major port for the shipment of olive oil throughout the Roman Empire. The ancient city is today largely covered with olive groves. The entire surface of the city (some 150 hectares) has been surveyed by teams from the Univ. of Michigan. Two kinds of pottery were made there: African Red Slip Ware and amphorae. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.7) c -200 650 Caves at Ajanta, India, were painted and sculpted during this period with court scenes and tales from the Jataka and Bodhisattvas. (WSJ, 11/12/98, p.A28) -199 -150 Greco-Bactrian kingdom. Now Afghanistan, it was then a major stop on the silk route between Rome and China. (NG, March 1990, Geographica) -199 -150 Early in the 2nd century BC the Romans made Macedonia into a province and obliterated the city of Corinth. (WSJ, 12/26/97, p.A7) c -196 nend In Egypt the Rosetta Stone, found in 1799, was inscribed about this time. It affirmed the rule of Ptolemy V (age 13) in 3 languages. (WSJ, 6/5/01, p.B1) -195 nend China's 1st Han Emperor Liu Pang died and his empress Lu Zhi took the empire for her own family. (NG, Feb, 04, p.13)(www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0830015.html) -190 nend In the US state of New Mexico a volcanic lava flow occurred at the 114,000 acre El Malpais National Monument and covered wood that was later dated to this time. (SFC, 12/24/99, p.A25) -190 nend Hipparchus was born in what is now Turkey. He calculated the length of a year to within 6 1/2 minutes and was the first to explain the Earth's rotation on its axis. He also compiled the first comprehensive catalog of the stars. [see 160-125BC] (LAT, 3/30/05) -190 -180 The ?Wisdom of Sirach? was written about this time in Hebrew. Its apocalyptic tone reflects the shock of the Jewish religious establishment at the encounter with Hellenic culture. (Econ, 1/20/07, p.91)(www.updated.org/sirach.shtml) c -190 -120 Hypsicles of Alexanderia, mathematician. He wrote ?On the Ascension of Stars,? in which he was the first to divide the Zodiac into 360 degrees. (SSFC, 5/9/04, p.A17)(www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/TLAstronomy.htm) -186 nend In China Li Cang, the prime minister of Changsha, died. Lady Dai, his wife, died about 20 years later. Her tomb was found in the early 1970s on Mawangdui, a hill in Changsha, near the capital of Hunan Province. More than 1,400 equally well-preserved artifacts were found around her, designed to help her in the afterlife. (AP, 9/17/09) -184 nend In Rome Cato the Censor (234-149) was elected as one of two censors, i.e. assessors of property and moral conduct. He aimed to preserve Roman ways and tried to extirpate Greek influences. (V.D.-H.K.p.65) 184BC In India the Maurya dynasty ended when the last ruler was assassinated by an ambitious army commander. (eawc, p.15) -183 -182 Hannibal, Carthaginian general, committed suicide. Some reports said that a comet in the night sky was an omen of his death. (www2.cs.uh.edu/~clifton/hannibal.html) -180 nend The Great Altar of Pergamon was built at Pergamos in Asia Minor (later Turkey). It depicted the battle of the gods of Olympus against the giants. (WSJ, 10/27/07, p.W14) -180 nend The Liu clan regained control of China and enthroned Emperor Wen, a surviving son of Liu Bang. (NG, Feb, 04, p.13) -180 nend The state of Meroe in Nubia was a great cultural center whose scribes developed an alphabet to better express the Nubian language around this time. (MT, 10/95, p.10-11) -180 -164 Ptolemy VI Philometor served as Egypt?s 6th ruler of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. His regent mother died around 176BC and Ptolemy ruled under the control of his guardians, Eulaeus and Lenaeus. (www.crystalinks.com/ptolemaic.html) -175 -164 King Antiochus IV, Seleucid tyrant, ruled Syria. (MH, 12/96)(SFC, 12/6/04, p.B2) -171 nend There was a major wave of migration to Japan from the Korean Peninsula. The migration of other peoples from mainland Asia around this time brought metal tools, rice and new farming techniques. Computer modeling in 2011 showed a that the migration also had significant impact on linguistic development. (AP, 5/5/11) -170 nend The rebel Maccabees were able to gain victory in Jerusalem occupied by Antiochus IV During the re-dedication of the temple they stretched a days worth of oil out to 8 days for which the holiday of Hanukkah is celebrated. (SFC, 11/27/96, zz1 p.F1) -170 nend Lucius Accius, Roman poet, wrote "Has oderint dum metuant" (Let them hate us, so long as they fear us). This became a favorite phrase of Emperor Caligula. (SFC, 3/16/03, p.D3) -170 -160 The Bactrian--Parthian era of Afghanistan. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) -168 nend The Greek city of Aigai was destroyed by the Romans. (AP, 8/29/09) -168 nend Illyria and Epirus were conquered by Rome. (CO, Grolier's Amer. Acad. Enc./ Albania) -168 nend Syria?s Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes ruled over Israel and tried to outlaw Judaism. He tried to Hellenize the Jews by erecting idols. The Jews resisted and began the Maccabean revolt. The Maccabees were successful until internal dissension tore them apart. (eawc, p.15)(PC, 1992 ed, p.27) -167 nend Antiochus IV, the Hellenistic tyrant of the what later became called the Middle East, began to increase religious persecution against the Jews in Palestine and outlawed observance of the Torah. This included the circumcision of males, dietary restrictions and observance of the Sabbath. He installed a cult of Zeus in the Temple in Jerusalem. The Jewish priest Mattathias of Modin defied Antiochus, escaped outside Lydda with his 5 sons and began a revolt. (WSJ, 12/11/98, p.W15)(PC, 1992 ed, p.27) -167 nend Rome presented to Athens the island of Delos, whose prosperous slave and commodities market brought large profits. (WSJ, 12/26/97, p.A7) -165 nend Romans captured King Gent of Illyria and sent him to Rome. Illyria went under Roman control. (www, Albania, 1998) -165 nend Jerusalem and sacred temple of Judah were recaptured by the Maccabees. They used guerrilla tactics and elephants as tanks to throw off the tyranny of the Greco-Syrian oppressors. During the cleanup they found one container of the sacred oil used to light the temple's candelabra known as a menorah. They gathered to light the oil which was expected to last only a day, but lasted eight nights. The event was memorialized in the celebration of Hanukkah (rededication), the Feast of Lights. [see 164BC] (SFC,12/10/97, Z1 p.4)(SFC,12/23/97, p.A13)(WSJ, 11/27/98, p.W8) -164 nend Ptolemy VI Philometor went to Rome and left Egypt under the rule of his brother Ptolemy VII Euergetes II Physcon. (www.crystalinks.com/ptolemaic.html) -164 nend The Temple of Jerusalem was recaptured by forces under Judah Maccabee, religious traditionalists from the countryside. [see 165BC] The restoration of Jewish law was also a victory over Jewish factions who wanted to turn Jerusalem to a city modeled after the Greek pagan city-states. (WSJ, 12/11/98, p.W15) -163 -145 Ptolemy VI Philometor was called back to Egypt and agreed to split their rule. Physcon assumed rule of the western province of Cyrenaica and Philometor ruled Egypt. (www.crystalinks.com/ptolemaic.html) -161 nend Elara (b.235BC), Tamil king (205BC-161BC), died. He ruled Sri Lanka from the ancient capital of Anuradhapura. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elara_(monarch)) -161 -137 The legendary King Duthagamani ruled Sri Lanka. He began construction of the Ruvanvali stupa. His brother Saddhatissa completed the project. (Arch, 7/02, p.34) -160 -125 Hipparchus, Greek mathematician and astronomer, often called the father of modern astronomy. He attempted to calculate the distance to the moon and the sun. His estimate for the distance to the moon was 67r vs. the modern value of 60.267r. He estimated the sun to be 37 times farther than the moon and at least 12 times greater in diameter than the Earth. His figures were accepted for 17 centuries until the invention of the telescope and precise astronomical instruments. Together with Ptolemy he graded the visible stars into six magnitudes. The first magnitude was comprised of about 20 of the brightest stars. He compiled a stellar catalogue in Alexandria which shows the position of 1080 stars. [see 190BC] (SCTS, p.7-8,137,142) -160 -220 The Weerdinge Couple, 2 men dating to this period, were found in a Holland bog in 1904. (AM, 7/97, p.66) -156 -141 In China Han Ching-ti ruled the Han Dynasty. (eawc, p.15) -155 213 Some evidence has it that the Ark of the Covenant was brought to Ethiopia during this period. The 1992 book "The Sign and the Seal" by Graham Hancock presents the evidence. (SFC, 1/31/98, p.A18) -154 nend In China Han Ching-ti wrote the laws of inheritance that made all sons co-heirs of their father's estate. (eawc, p.15) c -150 nend Agora's Stoa of Attalos, a massive colonnaded monument at the foot of the Acropolis, was dedicated by King Attalos of Pergamon. (AP, 4/16/03) c -150 nend The craft of paper making was developed in China around this time. Paper was made by soaking flattened plant fibers and then allowing them to dry on a screen. (ATC, p.89) c -150 nend Cival was a large and sophisticated Mayan city of some 10,000 people. (USAT, 5/11/04, p.7D) -150 nend In 2005 archaeologists at the San Bartolo site in Guatemala led by Guatemalan Monica Pellecer Alecio found the oldest known Maya royal burial, from around 150 BC. Excavating beneath a small pyramid, that team found a burial complex that included ceramic vessels and the bones of a man, with a jade plaque, the symbol of Maya royalty, on his chest. (AP, 12/14/05) -150 -100 In 1901 pieces of an ancient Greek calculating machine, called the Antikythera Mechanism, were discovered by sponge divers exploring the remains of a shipwreck off the tiny island of Antikythera. Radiocarbon dating suggested it was built around 65 BC, but in 2006 newly revealed lettering on the machine indicate a slightly older construction date of 150 to 100 BC. In 2008 researchers said the device, which originally contained 37 gears, included the cycle of the Greek Olympics. (http://tinyurl.com/y255xr)(SFC, 7/31/08, p.A15) -150 200 In Oman triliths, small, 3-stone monuments, were set in rows in the Mahra tribal territory. Many were inscribed with an undeciphered south Arabic script. The Mahra and Shahra are Semitic, non-Arabic speaking tribes in the Dhofar Mountains that even today control much of the frankincense region. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.53) 149 -146 Rome and Carthage fought the 3rd Punic War that resulted in the total defeat of Carthage. All inhabitants of Carthage were sold into slavery and the city was burned to the ground. As a result of the Punic wars Rome expanded its empire to cover Spain, North Africa, Greece, Asia Minor and Egypt. (eawc, p.15)(HNQ, 8/9/00) -146 nend Roman forces breached the walls of Carthage. All inhabitants were sold into slavery. The city was burned to the ground and the land was sown with salt. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.174)(NG, 8/04, p.46) -146 -30 All Hellenistic territory became subject to Rome over this period. (eawc, p.15) -146 -30 Roman civilization as a result of the Punic Wars witnessed a series of cultural conflicts and assassinations. (eawc, p.15) -145 nend In China Su-ma Ch'ien, the historian and author of the "Records of the Historian," was born. He included social and economic consideration in his history but mentioned nothing of Han Wu-ti and his administration. He was eventually castrated by Wu-ti after writing an apology on behalf of the Hsiung Nu. He died around 90BC. (eawc, p.15) -141 nend Wu Di (15) became China's 5th Han emperor. (NG, Feb, 04, p.14) -141 nend The Romans incorporated Macedonia as a province. (AM, 11/00, p.12) -137 nend Dutugemunu, Sinhalese king of Sri Lanka (161BC to 137 BC), died. He gained rule after defeating Elara, a Tamil usurper from India. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutugamunu) -133 nend China's Emperor Wu Di declared war on the Xiongnu, a nomadic people in northwest China. (NG, Feb, 04, p.15) -133 nend In Rome Tiberius Gracchus was elected as tribune. He and his brother, elected in 123BC, strove for reforms in the Roman Republic, but failed due to the conservative customs of the upper class and their resistance to change. Marius and Sulla, 2 military leaders, followed the attempts of the Gracchi. (eawc, p.15) -133 nend Attalus III of Pergamon bequeathed his kingdom to Rome. It became the province of Asia. (AM, 11/00, p.12) -130 nend The Huns pushed the Kushan and Scythian nomads west across the Central Asian steppes. (NG, March 1990, p.63) -130 nend The Great Silk Road opened from China to the West. (WH, 1994, p.13) -123 nend In Rome Gaius Gracchus was elected as tribune. [see 133BC] (eawc, p.15) -123 nend The Romans won a victory over the Gauls near a 3,000 foot peak that was named Mt. Sainte-Victoire in commemoration. It established a marker between civilization and barbarism. (WSJ, 2/13/04, p.A12) c -119 nend The Huns invaded China. (ATC, p.33) -117 nend In China the original salt monopoly was set up during the Han dynasty. (WSJ, 6/20/01, p.A1) -116 -27 Marcus Terentius Varro, a Roman scholar and author. (AM, 11/00, p.78)(WUD, 1994 p.1581) -113 nend The army of John Hyrcanus, leader of the Hasmonean rulers in Judea, burns down a Samaritan Temple and the surrounding city. The temple is thought to be copy of the Second Temple of Jerusalem. Archeologists in 1995 find stone fragments inscribed with the Ten Commandments written in the Samaritan script, similar to an ancient form of Hebrew known as Paleo-Hebrew. (SFC, 5/23/95, p.A-10) -108 -62 Catiline, tyrant of Rome. He was defeated by Cicero. This was a period when civil conflict had become epidemic. (V.D.-H.K.p.75) -106 nend Jan 3, Marcus Cicero (d.43BC), Roman orator, statesman and author, was born. He was elected Consul in 63. He chose to support Pompey over Caesar and was murdered by Mark Antony: "What is more unwise than to mistake uncertainty for certainty, falsehood for truth?" (V.D.-H.K.p.74)(AP, 4/10/98)(HN, 1/3/99) -106 -48 Pompey. He was a rival to Caesar for Roman power. no_source -105 nend The Jihong Bridge across the Lancang River in Yunnan, China, was built. It linked 2 portions of the Southern Silk Road. (SFEC, 10/6/96, T5) -105 nend The heart of ancient Numidia lay in the eastern region of what is now Algeria in Northern Africa. The Numidians were originally nomadic horsemen. They were defeated by Roman troops in the Jugurthine War in 105 BC and conquered by Rome in 46 BC. The Vandals and Byzantines ruled successively before Arabs conquered the area in the seventh century AD. Jugurtha was the king of Numidia. (HNQ, 6/2/98)(SFC, 2/12/02, p.D3) -104 nend Rome faced a slave retaliation in Sicily. (eawc, p.15) c -100 nend Jul 12, Gaius Julius Caesar (d.44BC), Roman general and statesman, was born. (WUD, 1994 p.208)(AP, 7/12/97)(HN, 7/12/98) c -100 nend Camulodunum (later Colchester in southeastern England) was established about this time as a fortress dedicated to the Celtic god of war. (Arch, 7/02, p.46) c -100 nend The Bantu-speaking people began expanding and moving southeast. It is thought that they originated in the Congo basin (now Zaire) or the mountains of Cameroon. They used iron, grew millet and kept goats. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.169) -100 nend The Greek poet Meleager gathered a collection of poems in his ?anthologia? (The Greek Anthology). (WSJ, 11/15/08, p.W10) -100 nend In 2005 archaeologist William Saturno said he was awe-struck when he uncovered a Maya mural not seen for nearly two millennia. Discovered at the San Bartolo site in Guatemala, the mural covers the west wall of a room attached to a pyramid. (AP, 12/14/05) c -100 nend The Shilla Dynasty began in southeastern Korea and grew to become a top-heavy feudal system that covered most of South Korea for almost 900 years. (SFEM, 6/20/99, p.6) c -100 nend The community situated on an island in the Seine River was known by the Romans in the first century BC as Lutetia. At the time, it was occupied by the Gallic tribe called Parisii. As the city grew into a Roman trading center, it came to be known as Paris. (HNQ, 4/18/02) c -100 nend The area around Palenque (Mexico) was 1st occupied. (SSFC, 5/5/02, p.C5) -100 -1 A Roman fortified citadel was built about this time in Moldova. It may have protected a town occupied by a late-era Sarmatian king. (SFC, 1/28/97, p.A5) -100 -1 The painted cave of Naj Tunich in the Peten of Guatemala began attracting pilgrims. (AM, 7/97, p.52) c -100 -1 Diodorus Siculus, Greek historian of the late 1st century. (WUD, 1994 p.405)(AM, 7/01, p.31) -100 100 The Mayan site of Palenque was settled by farmers over this period. (SSFC, 12/7/03, p.C10) -100 500 The Hopewell Mounds of Ohio were erected by a mound building culture of this period that dominated the eastern US. (AM, adv. circular, p.2) -100 668 The Three Kingdoms era of Korea. (SFC, 7/26/97, p.E3) -100 1300 This represents the time period of the Anasazi culture of northern Arizona, New Mexico, southern Utah and Colorado. (WUD, 1994, p.53) -96 -81 The Circus of Domitian was built in Rome. It later became the Piazza Navona. (SFEC, 7/2/00, p.T5) -95 -55 The Artaxiad King Tigranes I extends the Armenian state from Georgia in the north to Mesopotamia and Syria in the south. (CO Enc. / Armenia) -95 -51 T. Lucretius Carus author of the epic poem "On the Nature of Things", about the science of physics, yet dedicated to pleasure. He was a devoted follower of Epicurus. (V.D.-H.K.p.70) -94 -56 Tigranes (Dikran) the Great, a scion of the Eastern Dynasty, ruled. He welded the two Armenian satrapies into one kingdom, and so created the first strong native sovereignty that the country had known since the fall of Urartu five centuries before. (http://raven.cc.ukans.edu/~kansite/ww_one/docs/bryce2.htm) -90 nend After centuries of decline, Etruscans become Roman citizens. (NG, 6/1988, p.711) -89 nend Roman general Cornelius Sulla sacked Clusium, the Etruscan capital. (Econ, 11/6/04, p.85) -89 -80 Mithridates, ruler of Pontus in the north of Asia Minor, made war on Rome and overran much of Asia Minor and parts of Greece. The Athenians joined Mithridates and was consequently besieged by the Roman Gen'l. Sulla. (WSJ, 12/26/97, p.A7) -87 nend Chinese Emperor Wu Di died. Sima Qian, historian of the era, had been castrated by Wu Di for daring to stand in support of a disgraced general. (NG, Feb, 04, p.21) -87 nend Haley's comet was observed. (NG, Aug., 1974, K.F. Weaver p.223) c -81 -30 Mark Antony had Cicero murdered. He cut off his hands and had them nailed to the senate rostrum as a warning to other men who might wish to speak the truth. (V.D.-H.K.p.73) -80 nend Cicero journeyed to Greece and Asia suffering from pthisis [tuberculosis], and returned cured after 2 years. (WP, 1951, p.27) -80 -70 The Romans built the Flavian Amphiteatre and named it after the family name of Emperor Vespasian. The Colosseum could seat 50,000 spectators and had underground chambers, dens and passageways, an area known as the hypogeum. (SFC, 10/15/10, p.A5) -74 nend According to Pliny the Roman General Lucullus introduced cherries to Europe. Greeks had cultivated cherries hundreds of years before this. (SFC, 4/12/03, p.E3) -73 nend Rome faced a 2nd slave uprising in Sicily. (eawc, p.15) -70 nend Oct 15, Virgil (d.19BC) [Vergil] (Publius Vergilius Maro), Roman poet, was born in Mantua. He wrote about the mythical founding of Rome in the Aeneid, which told the legend of Rome's founder and was considered a national epic. (V.D.-H.K.p.60)(HN, 10/15/98)(AMNHDT, 5/98) -70 -15 Vitruvius, author of De Architecture, translated to Italian in 1531. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) -69 nend Cleopatra (d.30BC), daughter of Ptolemy XII, was born. She was queen of Egypt from 51BC-49BC, 48BC-30BC. During her reign she declared earthworms to be sacred and her subjects were forbidden to kill them. (WUD, 1994, p.276)(WSJ, 9/9/96, p.A16)(SFC, 10/29/98, p.A13) -69 nend The Roman Gen'l. Lucullus experienced an attack by the Samosatans with a flammable mud called maltha (semisolid petroleum and gases). The event was later recorded by Pliny the Elder (23-79CE), a Roman naturalist. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.57) -66 nend Tigranes I, King of Armenia was forced to become a tributary of Rome. (CO Enc. / Armenia) -65 nend Dec 8, Quintus "Horace" Horatius Flaccus (d.8 BC), Roman poet and satirist best known for his three books "Odes," was born. "Drop the question what tomorrow may bring, and count as profit every day that Fate allows you." (HN, 12/8/98)(AP, 11/4/00) -64 nend The Greek settlement of Seleucia (in southeastern Turkey) was conquered and ruled by the Roman Empire and with this shift the name of the city was changed into Zeugma, meaning "bridge-passage" or "bridge of boats." (Arch, 9/02, p.62)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeugma_(city)) -63 nend Sep 23, Caesar Augustus (63BC-14CE) was born in Rome. Augustus, first emperor of Rome, ended the era of the Roman Republic and introduced the Pax Romana, the era of peace. Augustus held power but shared administrative tasks with the Senate, consuls, and tribunes who continued to be elected: "Make haste slowly." (V.D.-H.K.p.63)(AP, 9/23/97)(AP, 11/20/97)(HN, 9/23/98) -63 nend Cicero was elected Consul of Rome. During this time he suppressed a conspiracy to murder the entire Senate. (WSJ, 6/11/02, p.D7) -63 nend The Romans conquer the Jews The Jews appealed to Pompey to settle internal dissention. The Romans intervened and began their occupation of Palestine. (V.D.-H.K.p.102)(eawc, p.15) -63 nend Caesar's troops plundered Terena in Portugal's Alentejo province. (SSFC, 9/29/02, p.C11) -61 nend Jul 7, Commagene, a small kingdom of the upper Euphrates, under the reign of King Antiochus, had a citadel area in front of which a lion was sculpted in relief with recognizable constellations on or near the lion's body. Prof. Otto Neugebauer of Brown Univ. studied the marks and identified the date of the sculpture. (K.I.-365D, p.127)(NG., Mar., 1961, pp.390-405) -59 -52 Caesar?s legions battled the Gallo-Celtic tribesmen of King Vercingetorix in northern Burgundy. (SSFC, 12/5/04, p.F4) -55 nend Aug 26, Roman forces under Julius Caesar invaded Britain. 80 war galleys with some ten thousand foot soldiers prevailed over the native Britons. (AP, 8/26/97)(ON, 6/09, p.6) -55 nend Pompey dedicated his theater, the first to be constructed of stone in Rome. (RFH-MDHP, p.214) -54 nend Jul, Roman forces under Julius Caesar invaded Britain for a 2nd time. He was accompanied by Mandubracius, an exiled British chieftain. The expedition of 10,000 foot soldiers and 2,00 cavalry was followed by a number of privately owned vessels commissioned by Roman merchants eager to take advantage of Caesar?s anticipated victory. (ON, 6/09, p.7) -54 nend The Eburons, A Belgian tribe under the command of their King Ambiorix, won a victory against the Roman Legion. (http://www.trabel.com/tongeren-history.htm) -54 nend The Romans under Julius Caesar fought the first skirmishes with the Celts in England. British chieftain Cassivellaunus, who had killed the father of Mandubracius, led a guerilla style war against Caesar?s legions. Caesar?s forces prevailed and Cassivellaunus agreed not to make was against Mandubracius. (SFEC, 6/22/97, BR p.3)(ON, 6/09, p.7) -54 nend Gaius Valerius Catullus (b.~84BC), Roman poet, died about this time. He became famous for his epicurean lifestyle and erotic poems. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catullus)(Econ, 2/23/08, p.103) -54 -52 The Gauls rose in revolt against Caesar. (ON, 6/09, p.7) -53 nend Sep 23, Augustus, the first Roman emperor, or Caesar, was born. His ascension to the title of emperor marked the end of true Roman democracy, even though the Senate survived for generations. [see 63BC] (MC, 9/23/01) -53 nend Caesar claimed to have wiped out the Celtic Eburones after they conspired with other groups in an attack that killed 6,000 Roman soldiers. The Eburones lived in an area that later came be known as part of Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands. (AP, 11/14/08)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eburones) -53 nend The Persians defeated the Romans in the Battle of Carrhae. Some 20,000 Romans under Crassus were killed by the Parthian army and 10,000 were captured. The Parthians then used the Romans as guards on their eastern frontier in what later became Turkmenistan. (ATC, p.33)(HC, 9/3/04)(Econ, 12/18/04, p.59) -52 nend Pompey dedicated his Temple of Venus Victrix. (RFH-MDHP, p.214) c -52 nend Cicero defended Titus Milo for the murder of Publius Clodius. The setting is the background for the historical detective novel: "A Murder on the Appian Way" by Steven Saylor. (SFC, 6/3/96, p.E5) -52 nend Caesar climaxed his conquest of Gaul at Alesia in northern Burgundy where he vanquished Celtic forces under Vercingetorix. (NGM, 5/77)(SFEC, 11/21/99, p.T4) -51 -49 Cleopatra was queen of Egypt from 51BC-49BC and 48BC-30BC. (WUD, 1994, p.276) -50 nend Jun-Aug, In Egypt the "Zodiac of Dendera," a map of the stars of this period, was carved in stone. It is now in the French Louvre. (WSJ, 1/29/98, p.A16) -50 nend Virgil first described the Damask Rose. (TGR, 1995, p.3) -50 nend Maastricht, Netherlands, began as a Roman settlement. (SSFC, 2/20/05, p.F2) -49 nend Jan 11, Julius Caesar led his army across the Rubicon, plunging Rome into civil war. [see Jan 12, Mar 10] (HN, 1/11/99) -49 nend Jan 12, Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon River signaling a war between Rome and Gaul. [see Jan 11, Mar 10] (HN, 1/12/99) -49 nend Mar 10, Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon and invaded Italy. The event was noted by Suetonius in the phrase: "The die is cast." [see Jan 11] (SFEC,12/14/97, BR p.5)(HN, 3/10/98) -49 nend Mauretania (now northern Morocco and Algeria) became a client kingdom of Rome. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.22) -48 nend Aug 9, Julius Caesar defeated Gnaius Pompey at Pharsalus. (HN, 8/9/98) -48 nend Sep 28, On landing in Egypt, Pompey was murdered on the orders of King Ptolemy of Egypt. (HN, 9/28/98)(MC, 9/28/01) -48 nend The library at Alexandria was ravaged by fire during the fighting between Caesar and Ptolemy XIII. (WSJ, 6/1/00, p.A1)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria) -47 nend Aug 2, Caesar defeated Pharnaces at Zela in Syria and declares "veni, vidi, vici," (I came, I saw, I conquered). (HN, 8/2/98) -47 nend Julius Caesar adopted a modified form of the Egyptian Calendar. Together with Sosigenes, an astronomer from Alexandria, the new calendar spreads the last 5-6 days of the Egyptian calendar amongst alternate months. March 1 began the year as a carry over from the old Roman calendar. (K.I.-365D, p.84) -46 nend Caesar's calendar went into effect at the time of the first new moon after the winter solstice. (K.I.-365D, p.86)(AM, 11/04, p.9) -46 nend The heart of ancient Numidia lay in the eastern region of what is now Algeria in Northern Africa. They were conquered by Rome in 46 BC. The Vandals and Byzantines ruled successively before Arabs conquered the area in the seventh century CE. (HNQ, 6/2/98) -45 nend Jan 1, The Julian calendar took effect. (MC, 1/1/02) -45 nend Feb 29, The first Leap Day was recognized by proclamation of Julius Caesar. Under the old Roman calendar the last day of February was the last day of the year. (HN, 2/29/00) -45 nend Mar, Caesar defeated the least of his rivals and was proclaimed dictator for life. (ON, 6/09, p.7) c -45 nend Colonia Julia Equestris, a Roman veterans' colony, was founded in what is now Nyon, Switzerland. Nyon is derived from the Celtic name Noviodunum. (AM, Jul/Aug '97 p.10) -44 nend Mar 15, Roman Emperor Julius Caesar (b.100BC) was murdered by Brutus, Cassius and other conspirators on the Ides of March. Caesar had defeated Pompey in battle and had Pompey murdered in 48BC. He was perceived as a big threat to the Roman Aristocracy and so his murder was supported by Cicero and most Romans. In 2006 Adrian Goldsworthy authored ?Caesar: Life of a Colossus.? (ATC, p.24)(AP, 3/15/97)(WSJ, 10/24/06, p.D6) -44 nend Quintilis, the fifth month was changed to Julius in honor of Julius Caesar. A bright comet was declared by the Romans to be the soul of Julius Caesar ascending to join the gods. (SFC, 3/28/97, p.A12) -44 nend Caesar began building a colony at Butrint, Albania. Titus Pomponius Atticus described the area as "the quietest, coolest, most pleasant place in the world." (Reuters, 6/13/06) -43 nend Mar 20, Ovid (d.17?18CE), Publius Ovidius Naso, Roman poet, was born. His writings included: "The Art of Love." (WUD, 1994, p.1032)(SFEC, 12/22/96, Z1 p.2)(HN, 3/20/01) -43 nend Apr 21, Marcus Antonius was defeated by Octavian near Modena, Italy. (HN, 4/21/99) -43 nend Nov 27, Octavian, Antony and Lepidus formed the triumvirate of Rome. (HN, 11/27/98) -43 nend Dec 7, Cicero (b.106BC), considered one of the greatest sons of Rome was assassinated on the orders of Marcus Antonius. Cicero, elected Consul in 63, had chosen to support Pompey over Caesar. He translated Greek works that they might be understood by his fellow Romans, and tried to apply Greek ethical thought to Roman business and politics. His last work was "On Duties," where he propounds a common solution to all social problems i.e. "Always do the right thing... that which is legal... that which is honest, open and fair...keeping your word... telling the truth... and treating everyone alike. In 2002 Anthony Everitt authored "Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome?s Greatest Politician," a biography based on his letters. In 2006 Robert Harris authored ?Imperium,? a novel that covers Cicero?s early courtroom feats. (V.D.-H.K.p.74)(HN, 12/7/98)(WSJ, 6/11/02, p.D7)(WSJ, 11/10/06, p.W4) -42 nend Oct 23, Marcus Junius Brutus, a leading conspirator in the assassination of Julius Caesar, committed suicide after his defeat at the Battle of Philippi. Octavian and Mark Antony defeated Brutus and Cassius at Philippi in Macedonia. (WUD, 1994, p.1081)(MC, 10/23/01) -42 nend Nov 16, Tiberius Claudius Nero (d.37CE, Roman Emperor, was born. Tiberius was chosen by Augustus in 4CE as emperor of Rome. (V.D.-H.K.p.77) (HN, 11/16/98) -37 nend King Herod (d.4BC) reigned over Judea. During his reign underground support structures were built for an expansion of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. The Wall of King Herod's Second Temple is the famed "Wailing Wall." (SFC, 7/9/96, p.D1)(SFC, 10/10/96, p.A13)(WSJ, 4/9/97, p.A10) -37 nend Virgil (b.70BC), Roman poet, authored the 4th of his Eclogues. This included text regarding the newborn son of Consul Polio in which Virgil said the child would initiate a golden age in which lion and lamb would lie together amid peace and plenty. Early Christians took this as a prediction of Christ. (WSJ, 12/29/07, p.W12) -37 448 The Koguryo kingdom straddled what is now North Korea and part of South Korea and the northeastern Chinese region of Manchuria. It spread Buddhism throughout the region. (AP, 2/1/04) -37 668 The Koguryo kingdom (Gaogouli in Chinese) flourished during this time. At its height the territory stretched from central Manchuria to south of Seoul, Korea. It was later taught to be one of Korea?s three founding kingdoms. (Econ, 3/31/07, SR p.8) -33 nend Agrippa called for the construction an aqueduct, 500 fountains and 700 basins for central Rome. (SFEC, 7/2/00, p.T4) -32 nend Pompey's theater was damaged in a storm and repaired by Augustus who especially noted that in repairing it he nowhere recorded his own name. (RFH-MDHP, p.214) -32 nend A Roman coin dating from this time bore the images of Cleopatra on one side and Marc Antony on the reverse. It represented one three hundredth of a Roman soldier's salary and was probably minted to pay the wages of those stationed in Egypt. (AFP, 2/14/07) -32 -23 Octavian ruled as Consul over Rome by self election. no_source -31 nend Sep 2, The Naval Battle of Actium in the Ionian Sea, between Roman leader Octavian and the alliance of Roman Mark Antony and Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. Octavian soundly defeated Antony's fleet which was burned and 5000 of his men were killed. Cleopatra committed suicide. The rivals battled for control of the Roman Empire in the naval battle of Actium, where Cleopatra, seeing Antony's navy being outmaneuvered by Octavian's, ordered her 60 ships to turn about and flee to safety. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.18)(HNPD, 7/30/98)(MC, 9/2/01) c -31 nend Augustus founded the city of Nikopolis in Epirus (northwestern Greece) to commemorate his victory over Antony and Cleopatra at Actium. (AM, Jul-Aug/99, p.10) -31 nend Rome under Emperor Augustus annexed the Carthage territory. (SSFC, 12/10/00, p.T8) -31 nend An earthquake occurred at the Qumran caves by the Dead Sea when Herod ruled in Jerusalem. This was the site where fragments of scrolls from the books of Psalms and Numbers were later found, as well as a human skeleton beneath boulders from the earthquake. (SFC,12/9/97, p.A9) -30 nend Jul 30, Mark Antony, lover of the Egyptian queen Cleopatra VII and claimant to the Roman throne, stabbed himself when faced with certain defeat at the hands of his rival Octavian. Antony expected to be named the heir to Rome after the assassination of his friend and confidant Julius Caesar, but had not counted on Caesar naming his adopted son Octavian as his successor. Shaken by his loss at Actium and abandoned by his allies, Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra followed him in death shortly afterward when she allowed herself to be bitten by a venomous asp. (HNPD, 7/30/98) -30 nend Aug 30, Cleopatra, the 7th and most famous queen of ancient Egypt, committed suicide about this time. (AP, 8/30/97) -30 nend Rome gained control over Egypt. The wheat fields of Egypt became one of Rome's main sources of food. Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.168)(SFC, 11/4/96, p.A11) -30 nend Construction began on the Temple of Isis in Sabratha, Libya. It was completed in 14CE. (SSFC, 6/27/04, p.D12) -29 nend Cicero complained that "Two of my shops have fallen down... The tenants have fled... Even the mice have migrated." [see 43BC] (SFEC, 9/28/97, Z1 p.2) -28 nend Oct 9, The Temple of Apollo was dedicate on the Palatine Hill in Rome. (HN, 10/9/98) -28 nend In Rome the mausoleum of Emperor Augustus(d.14AD) was built. (WSJ, 6/23/07, p.P16) -27 nend An earthquake hit Egypt and devastated the temple of Amenhotep III in Luxor, which dated to about 1389. (AP, 4/26/11) -27 nend The Roman senatorial province of Achaea was established. It comprised all of Greece south of Thessaly. (AHD, 1971, p.10) -27 14 Octavian, adopted son of Julius Caesar ruled as Rome's first emperor. He was given the name Augustus (revered or exalted one) and put an end to the chaos and power struggles that had occurred after Caesar's assassination. He also expanded the empire by conquering the territory that ran along the Rhine and Danube rivers. (ATC, p.26) -25 nend Augustus received two trade groups from India. (ATC, p.33) -25 nend Strabo, a geographer and scholar from Alexandria, made the most comprehensive map of the known world. (SFC, 12/1/98, p.A10) -19 nend Sep 20, The Roman poet Virgil (Publius Vergilius Maro, b.70BC) died. His epic "The Aeneid" became one of the great classics of Western literature. The story it tells runs from the end of the Trojan War to the start of the Roman Empire. (WUD, 1994 p.1587)(MC 9/20/01) -19 nend Agrippa had the Aqua Virgo built in Rome. (SFEC, 7/2/00, p.T4) -19 nend A wine jug bearing reference to King Herod was found in an ancient garbage dump near the synagogue at Masada, Israel. The cone-shaped, two-handled jug held about 20 gallons of wine and had been shipped from Italy. (SFC, 7/9/96, p.D1) -19 nend Lucius Cornelius Balbus led 20,000 men of the 3rd Augusta Legion across the Hamada al-Hamra (Red Rocky Plain) in the first Roman attack on the Garamantian heartland (Libya). Romans turned Ghadames, Libya, into a garrison town. (Arch, 9/02, p.48)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garamantes)(SSFC,6/27/04, p.D12) -16 nend Flying Swallow (16) became empress to China's Emperor Cheng. (NG, Feb, 04, p.12) -15 nend King Herod of Judea built the coastal settlement of Caesarea. It was razed to the ground in 1265. (Econ, 4/24/04, p.83) -12 nend Aug 31, Caligula (Gaius Caesar), 3rd Roman emperor (37-41 CE), was born. (YN, 8/31/99) -10 nend Aug 1, Claudius (d.54CE)., Roman Emperor, was born. Tiberius Claudius Nero Caesar Drusus, the nephew of Tiberius and grandson of the wife of Augustus, was made emperor after Caligula. (HN, 8/1/98) -9 nend The Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace), ordered by Augustus Caesar, was constructed in Rome. In 2005 the Museum of the Ara Pacis opened in Rome. (WSJ, 6/23/07, p.P16) -8 nend Augustus, emperor of the Roman Empire. The Roman Senate changed the name of the month Sextilis to Augustus, and an extra day was added while subtracting a day from February. (K.I.-365D, p.89) -8 nend Augustus Caesar ordered a census under the consulship of Gaius Censorinus and Gaius Asinius. 4,233,000 Roman citizens were counted. (www.biblehistory.net/volume2/Quirinius.htm) -8 nend Horace (b.65BC), Roman poet, died. In 2002 J.D. McClatchy edited "Horace: The Odes, New Translations by Contemporary Poets. (SSFC, 12/29/02, p.M2) c -7 nend Dionysius of Helicarnassus, Greek rhetorician and historian in Rome, died. He said that history is philosophy learned from examples. (WUD, 1994, p.405)(Nat. Hist., 3/96, p.75) -6 nend Apr 17, Jupiter was in a rare alignment with the constellation Aries and marked an important date for ancient astrologers. Jesus was believed to have been born in this year. (SFC, 4/13/01, p.C1) -6 -4 Publius Quinctilius Varus served as Roman governor of Syria. (http://www.rovenet.com/tno/tacitus%20named%20officials/varus.html) c -5 65 Seneca, Roman statesman: "Malice drinks one-half of its own poison." (AP, 6/8/98) c -4 nend The Second Temple in Jerusalem was rebuilt a few years before the birth of Jesus under King Herod. Jerusalem at this time had a population of about 100,000 people. (SFC, 8/28/96, p.A10) -4 nend Publius Sulpicius Quirinus served as Roman governor of Cilicia, which was annexed to Syria. (www.botcw.com/bible/kjv/easton/east0953.htm) -4 nend King Herod the Great died. He governed Judea from 37BC. (SFC, 6/26/00, p.A12) -4 nend Lucius Annaeus Seneca (d.65) (aka Seneca the younger), Roman intellectual, was born in Spain. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger) -4 40 Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great, tetrarch of Galilee for this period. He examined Jesus at the request of Pilate. He executed John the Baptist. Pontius Pilate served as governor of the island of Ponza before he was made procurator of Judea. (AHD, 1971, p.618, 706)(SFEC, 11/8/98, p.T12) -3 nend Sep 14, Jupiter appeared to pass very close to the star Regulus, "the King's Star." (SSFC, 12/23/01, Par p.9) -3 -2 Astronomical events occurred at this time and coincided with the probable birth of Jesus Christ. During the conjunctions of 3BC, Jupiter, the King Planet, came into contact with the King Star, Leo the Lion, which was also the sign for the Jewish tribe of Judah. (SFEC, 2/16/97, p.A16) -2 nend Feb 17, Jupiter again appeared to pass very close to the star Regulus, "the King's Star." (SSFC, 12/23/01, Par p.9) -2 nend May 8, Jupiter appeared to pass very close to the star Regulus, "the King's Star" for a 3rd time in recent months. (SSFC, 12/23/01, Par p.9) -2 nend Jun 17, Jupiter and Venus drew close together and appeared to fuse as a single star. This was later thought to be the Biblical star of Bethlehem. (SSFC, 12/23/01, Par p.92BC Heratosthene of Greece drew a map that showed 3 continentsabout equal in size labeled: Europe, Asia and Libya. (SFEC, 2/15/98, Z1 p.8) -2 nend The Maccabeans built an aqueduct in Jerusalem. (SFC, 9/26/96, p.A10) -1 nend Mar 1, Start of the revised Julian calendar in Rome. (SC, 3/1/02) 1 nend Dec 25, The celebrated birth of Christ in Bethlehem. The birth of Jesus is celebrated on Dec. 25th because the Romans needed to replace the pagan holiday called the Feast of the Unconquered Sun. In Ethiopia Jan 7 is the day that Christmas is celebrated. According to the gospel of Matthew, Joseph soon fled with his family to Egypt following a decree by Herod that ordered all boys of Bethlehem under age 2 to be put to death. The gospels of Luke and Matthew are inconsistent on historical facts. Christ?s birth on this day was officially set by the Roman Church in 336AD. [see 6-2BCE] (SFC, 12/4/94, p. S-4)(SFC, 8/2/99, p.A10)(Econ, 1/1/05, p.38) 1 nend As long as 2,000 years ago, a Native Indian People later known as the Cherokee, lived in the area of the Southern Appalachians who had probably split from the Iroquois about this time. (NG, 5/95, p.78) c 1 nend Stone forts were built on the 3 Aran islands: Inishmore, Inishmaan, and Isisheer, whose total area was 18 sq. miles. The islands are on the west coast of Ireland at the mouth of Galway Bay. (SFEC, 1/23/00, T8,9) c 1 nend The 2000 year-old city of Dujiangyan, perched on the hills where the River Min leaves the Tibetan highlands for the Sichuan plain, was founded. (SFC,12/26/97, p.A18) c 1 nend In Laos stone jars at the Plain of Jars that measured on average 10-feet high and 9-feet wide are believed to be 2,000 years old and to have been used for burials. Only 300 jars are intact due to the bombing during the 1960s Vietnam War. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.E) c 1 nend The Mayan city of La Milpa was founded. (SFC, 6/23/96, p.A10) c 1 nend Ceramic cups are found in Karanog graves of Nubia that depict a herdsman with his dog and cattle, a face with scarification patterns on the forehead, and eye-motifs. (MT, 10/95, p.10-11) c 1 nend Nazca, Peru. The Owl Man was dug out of a dry hillside with one arm pointing to the sky and the other to earth. (NG, March 1990, J.B. Carlson, p.76) c 1 nend Settlers began arriving to Madagascar from Polynesia (SFC, 6/23/96, zone 1 p.5) c 1 30 The life of Jesus Christ. In 1998 "The Acts of Jesus -- What Did Jesus Really Do? The Search for the Authentic Jesus" was published with translation and commentary by Robert W. Funk, director of the Westar Institute and The Jesus Seminar. In 2001 Philip Jenkins authored "Hidden Gospels: How the Search for Jesus Lost Its Way," in which he examines the motives and methodologies of radical biblical scholars. (SFEM, 4/19/98, p.6)(WSJ, 4/30/01, p.A16) 1 100 The first century CE Villa dei Papiri by the Bay of Naples was used as a model for the J. Paul Getty Museum of the 20th cent. on the Pacific Coast Highway of California. (Hem., Nov. '95, p.78) c 1 100 Steam engines--machines harnessing the heat energy of hot steam to perform work--date to the steam turbine invented by Hero of Alexandria in the 1st century CE called the aeolipile. However, the aeolipile was regarded as a curiosity demonstrating a mechanical principle and was not developed into a practical engine. (HNQ, 1/18/01) 1 100 A Teutonic tribe known as the Frisians (or Friesians) settled in what is now the Netherlands in the first century A.D. (HNQ, 3/5/00) c 1 100 Hungary was the Roman province of Pannonia and Pecs was the capital. (Hem., 6/98, p.128) 1 100 Christianity came to Illyrian populated areas. (www, Albania, 1998) 1 100 The first century Greek physician, Dioscorides, recommended the use of orchid tubers as an aphrodisiac. (NH, 4/97, p.77) 1 100 The 1st century Roman gourmet, Marcus Gavius Apicius, was thought to be the writer of the earliest known cookbook. (SFEC, 4/16/00, Z1 p.2) 1 100 Quintus Curtius Rufus, Roman historian, wrote a Latin test on the History of Alexander the Great. It was translated into French in the 15th century. (SFEC, 1/26/97 BR, p.7) 1 100 The Greek city of Berenice on the coast of Libya was acquired by the Romans. The site later became a suburb of Benghazi and was studied by British archeologist John Lloyd (d.1999) in the 1970s. (SFC, 6/15/99, p.C6) 1 300 Kushan Empire. The Kushan nomads, pushed west by Huns, united with the Scythian nomads 130 years before Christ and raged across the Central Asian steppes. When they crossed the Amu Darya (the Oxus river to Alexander the Great) they laid waste the Greco-Bactrian lands. They later rebuilt the cities they had sacked and created the great Kushan Empire on their own debris. (NG, March 1990, p.63) 1 600 In Thailand the Non Muang Kao was a moated settlement of this time. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.G) c 1 1250 The cliff-dwelling Anasazi flourished in the Four corners area of the American Southwest. (NH, 5/96, p.8) c 1 1500 Paintings were made on rock surfaces in the central mountain ranges of the Baha Peninsula by unknown native Indians. In 1997 Harry W. Crosby published "Cave Paintings of Baha California." (WSJ, 3/5/98, p.A20) 2 nend Feb 17, Jupiter again appeared to pass very close to the star Regulus, "the King?s Star." (SSFC, 12/23/01, Par p.9) 2 nend May 8, Jupiter appeared to pass very close to the star Regulus, "the King?s Star" for a 3rd time in recent months. (SSFC, 12/23/01, Par p.9) 2 nend Jun 17, Jupiter and Venus drew close together and appeared to fuse as a single star. This was later thought to be the Biblical star of Bethlehem. (SSFC, 12/23/01, Par p.9) 2 nend A Chinese census counted 57,671,400 people. (NG, Feb, 04, p.12) 2 8 Ovid wrote the "Metamorphosis." It was an epic poem that begins with the creation of the world and ends with the rise of Julius Caesar. Rolfe Humphries made a translation in 1955 that became a standard. A 1997 translation by Ted Hughes, "Tales From Ovid," retold 24 of the original 250 stories. (WSJ, 1/9/98, p.A14) 3 nend Feb 19, Sadiq Hidajat, Persian writer (Blind Person Owl), was born. (MC, 2/19/02) 3 nend Aug 12, Venus-Jupiter were in conjunction: alleged "Star of Bethlehem." [see Feb 17, May 8, Jun 17, 2CE] (MC, 8/12/02) 3 427 The Korean Kokuryo Dynasty rules over Manchuria. Its second capital is said to have been Jiban. A contemporary Chinese guidebook claims that Jiban at this time was controlled by China's Western Han Dynasty. (WSJ, 10/9/95, p.A-8) 4 nend Gaius Caesar (24), the nephew and adopted heir of Caesar Augustus, died. (WSJ, 6/23/07, p.P16) 4 nend Tiberius (42BC-37CE) was chosen by Augustus as emperor of Rome. He later banished the young Nero to the island of Ponza. (V.D.-H.K.p.77)(SFEC, 11/8/98, p.T12) c 4 nend Romans terraced the steep slopes of the Mosel River for the cultivation of grapes. (SFEC, 4/30/00, p.T8) 6 nend The Romans named Caesarea as a regional capital. (SFC, 6/18/02, p.A2) 6 nend Sulpicius Quirinius (Cyrenius), Roman governor of Syria, ordered a 2nd census of Judea. (Econ, 1/1/05, p.38)(www.biblehistory.net/volume2/Quirinius.htm) 9 nend Sep 9, Publius Quinctilius Varus (59), Roman governor of Germania (6-9CE), died of likely suicide following defeat at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest. Arminius, aka Hermann the German, had stopped a Roman advance eastward across the Rhine at the battle of Teutoburg, setting a limit on the Roman border. no_source 8 nend /7/10, p.86) no_source 9 nend Wang Mang usurped the Chinese throne and ended Han rule. (eawc, p.15)(NG, Feb, 04, p.21) 9 nend Emperor Tiberius of Rome subjugated the Illyrians and divided present day Albania between Dalmatia, Epirus, and Macedonia. (www, Albania, 1998) 12 41 Caligula (little boots, a nickname by the soldiers), Gaius Caesar. He was chosen by Tiberius as successor. (V.D.-H.K.p.77-78) 13 nend Nov 16, Tiberius made his triumphant procession through Rome after siege of Germany. (MC, 11/16/01) 14 nend Caesar Augustus died and rule passed to Tiberius. (V.D.-H.K.p.77) 15 nend May 24, Julius Caesar Germanicus, Roman commandant, was born. (MC, 5/24/02) 17 nend Jan 2, Publius Ovidius Naso, Roman poet, died. (MC, 1/2/02) 17 nend May 26, Germanicus of Rome celebrated a victory over the Germans. (HN, 5/26/98) 19 nend Oct 10, Julius Caesar Germanicus (33), Roman commandant of Rijnleger and the best loved of Roman princes, died of poisoning. On his deathbed he accused Piso, the governor of Syria, of poisoning him. (HN, 10/10/98)(MC, 10/10/01) 22 nend Sulpicius Quirinius (Cyrenius), Roman soldier and civilian governor of Syria, died. (Econ, 1/1/05, p.38)(www.biblehistory.net/volume2/Quirinius.htm) 23 nend Chinese rebels known as Red Eyebrows entered Changan and beheaded Emp. Wang Mang. Liu Xiu (Guang Wu Di), a 9th generation descendant of Emp. Liu Bang, proclaimed himself emperor and led his followers to Luoyang to begin the Eastern Han rule. (NG, Feb, 04, p.21) 23 nend Tiberius lost his son Drusus, and from then on seems to have lost interest in the Empire and occupied himself with pleasure. (V.D.-H.K.p.77) 23 24 Strabo (b.~63-64BC), Greek geographer and historian, died about this time. He had traveled to Egypt and Kush, met members of the Noba tribe, and decided to call their country Nubia. Strabo is mostly famous for his 17-volume work Geographica, which presented a descriptive history of people and places from different regions of the world known to his era. (Arch, 9/02, p.55)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabo) 23 79 Pliny the Elder, Gaius Plinius Secundus, Roman naturalist, encyclopedist and writer. He died in the eruption of Vesuvius. [see 79CE] He wrote the classic 37-volume "Natural History." "Among these things but one thing seems certain -- that nothing certain exists, and that nothing is more pitiable or more presumptuous than man." (WUD, 1994, p.1106)(SFC, 9/1/97, p.A2)(AP, 11/5/98) 25 220 The Eastern Han Dynasty received embassies from Persia who brought lions to the court as tribute. From this originated the Lion Dancing which represents purity and protection to the Chinese. The dances are preformed on special occasions and on the Chinese New year. (Hem. 1/95, p. 123)(WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20) 27 37 Tiberius moved to the isle of Capri and never returned to Rome. (V.D.-H.K.p.77)(SFEM, 10/11/98, p.54) 28 nend Jan 28, The Roman Emperor Nerva named Trajan, an army general, as his successor. (HN, 1/28/99) c 29 30 Aug 28, John the Baptist was beheaded by King Herod, perhaps at whim of Salome. (HFA, '96, p.36)(MC, 8/28/01) 30 nend From about 30 to 64/67 Peter served as the first pope. By 2003 he was still noted as the longest-serving, for a total of 34 or 37 years. (AP, 10/16/03) 30 nend Apr 30, Jesus of Nazareth was crucified [see 33AD]. Christ died on hill of Golgotha, Jerusalem. His path along the Via Dolorosa was later disputed as to whether he was tried by Pontius Pilate at the palace of Herod or at the Roman fortress of Antonia. His death was at an abandoned quarry, the site of today?s Church of the Holy Sepulchre. In 1998 Robert Funk and the Jesus Seminar published "The Acts of Jesus: The Search for the Authentic Deeds of Jesus." The group had published an earlier work "The Five Gospels," in which the sayings of Jesus were examined. In 1999 Thomas Cahill authored "Desire of the Everlasting Hills," a book about Jesus and his effect on the world. In 2010 Paul Johnson authored ?Jesus: A Biography From a Believer.? Also in 2010 Philip Pullman authored ?The Good Man Jesus and the Scoundrel Christ,? in which he proposes that Jesus and Christ were twin brothers. (SFC, 3/27/97, p.C2)(SFEC, 4/12/98, BR p.8)(HN, 4/30/98)(WSJ,11/5/99, p.W12)(Econ, 4/3/10,p.85)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_Jesus) 30 nend When the Roman governor of Palestine was confronted by an angry Jewish crowd demanding the execution of the leader of a small, radical religious movement, like Socrates, he cross-examined him. When he asked him if he was a king, the man replied, "To this end I was born, and for this cause I came into the world, to bear witness to the truth. Everyone that belongs to the truth will hear me." The governor, being a Roman, answered as any educated Roman would. For Pontius Pilate had been raised on the Greek and Roman skeptical traditions that denied that there was anything like certain truth, only probable knowledge. So, as any other Roman would have done, he asked the question, "What is truth?," but received no answer. In 2000 Ann Wroe authored the historical novel "Pontius Pilate." (WWW, WC, 8/15/98)(SFEC, 5/21/00, Par p.19) 30 33 Dismas was the repentant thief crucified with Christ. (WSJ, 11/2/98, p.B1) c 30 33 Lazarus lived in Cyprus as a bishop after the miracle by Christ. (NH, 4/97, p.62) c 30 33 Easter [in commemoration of the resurrection of Christ] is generally observed on the Sunday following the first full moon of spring. In 1215 the 4th Lateran Council announced that "Christ descended into Hell, rose again from the dead, and ascended into Heaven. But he descended in soul, rose again in the flesh, and ascended equally in both." (PacDis, Spring/'94, p. 40)(WSJ, 4/18/03, p.W13) 30 40 The decade following the execution of Jesus. In 1998 John Dominic Crossan published "The Birth of Christianity: Discovering What Happened in the Years Immediately After the Execution of Jesus." (SFEC, 4/12/98, BR p.8) 31 nend Mar 25, The 1st Easter, according to calendar-maker Dionysius Exiguus (470-540). (MC, 3/25/02)(www.nndb.com/people/741/000104429/) 31 nend Sep 18, Sejanus, Roman head of praetorian guard, was executed. (MC, 9/18/01) 33 nend Apr 3, Christ was crucified (according to astronomers Humphreys and Waddington). The date is highly debated. See April 30, 30AD. (Econ, 4/23/11, p.64) 33 34 Road builders linking Roman legionary camps during the reign of Tiberius left inscriptions in the rock in the Lepenski Vir region on the Danube near the Iron Gates gorges. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.25) 36 nend Ancient Chinese records recorded an August meteor shower that was later assumed to be the Perseids. The meteorites originated when the Swift-Tuttle comet passed so close to the sun that its ice head melted and left a stream of pea-sized particles. (SFC, 8/11/99, p.A2) 37 nend Feb 15, Claudius Drusus Germanicus Caesar Nero (d.68CE), emperor of Rome (54-68), was born. [see Dec 15] (MC, 2/15/02) 37 nend Mar 16, Tiberius Claudius Nero (78), Roman emperor (14-37), died on a trip to the Italian mainland from his home on Capreae. He was succeeded by Caligula. (PCh, 1992, p.36)(HN, 3/16/99)(AP, 3/15/07) 37 nend Mar 18, The Roman Senate annulled Tiberius? will and proclaimed Caligula emperor. (HN, 3/18/99) no_source 37 nend Dec 15, Nero Claudius Caesar, emperor of Rome who is blamed for the great fire of Rome, was born. Nero (Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus) was born (d. 68CE). [see Feb 15] (WUD, 1994, p.959)(HN, 12/15/98) 37 nend Caligula succeeded Tiberius and went mad within a year. His cruelty was so bad that he was murdered by the tribune of the palace guard after 4 years. He imprisoned his nieces on the island of Ponza for converting to Christianity. (V.D.-H.K.p.78)(SFEC, 11/8/98, p.T12) 37 nend Some 20,000 pieces of jewelry and other objects were buried about this time with a warrior-prince and 5 women in northern Afghanistan. In 1978-79 a team led by Russian archeologist Viktor Sarianidi discovered their 6 sealed tombs at a site called Tillya Tepe (hill of gold). The findings became known as the ?Golden Hoard of Bactria.? (WSJ, 11/19/08, p.D7) 37 41 Caligula ruled Rome. He had 2 large ships built and anchored for his pleasure on Lake Nemi. (AM, 5/01, p.26) 37 100 ?CE Flavius Josephus, original name Joseph Ben Matthias, Jewish historian and general. (AHD, 1971, p.707) 39 nend Nov 3, Lucan, Latin poet (Bellum Civile), was born in Cordova, Spain. (MC, 11/3/01) 39 nend Dec 30, Titus, 10th Roman emperor (79-81) and conqueror of Jerusalem, was born. (MC, 12/30/01) 40 nend Jun 13, Gnaeus Julius Agricola, Roman general and governor of Britain, was born. [WUD says 37-93CE] (WUD, 1994, p.29) c 40 nend Saul of Tarsus, while on the road to Damascus, experienced a profound conversion to Christianity. He became known as St. Paul. In 1997 A.N. Wilson wrote "Paul: The Mind of the Apostle." Wilson argued that Paul was the real founder of the Church of Jesus. Paul was a student of the Jewish scholar Raban Gamliel. (CU, 6/87)(SFC, 3/28/97, p.C11)(Internet) 40 nend Mauretania was divided into the provinces of Tingitana and Caesariensis. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.22) 40 60 The Pont du Gard was built to carry an aqueduct serving Nimes, France. The 160-foot high structure is 900 feet long with 3 tiers of stone arches. (www.vers-pont-du-gard.fr/anglais/tpatrimoine11.php) c 40 107 St. Ignatius Theorphorus, Apostolic Father. He served as the bishop of Antioch. (WUD, 1994 p.708) 41 nend Jan 24, Shortly after declaring himself a god, Gaius Caligula Germanicus, emperor from 37-41, was assassinated by two Praetorian tribunes. (HN, 1/24/99)(MC, 1/24/02) 43 nend The Romans under Claudius, the great nephew of Caesar, invaded and conquered Britain. They founded a settlement on the "Tamesis River" where a bridge could be built that grew to become London. (SFEC, 6/22/97, BR p.3)(ON, 6/09, p.7) 43 nend The Briton Caratacus, also known as Caradoc and chief of the Catuvellauni, mounted a guerrilla uprising against the Romans. His uprising ultimately failed after he was betrayed by the Brigantian queen, Cartimandua. He was taken to Rome where he was later pardoned by Claudius. (HNQ, 9/23/00) 43 nend The Romans brought with them the board game latrunculi (little soldiers), when they conquered Britain. (Arch, 1/05, p.39) 45 nend Greek sailors discovered the monsoon winds and were able to sail from the Horn of Africa to Kerala, India in 40 days. This shifted the spice trade from north Indian ports to Muziris which called the "first commercial center of India." (NG, 5/88, p.609) 46 nend ?-120?CE Plutarch, Greek biographer and philosopher. He was the author of Plutarch's Lives. The work was set up as a series of dual biographies that compared Greek and Roman statesmen. (AHD, p.1009)(Wired, Dec. '95, p.229) 48 nend Claudius married his niece Agrippina. (V.D.-H.K.p.78) c 49 nend The Church convened a council in Jerusalem about this time. The participants adopted the missionary principle of St. Paul, which stressed the universal scope of salvation. (CU, 6/87) 50 nend The "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea" was written about this time and indicated contact with the Somali coast of East Africa by the Egyptians and Ethiopians. (NH, 6/97, p.43) 50 nend Kushan ruled over Afghanistan under King Kanishka. (www.afghan-web.com/history/) 50 nend Graeco-Buddhist Gandharan culture reach its height. (www.afghan-web.com/history/-web.com/history/) 52 nend Tradition in the State in the state of Kerala, India, has it that the Apostle Thomas converted Hindus to Christianity in this year. (NG, 5/88, p.598) 52 nend St. Paul of Tarsus, Christian preacher, arrived in the port city of Ephesus (Turkey) about this time and spent 3 years there. Silt from the Kaistros River ended cargo shipping by the end of the first century. By 2007 the sea was 7 miles from the former port. (SFC, 8/16/07, p.E2) 53 nend Sep 18, Marcus Trajanus (d.117), 13th Roman emperor (Trajan's Arch) (98-117), was born at Italica near Seville, Spain. (http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Trajan) 54 nend Oct 13, Roman emperor Claudius I died, after being poisoned with mushrooms by his wife, Agrippina. Nero (37-68CE), son of Agrippina, succeeded his great uncle Claudius, who was murdered by his wife, as the new emperor of Rome. After the murder of his wife, Octavia, Nero descended deep into a religious delirium. His acts became wild and unintelligible and he was displaced by his soldiers with Galba after which he committed suicide. (WUD, 1994, p.959)(V.D.-H.K.p.78)(AP, 10/13/97)(HN, 10/13/01) 56 nend Tacitus, Publius Cornelius was born. He was the Roman author of the Histories (begins with the death of Nero), and the Annals (begins with Tiberius' reign and goes to the end of Nero). Only a portion of the Histories survives (69-70CE). Of the Annals only those books dealing with the early career of Tiberius, and some treating the reigns of Claudius and Nero survive. (V.D.-H.K.p.81) 56 nend Huan Tan, Go strategist, died. In his book ?Xin Lun? (New Treatise) he advised that the best approach to the game is to spread your pieces widely so as to encircle the opponent. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.128) 57 nend The King of Nakoku sent an envoy to the Eastern Han capital Loyang, the 1st recorded envoy to China from Japan. (www.museum.city.fukuoka.jp) 59 nend Agrippina became insane and was murdered by her son, Nero. (V.D.-H.K.p.78) 60 nend Feb 10, St. Paul is believed to have been shipwrecked near Malta while enroute to Rome for trial for practicing Catholicism. The story is told in the Bible?s New Testament Acts of the Apostles, chapter 27. The event is marked in Malta every February 10. (WSJ, 6/21/08,p.W8)(www.maltamedia.com/artman2/publish/out_about/article_5012.shtml) 60 nend A comet appeared and was interpreted by the people of Rome to mean the impending death of their new emperor. (NG, 12/97, p.105) 60 nend Boudicaa, queen of the Iceni in Britain, burned Roman London. Boudicaa rose up in revolt against the Roman occupation of Britain. When Prasutagus, chief of the Iceni tribe, died without heirs, the Romans confiscated his lands. His wife and Queen, Boudicaa, protested and as a result was publicly scourged. Calling on all native Britons to rise against the oppressors, she then led them in revolt, killing 70,000 Romans and destroying several towns before she was defeated and captured. She killed herself while in Roman custody. (NGM, 5/77)(HNQ, 8/5/00) 62 nend Nero murdered his wife Octavia. (V.D.-H.K.p.78) c 62 113 Pliny the Younger, Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, Roman writer, statesman and orator. He described the death of his uncle, Plinius the Elder, at the 79CE eruption of Vesuvius in a letter to Tacitus. (WUD, 1994, p.1106)(SFC, 9/1/97, p.A142) c 62 63 James, the "brother" of Jesus, was stoned to death for teaching the divinity of Christ. He had led the church in Jerusalem for the 3 decades following the death of Jesus. In 2002 a stone ossuary, looted from a Jerusalem cave, was found with an Aramaic inscription that read "James, son of Joseph, brother of Jesus." In 1997 Robert Eisenman authored "James, the Brother of Jesus." In 2003 Hershel Shanks and Ben Witherington III co-authored "The Brother of Jesus: The Dramatic Story & Meaning of the First Archeological Link to Jesus & His Family." In 2003 the stone ossuary was declared a fake. (SFC, 10/22/02, p.A12)(SSFC, 4/20/03, p.E2)(AP, 6/18/03) c 63 nend The Norse Skalds Kaparmal are written. These have been translated and interpreted by the Frenchman Paul Du Chaillu. (K.I.-365D, p.109) 64 nend Jul 18, The Great Fire of Rome began. After the fire Nero began to build his Golden House in the center of the city. (V.D.-H.K.p.78)(AP, 7/18/97) 64 nend Jul 19, The Circus Maximus in Rome caught fire. (MC, 7/19/02) 64 nend Nero initiated the first persecution against the Christians. According to Seneca Nero sentenced hundreds of Christians to die by "tunica molesta," a naphtha impregnated "shirt of torture." (CU, 6/87)(AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.58) 65 nend Jun 8, Jews revolted against Rome, capturing the fortress of Antonia in Jerusalem. (MC, 6/8/02) 65 nend Lucius Annaeus Seneca (b.4BC) (aka Seneca the younger), Roman intellectual, died. He was a Stoic philosopher and playwright and wrote a version of "Medea." Seneca was Nero's teacher. Nero had Seneca compose his speeches. Seneca and his colleague were ordered by Nero to contrive the murder of Agripinna. He was forced to commit suicide after the conspiracy of Caius Piso to murder Nero. His wife Paulina cut her wrists together with Seneca but Nero ordered that she be saved. Seneca's blood did not flow well and he asked for poison which was refused. He then requested a hot bath to increase the blood flow and apparently was suffocated by the steam. ?Luck is what happens when preparation meets opportunity.? (V.D.-H.K.p.80)(AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.57)(SFEC, 8/2/98, Z1 p.8)(Econ,10/4/08, p.54) 66 nend Jan 26, The 5th recorded perihelion passage of Halley's Comet. (MC, 1/26/02) 66 nend Jewish Zealots called sicarii (from the Latin word for dagger) murdered Roman officials and high-ranking Jews whom they considered as enemies to Israel?s war of independence. (NG, 11/04, p.76)(Econ, 10/27/07, p.33) 66 70 The Jews during this period laid in supplies and prepared to hide during their revolt against the Romans. In 2006 archeologists in northern Israel reported the discovery of chambers, linked by short tunnels, that would have served as a concealed subterranean home. (AP, 3/14/06) 66 73 Roman general Vespasian's army assaulted the forces of Jewish rebel Joseph ben Matthias at Jotapata in Galilee. During the Jewish revolt of 66-73 CE, Emperor Nero chose Titus Flavius Vespasianus (Vespasian) to subdue Judea. Vespasian was eminently qualified for this martial task. He was fresh from crushing a German rebellion, and as commander of Legio II, he had played a significant role in the conquest of Britannia (Britain) by Nero?s predecessor. Joseph, meanwhile had assembled his own army from the rebel bands of Galilee and trained them in the Roman model. He also fortified many towns, the strongest being Jotapata, a natural fortress perched on a rock outcrop. It was surrounded on three sides by steep valleys that made attack virtually impossible. The only approach to the city was from a hilltop to the north, and that was blocked by a dry moat fronting a sturdy wall. (HNQ, 12/4/00) 67 nend Two monks entered China on the Silk Road and introduced Buddhism in Luoyang. (NG, Feb, 04, p.28) 67 nend Some 37,000 Jewish prisoners were held at the Roman stadium in Tiberias after they lost a naval battle on the Sea of Galilee. (SFC, 6/18/02, p.A2) c 67 nend St. Paul, Catholic apostle to the Gentiles and writer of many epistles, died. He founded one of the first Christian churches in Europe at Philippi in Macedonia. He was martyred by Nero and according to tradition invoked his right as a Roman citizen to be beheaded. (WUD, 1994, p.1058,1081)(NG, 12/97, forum) 68 nend Jun 9, Nero (31), Roman Emperor (54-68), committed suicide. (AP, 6/9/97)(MC, 6/9/02) 68 69 Galba reigned as the Roman emperor. He was a commander of Roman forces in Spain and acclaimed emperor by his 2 legions. When the praetorian guard accepted Galba, Nero committed suicide. (WUD, 1994, p.1667) 69 nend Jan 2, Roman Lower Rhine army proclaimed its commander, Vitellius, emperor. (MC, 1/2/02) 69 nend Jan 10, Roman emperor Galba adopted Marcus Piso Licinianus as Caesar. (MC, 1/10/02) 69 nend Jan 15, Servius Sulpicius Galba (70), 6th emperor of Rome (68-69), was murdered along with his newly adopted successor, Piso Licinianus. Marcus Salvius Otho (36) committed the murder and forced the senate to recognize himself as emperor. (PC, 1992, p.37) 69 nend Apr 16, Otho (32-69) committed suicide after he was defeated by Vitellius' (15-69) troops at Bedriacum. (WUD, 1994, p.1667)(HN, 4/16/98) 69 nend Sep 1, Traditional date for the destruction of Jerusalem. [see Aug 29 70CE] (MC, 9/1/02) 69 nend Dec 20, Vespian?s supporters entered Rome and discovered Vitellius in hiding. Vitellius, a Roman commandant of Rhine and the 7th emperor, was dragged through the streets before being brutally murdered. Vitellius had been acclaimed emperor by his legions in Germany in place of Galba. He was then killed in Rome fighting the supporters of Vespasian, the Roman commander of Judea. Gen. Vespasianus occupied Rome. (WUD, 1994, p.1667)(HN, 12/20/98)(MC, 12/20/01) 69 nend Dec 21, Vespacian, a gruff-spoken general of humble origins, entered Rome and was adopted as emperor by the Senate. (PCh, 1992, p.37) 70 nend May 31, Rome captured the 1st wall of the city of Jerusalem. (MC, 5/31/02) 70 nend Aug 29, The Temple of Jerusalem burned after a nine-month Roman siege. The Second Temple of Jerusalem was destroyed by Rome?s 10th Legion and the Jews there were exiled. In the Jewish War the Israelites tried unsuccessfully to revolt against Roman rule. The destruction buried the shops that lined the main street. Archeologists in 1996 found numerous artifacts that included bronze coins called prutot. Carpenters from Israel?s Antiquities Authority used manuscripts of the Roman master builder Vitruvius to reconstruct contraptions used in the construction of the temple. (SFC, 5/23/95, p.A-10)(SFC, 8/28/96, p.A10)(WSJ, 6/22/98, p.A20)(HN,8/29/98) (SFEC, 3/28/99, p.T11) 70 nend Jun 5, Titus & his Roman legions breached the middle wall of Jerusalem. (MC, 6/5/02) 70 nend Jul 1, Roman Emperor Titus assaulted the walls of Jerusalem with battering rams. (MC, 7/1/02) 70 nend Aug 8, Tower of Antonia was destroyed by the Romans. (MC, 8/8/02) 70 nend Aug 29, The Temple of Jerusalem burned after a nine-month Roman siege. The Second Temple of Jerusalem was destroyed by Rome?s 10th Legion and the Jews there were exiled. In the Jewish War the Israelites tried unsuccessfully to revolt against Roman rule. The destruction buried the shops that lined the main street. Archeologists in 1996 found numerous artifacts that included bronze coins called prutot. Carpenters from Israel?s Antiquities Authority used manuscripts of the Roman master builder Vitruvius to reconstruct contraptions used in the construction of the temple. In 2007 Martin Goodman authored ?Rome and Jerusalem: The Clash of Ancient Civilizations.? (SFC, 5/23/95, p.A-10)(SFC, 8/28/96, p.A10)(WSJ, 6/22/98, p.A20)(HN,8/29/98)(SFEC, 3/28/99, p.T11)(Econ, 1/20/07, p.90) 70 nend Sep 7, The Roman army under Titus occupied and plundered Jerusalem. (MC, 9/7/01) 70 nend Sep 27, The walls of upper city of Jerusalem were battered down by Romans. (MC, 9/27/01) 70 nend The Gospel of Mark, the earliest chronicle of the life of Jesus, dates to about this time. (SFC, 10/22/02, p.A12) 70 nend Josephus recorded that Vespasian and his son Titus plundered 50 tons of gold and silver during the Roman conquest of Jerusalem. (SFC, 10/23/06, p.A15) 70 nend The Jerusalem mansion of Queen Helene, who came from a royal clan that ruled Adiabene (northern Iraq), was destroyed along with the rest of Jerusalem. In 2007 archeologists uncovered remains of the structure. Helene converted along with her family to Judaism when they came to Jerusalem in the first half of the first century AD. (AP, 12/7/07) 70 nend A Roman punitive expedition forced the Garamantes of southern Libya to enter into an official relationship with Rome. (AM, 3/04, p.28) 71 nend Vespasian and his son Titus paraded the treasure plundered from Jerusalem in triumph through the streets of Rome. They used the 50 tons of gold and silver to help finance the building of the Colosseum. (SFC, 10/23/06, p.A15) 73 nend Jewish zealots on Mount Masada chose to perish by their own hands rather than surrender to slavery under the Romans. (SFEC, 3/28/99, p.T5) 73 nend When the Jewish rebellion against Roman rule was crushed, many Jewish refugees fled in all direction. Those who fled to Europe became known as Ashkenazim. (Econ, 6/4/05, p.75) 75 nend The treasure plundered from Jerusalem in 70AD by the Romans under Vespasian and his son, Titus, was put on public display in the Temple of Peace in the Roman Forum and stayed there into the early 5th century. (SFC, 10/23/06, p.A15) 76 nend Jan 24, Publius A. Hadrianus, 14th Roman Emperor (117-138), was born. [see Mar 15] (MC, 1/24/02) 76 nend Mar 15, Hadrian, Roman Emperor (builder of Hadrian's Wall), was born. [see Jan 24] (MC, 3/15/02) 78 nend Mar 3, Origin of Saka Era in India. (SC, 3/3/02) 79 nend Aug 24, Pliny the Elder, Roman naturalist, witnessed the eruption of long-dormant Mount Vesuvius and was overcome by the fumes as he tried to rescue refugees. The eruption buried the Roman cities of Pompeii, Stabiae, Herculaneum and other, smaller settlements in 13 feet of volcanic ash and pumice. An estimated 20,000 people died. The event was described by Pliny the Younger, the elder?s nephew, in a letter to Tacitus. (HFA, '96, p.36)(DD-EVTT, p.70)(AP, 8/24/97)(WUD, 1994, p.1106)(SFC,9/1/97, p.A2)(HNQ, 6/16/98) 79 nend Aug 25, Gaius Plinius Secundus, [Plinius Maior], Roman admiral, writer, died in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. [see Aug 24] (MC, 8/25/02) 79 nend Nov 1, Pompeii was buried by eruption of Mt. Vesuvius. [see Aug 24] (HN, 11/1/98) 79 nend The Hindu calendar was updated to the solar year with this year as year 1. The original dated back to about 1000 BC. (SFC, 1/1/00, p.A18) 80 nend The Colosseum was inaugurated under Emp. Titus (Vespacian) with 100 days of gladiator combat. The poet Martial described one combat between Verus and Priscus. The amphitheater occupied the site of a large artificial lake, created by Nero for his Domus Aurea. (SFC, 7/20/00, p.C3)(AM, 3/04, p.54)(WSJ, 1/25/05, p.D12) 80 nend The Theater of Pompey was burned and restored by Titus and Domitian. (RFH-MDHP, p.214) 81 nend Sep 13, Titus Flavius Vespasianus, emperor of Rome (69-81), died at 42. (MC, 9/13/01) 81 96 The reign of Domitian. Soldiers under his reign earned an annual salary of about 1,200 sesterces. (HNQ, 10/5/00)(AM, 5/01, p.36) c 81 138 Secret police agents in Ancient Rome were known as frumentarii. Growing out of an Augustine messenger service?the cursus publicus?frumentarii were originally just supply sergeants responsible for such mundane functions as the purchase and distribution of grain. However, under the reign of Domitian (a.d. 81-96), or possibly Hadrian (117-138), they were turned into intelligence officers and gradually became more involved in state security. (HNQ, 10/5/00) 82 nend Jul 27, Joseph of Arimathea, died and was buried in tomb he once lent to Jesus. (MC, 7/27/02) 85 130 Some 2000 letters on wooden tablets were excavated beginning in 1973 at Vindolanda in northern England from Roman soldiers stationed there. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.14) 86 nend Sep 19, Antoninus Pius, 15th Roman emperor (138-161), was born. (MC, 9/19/01) c 90 nend Luke, a Greek-born physician and contemporary of St. Paul, authored his Gospel about this time. St. Luke?s feast day is October 18. no_source 90 168 Claudius Ptolemy, geographer and mapmaker, collected information from travelers and constructed maps of the then known world. His maps were forgotten as the Roman Empire declined and were not rediscovered until the early 1400s. Robert Newton in his book "The Crime of Claudius Ptolemy" (1977), called him "the most successful fraud in the history of science." (ATC, p.15)(NH, 6/97, p.43)(LAT, 3/30/05) 95 nend St. John the Divine established a Christian colony on the Greek island of Patmos after being exiled from Ephesus by Emperor Domitian. It is said that he wrote here the Book of Revelations in a grotto overlooking the main town. Greek Orthodox tradition says that he is the apostle John but that is not confirmed. (SFEC, 1/18/98, p.T6)(WSJ, 6/28/02, p.W8) 96 nend Jul 1, Vespasian, a Roman Army leader, was hailed as a Roman Emperor by the Egyptian legions. (HN, 7/1/98) 96 nend Sep 18, Domitian, Roman emperor, died. He was murdered and was succeeded by Nerva. (V.D.-H.K.p.83)(MC, 9/18/01) 97 nend Oct 27, To placate the Praetorians of Germany, Nerva of Rome adopted Trajan, the Spanish born governor of lower Germany. (HN, 10/27/98) 97 nend Sextus Julius Frontinus, Roman water commissioner, wrote of Rome: "The city looks cleaner, different, the air is purer and the causes of pollution that gave the air so bad a name with the ancients are now removed." (SFEC, 7/2/00, p.T1) 97 105 Flavius Cerialis was prefect of Cohort IX of Batavians and the last occupant of the commandant?s house at Vindolanda. The cohort was transferred to the Danube to join Trajan?s forces gathering for the Second Dacian War. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.17) 98 nend Jan 27, Marius Cocceius Nerva (67), emperor of Rome (96-98), died. (MC, 1/27/02) 98 nend Cornelius Tacitus referred to the Baltic peoples in his book Germania. "In the East the Svebes washes the shores inhabited by the Aistian tribes (Aestiorum gentes)." (DrEE, 10/12/96, p.2) 98 117 Trajan, rules as emperor over Rome. His reign coincides with the apex of Roman territorial power. Along with his successor Hadrian, he converted the flexible frontiers of Rome to a line of fixed walls and forts. (V.D.-H.K.p.64) c 100 nend Oct 31, The pagan Celts of Britain and Ireland celebrated Samhain on October 31 as the end of the season of the sun and the beginning of the season of darkness. It was believed that on this day the souls of the dead revisited their homes. Bonfires were lit to chase away evil spirits. When the Romans conquered Britain in the first century A.D., their fall harvest festival, Poloma Day, mixed with the traditions of Samhain to form a major fall festival at the end of October. (HNPD, 10/31/99) c 100 nend The first Chinese dictionary was compiled. (ATC, p.33) c 100 nend Since before this time in the central-west section of Arabia, Mecca attracted desert dwellers due its fresh water well. It is in a desert valley surrounded by mountains and is a crossroad for two heavily traveled long-distance trade routes. (ATC, p.56) c 100 nend A Greek merchant was sent by the Romans occupying Egypt to investigate rumors of a booming trade between Indian Ocean ports. His report was written as: The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. (ATC, p.141) c 100 nend Raban Gamliel in the first century is credited with arranging the Amidah, considered by many to be the most important prayer in the Jewish liturgy. Raban Gamliel was the most influential Rabbi in the period following the destruction of the Temple. This was a time when many different rabbis each had their own individual domains. (www.kolshalom.com/divrei/dvarilana1.html) c 100 nend A mural was painted about this time at the Mayan ceremonial site of San Bartolo (Guatemala). It was uncovered by archeologist William Saturno of the Univ. of New Hampshire in 2001. (SFC, 3/13/02, p.A4)(USAT, 1/16/04, p.10A) 100 nend Dioscorides, a Roman physician, named the marijuana plant cannabis sativa. (WSJ, 2/8/05, p.D7) 100 150 Archeologists in 1998 uncovered evidence of a pre-Columbian civilization from under the Pyramid of the Moon in Teotihuacan that was dated to this time. The skeleton of a man was found by a team led by Saburo Sugiyama. The most important and largest city of pre-Colombian central Mexico, the Nahuatl meaning of Teotihuacan was "Where Men Become Gods" or "The City of Gods." Just north of Mexico City, Teotihuacan was planned at about the beginning of the Christian era and was sacked and burned by invading Toltecs in 650. (SFC, 10/22/98, p.C2)(SFEC, 11/8/98, p.T10)(HNQ, 4/24/99)(SFEC,9/19/99, p.A22) 100 200 Serdica was home to a Roman amphitheater. It stood on the trade road between the Danube and Constantinople. Known to the Romans as Serdica, it later became known as Sophia, the capital of Bulgaria. (AM, 7/04, p.14) c 100 200 A report from London on 6/27/96 said that the British Library had acquired Buddhist texts that date back as early as the 2nd cent CE. The texts were believed to be part of the canon of the Sarvastivadin sect, which dominated Gandhara, now north Pakistan and east Afghanistan. (SFC, 6/27/96, p.A12) c 100 200 Simon Ben Azzai, second century (A.D.) Jewish scholar: "In seeking wisdom thou art wise; in imagining that thou has attained it thou art a fool." (AP, 11/15/97) 100 200 Celsus, a second century scholar, thought that Christianity was a threat to the social order. He made some attempt to strip away its mythology and identify the historical Jesus. (WSJ, 5/26/98) 100 200 Poompuhar (southern India) grew during the reign of Karikal Cholan, the second-century Chola king who established trade ties with China, Arabia and the Roman Empire. In the 20th century remnants of brick buildings, water reservoirs, a boat jetty and Roman coins were found during undersea excavations. (AP, 1/14/05) 100 400 In the Canary Islands Roman artifacts were found in strata dated to this time. The islands were described by Plutarch and Ptolemy gave their precise location. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.22) c 100 700 A group of agricultural Indians (today called the Moche) inhabit the desert margin between the Andes and the Pacific in what is today called Peru. They raised huge monuments of sun baked mud where they laid their dead with fine gold and pottery. They irrigated crops such as corn, beans, squash, and peanuts. The ate llamas and guinea pigs and caught fish in the Pacific. [2nd source dated the Moche from 0-800] The Nasca [Nazca] Indians also inhabited this area about this time. (NG, Oct. 1988, p. 510)(SFEM, 4/13/97, p.16) c 100 700 In Peru the Nazca Lines are a complex series of huge birds, animals and other figures etched into the ground by the Nazca culture some 225 miles southeast of Lima. (SFC, 9/1/97, p.A14) -100 1500 In Vietnam the city of Hoi An was the principal port of the seafaring Champa kingdom, that embraced Indian culture. The kingdom withstood attacks from the Chinese, Vietnamese, Khmers and Mongols. Archaeological study in Hoi An in the 1990s proved that more than 2000 years ago Hoi An was an embryonic port town of the Sa Huynh people. From the 2nd to the 15th centuries, Hoi An was the main port of the Champa Kingdom. In these centuries, Hoi An became a prosperous commercial port town, very well developed and famous in Asia. (SFEC, 4/26/98,p.T4)(www.hoianworldheritage.org/ehoian/cultural/lichsu_vh_chinh.htm) 100 1300 Time period of the Anasazi culture of northern Arizona, New Mexico, southern Utah and Colorado. (WUD, 1994, p.53) 100 1300 The Bir-Kot Shwandai site in northern Pakistan marks an urban settlement. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.C) 103 105 Apolodorus of Damascus built a bridge over the Danube for Emperor Trajan. It connected the Roman provinces of Moesia Superior and Dacia (the Yugoslavian and Romanian banks respectively). (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.26) 104 nend There was a fire in Rome. Emp. Trajan built massive baths over the Domus Aurea of Nero. (WSJ, 1/25/05, p.D12) 105 nend Ts'ai Lun (Cai Lun), a Chinese government official (eunuch), told Emperor He about making zhi, i.e. paper. By the end of the second century, the Chinese were printing books on rag paper using wooden type. (V.D.-H.K.p.154)(NG, Feb, 04, p.9) 105 nend Flavius Cerialis, prefect of Cohort IX of Batavians at Vindolanda in northern England, was transferred to the Danube to join Trajan?s forces gathering for the Second Dacian War. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.17) 106 nend Nabatae, whose capital was Petra, became a Roman province under Trajan. The Roman city of Jerash was one of the 10 cities of the Decapolis. (WUD, 1994, p.948)(SFEM, 4/11/99, p.8)(AM, 3/04, p.60) c 109 nend Silk was carried by a caravan from China to Persia for the first time. (ATC, p.33) c 111 nend A Roman amphitheater was built at Nyon, Switzerland. An inscription at the site had a dedication to the emperor Trajan. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.10) 117 nend Aug 8, Marcus Ulpius Trajanus (Trajan), emperor of Rome (98-117), died. (www.roman-emperors.org/hadrian.htm) 117 nend Aug 11, The Roman army of Syria hailed its legate, Hadrian, as emperor, which made the senate's formal acceptance an almost meaningless event. One of his first acts was to withdraw Rome?s army from Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). (www.roman-emperors.org/hadrian.htm)(Econ, 7/19/08, p.94) 117 nend The Trimontium amphitheater was built in Plovdiv, Bulgaria. The area was later sacked by Attila the Hun and the site was covered in dirt until a landslide exposed it in 1972. (SSFC, 7/16/06, p.G4) 117 138 The reign of Hadrian. (HNQ, 10/5/00) 117 180 Aulus Gellius, Roman writer. (RFH-MDHP, p.214) 118 nend Jul 9, Hadrian, Rome's new emperor, made his entry into the city. (HN, 7/9/98) 120 130 Roman Emperor Hadrian ordered a great wall to be built in northern England along with a series of forts "to separate the Romans from the barbarians." It extended for 73.5 English miles from the estuary of the river Tyne on the east to Solway Firth on the west. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.15) 121 nend Apr 20, Marcus Aurelius (d.180), 16th Roman emperor, philosopher, was born. He authored the "Meditations." [see Apr 26] (V.D.-H.K.p.64)(HN, 4/20/98) 121 nend Apr 26, Antonius Marcus Aurelius, [Marcus A. Verus], Emperor of Rome (161-180), was born. [see Apr 20] (MC, 4/26/02) 121 135 The Temple of Venus and Rome was built in Rome. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.14) 122 nend Sep 13, Building began on Hadrian's Wall. (MC, 9/13/01) 125 nend Lucius Apuleius, Roman philosopher and satirist, was born about this time. His work included "Metamorphoses." (WUD, 1994, p.74)(WSJ, 5/14/99, p.W8) 125 nend The Gospel of John dated to this time. A papyrus fragment mentioned Jesus. (SFC, 10/22/02, p.A12) 126 nend Aug 1, Publius Helvius Pertinax, Roman emperor (193 CE), was born. (MC, 8/1/02) 129 nend Sep 22, Claudius Galenus (d.~199-217), Greek physician and scholar, was born. Some sources put his birth in 131. Galen went to Rome in 162 AD and made his mark as a practicing physician. Galen developed the first typology of temperament in his dissertation ?De temperamentis,? and searched for physiological reasons for different behaviors in humans. no_source 130 nend Antinous, the Greek lover of Roman Emperor Hadrian, died in the Nile. Hadrian insisted that Antinous be given the status of a god. (Econ, 7/19/08, p.94) 132 nend Zhang Heng introduced an earthquake weathercock, a device that could inform the Chinese court of a distant earthquake. (NG, Feb, 04, p.28) 132 nend Jewish rebels occupied the mountain ridge of Hebron during the Bar Kochba revolt against the Romans. The remains of an ancient synagogue and mikveh are still visible. (SFEC, 12/22/96, p.T2)(Econ, 7/19/08, p.94) 135 nend Chinese astronomers recorded what later became known as a supernova. (SFC, 11/6/09, p.A7) 135 nend Roman Emperor Hadrian sent 12 divisions under Julius Severus to quell the Jewish rebellion led by Simon Bar Kokhba, who was killed at Bethar. An estimated 600,000 Jews were killed. Hadrian ordered Jerusalem plowed under and Aelia Capitolina was built on the site. He barred Jews from returning and survivors dispersed across the empire. Judea was renamed Syria-Palestina. (SFC, 12/26/96, p.C16)(PBS, Nova, 11/23/04)(PC, 1992 ed, p.41) 136 140 Hyginus was pope. He was later proclaimed a saint. (WUD, 1994, p.697) 138 nend Jul 10, Publius A. Hadrianus (b.76), Roman emperor (117-138), died. He was responsible for Hadrian's Wall in Britain, begun in 122. (www.roman-emperors.org/hadrian.htm) 138 161 Antoninus Pius succeeded Hadrian to Rome. (AM, 11/00, p.13) 139 nend Hadrian?s Mausoleum was built in Rome. (SSFC, 5/1/05, p.F8) c 140 nend Emperor Antoninus Pius ordered Hadrian?s Wall to be abandoned and a more northerly defense to be established. Remnants could later be seen of the Antonine Wall around Falkirk, Scotland. Roman troops advanced northwards into the Scottish lowlands, driving the barbarians back before them and establishing a new frontier called the Antonine Wall, named for the new Emperor, Antoninus Pius. The Antonine Wall was later abandoned, reoccupied, and abandoned a second and final time under the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. (NG, 12/97, forum)(HNQ, 9/9/00) c 140 nend The Persians begin to frequently trade with the Romans and Chinese. (ATC, p.33) 141 nend Mar 20, The 6th recorded perihelion passage of Halley's Comet. (MC, 3/20/02) 141 155 St. Pius I, pope, martyr. (PGA, 12/9/98) 145 nend A temple was completed in Rome as a tribute to Emperor Hadrian. In 1802 it became the site of the Rome stock exchange. (WSJ, 12/13/96, p.B11A) 150 nend Ptolemy of Alexandria published his theory of epicycles, the idea that the moon, the sun and the planets moved in circles which were moving in circles which were moving in circles around the Earth. (Econ, 2/7/04, p.75) c 150 nend About this time the lateen sail was first used on the Mediterranean Sea. (ATC, p.12) c 150 nend The subterranean graveyard beneath the Appian Way had existed from about this time and probably originated as the private open-air burial ground of the noble Cecili family of Rome. About 200CE it became the first official Christian cemetery. (ITV, 1/96, p.59) 150 200 The Temple of Quetzalcoatl in Teotihuacan (City of the Gods) was built near what later became Mexico City. Quetzalcoatl was considered as the origin of all human activities on earth, the creator of land and time and its divisions. (SSFC, 5/6/01, p.T9)(SSFC, 11/9/03, p.C7) 150 250 Acharya Nagarjuna, Indian philosopher, lived about this time. He founded the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism. (Econ, 1/8/11, p.43)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagarjuna) 151 nend The Almagest by Claudius Ptolemy, roughly translated as "the Greatest Compilation," was published around this time and became one of the most influential scientific texts in history. He argued that the cosmos consisted of concentric spheres with the Earth at the center. (LAT, 3/30/05)(SSFC, 2/5/06, p.M1) 155 nend Feb 23, Polycarp, disciple of Apostle John, was arrested and burned at stake. (MC, 2/23/02) 155 nend St. Pius I, pope, was martyred. (PGA, 12/9/98) 156 nend Montanus of Phrygia (central Asia Minor) pronounced himself to be the incarnation of the Holy Spirit and that the New Jerusalem was about to come crashing down and land in Phrygia. His followers were called Montanists. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.34) 158 nend Apulieus of Madaura, author of ?The Golden Ass,? defended himself at the roman basilica in Sabratha (Libya) against charges of witchcraft in an oration known as Pro de se magia, or more commonly the Apologia. (Arch, 9/02, p.47) c 160 nend The Romans abandoned their garrison at Cramond, Scotland, and retreated to Hadrian?s Wall. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.14) 160 230 Tertullian, Carthaginian theologian. (WUD, 1994, p.1466) 161 nend Mar 7, Marcus Aurelius became emperor on the death of Antoninus Pius [Titus Aurelius], age 74, at Lorium. Antoninus ruled from 138-161. (HN, 3/7/99)(MC, 3/7/02) 161 nend Aug 31, Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus, emperor of Rome (180-92), was born. (WUD, 1994 p.297)(MC, 8/31/01) 166 nend A Roman envoy arrived in China. This was their 1st recorded official contact. (ATC, p.33)(Econ, 12/18/04, p.58) 167 nend Feb 13, Polycarp, a disciple of St. John and bishop of Smyrna, was martyred on the west coast of Asia Minor. (HN, 2/13/99) 180 nend Mar 17, Antonius Marcus Aurelius (58), [Marcus Verus], Emperor of Rome, died. (MC, 3/17/02) 180 nend Jul 17, Christenen Cittinus Donatus Natzalus Secunda Speratus Vestia was sentenced to death in Carthage. (MC, 7/17/02) c 180 nend Pausanius, traveler and geographer, wrote a description of Greece which we have and it is, so to speak, the first guide book known. (WUD, 1994 p.1058)(AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.58)(SSFC, 12/1/02, p.C3) 180 nend A Roman military transport ship was built about this time, as Marcus Aurelius passed the throne to the emperor Commodus. It later sank in the Rhine. In 2003 archeologists in the Netherlands unveiled the preserved ship. (AP, 5/15/03) 180 nend A smallpox epidemic hit Rome and killed 3.5 to 7 million people including Emp. Marcus Aurelius. It was dubbed the Plague of Antonine. (NW, 10/14/02, p.46) 182 nend Roman Emp. Commodus executed the brothers Sextus Quintilius Maximus and Sextus Quintilius Condianus for alleged conspiracy. Their Villa dei Quintili, several miles from the center of Rome and comparable to Hadrian?s villa in Tivoli, was identified in 1828. (AM, 7/05, p.28) c 182 nend c251 Origen of Caesarea, a church father, urged Christians not to celebrate birthdays because they were a pagan custom. (WSJ, 12/18/98, p.W15) 185 nend Dec 7, Emperor Lo-Yang of China saw a supernova (MSH15-52?). (MC, 12/7/01) 188 nend Apr 4, Caracalla, [Marcus Aurelius Antonius], well-bathed Roman emperor (211-217), was born. (MC, 4/4/02) 190 nend General Dong Zhuo seized power in China and placed a child, Liu Xie, on the throne. (NG, Feb, 04, p.28) 190 nend The abacus was invented about this time. (NW, 9/2/16, p.34D) 192 nend Dec 31, Lucius A.A. Commodus (b.161), Emperor of Rome (180-192), was murdered. His mistress Marcia, Chamberlain Eclectus, and praetorian prefect Laetus hired the wrestler Narcissus to strangle Commodus after they found their names on an imperial execution list. (PCh, 1992, p.42)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodus) 193 nend Mar 28, Publius Helvius Pertinax, Roman Emperor (192-93), was assassinated. (HFA, '96, p.26)(MC, 3/28/02) 193 nend Apr 9, The distinguished Roman soldier Lucius Septimius Severus was proclaimed emperor by the army at Carnuntum (Austria). (www.roman-emperors.org/sepsev.htm) 193 nend Apr 14, Lucius Septimius Severus (d.211), a native son of Leptis Magna in Libya, was crowned emperor of Rome. Under his rule the empire reached its greatest extent with almost 50 provinces. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimius_Severus)(SSFC, 6/27/04, p.D12) 193 nend Jun 1, The Roman Emperor, Marcus Didius (61), was murdered in his palace. (HN, 6/1/99)(MC, 6/1/02) 195 nend Sho-saiko-to is a Chinese formula of bupleurum root, pinellia tuber, scutellaria root, jujube fruit, ginseng root, glycyrrhiza (licorice) root, and ginger rhizome. It is used to help prevent liver cancer. (WSJ, 9/25/95, p.B7B) 197 nend Feb 19, Lucius Septimius Severus' army beat Clodius Albinus at Lyon. D Clodius Septimus Albinus, Roman dignitary in England, died in the battle. (MC, 2/19/02) c 197 nend The sculpture of a lioness devouring a man made about this time was found in 1997 in the mud of the Almond River near Edinburgh, Scotland. (SFC, 1/22/97, p.A9)(AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.14) 199 217 Pope Zephyrinus led the Church. (ITV, 1/96, p.59) 200 nend The first Runic inscriptions that have survived to the modern day dated from around this time. The Runic alphabet, also known as Futhark, consists of 24 letters, 18 consonants and 6 vowels. (www.ancientscripts.com/futhark.html) c 200 nend The Forma Urbis Romae was a 60 by 45-foot map carved out of marble that detailed every building, room and staircase in 2nd century Rome. (Wired, 11/98, p.117) c 200 nend Romans began making glass objects that included windows, bottles and drinking vessels. (SFEC, 6/20/99, Z1 p.8) c 200 nend The Mishna, a section of the Talmud consisting of a collection of oral laws, was edited by Rabbi Judah Ha-Nasi in the Jewish city of Sepphoris. (WUD, 1994, p.916)(AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.64) c 200 nend Pope Zephyrinus assigned his deacon, Calixtus (a former slave), to administer the large underground complex beneath the Appian Way. The subterranean graveyard had existed from about 150CE. This first official Christian cemetery probably originated as the private open-air burial ground of the noble Cecili family of Rome. From this time on it became known as the Catacombs of St. Calixtus. It extended over an area of 20 km., one 3-5 levels, and includes some 500,000 tombs. (ITV, 1/96, p.59) c 200 nend West African people called Bantu, which means "the people," migrated into central and southern Africa. (ATC, p.24) c 200 nend Barbarian invasions and civil wars begin in the Roman empire. (ATC, p.33) 200 300 A Roman bathhouse was constructed in Milan and its columns still stood in the 20th century. (SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T3) 200 300 The Chinese scholar Wang Bi wrote an extensive commentary on the I Ching. He lived only to the age of 23. His commentaries dominate Chinese thinking on the I Ching until the Confucian revival in the 11th century. In 1997 an English translation by Richard John Lynn was published. (NH, 9/97, p.12) c 200 300 Diophantus, a 3rd century Hellenistic mathematician, wrote a series of classical texts on Algebra called Arithmetica. (SFEC, 4/5/98, Z1 p.8)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantus) 200 300 In Laos evidence has indicated the presence of a Hindu Shrine at Wat Phu with prehistoric levels below. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.F) 200 300 Campeche (Mexico), from the 3rd century, was the principal town of the Maya kingdom of Ah Kin Pech (place of serpents and ticks). (SSFC, 1/25/09, p.E4) 200 300 The original Polynesians arrived at Hawaii probably from the Marquesas. They brought with them edible plants and animals. (SFEM, 2/8/98, p.10) 200 400 A giant statue of Buddha was made at Bamiyan some 100 miles west of Kabul. It was destroyed by the Taliban in 2001. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.19)(SFC, 2/12/02, p.A16) c 200 400 Sealed royal tombs were found in 2 pyramids at the Yaxuna Maya site in Mexico. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.H) 200 400 Christianity spread rapidly in Numidia and the diocese of Lamiggiga was established. It was later abandoned and just the name was used as an honorary jurisdiction for Catholic auxiliary bishops. (SFC, 9/19/98, p.C1) c 200 700 In Cambodia at Angkor Borei excavations were proceeding on what might have been the capital of the ancient kingdom of Funan. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.A,D) 200 1215 The Fremont people lived in Utah and etched into rock designs of animals and people. (SFEC, 3/14/99, p.T8,9) c 200 1450 The Hohokam people lived in the area of Tucson, Arizona. (SSFC, 3/31/02, p.C6) 202 nend St. Iranaeus around this time was Bishop of Lugdunum, Gaul, then a part of the Roman Empire (later Lyons, France). He was an early church father and apologist, and his writings were formative in the early development of Christian theology. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irenaeus) 203 nend Lucius Septimus Severus (d.211), emperor of Rome, returned to visit home at Leptis Magna (Libya). (SSFC, 6/27/04, p.D12) 205 270 Plotinus was an Alexandrian philosopher in Rome and founder of Neo-Platonism, which strongly influenced the later Augustine, who taught of a mystical union with the Good through the exercise of pure intelligence. He founded Neo-Platonism, a religion that for a time rivaled Christianity. Neo-Platonism developed out of the philosophical doctrines of Plato in the fourth century B.C. Plotinus developed the spiritual side of Plato's thought into a mystical philosophy teaching reunion with the One and that material things are unworthy. Saint Augustus, formerly a Neo-Platonist, brought some of his ideas into Christian theism. (V.D.-H.K.p.93)(HNQ, 5/11/98) 211 nend Feb 4, Lucius Septimius Severus (64), emperor of Rome (193-211), died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimius_Severus) 211 217 The reign of the Roman emperor Caracalla (188-217). Coins were minted at the Jewish city of Sepphoris during the reign of Caracalla. (WUD, 1994, p.221)(AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.64) 215 nend Clement of Alexandria, a Church father, died. He cited early efforts to fix the Nativity on Apr 19, 20th or May 20. (WSJ, 12/18/98, p.W15) c 216 276 Manes, aka Manicheus or Mani, Persian profit and founder of the dualistic religious system called Manichaeism. It was a combination of Gnostic Christianity, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism and other elements. The basic doctrine was based on a conflict between light and dark, with matter being regarded as dark and evil. (WUD, 1994, p.871) 217 nend Apr 8, Caracalla (b.188), [Marcus Antonius], Roman emperor (198-217), was murdered in his baths. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caracalla) 220 nend The Han Dynasty dissolved as Liu Xie abdicated. Three separate kingdoms became established: Shu in the west, Wu to the east of the gorges, and Wei in the north. The later classic "Tale of the Three Kingdoms" traced the collapse of the Han Dynasty. (NH, 7/96, p.33)(WSJ, 9/16/99, p.A26)(NG, Feb, 04, p.28) 220 nend Cao Cao (65), skillful Chinese general and ruler, died. He built the strongest and most prosperous state in northern China during the Three Kingdoms period (208-280), when China had three separate rulers. In 2009 Chinese archeologists discovered his tomb in Xigaoxue, a village near the ancient capital of Anyang in central Henan province. (AP, 12/28/09) 220 nend At Baalbeck in the Bekaa Valley of Lebanon the Romans constructed an incomplete acropolis that contained a Temple of Jupiter and a Temple of Bacchus. (SFEC, 4/13/97, p.T9) 220 nend The Kushan empire [Afghanistan] fragmented into petty dynasties. (www.afghan-web.com/history/-web.com/history/, 5/25/98) 222 nend Mar 11, Varius A. Bassianus (18), Syrian emperor of Rome (218-22), was murdered. (MC, 3/12/02) 224 641 The Sassanid Dynasty ruled over Persia. (ATC, p.32) 226 nend The Iranians conquered the Parthians. (WUD, 1994, p.1051) c 226 nend In Iran Zoroastrianism was revitalized as a state religion under the Sassanians. (WSJ, 2/2/00, p.A24) 227 261 The Sassanids (A.D. 227-651), ruled the Persian Empire despite attempts by the Roman Empire (27 B.C.-A.D. 476) and later the Byzantine (or Eastern Roman) Empire to conquer it. Bam was founded during the Sassanian Period along one of the East-West trade routes collectively known as the Silk Road. (HNQ, 12/22/00)(SFC, 12/27/03, p.A12) 230 nend The St. Georgeous Church was built in Jordon. In 2008 archeologists found a cave under the church with evidence that it was used as a church by 70 disciples of Jesus in the first century after his death, which would make it the oldest Christian site of worship in the world. (AP, 6/11/08) 230 nend In Tunisia a Roman coliseum was built in the town of El Jem that could hold 30,000. (SFEC, 4/12/98, p.T5) c 230 nend St. Cecilia of the patrician Cecili family was martyred [possibly during the persecutions of Diocletian]. She lived in Trastevere where she reportedly sang hymns all day and so became the patroness of music. She was decapitated by Roman soldiers after 3 abortive attempts. (WUD, 1994, p.237)(ITV, 1/96, p.60) 230 nend Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus (anglicized as Tertullian), early Christian apologist, died. He was a church leader and prolific author of Early Christianity. Tertullian was born about 150 and lived and died in Carthage (later Tunisia). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian) 232 238 In China tens of thousands of bamboo strips and wooden boards recording regional government matters during the Three Kingdoms period were found in an ancient well during construction in 1997 in the southern city of Changsha. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.26) 235 nend Mar 18, Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander (b.208), Syrian emperor of Rome (222-235), was murdered. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Severus) 235 nend An inscription in Greek in the Calixtian Complex of Rome was dedicated to the pope St. Pontian, who died in the Sardinian mines. (ITV, 1/96, p.60) 235 nend An inscription in Greek in the Calixtian Complex of Rome was dedicated to pope St. Anterus, who reigned for only 43 days and died in prison. (ITV, 1/96, p.60) 238 nend May 10, Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus ("The Thracian"), Roman Emperor, was murdered. (MC, 5/10/02) 238 nend Solinus wrote that the Hibernian mother places the first morsel of food in her child?s mouth with the point of her sword. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.11) 239 nend In Japan Queen Himiko (Pimiko, Queen of Wa) of the Kingdom of Yamataikoku sent an envoy to China. (www.gias.snu.ac.kr/wthong/) 243 nend The text "De Pascha Computus" calculated the spring equinox, March 25, under the Julian calendar from the first day of creation. The author used this to derive March 28 as the birthday of Jesus. (WSJ, 12/18/98, p.W15) 250 nend An inscription in Greek in the Calixtian Complex of Rome was dedicated to pope St. Fabian, who re-organized the Church in a period of peace and was then martyred during the Decian persecutions. (ITV, 1/96, p.60) 250 300 The smaller Buddha at Bamiyan, 114 feet high, dated to about this time. It was a gigantic magnification of a Gandhara image. It was destroyed by the Taliban in 2001. (WSJ, 3/5/00, p.A22)(SFC, 2/12/02, p.A16) 250 600 Early classic period of the Maya. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.B) 250 710 The Japanese Kofun period. Mongoloid people from Korea continued to enter Japan and mixed with the older Jomon populations. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.38) 250 800 This period was covered in the 2000 book "Late Antiquity" edited by G.W. Bowersock, Peter Brown and Oleg Grabar. (WSJ, 2/2/00, p.A24) c 250 900 During this time about a hundred thousand Mayans lived in the area of Tikal (meaning "the place where spirit voices are heard"). It was abandoned after some 15 hundred years of continuous habitation. (SFEM, 6/13/99, p.8) 250 900 The classic period of Maya culture. (SFC, 6/23/96, p.A10) 253 nend Valerian became emperor of Rome and ruled until 260 when he was captured and executed by Persian King Shapur I. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Valerian_I) 254 nend May 12, St. Stephen I began his reign as the 23rd Catholic Pope. According to the "Liber Pontificalis" he instituted the rule that clerics should wear special clothes at their ministrations. (SC, Internet, 5/12/97)(HN, 5/12/98) 254 nend Pope St. Lucius I, who spent part of his pontificate in exile, was buried in the Calixtian Complex of Rome and has an inscription in Greek. (ITV, 1/96, p.60) 256 nend The Anatolian city of Zeugma on the Euphrates was sacked by Persian King Shapur I. This was soon followed by a devastating fire and an earthquake and Zeugma was abandoned. In 2000 the area was submerged as part of the Southeast Anatolia Project of dams for power. (SFEC, 5/7/00, p.A23)(Arch, 9/00, p.41) 257 nend Aug 2, Pope Stefanus I (St. Stephen), bishop of Rome (254-57), heretic fighter, died. (MC, 8/2/02) 258 nend Aug 6, Pope Sixtus II, bishop of Rome (257-58), was beheaded upon orders of Emperor Valerian. (ITV, 1/96, p.60)(MC, 8/6/02) 258 nend Sep 14, Thascius Caecilius Cyprian (b.~200), Christian writer and Bishop of Carthage (248), died as a martyr in Carthage. (http://www.fact-index.com/c/cy/cyprian.html) 258 nend A red agate cup with gold handles, the Santo Caliz, was sent to Spain by Pope Sixtus II and St. Laurence as Rome went under siege by the Persians. In 1437 the church moved it to the Cathedral of Valencia. (SSFC, 5/27/06, p.G3) 258 260 Persia and Rome engaged in a 2-year war. (WUD, 1994 ed., p.1667) 260 nend Persia?s King Shapur I captured Roman Emp. Valerian. (Arch, 9/00, p.41) 260 268 Emp. Gallienus, son of Valerian, ruled Rome until he was assassinated. (AM, 5/01, p.40)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Valerian_I) 260 339 Eusebios (Eusebius of Caesarea, c263-340), Christian theologian and historian. He served as Bishop of Caesarea from 315-340. (WUD, 1994 p.492)(AM, 7/01, p.33) 266 nend King Odenathus of Palmyra, ruler of the Roman province of Syria, was murdered. Zenobia Septimia, his wife, took control in the name of her teenage son, Vaballathus. (ON, 7/00, p.1) 267 nend Dec 26, Dionysius, bishop of Rome and saint, died. (MC, 12/26/01) 268 nend Roman Emp. Gallienus, son of Valerian, was assassinated. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Valerian_I) 268 nend Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus, a Roman emperor of Batavian origin, died about this time. He usurped power from Gallienus in 260 and formed the so called Gallic Empire. He was recognized in Gaul, Germania, Britannia and Iberia until his murder in 268. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postumus) 269 nend Nov 20, Diocletian was proclaimed emperor of Numerian in Asia Minor by his soldiers. He had been the commander of the emperor's bodyguard. (HN, 11/20/98) 270 nend Feb 14, The early Christian martyr, St. Valentine, was beheaded about this time by Emperor Claudius II, who executed another St. Valentine around the same time. The Catholic Bishop Valentine was clubbed, stoned and beheaded by Emperor Claudius II for refusing to acknowledge the monarch?s outlawing of marriage. The Catholics then made Valentine a symbol to oppose the Roman mid-February custom in honor of the God Lupercus, where Roman teenage girls? names were put in a box and selected by young Roman men for "sex toy" use until the next lottery. The two Valentines merged into a single legendary patron of young lovers. St. Valentine?s Day evolved from Lupercalia, a Roman festival of fertility. (SFEM, 2/9/97, p.11)(SFC, 2/14/97, p.A26)(SFC, 2/4/04, p.D7) 270 nend Feb 15, Valentine's Day probably has its origins in the Roman feast of Lupercalia, which was held on February 15. One of the traditions associated with this feast was young men drawing the names of young women whom they would court during the following year--a custom that may have grown into the giving of valentine's cards. Another legend associated with Valentine's Day was the martyrdom of the Christian priest St. Valentine on February 14. The Roman emperor believed that men would remain soldiers longer if they were not married, but Valentine earned the wrath of the emperor by secretly marrying young couples. The first American publisher of valentines was printer and artist Esther Howland, who sold elaborate handmade cards for as much as $35 at the end of the 19th century. Complex and beautiful machine-made cards brought the custom of valentine exchanging within the reach of many Americans. (HNPD, 2/14/99) 270 nend Zenobia of Syria proclaimed herself "Queen of the East" and attacked Roman colonies adjoining her and conquered Egypt. (ON, 7/00, p.1) 272 nend Roman emperor Aurelian sent an army to attack Zenobia?s troops in Egypt and was repulsed. (ON, 7/00, p.1) 272 nend Queen Zenobia led a failed uprising against the Romans, which left the city of Palmyra partly destroyed. Forces of Emperor Aurelian laid siege on Palmyra, from which Zenobia and a few retainers escaped. They were soon captured by Roman scouts. In 1967 Agnes Carr Vaughn authored "Zenobia of Palmyra." In 1994 Richard Stoneman authored "Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia?s Revolt Against Rome." (AMNHDT, 11/99)(ON, 7/00, p.3) 273 nend The Gallic Empire of the Batavian Postumus ended. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carausius) 274 nend Feb 27, Constantine I was born. He became the great Roman emperor (324-337) who adopted Christianity. [see c288] (MC, 2/27/02) 274 nend Dec 25, Emperor Aurelian imported into Rome the cult of Sol Invictus and made its Dec 25 festival a national holiday. (WSJ, 12/18/98, p.W15) 276 nend Jul 16, Marcus Annius Florianus, emperor of Rome (276), was murdered. (MC, 7/16/02) 276 nend The prophet Mani (b.210), a resident of Babylon, died. His writings led to Manichaeism, one of the major Iranian Gnostic religions, originating in Sassanid Persia. Although most of his original writings have been lost, numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived. Manichaeism is distinguished by its elaborate cosmology describing the struggle between a good, spiritual world of light, and an evil, material world of darkness. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manichaeism) 280 nend By this time descendants of the Nok people were farming near the southeastern coast of Africa on the fertile slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro and Mt. Kirinyaga. They called themselves Bantu. (ATC, p.137-138) 280 473 During some time in this period Sun Zi, also known as Master Sun, authored the famous Chinese mathematical text ?Sun Tze Suan Ching.? The 3-volume book contained the Chinese remainder problem in volume 3. (www.math.sfu.ca/histmath/China/3rdCenturyBC/Sunzi.html)(Econ,3/24/07, p.92) 283 nend Pope St. Eutychian escaped persecution but struggled with early heresies. He was buried in the Calixtian Complex of Rome and has an inscription in Greek. (ITV, 1/96, p.60) 283 nend Sebastian, a Christian soldier, enlisted in the Roman army about this time. Emp. Diocletian, unaware that he was a Christian, appointed him as a captain of the Praetorian Guard. When he treated Christian prisoners due for martyrdom kindly, Diocletian reproached him for his supposed ingratitude and ordered him executed by arrow. He survived and returned to preach to Diocletian. In 287 Diocletian ordered Sebastian to be beaten to death. no_source 284 nend Aug 29, Gen Gaius Aurelius V Diocletianus Jovius (3) became emperor of Rome. Reign of Diocletian (Era of Martyrs), began. (MC, 8/29/01) 284 nend Nov 20, Diocletian (245-316) became Emperor of the Roman Empire and continued to 305. Under his rule the last and most terrible persecution of the Christians took place, perhaps some 3,000 martyrs. He divided rule over the empire among four men. He put two rulers to oversee the east and two to oversee the west. He also established four capitals. He moved his own capital from Rome to Nicomedia, south of Byzantium in Asia Minor. He also increased the size of the Roman army from 300,000 to 500,000 men. no_source 1 nend /96, p.58) no_source 286 nend Carausius, a Roman naval officer, seized power in Britain and northern Gaul ruled until he was assassinated in 293. (AP, 7/8/10)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carausius) 286 336 King Trdat III ruled over Armenia. (MH, 12/96) c 288 nend Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus, Roman emperor Constantine I (324-337), was born in Yugoslavia. In a battle against an army led by his brother-in-law, Maxentius, at the Milvian bridge near Rome Constantine was victorious. The night before this battle was when Constantine dreamed of an angel holding a cross and saying "In this sign thou shalt conquer!" [see 274] (WUD, 1994 p.314)(V.D.-H.K.p.91) 290 nend Oct 1, [Christian] Bacchus, Roman soldier and martyred saint, was killed. (MC, 10/1/01) 290 nend Oct 7, [Christian] Sergius, Roman soldier and martyred saint, was decapitated. (MC, 10/7/01) 293 nend Mar 1, Roman emperor Maximianus introduced tetrarchy. (SC, 3/1/02) c 293 nend The Roman fort at Qasr Bashir, Castra Praetorii Mobeni, was built under Aurelius Asclepiades, governorship of Arabia. (AM, 11/00, p.14) 296 nend Apr 22, St. Gaius ended his reign as Catholic Pope. (HN, 4/22/98) 296 nend Roman Emp. Diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical manuscripts for fear their discoveries would debase his coinage. This may have set back the science of distillation. (Econ, 12/20/03, p.68) 297 nend The Roman poet Eumenius first mentioned the Picts. The 2 most important Pictish groups were the Verturiones and the Caledones. (AM, 7/01, p.46)(AM, 11/04, p.41) 299 311 The period of Christian persecutions begun by Diocletian. (WSJ, 10/30/98, p.W11) 300 nend About this time Tiridates III, king of Armenia, adopted Christianity as the religion of his kingdom, making Armenia the first Christian state. (CO Enc. / Armenia) 300 nend About this time Berbers from North Africa began to rule Ghana and continued for about the next 400 years. They are thought to have originated as nomads from the Middle East. (ATC, p.113) 300 nend The Mayan city of Cancuen was already established by this time. Ruins of the city were discovered in 1999 in Guatemala. (SFC, 9/9/00, p.A2) 300 nend Mayans began building on Cozumel Island off Mexico?s Yucatan peninsula about this time. The town of San Gervasio was built and inhabited through 1650. Cozumel covers 189 square miles, about the size of Lake Tahoe. (SSFC, 9/25/05, E4) 300 nend In India about this time Vatsayana wrote the philosophical treatise "Kama Sutra" during the classical age of the Gupta period. One of its 35 chapters dealt with various sexual positions. (SFEC, 3/2/97, DB p.32) 300 nend Iron-using people settled at Zimbabwe in central Africa about this time. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.169) 300 400 See the reference for this period. (www.scholiast.org/history/timetables/300s.html) 300 400 Historian Egami Namio in 1948 proposed the "horserider" thesis that cited equestrian goods and foreign culture elements as evidence that the ancestors of the Japanese imperial line had migrated from Korea about this time and conquered the northern part of Kyushu. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.36) 300 400 The book "Deipnosophistae," The Dinner Table Philosophers, described the use of "happy baskets" for leftovers. (SFC, 9/10/97, Z1 p.5) 300 400 The Circus Maximus in ancient Rome, expanded under Constantine in the 4th century CE, had an estimated seating capacity of 250,000. The largest of hippodrome in Rome, a U-shaped stadium with a low wall running in the middle around which chariots raced, it seated an estimated 150,000 spectators at the time of Julius Caesar in the 1st century B.C. (HNQ, 8/29/99) 300 400 As long ago as the 4th century, an Egyptian scientist named Papp suggested there should be a science called heuristics to solve inventive problems. (www.mazur.net/triz/) 300 400 During this time the 1st French church dedicated to the Virgin Mary was built in the 4th century on the hill site of the later Chartres cathedral. (Hem., 10/97, p.83) 300 400 During this time Ammon Scholasticus, Greek lawyer, worked in Panopolis, Egypt. In 1997 Prof. William H. Willis (d.2000) of Duke Univ. completed an archive of his papers: "The Archives of Ammon Scholasticus." (SFC, 7/19/00, p.B2) 300 400 During this period Kuqa on the silk road in western China was a Buddhist center of learning. (SFEC, 11/22/98, p.T5) 300 400 By the 4th century El Mirador, the most powerful city in the Preclassic Maya world, had become a ghost town. (Arch, 9/00, p.28) 300 467 The well-run government of the Gupta Dynasty existed during this period. (ATC, p.35) 300 525 During the Gupta Dynasty, India trades with the Eastern Roman Empire, Persia, and China. (ATC, p.24) 300 645 Yamato Period of Japan. The Yamato clan had taken root in the Nara basin and gave rise to the people called ?Japanese.? (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(Hem, 9/04, p.41) 300 700 Goths, Huns, Avars, Serbs, Croats, and Bulgars successively invade Illyrian lands. (www, Albania, 1998) c 300 1000 During the 4th-10th century, Orhon Turks were prominent in Mongolia. (www.gobiexpeditions.com) 300 1300 During this period the Anasazis inhabited the Canyon de Chelly and the Canyon del Muerto in northeast Arizona. (SFEC, 11/29/98, p.T8) 301 nend In Armenia King Trdat III declared Christianity to be the state religion. Armenia became the first country to adopt Christianity. (MH, 12/96)(SFEC, 3/22/98, p.A25) 301 nend San Marino traced its roots to this time and later claimed to be the world?s oldest republic. (WSJ, 1/16/06, p.A1) 303 nend Feb 23, Emperor Diocletian ordered the general persecution of Christians in Rome. (HN, 2/23/98) 303 nend Apr 23, St. George, dragon-slaying knight, died. He was made the patron saint of England in the 14th century. George, later fired by the Pope as mythical, was tortured and beheaded at Nicomedia. He was a soldier who was reported to have risen to a high rank under Diocletian. (HFA, '96, p.28)(AHD, p.552)(MC, 4/23/02) 303 nend Lactantius, an early Christian writer, said that Romula, mother of Roman emperor Galerius, encouraged her son to persecute Christians in this year. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.29) 304 305 Massive persecution of the Christians under Diocletian. (V.D.-H.K.p.91) 305 nend May 1, Emperor Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus Jovius of Rome abdicated. Constantius I Chlorus (Flavius Valerius Constantius) became Western emperor. Galerius (Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus) became Eastern emperor. (www.ancienthistory.about.com) 305 nend San Gennaro, a pious bishop, was beheaded by Roman Emp. Diocletian. In the 14th century Naples began celebrating the miracle of San Gennaro, whereby the city?s archbishop shakes a vial allegedly containing blood from Gennaro. (SSFC, 11/6/05, p.A2) 306 nend Jul 23, Constantine was proclaimed Caesar of the west by the army, while Severus, the former Caesar, was proclaimed Augusta of the west by Galerius. (HN, 7/23/98) 306 nend Oct 28, Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius was proclaimed emperor of Rome. (MC, 10/28/01) 307 nend Nov 11, Flavius Valerius Severus, compassionate emperor of Rome (306-07), died. (MC, 11/11/01) 309 nend Feb 16, Pamphilus Caesarea, Palestinian scholar, martyr, was beheaded. (MC, 2/16/02) 309 310 Apr 18, St. Eusebius began his reign as Catholic Pope. He ruled for just 4 months in either 309 or 310. (PTA, 1980, p.62)(WUD, 1994 p.492)(HN, 4/18/98) 311 nend Apr 30, Emperor Galerius recognized Christians legally in the Roman Empire. (MC, 4/30/02) 311 nend May 5, Gaius VM Galerius (~50), emperor of Rome, died in Dardania. (SFC, 6/23/97, p.29)(MC, 5/5/02) 311 nend Jul 2, St. Miltiades began his reign as Catholic Pope. (SC, 7/2/02) 311 nend At the consecration of bishop Caecilian of Carthage, one of the three bishops, Felix, bishop of Aptunga, who consecrated Caecilian, had given copies of the Bible to the Roman persecutors. A group of about 70 bishops formed a synod and declared the consecration of the bishop to be invalid. Great debate arose concerning the validity of the sacraments (baptism, the Lord's Supper, etc.) by one who had sinned so greatly against other Christians. (http://religion-cults.com/heresies/fourth.htm) 311 nend The Donatists were a Christian sect that developed in northern Africa [Numidia] and maintained that it alone constituted the whole and only true church and that baptisms and ordinations of the orthodox clergy were invalid. The Donatists insisted that sinners must be re-baptized. (WUD, 1994, p.425)(SFC, 9/19/98, p.C1)(Econ, 5/14/05, p.87) 311 nend Licinius (Valerius Licianus Licinius) became Eastern emperor. He was deposed and executed by Constantine in 325. (www.ancienthistory.about.com) 312 nend cOct 27, Prior to a battle between Constantine and Maxentius, Constantine experienced a vision of Christ that ordered him to ornament the shields of his soldiers with the Greek letters chi and rho, the monogram for Christ. Constantine won the battle and attributed his success to Christ. He became emperor of the West and an advocate of Christianity. [see Oct 28] (MH, 12/96)(CU, 6/87) 312 nend Oct 28, Constantine the Great defeated Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius at the Mulvian Bridge. Constantine?s smaller army (about 50,000 strong) won a decisive victory there; while fleeing, Maxentius drowned in the river. Constantine was instantly converted when he saw a cross in the sky, with the inscription "In hoc signo vincit" ("In this sign you shall conquer"). [see Oct 27] (HN, 10/28/98)(DoW, 1999, P.398) 312 nend Appius Claudius began construction of the Appian Way as a military highway. (SFC, 8/2/07, p.E2)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Appia) 313 nend Jan 1, A 15 year cycle used in reckoning ecclesiastical calendars was established as a fiscal term to regulate taxes. It is called the Roman Indiction. (CFA, '96,Vol 179, p.23) 313 nend Apr 30, Co-emperor Licinius unified the whole of the eastern empire under his own rule. (HN, 4/30/98) 313 nend Constantine met with the eastern emperor at Milan, capital of the late Roman Empire. They agreed on a policy of religious tolerance. The Edict of Milan legalized Christianity, but also allowed Romans religious choice. (CU, 6/87)(ITV, 1/96, p.58)(SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T13)(SSFC, 3/21/04, p.M6) 313 nend Constantine wrote a letter to the proconsul of Africa in which he explained why the Christian clergy should not be distracted by secular offices or financial obligations. "When they are free to render supreme service to the Divinity, it is evident that they confer great benefits upon the affairs of the state." (V.D.-H.K.p.91) 313 nend Nanai-vandak, a Sogdian agent, wrote that "The last emperor fled from Louyang [the eastern capital of China] because of famine and fire" due to nomadic invasions. (AM, 9/01, p.50) 313 nend Maximinus II Daia, Eastern emperor, was killed at Tarsus. (www.ancienthistory.about.com) 314 nend Licinius declared Valens (d.314) as co-emperor during the war with Constantine. Licinius was deposed and executed by Valens. (www.ancienthistory.about.com) 314 335 Pope Sylvester I. A document from the 9th or 10th century called the "Donation of Constantine" was forged to show Constantine granting to Sylvester and his successors spiritual supremacy over all matters of faith and worship and temporal dominion over Rome and the entire Western empire. (V.D.-H.K.p.104) 316 nend Diocletian, former emperor of Rome, died. By this time there were about 30,000 converts to Christianity and some 33 popes had followed in the footsteps of St. Peter. (ITV, 1/96, p.58) 317 nend Aug 7, Flavius Julius Constantius II, Emperor Egypt, Byzantium, Rome (337-61), was born. (MC, 8/7/02) 320 nend In India the Gupta state began with the accession of Chandragupta I. His son and grandson were successful conquerors and extended the state across Northern India from sea to sea. The journal of the Buddhist monk Fa-hsien provides most of our knowledge of Gupta society. (MWH, 1994) 324 nend Constantine chose Byzantium as his new capital. He moved his court to Byzantium and chiseled his name on the portal. (ATC, p.24)(WSJ, 3/28/97, p.A1) 324 nend Licinius proclaimed Martinian (Marcus Martinianus) as co-emperor. Martinian (d.325) was soon deposed by Constantine. (www.ancienthistory.about.com) 325 nend May 20, An ecumenical council was inaugurated by Emperor Constantine in Nicea, Asia Minor. The Church Council of Nicaea (aka Iznik) in Asia Minor condemned the teaching of Arius, a Christian priest at Alexandria (d.336), who held that Christ was not divine in the same sense as God the Father. The council fixed Orthodox Easter as the first Sunday after the first full moon following the vernal equinox unless the date falls on the 1st day of Passover, in which case it moves to the next Sunday. (WUD, 1994, p.80,81)(Sky, 4/97, p.56)(SFC, 4/25/97, p.A21)(HN, 5/20/98) 325 nend Aug 25, Council of Nicaea ended with adoption of the Nicene Creed establishing the doctrine of the Holy Trinity. The Council also decreed that priests cannot marry after their ordination. (MC, 8/25/02)(SFC, 3/16/02, p.A3) 325 nend Emperor Constantine and his mother Helena reportedly announced the discovery of Christ?s tomb. The site became the Shrine of the Holy Sepulchre. (Econ, 3/26/05, p.81) 325 nend Licinius (Valerius Licianus Licinius), Eastern emperor, was deposed and executed by Constantine. (www.ancienthistory.about.com) 325 nend Martinian (Marcus Martinianus) was executed by Constantine. (www.ancienthistory.about.com) 326 nend Jul 25, Constantine refused to carry out the traditional pagan sacrifices. (HN, 7/25/98) 326 nend Constantine executed his son Flavius Julius Crispus, born to his 1st wife, under the persuasion of his 2nd wife Fausta. (PCh, 1992, p.48) 326 330 The Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem was built by the Roman emperor Constantine. The church was rebuilt under Justinian (527-565). (SFC, 12/26/96, p.B2)(WSJ, 4/5/02, p.A1) 330 nend May 11, Constantine renamed the town of Byzantium to: "New Rome which is Constantine?s City." It became know as Constantinople. (ATC, p.31)(HN, 5/11/98) 330 nend Constantine began the building of the Great Palace in Constantinople. (SFC, 7/27/98, p.A8) 330 nend Ezana (Aezianas), ruler of Aksum (northeast Ethiopia), converted much of his realm to Christianity. During his rule he constructed much of the monumental architecture of Aksum, including a reported 100 stone obelisks, the tallest of which loomed 98 ft over the cemetery in which it stood and weighed 517 tons. Most of the obelisks were later destroyed, but one was hauled off by Italian forces after their 1937 invasion. It was returned in 2003. (http://archaeology.about.com/cs/africa/a/aksum.htm)(SSFC, 11/9/03,p.A2) 330 379 Saint Basil of Caesarea. His followers erected monastic communities in Turkey. (SFEM, 3/12/00, p.30) 330 1025 This is the period covered by John Julius Norwich, historian, in his Byzantium: The Decline and Fall. (WSJ, 10/14/95, p.A-12) 331 nend Nov 17, Flavius Claudius Julianus, [Julian the Apostate], emperor (361-363), was born. (MC, 11/17/01) 335 nend Oct 21, Constantinople emperor (Constantine the Great) enacted rules against Jews. (MC, 10/21/01) 335 nend Byzantine Emperor Constantine built the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem on the hill of Golgotha, where his mother claimed to have found the remains of the True Cross. It was raised by the Persians in 614, reconstructed and again destroyed by Caliph Hakim of Egypt in 1009. It was rebuilt by the Crusaders. (WSJ, 1/27/07, p.W13) 336 nend Dec 25, The first recorded celebration of Christmas on this day took place in Rome. By this year Dec 25 was established in the Liturgy of the Roman Church as the birthday of Jesus. [see 354] The Basilica of St. Anastasia was built as soon as a year after the Nicaean Council. It probably was where Christmas was first marked on Dec. 25, part of broader efforts to link pagan practices to Christian celebrations in the early days of the new religion. In 2007 Italian archaeologists unveiled an underground grotto, near St. Anastasia, that they believe ancient Romans revered as the place where a wolf nursed Rome's legendary founder Romulus and his twin brother Remus. (WSJ, 12/18/98, p.W15)(AP, 12/25/99)(AP, 12/22/07) 336 nend Arius, Christian priest from Alexandria and teacher of the doctrine of Arianism, died. (WUD, 1994, p.80,81) 337 nend May 22, Constantine (47), convert to Christianity and Emperor of Rome (306-37), died. He had made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire and had the Chapel of the Burning Bush built in the Sinai Desert at the site where Moses was believed to have witnessed the Miracle of the Burning Bush. He was baptized just before death. (V.D.-H.K.p.92)(PCh, 1992, p.48)(MC, 5/22/02) 337 nend Sep 9, Constantine's three sons, already Caesars, each took the title of Augustus. Constantine II and Constans shared the west while Constantius II took control of the east. (HN, 9/9/98) 340 nend Ambrose (d.397), later Bishop of Milan (374-397), was born about this time. He set to music the principal prayer of the Mass and, according to St. Augustine, set the fashion for silent reading. (WUD, 1994, p.46)(WSJ, 5/10/96, p.A-8) 340 nend St. Jerome (d.420), Christian ascetic and biblical scholar, was born about this time. He was the chief preparer of the Vulgate version of the Bible. Jerome condemned the use of potions that caused sterility and murder of those not yet conceived. [Wired dates him 321-420] (WUD, 1994, p.524)(Wired, 8/96, p.98)(AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.13) 340 360 The Codex Sinaiticus, a manuscript of the Christian Bible, was written in the middle of the fourth century and contains the earliest complete copy of the Christian New Testament. For most of its history it resided at St. Catherine?s Monastery built (527-565) on Egypt Mt. Sinai. It left the monastery in the 19th century for Russia, in circumstances that were later disputed. (Econ, 7/18/09,p.82)(www.codexsinaiticus.org/en/codex/default.aspx)(Econ, 3/26/05, p.80) 345 nend Dec 6, Nicholas of Myra (later Demre) died on this day in either 345 or 352. He reported as bishop to the Byzantine church in Constantinople. In 2005 Jeremy Seal authored ?Nicholas: The Epic Journey from Saint to Santa Claus.? (WSJ, 8/31/98, p.B1)(www.newadvent.org/cathen/11063b.htm)(Econ,12/24/05, p.115) 346 nend Theodosius was born in Spain. He served as emperor East Roman Republic 379-395. (WUD, 1994 p.1471)(SSFC, 3/21/04, p.M6) 347 nend May 14, Pachomius, Egyptian monastery founder, abbot (Coenobieten), died. (MC, 5/14/02) 347 nend St. John Chrysostom (d.407), was born about this time. He was the ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. (WUD, 1994 p.264) 350 nend In Teotihuacan 3 men were buried amid lavish goods about this time. Their graves were discovered in 2002 in a tomb at the top of the 5th of 7 layers of the Pyramid of the Moon near Mexico City. (SFC, 11/22/02, p.J2) 350 nend A new state with its capital at Axum in the Ethiopian mountains grew and controlled the coast of Eritrea and the sea trade route to southern Arabia. The rulers spoke a Semitic language and about this time conquered Kush, which broke in two, the kingdom of Dongola and the kingdom of Alwa. By the mid 500s, Alwa, Axum and Dongola had become Christian. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.169) 350 nend The Huns invaded Persia. (ATC, p.33) 350 nend In Sudan the last pyramid in the Egyptian tradition was built at Meroe about this time. The Meroe dynasty ruled Kush for more than 1,000 years until the kingdom's demise in 350 AD. (Arch, 9/02, p.55)(AP, 3/3/10) 352 nend May 17, Liberius began his reign as Catholic Pope replacing Julius I. (MC, 5/17/02) 352 nend Sep 12, Maximinus van Trier, bishop of Trier, saint, died. (MC, 9/12/01) 353 431 St. Paulinus, poet and Bishop of Mola: "For it is after the Solstice, when Christ born in the flesh with the new sun transformed the season of cold winter, and giving to mortal men a healing dawn, commanded the nights to decrease at his coming with advancing day." (WSJ, 12/18/98, p.W15) 354 nend Augustine (Aurelius Augustinus, d.430) was born in Tagaste, North Africa (modern Souk Ahras, Algeria). Augustine of Hippo, Church Father and philosopher, held that as long as the fetus was "shapeless" homicide laws did not apply because it had no senses and no soul. "Total abstinence is easier than perfect moderation." He fused the New Testament with Greek philosophy. "Nothing is so powerful in drawing the spirit of a man downwards as the caresses of a woman." (http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/augustine.html)(AM, Mar/Apr 97p.13)(HN, 11/13/98) (SFC, 3/16/02, p.A3) 354 nend Winter, Emperor Julian the Apostate came ashore at Hissarlik, the site of ancient Troy, and found a fire still burning on an altar to the Trojan hero, Hector. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.50) 354 nend Pope Liberius decided to add the Nativity to the Church calendar and selected December 25 to celebrate it. [see 336] (WSJ, 12/21/07, p.A19) 355 nend Donatus, bishop of Casae Nigrae in North Africa, died. He taught that the effectiveness of the sacraments depends on the moral character of the minister. In other words, if a minister who was involved in a serious enough sin were to baptize a person, that baptism would be considered invalid. (http://religion-cults.com/heresies/fourth.htm) 356 nend Feb 19, Emperor Constantius II shut all heathen (non-Christian) temples. (MC, 2/19/02) 357 nend Apr 28, Constantius II visited Rome for the first time. (HN, 4/28/98) 357 nend Aug 25, Flavius Claudius Julianus, the cousin of Constantius, beat the Alamanni in a Battle at Strasbourg. Chonodomarius was caught. (PCh, 1992, p.48)(HN, 8/25/99) 359 nend Christians allegedly established a camp in Skythopolis, Syria, to torture and execute pagans from around Europe. This can only be a reference to the Arian Bishop of Scythopolis, Patrophilus, who cruelly abused Christian bishops exiled to his see under Constantius. These included Eusebius of Vercelli. It was not a death-camp, nor did it last 30 years, nor were pagans the victims. (Arch, 1/05, p.70)(www.tektonics.org/af/crimeline.htm) 360 nend Feb 15, The first Hagia Sophia was inaugurated by Constantius II. It was built next to the smaller church Hagia Eirene in Constantinople. Both churches acted together as the principal churches of the Byzantine Empire. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Sophia) 361 nend Nov 3, Flavius Julius Constantius II (44), the 1st Byzantine Emperor, died. Flavius Claudius Julianus, Julian the Apostate, succeeded Constantius and tried to make paganism the official religion of the empire. (V.D.-H.K.p.92)(PCh, 1992, p.48)(MC, 11/3/01) 362 nend Jun 17, Emperor Julian issued an edict banning Christians from teaching in Syria. (HN, 6/17/98) 363 nend Jun 27, The death of Roman Emperor Julian brought an end to the Pagan Revival. Julian received a mortal wound in battle with the Sassanian Persians, whom he tried to conquer. (HN, 6/27/98)(WSJ, 3/24/99, p.A27) 363 nend A devastating earthquake leveled half the city of Petra, the principal city of Nabatea. (AP, 6/21/03) 364 nend Feb 17, Flavius Jovianus (~32), Christian emperor of Rome (363-64), died. (MC, 2/17/02) 364 nend Feb 26, On the death of Jovian, a conference at Nicaea chose Valentinian, an army officer who was born in the central European region of Pannania, to succeed him in Asia Minor. (HN, 2/26/99) 365 nend Jul 21, An earthquake, whose epicenter was in Crete, leveled the Egyptian Port of Alexandria as well as the Roman outpost of Leptis Magna in Libya. Some 50,000 people died. The ancient Egyptian city, known as Leukaspis or Antiphrae, was hidden for centuries after it was nearly wiped out by the tsunami. When Chinese engineers began cutting into the sandy coast to build the roads for a new resort in 1986, they struck the ancient tombs and houses of the town founded in the second century B.C. (www.earthscape.org/r2/jos/vol1-1june1997/pg55.html)(AM, Mar/Apr 97p.18)(AP, 9/8/10) 366 384 Pope St. Damasus I located martyr?s graves and had verse inscriptions composed for their tombs. He transformed the catacombs into popular and venerated shrines. (ITV, 1/96, p.58) 367 nend Much of Gortyn, the Roman capital of Crete, was destroyed be an earthquake. It was 1st inhabited around 3,000 BC and was destroyed by an Arab invasion in 824. (AP, 9/30/05) 370 415 Hypatia, female mathematician born in Alexandria, Egypt. She was a professor of mathematics and philosophy at the Univ. of Alexandria. She lectured on Plato, Aristotle, astronomy, geometry, Diophantine algebra, and the conics of Apollonius. (Alg, 1990, p.145) 374 nend Emperor Valentinian ended the parental right to kill their infants. (SFEC, 2/13/00, Z1 p.2) 374 397 Ambrose served as the Bishop of Milan. Later proclaimed St. Ambrose. (WUD, 1994, p.46)(SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T13) 375 nend Nov 17, Enraged by the insolence of barbarian envoys, Valentinian, the Emperor of the West, died of apoplexy in Pannonia in Central Europe. (HN, 11/17/98) 376 nend Dec 25, In Milan, Ambrose, the Bishop of Milan, forced the emperor Theodosius to perform public penance for his massacre. (HN, 12/25/98) 377 nend Niall of the Nine Hostages, warlord and head of the most powerful dynasty in ancient Ireland, was crowned king. He reportedly had 12 sons, many of whom became powerful Irish kings themselves. In 2006 scientists in Ireland presented evidence that he was the country's most fertile male, with more than 3 million men worldwide among his offspring. (Reuters,1/17/06)(www.irishclans.com/articles/famirish/niall9hostages.html) 378 nend Aug 9, In the Battle of Adrianople the Visigoth Calvary defeated Roman Army. (MC, 8/9/02) 378 nend Tikal saw the establishment of a new line of kings following its military victory over many cities of the Maya Lowlands. The 1st king was Nuun Yax Ain (Green Crocodile) and he claimed descent from a Teotihuacan lord that scholars later dubbed Spear-thrower Owl. (Arch, 9/00, p.27) 379 nend In Milan the brick Basilica of St. Ambrose was begun. (SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T3) 379 395 Theodosius I (c.346-395) served as emperor East Roman Republic. (WUD, 1994 p.1471) 380 nend Theodosius I ordered that all people under his rule embrace Christianity. (SSFC, 3/21/04, p.M6) 383 nend Aug 25, Flavius Gratianus (25), Emperor of Rome (375-383), was murdered. (MC, 8/25/02) 384 nend May 13, Servatius (Aravatius), bishop of Tongeren, died at age 65. (MC, 5/13/02) 384 nend Sep 9, Flavius Honorius, emperor East Roman Republic (395-423), was born. (MC, 9/9/01) 385 nend Pope Siricius left his wife to become pope and told priests to stop sleeping with their wives. (SFC, 3/16/02, p.A3) 385 nend Priscillian, bishop of Avila in Spain, was convicted of sorcery and executed by the Roman emperor Maximus. (NH, 9/96, p.20) 386 nend Augustine (354-430) became a priest and soon after bishop of Hippo, a Roman city in what is now Algeria. He wrote "The City of God," in which he laid out a plan of world history, showing how two cities vied with each other for dominance and would continue to do so until the end of time. One city was human- material, fleshly, downward-turning. The other city was divine- spiritual, turning upward toward the Creator of all things... An individual thinking being, Augustine said, does not make the truth, he finds it. He discovers it within himself as he listens to the teachings of the magister interiore, the "inward teacher," who is Christ, the revealing Word of God. According to Augustine, St. Ambrose set the fashion for silent reading and marveled at the innovation. (V.D.-H.K.p.94)(WSJ, 5/10/96, p.A-8) 386 535 The Northern Wei Dynasty is associated with the spread of Buddhism from India to China. (AM, 9/01, p.49) 387 nend Apr 24, Bishop Ambrose baptized St. Augustine in Milan at the Baptistry of San Giovanni alle Fonti, later the site of the Duomo Cathedral. (SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T12) 387 nend The Parthians and Romans agreed to settle the Armenian question by the drastic expedient of partition. The Sassanid kings of Persia (who had superseded the Parthians in the Empire of Iran) secured the lion's share of the spoils, while the Romans only received a strip of country on the western border which gave them Erzeroum and Diyarbakir for their frontier fortresses. (http://raven.cc.ukans.edu/~kansite/ww_one/docs/bryce2.htm) 388 nend Aug 28, Magnus Maximus, Spanish West Roman Emperor (383-88), was executed. (MC, 8/28/01) c 389 nend Mar 17, St. Patrick (d.461), the patron saint of Ireland, was born. Calpurnius, his father, was a deacon and local official who lost his son to Irish raiders when Patrick was 16. Patrick allegedly drove all the snakes (i.e. pagans) out of Ireland. (HN, 3/17/99)(HNQ, 3/17/01)(WSJ, 3/12/04, p.W13) c 389 461 St. Patrick, an English missionary and bishop of Ireland. March 17 is celebrated in his honor. He was a Celt born in Romanized Britain and was kidnapped by Irish pirates at 16, sold into slavery, and served for 6 years as a shepherd until he escaped. (SFC, 3/15/97, p.A16)(WUD, 1994, p.1057)(SFC, 3/17/97, p.A20) 390 nend Jul 16, Brennus and Gauls defeated the Romans at Allia. (MC, 7/16/02) 392 nend May 15, Valentinianus II (21), emperor of Rome (375-392), was murdered. (MC, 5/15/02) 392 nend Nov 8, Theodosius of Rome passed legislation prohibiting all pagan worship in the empire and declared Christianity the state religion. (HN, 11/6/98)(MC, 11/8/01) 393 nend The ancient Olympic Games were held at intervals beginning in 776 BC until about 393 CE when they were abolished by Roman emperor Theodosius I after Greece lost its independence. The modern Olympic Games were started in 1896. [see 396CE] (HNQ, 11/23/98) 394 nend Sep 6, Theodosius became sole ruler of Italy after defeating Eugenius at the Battle of the River Frigidus. (HN, 9/6/98) 394 nend Sep 8, Arbogast, French general, committed suicide. (MC, 9/8/01) 395 nend Jan 17, Emperor Theodosius I (49), the Great, Spanish head of Rome, died. Theodosius I wrote into his will that upon his death the eastern and western sections of the empire should be declared separate empires. His death in this year marks the split of the Roman and Byzantine Empire. (ATC, p.24)(MC, 1/17/02) 396 nend The last Olympic Games were held under Emp. Theodosius I, who halted them due to increasing professionalism and corruption. [see 393CE] In 2004 Nigel Spivey authored ?The Ancient Olympics.? (SFC, 7/14/96, p.T1)(WSJ, 8/13/04, p.W8) 397 nend Nov 8, Martin of Tours, [St Martin], bishop of Tours, died. [see Nov 11] (MC, 11/8/01) 397 nend Nov 11, Martinus (81), (St Martin), Roman bishop of Tours, died. [see Nov 8] (MC, 11/11/01) 397 nend In southeastern Turkey the Mor Gabriel monastery was founded by Syriac Christians. In 2009 it had just 3 monks and 14 nuns and faced the loss to the state of some 100 acres representing 60% of its core property. (WSJ, 3/7/09, p.A8) 400 nend A stable form of ink was developed with iron-salts, nutgalls and gum. (SFC, 7/26/04, p.F4) 400 nend The Barbarians, Hsiung-nu nomads, moved West. These "Huns" displaced the Goths and the Vandals, who moved west. The displaced Goths broke into two groups, one moving west into Gaul forcing the native Germanic peoples south, the other branch, called the Visigoths, headed south into Italy. The Vandals continues to move west, and turned south through Gaul and into Spain. They ravaged Spain and crossed into Africa and later recrossed the Mediterranean into Italy. (V.D.-H.K.p.88) 400 nend Afghanistan was invaded by the White Huns. They destroyed the Buddhist culture, and left most of the country in ruins. (www.afghan-web.com/history/-web.com/history/) 400 nend About this time sage-prince Kambu of the Cambodian legends, who belonged to the Kamboja lineage, appears to have sailed from Indian subcontinent, probably from Saurashtra/Gujarat on the west coast of India and established a small Kamboja kingdom in Bassac around Vat-Ph'u hill in Mekong Basin. The first Khmer or king, know as Kambu, founded Kambujadesa, which means the Sons of Kambu or Kambuja for short. (SFEC, 10/20/96, T5)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kambu_Svayambhuva) 400 nend By this time the Chinese had developed rigid metal stirrups which gave the rider more security in the saddle. (ATC, p.11) 400 nend In Ireland the Celtic ruler Niall of the Nine Hostages lived around this time. (SFC, 7/14/97, p.E1) 400 nend About this time Kalidassa wrote the great Indian literature: "Kumara?s Fight Against the Demon Taraka." (ATC, p.33) 400 nend About this time Nubia faded as a independent civilization. (MT, 10/95, p.10-11) 400 nend About this time people from the chiefdom Dal Riata in northern Ireland crossed the Irish Sea and settled along the Scottish coast of County Argyll. (AM, 7/01, p.46) 400 500 The Angles and Saxons crossed the North Sea to England bringing with them the 5 day week: Tiwsday - of the god Tiw; Wodensday - of the god Woden; Thorsday - of the god Thor; Frigsday - of the goddess Frig; and Seternesday - of the god Seterne. The Anglo-Saxons, a group of Germanic tribes, gradually invaded England by sea starting in the 5th century in the wake of the collapse of the Roman Empire. (K.I.-365D, p.107)(AP, 9/24/09) 400 500 About this time Apicius, a Roman gourmand, authored ?De re coquinara? (concerning cookery). It is considered to be the first Western cookbook. The first printed edition came out in 1483. (Econ, 12/20/08, p.140)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apicius) 400 500 The Quraysh tribe of west-central Arabia makes treaties with neighboring areas to ensure the safe passage of trade caravans through the desert around Mecca. (ATC, p.56) 400 500 During this period the Jutes of Jutland, at the northern tip of the Danish peninsula, migrated to Britain as part of a Germanic invasion. The notion that they settled in what is now Kent and the Isle of Wight, as is recorded by Anglo-Saxon chronicler Bede the Venerable, has been confirmed by archaeological evidence. (HNQ, 10/7/00) 400 500 A tomb in 1996 was found in the ruins of the Maya city of La Milpa in Belize near the Mexican border. It contained the skeleton of a man adorned with a pendant depicting the head of a vulture, signifying lord or ruler. Archeologist Norman Hammond speculated that it could be the burial place of the king known as Bird Jaguar, who lived around 450, or his successor. (SFC, 6/23/96, p.A10) 400 500 Yax K?uk Mo (Blue-Green Quetzal Macaw) was the 5th century founder of Copan in Honduras, although the site was occupied from early preclassic to late classic times. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.F) 400 500 In Ashkalon, Israel, bones from this period of some 100 infants were discovered in 1988 in the debris of a sewer adjacent to a bath house of this time. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.12) 400 500 The Aymara people lived on the shores of Lake Titicaca between Bolivia and Peru since the 5th century. Their ancient capital was Tiahuanaco. Their world is described in "Valley of the Spirits" (1996) by Alan L. Kolata. (NH, 8/96, p.14) 400 500 St. Ursula, a legendary British princess, and her 11,000 martyr virgins were said to have been slaughtered by the Huns at Cologne in the 5th century. (WUD, 1994, p.1573)(SFEC, 2/15/98, p.T8) 400 500 During this period the Indian philosopher Yashomitra made commentaries on Buddhism and described it as "awakened" (vibuddha) and "full-bloomed" or "perfected" (prabuddha). (SFEM,12/14/97, p.46) 400 500 In Japan two imperial tombs of this time in Miyazaki Prefecture, Kyushu, are held by legend to belong to Ninigi, grandson of the sun goddess Amaterasu and his wife. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.12) 400 500 The leap year tradition of women proposing marriage to men began in 5th century Ireland. (SFEC, 6/8/97, Z1 p.6) 400 600 The large Buddha at Bamiyan, Afghanistan, 170 feet tall, was constructed during this period. It was an enlargement of an Indian Buddha of the Gupta period. (WSJ, 3/5/00, p.A22) 401 nend Apr 10, Theodosius II, the Younger, Eastern Roman emperor, was born. (MC, 4/10/02) 401 nend Dec, St. Innocent, born in Albano, Italy, became pope. He was the pope nine years later when the Visigoths captured and sacked Rome. (AP, 3/21/09) 402 nend Apr 6, Battle at Pollentia: Roman army under Stilicho beat the Visigoths. (MC, 4/6/02) 402 nend The capital of the Roman empire was moved from Rome to Ravenna on the Adriatic. (V.D.-H.K.p.88) 405 nend In Northern Ireland St. Patrick (16) was sold about this time as a slave by King Niall?s men. (WSJ, 3/15/02, p.W15) 405 nend The Armenian alphabet was invented. (MH, 12/96) 406 nend Aug 23, At the Battle at Florence the Roman army under Stilicho beat the Barbarians under Radagaisus. (PC, 1992, p.50) 406 nend Dec 31, Godagisel, king of the Vandals, died in battle as some 80,000 Vandals attacked over the Rhine at Mainz. (MC, 12/31/01) 406 nend Some of the inscriptions from a stone monument from the Maya city of La Milpa have been deciphered to give this date. (SFC, 6/23/96, p.A10) 407 nend Sep 14, Johannes Chrysostomus (b.c347), patriarch of Constantinople (398) and exiled in 404, died in Pontus (later northeast Turkey). He is generally considered the most prominent doctor of the Greek Church and the greatest preacher ever heard in a Christian pulpit. (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08452b.htm) 408 nend May 1, Theodosius II succeeded to the throne of Constantinople. (HN, 5/1/98) 408 nend Aug 22, Flavius Stilicho (48), West Roman field leader (395-408), died. (MC, 8/22/02) 408 450 Theodosius II was emperor of Rome. (MH, 12/96) 410 nend Aug 18, King Alaric I's Visigoths occupied and plundered Rome. [see Aug 24] (PC, 1992, p.50) 410 nend Aug 24, Rome was overrun by the Visigoths, an event that symbolized the fall of the Western Roman Empire. German barbarians sacked Rome [see Aug 18]. (V.D.-H.K.p.87)(AP, 8/24/97)(HN, 8/24/98) 410 nend Rome abandoned its British provinces. (AM, 11/04, p.41) 411 nend Proclus (d.485), Greek mathematician and theologian, was born. [see 412] (WUD, 1994 p.1147)(MC, 4/17/02) 412 nend Feb 8, St. Proclus, Patriarch of Constantinople, was born. [see 411] (HN, 2/8/98) 413 nend Oct 10, Nicias, Athens politician (Peace of Nicias), killed at about age 57. (MC, 10/10/01) 415 nend Archbishop Cyril of Alexandria sent a mob of religious police to stop Hypatia, an eccentric pagan ascetic and scholar. The mob kidnapped her, dragged her to a church, stripped and tortured her with broken shards of pottery. Her body parts were then butchered, put on public display and burnt to a crisp. In 2004 Jonathan Kirsch authored "God Against the Gods: The History of the War Between Monotheism and Polytheism." (SSFC, 3/21/04, p.M1) 418 nend Mar 10, Jews were excluded from public office in the Roman Empire. (MC, 3/10/02) 418 nend Dec 27, Zosimus, Greek Pope (417-8), died. (MC, 12/27/01) 419 nend Jul 2, Valentinian III, Roman emperor (425-55), was born. (SC, 7/2/02) 420 nend Padua, Italy, was founded on the edge of the Adriatic. (SFC,12/19/97, p.F3) 421 nend Feb 8, Flavius Constantine became emperor Constantine III of Roman Empire West. (MC, 2/8/02) 421 nend Mar 25, Venice was founded on a Friday at 12 PM. (MC, 3/25/02) 421 438 King Bahram V ruled Persia. (MH, 12/96) 422 432 The Bible and the works of the church fathers were translated into Armenian. (MH, 12/96) 425 nend Feb 27, Theodosius effectively founded a university in Constantinople. (HN, 2/27/99) 425 550 Independent Yaftalee ruled in Afghanistan. (www.afghan-web.com/history/-web.com/history/, 5/25/98) 426 nend Yax K?uk Mo? founded Copan in what is now western Honduras. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.A) 427 nend Dec, The Patriarch of Constantinople died. (Usenet, 3/4/97) 427 nend The Nalanda Buddhist center of learning was established in Bihar state, India, and continued to 1197. It has been called one of the first great universities in recorded history. (Econ, 9/4/10, p.46)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nalanda) 428 nend Apr 10, John Nestorius from Antioch was consecrated as the new Patriarch of Constantinople by Emperor Theodosius. (Usenet, 3/4/97) 428 nend The Arsacid (Arshakuni) monarchy of Armenia ended and control fell under the rule of the Persian Sassanids. (MH, 12/96) 429 nend Roman Africa was invaded by the Vandals, barbarians who had fought and conquered their way across Germany, France, Spain and across the Strait of Gibraltar. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.168) 430 nend Aug 28, Augustine (b.354) died in Hippo (Annaba, Algeria) with a Vandal army outside the gates of the city. His writings included "The Confessions." In 1999 Garry Wills authored the biography "St. Augustine." Augustine had developed the theory of a "just war" and said a nation?s leaders must consider among other things, anticipated loss of civilian life and whether all peaceful options have been exhausted before war starts. In 2003 Garry Wills authored "Saint Augustine's Sin." In 2005 James J. O?Donnell authored ?Augustine: A New Biography.? (SSFC, 12/21/03, p.M6)(Econ, 5/14/05,p.86)(www.connect.net/ron/august.html) 431 nend The Council of Ephesus was held to deal with the heretics and heresies of the day such as Arianism and Apollinarianism. The council condemned Nestorianism, which taught that there were 2 person in Christ and that Mary was the mother of the human Christ but not of God. In 2009 Miri Rubin authored ?Mother of God: A History of the Virgin Mary.? (Usenet, 3/4/97)(PTA, 1980, p.86)(Econ, 2/21/09, p.84) 431 nend The Assyrians and Chaldeans broke from what was to become the Roman Catholic Church over a theological dispute. (WSJ, 3/12/00, p.A10) 431 nend A great Mayan dynasty arose at Palenque and soon began trading with communities hundreds of miles away. (SSFC, 12/7/03, p.C10) 432 nend About this time St. Patrick was consecrated a bishop and returned to Ireland as missionary. He established Ireland?s first monasteries and Irish monks made it their mission to copy all literature, sacred and secular, while barbarism swept the continent. This period is covered in the 1995 book "How the Irish Saved Civilization" by Thomas Cahill. (SFC, 3/17/97, p.A20)(WSJ, 11/5/99, p.W12) 434 453 Attila the Hun was known in western Europe as the "Scourge of God." Attila was the king of the Huns from 434 to 453 and one of the greatest of the barbarian rulers to assail the Roman Empire. (HNQ, 12/19/98) 435 nend John Nestorius was banished from his monastery in Antioch by Emperor Theodosius II. (Usenet, 3/4/97) 435 808 In Mexico Yaxchilan on the bank of the Usumacinta was occupied at least over this period. King Mah K?ina Skull III was one of the rulers during the construction of some 90 stone structures. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.G) 437 nend Nov 30, A glyph in Copan [in later Honduras] records this date and mentions the 1st and 2nd rulers of the city-state. (NG, 12/97, p.81) 438 nend Easter, In Ireland St. Patrick used the 3-leaf clover to illustrate the Trinity. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.D7) 438 457 The Persian King Yazdegird II ruled. He pressured the Armenians to accept Zoroastrianism and worship the supreme god Ahura Mazda. Mihr-Nerseh, the Persian grand vizier, promulgated an edict that enjoined the Armenians to convert. (MH, 12/96) 439 nend Oct 9, Ancient city of Carthage was captured by Genseric the Vandal. [see Oct 19,24] (MC, 10/9/01) 439 nend Oct 19, The Vandals, led by King Gaiseric, took Carthage and quickly conquered all the coastal lands of Algeria and Tunisia. Egypt and the Libyan coast remained in Roman hands. [see Oct 24] (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.168)(HN, 10/19/98) 439 nend Oct 24, Carthage, the leading Roman city in North Africa, fell to Genseric and the Vandals. [see Oct 19] (HN, 10/24/98) 439 nend Oct 29, Vandals under Genseric occupied Carthage. [see Oct 24] (MC, 10/29/01) 439 nend In Mauretania (now northern Morocco and Algeria) Roman rule ceased about this time when barbarian incursions forced the legions to withdraw. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.) 440 nend Aug 19, Pope Sixtus III (432-440) died. (PTA, 1980, p.88) 440 790 The Mayan city of Palenque flourished. (AM, 5/01, p.49) 441 nend Bishop Patrick allegedly fasted for 40 days on a 2,500-foot peak later named Croagh Patrick in county Mayo. He allegedly banished snakes from Ireland during this time. (SFCM, 10/14/01, p.23) 444 nend In Ireland St. Patrick selected the site for the Cathedral of Armagh. It later became Ireland?s ecclesiastical center and preceded the 360 churches that he established. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.D7) 449 nend The Armenians held a General Assembly to ponder the Persian edict that demanded conversion to Zoroastrianism. They chose to remain Christian and their leaders were summoned to Persia to answer to the king. The leaders opted to yield under heavy pressure but were renounced on their return home. (MH, 12/96) 450 nend St. Benedict (d.547) was born in Norcia, Italy, about this time. (V.D.-H.K.p.106) 450 nend The Hun invasions of India began. (ATC, p.33) 450 nend In Peru a tattooed Moche woman was entombed about this time, at a site later called El Brujo, with a sacrificed teenage slave and a collection of weapons and jewelry. In 2006 her mummy was discovered in a pyramid called Huaca Cao Viejo. (SFC, 5/17/06, p.A2) 450 470 The Vakataka emperor Harisena, ruled over central India. He is recognized as bringing India's Golden Age to its apogee. He oversaw the greatest building phase at the monasteries of Ajanta, where monks lived in rock-cut cells. (LSA., pp. 10-16) 451 nend Apr 13, A Persian Army of 300,000 men under Mushkan Nusalavurd arrived at a place between her and Zarevand (now Khoy and Salmast in Iran) to face the Armenian forces. (MH, 12/96) 451 nend May 26, The Battle of Avarair. Vardan Mamikonian, son of Sparapet (general) Hamazasp Mamikonian and Sahakanush, daughter of the Catholicos Sahak Bartev, led a force of 66,000 Armenians to face the Persians. Prior to battle Vardan read aloud the story of the Jewish Maccabees. Persian losses tripled the Armenian dead, but Mushkan won and Vardan was killed. (MH, 12/96) 451 nend Apr 7, Attila's Huns plundered Metz. (MC, 4/7/02) 451 nend Jun 20, Roman and Barbarian warriors halted Attila?s army at the Catalaunian Plains (Catalarinische Fields) in eastern France. Attila the Hun was defeated by a combined Roman and Visigoth army. The Huns moved south into Italy but were defeated again. (V.D.-H.K.p.88)(HN, 6/20/98)(MC, 6/20/02) 451 nend Sep 20, General Aetius defeated Attila the Hun at Chalons-sur-Marne. (MC, 9/20/01) 451 nend Oct 8, Council of Chalcedon (4th ecumenical council) opened. The Council declared that the two natures of Christ, divine and human, were united without change, division or confusion in Christ. This led to the formation of the Coptic Monophysite Church which continued to hold that Jesus had but one divine nature. Copt comes from the Arabic word for Egyptian. (CU, 6/87)(SFC, 3/31/97, p.A9)(MC, 10/8/01) 451 nend The Armenians were the first Christians to take up arms in defending their right to worship. (HN, 7/25/98) 451 nend Clan leaders of Armenia united to defeat the Sassanians at Avarair. (CO Enc. / Armenia) 451 nend John Nestorius, former Patriarch of Constantinople, died about this time. Prior to his death he wrote his book "Bazar of Heracleids." (Usenet, 3/4/97) 451 484 Vahan Mamikonian led the Armenians in a 33-year guerrilla war. The Persian Sassanids underwent 3 rulers and pressure from the Ephthalites, White Huns, and when King Peroz was killed by the White Huns, his successor, Balash, sued for peace. Vahan demanded and was granted religious freedom. (MH, 12/96) 452 nend Feb 4, The Mayan city of Tikal has a monolith in hieroglyphics that reports an inferior conjunction of Venus". (K.I.-365D, p.164) 452 nend Jun 8, Italy was invaded by Attila the Hun. (HN, 6/8/98) 452 nend Pope Leo I met Attila the Hun on the banks of the Mincio and Attila agreed to make peace and spare Rome. (PTA, 1980, p.90) 452 nend Attila the Hun died. (V.D.-H.K.p.88) 454 nend Sep 21, In Italy, Aetius, the supreme army commander, was murdered in Ravenna by Valentinian III, the emperor of the West. (HN, 9/21/98) 455 nend May 31, Petronius Maximus, senator, Emperor of Rome, was lynched. (MC, 5/31/02) 455 nend Jul 9, Avitus, the Roman military commander in Gaul, became Emperor of the West. (HN, 7/9/98) 455 nend Jun 16, Rome was sacked by the Vandal army. Gaiseric looted and burned Rome for 14 days. He took the looted treasure, which likely included the 70AD plunder from Jerusalem, by ship to the temple of Carthage. (V.D.-H.K.p.88)(HN, 6/16/98)(SFC, 10/23/06, p.A15) 455 nend Genseric, at the invitation of Eudoxia, Valentinian's widow, sailed to Italy, and took Rome without a blow. At the intercession of Leo the Great, he abstained from torturing or massacring the inhabitants and burning the city, but gave it up to systematic plunder. For 14 days and nights the work of pillage continued. Genseric then returned unmolested to Africa, carrying much booty and many thousand captives, including the empress Eudoxia and her two daughters. The elder became the wife of his son Hunneric; the younger, with her mother, was eventually surrendered to the emperor Leo. (www.earlychristianwritings.com/info/galen-wace.html) 457 nend Feb 7, A Thracian officer by the name of Leo was proclaimed as emperor of the East by the army general, Aspar, on the death of the Emperor Marcian. (HN, 2/7/99) 457 nend A Monophysite was named patriarch of Alexandria. (SFC, 3/31/97, p.A9) 461 nend Mar 17, According to tradition, St. Patrick (b.c389), the patron saint of Ireland, died in Saul, County Down. Some sources say he died in 493AD. He was an English missionary and bishop of Ireland. In 2004 Philip Freeman authored "St. Patrick: A Biography." (SFC, 3/15/97, p.A16)(WSJ, 3/12/04, p.W13)(AP, 3/17/08) 461 nend Nov 10, Leo I the Great, Pope (440-61), died. (MC, 11/10/01) 468 nend Mar 3, St. Simplicius was elected to succeed Catholic Pope Hilarius. (SC, 3/3/02) 472 nend Aug 18, Flavius Ricimer, general of the Western Roman Empire, kingmaker, was born. (MC, 8/18/02) 473 nend An ancient king in Sri Lanka constructs an impenetrable fortress atop a giant rock that rises 200 yards above the plains. The site is called Sigiriya. (WSJ, 8/3/95, p.A-8) 474 nend Jan 18, Leo I, Roman Byzantine Emperor (457-74), died. He was succeeded by his grandson Leo II. (www.roman-emperors.org/leo1.htm) 474 nend Nov 17, Leo II (b.467), Roman Byzantine Emperor, died. (www.roman-emperors.org/leo2.htm) 476 nend Aug 28, The western Roman Empire formally ended at Ravenna as the barbarian general Odoacer deposed the last of the Roman emperors, the young boy Romulus Augustus. (ATC, p.32)(PC, 1992, p.52) 477 nend In Sri Lanka the usurper King Kasyapa I founded Sigiriya and built his castle atop a 550-foot outcrop. He had murdered his father Dhatusena. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.D)(Arch, 7/02, p.32) 477 nend Harisena, emperor of Central India dies. (LSA., p. 12) 480 nend Boethius (d.524) was born in Rome about this time. He acquired an important post under the Ostrogoth King Theodoric, but later fell into disfavor and was imprisoned. In prison he wrote his famous The Consolation of Philosophy. (V.D.-H.K.p.113) 480 nend Hun invasions began to weaken the Gupta Dynasty in India. (ATC, p.33) 483 nend Mar 13, St. Felix began his reign as Catholic Pope. (HN, 3/13/98) 484 nend The Church of Mary Theotokos was built over the presumed site of a Samaritan Temple that is believed to be a copy of the Second Temple of Jerusalem at Mt. Gerizim in the Israeli occupied West Bank. (SFC, 5/23/95, p.A-10) 484 nend The Armenians signed a treaty in the village of Nuwarsak with the Persians and Vahan Mamikonian was appointed marzban of Armenia. (MH, 12/96) 485 nend Apr 17, Proclus (b.411), Greek mathematician, died in Athens. (WUD, 1994 p.1147)(MC, 4/17/02) 485 505 In Armenia Vahan Mamikonian began his rule with services at the Cathedral of Dvin with the Catholicos Hovhan I Mandakuni presiding. (MH, 12/96) 490 nend Oct 29, Petrus Mongus, patriarch of Alexandria, died. (MC, 10/29/01) 492 nend Mar 1, St. Felix III ended his reign as Catholic Pope. (SC, 3/1/02) 492 nend Mar 1, St Gelasius I began his reign as Catholic Pope (492-496). (PTA, 1980, p.98)(SC, 3/1/02) 493 nend Mar 3, Odovacar, the Herulian leader, surrendered Ravenna to Theodorik, king of the Ostrogoths. Theodorik invited Odovacar to dinner and had him murdered. Theodorik united Italy as an Ostrogoth kingdom until 554. [see Mar 15] (PCh, 1992, p.52)(V.D.-H.K.p.88)(SC, 3/3/02) 493 nend Mar 15, Theodoric the Great beat Odoacer of Italy. Odoacer, German army leader, King of Italy (476-93), died. [see Mar 3] (MC, 3/15/02) 495 nend May 3, Pope Gelasius asserted that his authority was superior to Emperor Anastasius. PTA, 1980, p.98)(HN, 5/3/98) no_source 496 nend Nov 21, Pope Gelasius, an African by birth or descent, died. He changed the mid-February lottery rules for young Roman men so that they drew names of Catholic Saints to emulate instead of young girls for play. The Lupercalia pagan rite had been revived to bring good luck to the city following a plague. He named Feb 14 as St. Valentine?s Day. (PTA, 1980, p.98)(SFEM, 2/9/97, p.11)(SSFC, 2/11/01, DB p.40) 496 nend In China the Shaolin Temple was built in the foothills of Mount Songshan in Henan province. It was later considered as the birthplace for Shaolin boxing, a combination of Buddhism and Chinese martial arts that evolved into kung fu (gongfu). (SFC, 9/26/02, p.B3) 496 nend Clovis, king of the Salian or Merovingian Franks, became the first of the pagan barbarians to adopt Catholicism. (www.patmospapers.com/daniel/in508.htm) 498 nend Nov 19, Anastasius II, Pope (496-98), (Dante Inferno XI, 8-9), died. (MC, 11/19/01) 500 nend The northern California Emeryville Shellmound, CA-Ala 309, dates to about this time. (Buckeye, Winter 04/05) 500 nend In England, the Anglo-Saxons brought Futhark from continental Europe in the 5th century and modified it into the 33-letter "Futhorc" to accommodate sound changes that were occurring in Old English, the language spoken by the Anglo-Saxons. An early offshoot of Futhark was employed by Goths, and so it is known as Gothic Runes. It was used until 500 CE when it was replaced by the Greek-based Gothic alphabet. (www.ancientscripts.com/futhark.html) 500 nend About this time the Ridgeway, the oldest road in Europe, wandered along empty, open ridges over Wiltshire?s Marlborough Downs in England. Invading Saxons gave this ancient track its present name: ?The Ridgeway,? but even then it was already old beyond all memory. Fifty centuries earlier, Stone Age traders probably followed this track to barter stone axe heads with farmer folk in the valleys. These Neolithic merchants picked up The Ridgeway at the Thames River ford at Goring, then followed it westward and southward along the crest of the Downs, into what would become the counties of Berkshire and Wiltshire in the times of the Wessex kings. Since those first Neolithic peddlers, 200 generations have found their own good reasons to tramp along the Ridgeway track. (HNQ, 7/29/01) 500 nend By this time the Chalchihuites culture (New Mexico) engaged in extensive turquoise mining and exporting raw turquoise to West Mexican centers like Alta Vista. (Arch, 1/05, p.28) 500 nend By this time the Kaaba at Mecca housed more than 360 idols of the gods of various tribes. Protection of the Kaaba was organized by the Quraysh tribe, who encouraged other tribes to deposit their idols their for protection and a fee. During four months of each year the Quraysh forbade fighting and raiding along the trade routes and this allowed both merchants and travelers make their pilgrimages in peace for a fee. (ATC, p.57) 500 nend The Manteno people inhabited the area of northern Ecuador about this time. It was believed that they ran a vast maritime empire and traded with the Aztecs in Mexico and made voyages of 3,000-4,000 miles. In 1998-99 a team led by John Haslett (34) attempted to duplicate their maritime voyages with a 20-ton, 60-foot balsa raft. (SFC, 1/6/99, p.A8) 500 nend About this time Nubians turned from their Egyptian-influenced religion to Christianity. A thousand years later the people of their region will convert heavily to Islam. (MT, 10/95, p.10-11) 500 nend About this time the Indian monk Bodhidharma hit on the idea of Zen after staring at a wall for nine years. (WSJ, 10/23/96, p.A1) 500 nend Teotihuacan people built a 60-foot pyramid about this time in what later became known as Iztapalapa, Mexico. It was abandoned after about 300 years, when the Teotihuacan culture collapsed. Archeologists began to unveil the site in 2004. (AP, 4/6/06) 500 nend In Peru a Moche pyramid from about this time at Dos Cabezas contained tombs that archeologists found in 1997. The tombs revealed people of unusual height along with miniatures of the deceased and the tomb?s contents. (SFC, 2/15/01, p.A7) 500 nend Ancient Turks are believed to have originated in Mongolia about this time. (Arch, 1/06, p.17) 500 600 Arabs about this time brought back home from India the numerals we refer to as Arabic numbers. (SFEC, 1/23/00, Z1 p.2) 500 600 The Arabian city of Ubar, disappeared in the early 6th century. The event was later cited by Muhammad in the Quran. In 1992 a team of investigators announced the discovery of he long lost Arabian city of Ubar. George Hedges (1952-2009), a Hollywood litigator, and filmmaker Nicholas Clapp, participated in the find. Clapp later authored ?The Road to Ubar: Finding the Atlantis of the Sands? (1999). (WSJ, 3/20/09, p.A12) 500 600 In England the 6th century Gildas was the only historian whose work survived. He made no mention of King Arthur. He described the Picts as ?Loathsome hordes, dark swarms of worms that emerge from the narrow crevices of their holes when the sun is high, preferring to cover their villainous faces with hair rather than their private parts and surrounding areas with clothes. (WSJ, 3/27/98, p.W10)(AM, 11/04, p.41) 500 600 The monastic complex of David Gareja was founded in the 6th century by David (St. David Garejeli), one of the thirteen Assyrian monks who arrived in Georgia at the same time. His disciples Dodo and Luciane expanded the original lavra and founded two other monasteries known as Dodo's Rka (literally, "the horn of Dodo") and Natlismtsemeli ("the Baptist"). Part of the complex is also located in the Agstafa rayon of Azerbaijan and thus became subject to a border dispute between Georgian and Azerbaijani authorities. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Gareja_monastery_complex) 500 600 The rulers of Ghana stored grain in mud huts on high, steep land. (ATC, p.106) 500 600 About this time Irish monks brought an alembic from the Middle East that was initially used to distill perfumes. They soon applied it to spirits and produced Uisce Beatha (water of life), better known as whiskey. (WSJ, 8/14/02, p.D8) 500 600 In Laos a local legend describes a military celebration for which the stone jars of the Plain of Jars were created to ferment and store alcohol. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.E) 500 600 El Pital, a Maya regional hub on the gulf coast since c300 BC, suddenly became inactive. It was later suspected that a catastrophic flood hit the area. (SFC, 9/14/00, p.C8) 500 600 The Picts of Scotland developed a script about this time made up of 30 symbols. In 2005 it still defied interpretation. (AM, 11/04, p.43) 500 700 A Babylonian earthenware demon bowl from Seleucia-on-Tigris dated to this period. (MT, 3/96, p.5) 500 700 The clay Lydenburg Heads from southern Africa, dated to this period. These earliest know South African sculptures were later exhibited at the Guggenheim. (NYT, 6/7/96, p.B9) 500 700 Chronicles of the 8th century record the peaceful arrival of immigrants from Korea in the 6th and 7th centuries. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.38) 500 700 Evidence in 2005 suggested that Polynesians visited California during this period and transferred their canoe building technology to the local Chumash and Gabrielino Indians. (SFC, 6/20/05, p.A5) 500 800 Curse tablets are widely used in this era. "Lead scrolls, used to place curses against lawyers, lovers, and horses, have been discovered in a Roman-era well at King Herod?s palace in Israel." (USAT, 10/28/94, 1A) c 500 1100 The Sinagua people lived in the area of Sunset Crater, Az. (AM, 3/04, p.48) 500 1315 The Fremont Indians lived in Utah?s Range Creek Canyon during this period and etched into rock designs of animals and people. (WSJ, 1/31/06, p.B6) 502 557 In China the Liang stele dates to this time. (WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20) 508 nend The Franks, led by Clovis, took Paris and made it their capital. Under Charlemagne, the capital was moved to Aachen and Paris waned, raided repeatedly by Norsemen during the 9th and 10th centuries. (HNQ, 4/18/02) 508 nend Clovis, king of the Franks (later France), defeated the Visigoths and pushed into Spain. (www.patmospapers.com/daniel/in508.htm) 510 nend Boethius began the translation of the works of Aristotle from Greek into Latin. He only completed the "Organon," or works on logic. (V.D.-H.K.p.113) 511 nend Nov 11, Clovis (45), king of Salische France and founder of Merovingians, died. [see Nov 27] (MC, 11/11/01) 511 nend Nov 27, Clovis, king of the Franks, died and his kingdom was divided between his four sons. [see Nov 11] (HN, 11/27/98) 515 nend Boethius in his treatise on the Trinity writes "As far as you are able, join faith to reason." (V.D.-H.K.p.113) 520 nend St. Benedict founded the Benedictine Order at Monte Cassino. From there monks went forth and created a network of monasteries all over Europe. The monks taught the values of agricultural living to the nomadic barbarians. (CU, 6/87) 520 nend Guptas invent the decimal system in India. (ATC, p.69) 521 597 St. Columba, Irish missionary in Scotland. The Irish monks of Columba preceded the Benedictines in Northern Europe, but their ascetic otherworldliness did not meet the needs of the practical barbarian people. (CU, 6/87)(WUD, 1994, p.292) 523 nend May 6, Thrasamunde, king of Vandals (496-523), died. (MC, 5/6/02)(http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15268b.htm) 524 nend Jun 21, Battle at Vezerone: Burgundy beat France. (MC, 6/21/02) 525 nend By this time the Hun invaders have conquered India. The Gupta Dynasty ends. (ATC, p.35) 526 nend May 18, St. John I, Catholic Pope (523-526), died. (HN, 5/18/98)(SC, 5/18/02) 526 nend May 20, An earthquake killed 250,000 in Antioch, Turkey. This was the capital of Syria from 300-64BCE. [see May 29] (MC, 5/20/02) 526 nend May 29, Antioch, Turkey, was struck by an earthquake and about 250,000 died. [see May 20] (AM, 11/00, p.69)(SC, 5/29/02) 526 nend Aug 30, Theodorik the Great (72), King of Ostrogoths, died of dysentery. He was succeeded by his grandson Athalaric (10), who reigned until 534 with his mother Amalasuntha as regent. (PC, 1992, p.54) 527 nend Apr 1, Emp. Justin named Justinianus co-emperor of Byzantium. [see Apr 4] (OTD)(PC, 1992 ed, p.54) 527 nend Apr 4, In Constantinople, Justin, seriously ill, crowned his nephew Justinian as his co-emperor. [see Apr 1] (HN, 4/4/99) 527 nend Aug 1, Justinus I, Byzantine emperor (518-27), died. (PC, 1992 ed, p.54) 527 548 Empress Theodora, considered the most powerful woman in Byzantine history, ruled with her husband Justinian. (ATC, p.24) 527 565 Justinian ruled the Byzantine Empire. (WSJ, 4/5/02, p.W12) 527 565 Emperor Justinian built the St. Catherine monastery in Egypt?s Sinai Desert to house the bones of St. Catherine of Alexandria, who was tortured to death for converting to Christianity. The site was thought to be the place where Moses saw the Miracle of the Burning Bush. (SFEC, 8/28/98, p.T6)(http://interoz.com/egypt/Catherines.htm) 528 nend Justinian assigned 10 men the task of condensing the 1,600 books of classic Roman law. (ATC, p.43) 529 nend Justinian, ruling from Constantinople (517-565), promulgated the Codex Constitutionum, the chief source and authority of Roman law. (V.D.-H.K.p.68) 529 nend The new Justinian Code was composed of 4,652 laws. It extended the rights of women, children and slaves, and also called for harsher penalties for crime. (ATC, p.43) 529 nend Justinian closed the Platonic academy at Athens. (V.D.-H.K.p.107) 529 nend The Monte Cassino monastery in Italy was founded by St. Benedict (450-547). (V.D.-H.K.p.107)(NW, 10/28/02, p.16) 530 nend Oct 14, Dioscurus, anti-Pope (530), died. (MC, 10/14/01) 532 nend Jan 13-532 Jan 14, The 2nd Hagia Sophia cathedral burned down in Constantinople during the Nika uprising, which failed leaving some 30-40,000 people dead. Justinian and his wife Theodora had attended festivities at the Hippodrome, a stadium for athletic competition. Team support escalated from insults to mob riots and in the end Constantinople lay in ruins. Justinian proceeded to rebuild the city with extensive commissions for religious art and architecture, including the new Hagia Sophia. (ATC, p.33)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Sophia) 532 nend Oct 17, Boniface II, 1st "German" Pope, died. (MC, 10/17/01) 533 565 Justinian?s armies regained parts of Spain, all of Italy and North Africa. (ATC, p.45) 534 nend Justinian brought the Vandal king into Constantinople and resurrected the triumphal procession of 71AD. (SFC, 10/23/06, p.A15) 535 nend Feb, In Southern China the Nan Shi Ancient Chronicle reported that "yellow dust rained down like snow." (WSJ, 5/15/00, p.A46) 535 nend Apr 30, Amalaswintha, queen of Ostrogoten, was murdered. (MC, 4/30/02) 535 nend May 13, St Agapitus I began his reign as Catholic Pope (SS, Internet, 5/13/97) 535 nend Feb, There is evidence that the Krakatoa volcano had a major eruption about this time. In 1869 Rangawarsita, a Javanese royal courtier, compiled the Books of Kings, which mentioned an event from the middle of the first millennium that sounded like a major eruption. (WSJ, 5/15/00, p.A46)(Disc., 7/4/03) 535 536 John of Ephesus, a Syrian bishop, reported that the sun darkened for a period of 18 months with feeble light for only about 4 hours a day. (WSJ, 5/15/00, p.A46) 536 nend Apr 22, St. Agapitus I ended his reign as Catholic Pope (535-36). (HN, 4/22/98)(MC, 4/22/02) 536 nend Dec 9, Byzantine Count Belisarius entered Rome through the Asinarian Gate at the head of 5,000 troops. At the same time, 4,000 Ostrogoths left the city through the Flaminian Gate and headed north to Ravenna, the capital of their Italian kingdom. For the first time since 476, when the Germanic king, Odoacer, had deposed the last Western Roman emperor and crowned himself "King of the Romans," the city of Rome was once more part of the Roman empire?albeit an empire whose capital had shifted east to Constantinople. Belisarius had taken the city back as part of Emperor Justinian?s grand plan to recover the western provinces from their barbarian rulers. The plan was meant to be carried out with an almost ridiculously small expeditionary force. The 5,000 soldiers that General Belisarius led included Hunnish and Moorish auxiliaries, and they were expected to defend circuit walls 12 miles in diameter against an enemy who would soon be back, and who would outnumber them at least 10-to-1. (HN, 12/9/98)(HNC, 10/1/99) 537 nend Mar 11, The Goths laid siege to Rome. The Goths cut the aqueducts to Rome in the 6th century. (HN, 3/11/98)(SFEC, 7/2/00, p.T4) 537 nend Dec 27, The Hagia Sophia Byzantine cathedral in Constantinople was consecrated. St. Sophia (meaning "the holy wisdom" in Greek) was built by Emperor Justinian. It remained a symbol of Byzantine grandeur until Istanbul was conquered by Muslim armies. (Sky, 4/97, p.55)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Sophia) 538 nend Nov 30, St. Gregory of Tours, chronicler and bishop, was born. (MC, 11/30/01) 538 552 Introduction of Buddhism to Japan from Korea. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 538 600 Buddhist missionaries introduced the art of flower arranging to Japan. The 1st school of flower arranging, ikenobo, was founded by Ono no Imoko in the early 7th century. Ikebana became the umbrella name for the schools of flower arranging. (SFEC, 4/23/00, Z1 p.2) 541 543 Plague swept Asia Minor. (AM, 11/04, p.38) 541 750 The beginning of a pandemic of plague that swirled around the Mediterranean for more than two centuries. It killed as many as 40 million people and weakened the Byzantine Empire. "The bodies of the sick were covered with black pustules... the symptoms of immediate death," wrote Procopius, historian of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian. At its peak in Constantinople, he reported, the plague killed 10,000 people a day. (NG, 5/88, p.678) 542 nend The St. Columbas monastery was founded on Iona. [see 563] (SSFC, 8/12/01, p.T8) 544 nend In India about this time Pulakeshin I instituted the Chalukyan kingdom and his son established Vatapi, identified as Badami, as the capital. (http://tinyurl.com/mdkhf) 546 nend Colmcille, an Irish saint, founded a monastery at Derry. (SFC, 12/1/97, p.A14) 546 nend Totila the Goth besieged Rome. (PTA, 1980, p.120) 547 nend St. Benedict (b.450), Italian monk, died. He lived for years as a hermit near the ruins of Nero's palace above Subiaco, 40 miles east of Rome. He established the monastery of Monte Cassino, the founding house of the Benedictine order. His rules and standards of communal life are known as the rules of St. Benedict. (V.D.-H.K.p.68) 548 nend In Ireland St. Kieran founded a monastery at Clonmacnoise, an Irish phrase meaning "the meadow of the sons of Nos." (SFEC, 8/1/99, p.T8) 549 nend Jerusalem held to a Jan 6 date for the celebration of the Nativity of Jesus until this year. In the end the West added the Epiphany and the East added the Dec 25 nativity to their liturgical calendars. (WSJ, 12/18/98, p.W15) 550 nend Native peoples in southwest Colorado began building pit houses. Found the world over, these are rooms dug in the ground with roofs of mud and logs. To get in or out, people used a ladder through a hole in the roof that doubled as a smoke vent-unpleasant for humans but a good way to keep animals out. You can see several excavated pit houses at the National Park. (HN, 2/11/97) 550 nend Aryabhata (b.476), Indian astronomer and mathematician, died. The Aryabhatiya, an astronomical treatise, is the magnum opus and only extant work of Aryabhata. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryabhata) c 550 nend Japanese rulers allow their subjects to practice the Buddhist faith. (ATC, p.50) 550 nend Persians reasserted control over all of what is now Afghanistan. Revolts by various Afghan tribes followed. (www.afghan-web.com/history/) 550 577 The Northern Qi dynasty ruled in China. A wall parallel to the Great Wall in the Jinshanling area is attributed to their rule. (SFC, 2/9/06, p.E4) 550 730 Ancient Turkic people flourished in Mongolia during this period. (Arch, 1/06, p.19) 550 1200 The period of Irish Monasticism. (NGM, 5/77) 552 nend Jul 10, Origin of Armenian calendar. (MC, 7/10/02) 552 nend Aug 5, In Italy snow fell in the town of Panicale in Umbria. The Church of the Virgin of Snows commemorated the rare event. (SFEM, 10/12/97, p.49) 552 nend Agents from Byzantium impersonating monks smuggled silkworms and mulberry leaves out of China in hollow canes. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R50)(Econ, 8/23/08, p.51) 553 578 Moon-Jaguar, the tenth Mayan ruler of Copan, reigned over this period. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.28) 554 nend Aug 14, Ravenna became the seat of the Byzantine military governor in Italy. (MC, 8/14/02) 555 nend Jun 7, Vigilius ended his reign as Catholic Pope (537-555). (PTA, 1980, p.118)(SC, 6/7/02) 556 nend Feb 21, Maximianus van Ravenna, bishop (Basilica S Stefano), died. (MC, 2/21/02) 556 nend Apr 16, Pelagius I began his reign as Catholic Pope. (HN, 4/16/98) c 556 nend Dionysius Exiguus, Scythian monk, died. He devised the current system of reckoning the Christian era. (WUD, 1994, p.405) 558 nend May 7, The dome of the church of St. Sophia in Constantinople collapsed. Its immediate rebuilding was ordered by Justinian. (HN, 5/7/99) 560 nend Emperor Justinian about this time returned the treasure of Jerusalem, plundered by the Romans in 70AD, to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. (SFC, 10/23/06, p.A15) 561 nend Mar 4, Pelagius I, Italian Catholic Pope (556-61), died. (PTA, 1980, p.120) 561 nend Jul, John III was consecrated Pope. (PTA, 1980, p.122) 562 nend Tikal in Guatemala was conquered possibly by the Mayans of Calakmul city in Mexico. Calakmul is one of the largest of Mayan cities with more than 6,000 structures. It was the capital of a widespread hegemony of Lowland Maya kingdoms during the Late Classic (600-900). (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.G)(Arch, 9/00, p.27) 562 nend Mayans from the city of Ah Witz Na, in what is now Belize, conquered Tikal. (SFEC, 6/1/97, p.T3) 563 nend The Irish Catholic monk Columba (Colum Cille) arrived on the Scottish island of Iona. [see 542] (SFC, 2/10/99, p.A10)(AM, 7/01, p.51) 563 594 In northern Peru a 30-year mega el nino weather period began that caused major flooding in areas populated by the Moche people. (PBS, 10/1/06)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moche) 565 nend Aug 22, St. Columba reported seeing a monster in Loch Ness. (MC, 8/22/02) 565 nend Nov 14, Justinian I, [Petrus Sabbatius], Byzantine emperor (527-565), died at age 83. (Baker, 2002) 570 nend Jan 19, Mohammed (d.632), "The Prophet", founder of Islam and speaker in the ?Koran,? was born into the Quraysh tribe in Makkah. He was orphaned at an early age and found work in a trade caravan. He married a wealthy widow and this gave him the freedom to visit Mount Hira each year to think. His birthday is observed on the 12th day of Rabi ul'Awwal, the 3rd month of the lunar calendar, in a festival known as Mawlid-al-Nabi. The Koran was probably not fixed for the 1st two centuries after the emergence of Islam. (ATC, p.59)(SFC, 7/6/98, p.A14)(WSJ, 11/15/01, p.A16)(Econ, 4/28/07,p.97) 573 nend Aug 20, Gregory of Tours was selected as the bishop of Tours. (MC, 8/20/02) 573 nend In Copan the Rosalila structure on the Acropolis culminated a period of intense construction (NG, 12/97, p.92) 574 nend Jul 13, Pope John III died. (PTA, 1980, p.122) 574 nend Prince Shotoku was born in Japan. He later brought the Kongo family from Korea to Osaka and had them build a Buddhist temple. The temple took 15 years to build and the Kongo family became established as the premier temple builders in Japan. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R46) 575 nend Jun 2, Benedict I began his reign as Catholic Pope. (SC, 6/2/02) 578 nend Oct 5, Justinus II, Byzantine emperor (565-78), died. (MC, 10/5/01) 578 nend The family business Kongo Gumi was founded in Japan by a Korean in Osaka to build Buddhist temples. The company continued to flourish in 2004 as general builder. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.104) 579 nend Jul 30, Pope Benedict I died. (PTA, 1980, p.124) 580 nend Pope Pelagius left married priests alone if they kept their wives and children from inheriting church property. (SFC, 3/16/02, p.A3) 580 728 Pallava kings ruled in southern India, later Tamil Nadu state. The port town of Mahabalipuram was the capital of their ancient kingdom. (AP, 9/21/05) 581 618 The Sui Dynasty ruled in China. The "Sui Shu" are the annals of the Sui Dynasty and mention of cormorant fishing in Japan is made. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(SFEC, 8/11/96, Z1, p.6)(NH, 10/98, p.69) 587 nend Nov 28, Treaty of Andelot: King Guntram took cousin Childebert II as heir. (MC, 11/28/01) 590 nend Feb 7, Pelagius II, Gothic Pope (579-90), died from plague. (MC, 2/7/02) 590 nend Sep 3, St. Gregory I began his reign as Pope. Gregory the Great reigned until 604 and established the popes as the de facto rulers of central Italy, and strengthened the papal primacy over the Churches of the West. (CU, 6/87)(MC, 9/3/01) 590 nend Pope Gregory said he spotted an angel atop Hadrian?s Mausoleum. The site was then reconfigured as a fortress called Castel Sant?Angelo. In 1925 it became a national museum. (SSFC, 5/1/05, p.F8) 590 nend Pope Gregory I revised an earlier list to form the more common Seven Deadly Sins, by folding sorrow/despair into acedia, vainglory into pride, and adding extravagance and envy, while removing fornication from the list (Anger, Envy, Gluttony, Greed, Lust, Pride, Sloth). In the order used by both Pope Gregory and by Dante Alighieri in his epic poem The Divine Comedy, the seven deadly sins are as follows: 1. luxuria (extravagance/lust) 2. gula (gluttony) 3. avaritia (avarice/greed) 4. acedia (acedia/discouragement/sloth) 5. ira (anger/wrath) 6. invidia (envy) 7. superbia (pride). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_deadly_sins) 592 710 The Asuka Period of Japanese history. (www.japan-101.com) 593 622 The Regency of Prince Shotoku on Japan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 594 nend In Peru a 30-year drought began about this time that followed years of flooding in areas populated by the Moche people. (PBS, 10/1/06)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moche) 598 658 Chu Suilang: Tang Dynasty calligrapher. (SFC, 5/14/03, p.D1) 600 nend Feb 16, Pope Gregory the Great decreed "God bless You" as the religiously correct response to a sneeze. (MC, 2/16/02) 600 nend Li Shimin, son of Chinese General Li Yuan (the Duke of Tang), was born about this time. (ON, 5/06, p.1) 600 nend Yang Di (Yangdi), a Sui emperor, extended the Grand Canal. He reportedly assumed power by poisoning his father. Ma Shu-mou, aka Mahu, was one of the canal overseers and was said to have eaten a steamed 2-year-old child each day he worked on the canal. On completion the canal extended for 1,100 miles. 5.5 million people were pressed into service to complete 1,550 mile canal. (WSJ, 10/25/99, p.A50)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R51) 600 nend Quill pens, made from the outer feathers of crows and other large birds, became popular. The 1st books were printed in China. (SFC, 7/26/04, p.F4) c 600 nend Small porkers came to Hawaii with the Polynesians some 1400 years ago, and big pigs arrived with the Europeans. (WSJ, 7/25/95, p.A-6) c 600 nend Early settlers from the Marquesas built the Alakoko fishpond and taro fields on Kauai, Hawaii. (SFEC, 8/29/99, p.T6) c 600 nend The Joya de Ceren Maya site in El Salvador was buried beneath 16 feet of ash from nearby Loma Caldera. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.D) 600 nend Germanic invaders, who occupied England after 600AD, saw themselves as a nation of immigrants, according to Prof. Nicholas Howe (1953-2006) of UC Berkeley, author of ?Migration and Mythmaking in Anglo-Saxon England? (1989). (SFC, 10/16/06, p.B6) c 600 nend The Navigatio Sancti Brendani Abbatis (Voyage of St. Brendan the Abbott) recounts a 7-year trip to a land across the sea by the Irish saint and a band of acolytes about this time. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.24) c 600 625 The burial site of the Prince of Prittlewell, an East Saxon prince or king, dated to about this time. (www.southend.gov.uk/content.asp?content=3686) 600 700 The Tantras, Buddhist texts for generating deep religious experiences, were produced in India. (SFEC,12/14/97, p.T5) c 600 700 King Songstan Gampo reigned over Tibet in the 7th century. He introduced Buddhism and started construction of the Potala Palace and Jokhang Temple. He married the Chinese princess Wen Cheng. (WSJ, 8/2/01, p.A12) 600 700 The library at Alexandria, Egypt, disappeared in the 7th century. (WSJ, 6/1/00, p.A1) 600 700 In the seventh century the Frisians clashed with the Franks and resisted Christianity, but succumbed to Frankish rule and accepted Christianity a century later. Citizens of the Netherlands?s province of Friesland are still called Frisians and the Frisian language is still spoken there. (HNQ, 3/5/00) 600 700 Irish monastic monks founded a monastery at Skellig Michael (Michael?s Rock) during the 7th century and for the next 600 years the island was a center of their monastic life. In 1996 UNESCO listed it as a World Heritage Site. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skellig_Michael)(Econ, 9/12/09, p.94) c 600 700 St. Willibrord, an Irish missionary, spread Christianity in the region of Luxembourg. (SFC, 9/1/96, T3) 600 700 Calinicus (Callinicus), an engineer from Heliopolis, Syria, is thought to have brought "Greek fire," (flammable petrochemicals) to Constantinople. The incendiary liquid could be fired from siphons toward enemy ships or troops. The weapon helped save the Byzantine Empire from Islamic conquest for several centuries. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.57)(NH, 10/98, p.24) 600 700 The Caracol Maya site in Belize was one of the most prosperous cities in the pre-Columbian world with some 120,000 people in a 65-square-mile metropolis. It has the 140-foot-high platform Caana, or "Sky-Place. " (SFC, 4/26/97, p.E4) 600 700 The martial art of "tie-kwan-doe" (kick-strike-art) was developed as part of the military training for young noblemen charged with protecting the kingdoms of what became Korea. (WSJ, 10/3/97, p.A1) 600 700 In Vietnam Hoi An was a port site of the Cham kingdoms of central Vietnam. It may date back to the 2nd century BC. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.H) 600 800 In 2003 evidence of an Indian village was found at an Illinois site some 35 miles east of St. Louis, that dated to the Late Woodland period. (SFC, 4/21/03, p.A6) c 600 800 Irish monks began to seek solace in Iceland. (NH, 6/96, p.53) 600 800 Polynesian seafarers 1st landed on Easter Island, 1400 miles from the coast of South America. They later carved nearly 900 colossi of compressed volcanic ash: the moai. In 1722 A Dutch explorer stopped by on Easter Sunday. It later became a possession of Chile. (WSJ, 2/8/02, p.W11C) c 600 850 Late Classic Mayan paintings were found at a site in eastern Chiapas, Mexico, named "Bonampak," (painted walls). (AM, May/Jun 97 p.35) 600 900 Late classic period of the Maya. The San Andres site in El Salvador flourished during the late classic. The El Tajin civilization thrived on the central coast of what became Mexico. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.BC)(SFC, 9/14/00, p.C8) 600 900 A three hundred year dynasty ruled over Palenque. In the Pyramid of Inscriptions is the tomb of Pakal, the greatest king of the dynasty. (SFC, 5/19/96, T-9) 600 1200 In Malaysia ceramic shards at Kampong Sungai Mas in the Bujang Valley date to this time. Brick foundations and a block of shale with a Buddhist mantra inscribed in Sanskrit was also found. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.F) 600 1600 Burma entries under Myanmar. Pagan was the seat of Burma?s greatest dynasty and the site shows the remains of more than 7,000 temples and monuments of this period. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.F) 604 nend Mar 12, Gregory I the Great (64), Pope (590-604), died. In 1997 R.A. Markus authored ?Gregory the Great and His World.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I)(WSJ, 4/12/08, p.W8) 604 nend In Japan a 17 article constitution was promulgated by Prince Shotoku (574-622). It was a Confucian document that focused more on ethics and virtue than on the basic laws by which the state was to be run. [see 702] (www.theosophy.org/tlodocs/teachers/PrinceShotoku.htm) 604 617 King Saebert of Essex reigned in England. St. Mellitus converted him to Christianity. (www.earlybritishkingdoms.com/kids/prittlewell_prince.html) 607 nend Mar 13, The 12th recorded passage of Halley's Comet occurred. (HN, 3/13/98) 607 nend The first envoy from Japan was sent to China. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 609 nend May 13, Pope Boniface I turned Roman Pantheon into Catholic church. (MC, 5/13/02) 610 nend Apr 6, Lailat-ul Qadar: The night that the Koran descended to Earth. Muhammad is believed by his followers to have had a vision of Gabriel. The angel told him to recite in the name of God. Other visions are supposed to have Gabriel lead Muhammad to heaven to meet God, and to Jerusalem to meet Abraham, Moses and Jesus. These visions convinced Mohammad that he was a messenger of God. (ATC, p.59)(MC, 4/6/02) 610 nend Oct 5, Heraclitus' fleet took Constantinople. (MC, 10/5/01) 610 632 A Muslim tradition has it that Mohammed one day found that his favorite wife, Aisha, had purchased some cushions decorated with birds and animals. The prophet proclaimed that only God could bestow life and that pale imitations should be avoided. Thus the hadith, or tradition of the prophet, holds that: The house which contains pictures will not be entered by the angels." (WSJ, 7/22/96, p.A12) 610 632 During Mohammed?s ministry in Mecca and Medina the definition of jihad moved from persuasive proselytism to Muslim war against all infidels. (WSJ, 10/10/01, p.A10) 610 641 Heracles ruled the Byzantine Empire. (ATC, p.69) 611 nend In Cambodia at Angkor Borei the earliest known Khmer inscription dates to this time. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.D) 614 nend Croats settled in the area between the Adriatic Sea and the rivers Sava and Drava. (WSJ, 7/14/99, p.A23) 614 nend Christian Palestine was invaded by the Persians. The 5th century monastery of St. Theodosius east of Beit Sahour near Bethlehem was destroyed by the Persians. The Jews of Jerusalem allied with the Persians during the invasion and entered into the cave beneath the tomb of Christ in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. (SFEC, 12/22/96, p.T3)(WSJ, 4/5/02, p.W12)(SFC, 10/23/06, p.A15) 615 nend May 8, St. Boniface IV ended his reign as Catholic Pope. (MC, 5/8/02) 615 nend May 25, Boniface IV, Pope (608-15), died. (SC, 5/25/02) 615 nend Nov 23, Columbanus, Irish explorer, monastery founder, poet and saint (Poenitentiale), died (aka St. Columba). (MC, 11/23/01) 615 nend Yang Di (Yangdi), a Chinese Sui emperor, announced a 4th attempt to conquer Korea. In response to peasant rebellions in the north, Yangdi moved to the eastern city of Yangzhou. (ON, 5/06, p.1) 615 nend Pakal (12) became the Mayan ruler of Palenque. His reign ended with his death in 683. (SSFC, 12/7/03, p.C10)(WSJ, 9/16/04, p.D12) 617 nend Jun, Chinese general Li Yuan (the Duke of Tang) declared his rebellion and ordered the Tang army to prepare a march against Chang?an (later Xian), capital of China and the world?s largest city. (ON, 5/06, p.2)(Econ, 3/15/08, p.101) 617 nend Dec 12, The Chinese city of Chang?an fell to the Tang army. (ON, 5/06, p.2) 617 1279 The Tang Dynasty unified China. (ATC, p.69) 618 nend Apr, General Li Yuan, the Duke of Tang, claimed the throne of China after receiving word that Emperor Yangdi had been assassinated in the city of Yangzhou. Yuan proclaimed himself Emperor Gaozu, the 1st monarch of the new Tang dynasty. (ON, 5/06, p.3) 618 907 The Tang Dynasty was in China. The marble head of Eleven-headed Avalokiteshvara dates to the Tang period. Porcelain was invented during the T?ang dynasty. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(NH, 7/96, p.32)(WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20)(WSJ,8/28/98, p.W10) 618 907 The area of Tiananmen Square was first cleared. (SFC, 6/25/98, p.A8) 619 nend Li Shimin led his armies against 2 warlords in northern China. (ON, 5/06, p.3) 620 nend Aug 22, This day corresponds to the 27th day of Rajab, 1427, in the Islamic calendar. It commemorates to the night flight of Muhammad on the winged horse Buraq to the farthest mosque, usually identified with Jerusalem, and then to heaven and back. (WSJ, 8/8/06, p.A10)(www.atheists.org/Islam/mohammedanism.html) 620 nend In northern China Gen?l. Li Shimin (~20) attacked Luoyang, which was held by the warlord Wang Shichong. (ON, 5/06, p.3) 620 nend The town of Cholula was founded in central Mexico. It was later said to be the oldest continuously occupied town in all of North America. (SSFC, 2/26/06, p.F10) 620 nend Mohammad gained about a hundred converts including some wealthy Meccan families. This made other Meccans hostile. Mohammad in this year dreamed of being transported from Mecca to the Rock of Mariah in Jerusalem, from which he ascended into heaven and received instructions from God for himself and his followers. (ATC, p.59)(ON, 7/03, p.6) 621 nend Mar, In China a force of 120,000 men from Xia province advanced to rescue the city of Luoyang. (ON, 5/06, p.3) 621 nend May 28, In China Dou Jiande, general of the Xia army, was wounded and captured by the Tang army under Gen?l. Li Shimin at Hulao Pass. 3,000 Xia were killed and 50,000 were taken prisoners. The city of Luoyang soon surrendered. Xia province surrendered in turn. (ON, 5/06, p.4) 622 nend Jul 16, Islamic Era began. Mahomet began his flight from Mecca to Medina (Hegira). (MC, 7/16/02) 622 nend Sep 20, Prophet Mohammed Abu Bakr arrived in Jathrib (Medina). (MC, 9/20/01) 622 nend Sep 24, In the Hegira Muhammed left Mecca for Medina (aka Yathrib) with 75 followers. This event marked the beginning of the Islamic lunar calendar. The new faith was called "Islam," which means submission to Allah. Believers in Islam are called Muslims-- "Those who submit to Allah?s will." In Medina Mohammad tried to unite the Jews and Arabs and initially faced Jerusalem to pray. The Jewish leaders did not accept Mohammad as a prophet and so Mohammad expelled from the city the Jews who opposed him. From then on he commanded the Muslims to face the Kaaba in Mecca when praying. (V.D.-H.K.p.19)(ATC, p.60) 623 658 The first state of the Slavs living on the Middle Danube was Samo's Realm, a tribal confederation existing between 623 and 658. It encompassed the territories of Moravia, Slovakia, Lower Austria, Carantania, Sorbia at the Elbe, and probably also Bohemia, which lies between Sorbia and other parts of the realm. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Moravia) 622 nend The Constitution of Medina was drafted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad about this time. It constituted a formal agreement between Muhammad and all of the significant tribes and families of Yathrib (later known as Medina), including Muslims, Jews, and pagans. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Medina) 624 nend Muslims engaged non-believers for the 1st time at the Battle of Badr (www.islaam.com/Article.aspx?id=128) 624 628 Several Jewish clans in the Arabian peninsula joined forces with an Arab tribe, the Quraysh, to make war on a renegade Qurayshi named Mohammad, who claimed he was a prophet of God. (Econ, 8/14/10, p.68) c 625 nend Raedwald, king of the East Angles and high king of the English peoples, was buried about this time. (Arch, 7/02, p.61) 626 nend Aug 7, Battle at Constantinople: Slavs, Persians and Avars were defeated. Emp. Heraclius repelled the attacks. The attacks began in 625. (PCh, 1992, p.60)(MC, 8/7/02) 626 nend In China Gen?l. Li Shimin foiled an assassination attempt by 2 brothers. He ambushed his older brother, Jianchen, killing him him with a bow and arrow, and became the oldest son and crown prince. Li Yuan abdicated 2 months later and Shimin became the new ruler under the name Emperor Taizong. (ON, 5/06, p.4) 627 nend Byzantine Emperor Heraclius defeated the Persian army and regained Asia Minor, Syria, Jerusalem and Egypt. (ATC, p.45) 628 nend Apr 3, In Persia Kavadh sued for peace with the Byzantines. He handed back Armenia, Byzantine Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine and Egypt. (HN, 4/3/99)(AP, 4/3/99) 628 nend Apr 3, Chosroes II, emperor of Persia (579-628), was murdered by his son. (MC, 4/3/02) 629 nend A Chinese pilgrim reported seeing a 1000-foot reclining Buddha at Bamiyan, Afghanistan. By 2004 the sleeping Buddha had not been seen for several hundred years. [see 632] (SFC, 8/31/04, p.A2) 629 645 Hsuang-Tsang, Chinese pilgrim, journeys over 5,000 miles from China to India and back to collect Buddhist teachings. He recorded fantastic tales of his adventures. (ATC, p.13) 630 nend Mar 21, Heraclius restored the True Cross, which he had recaptured from the Persians. (HN, 3/21/99) 630 nend Mohammad raised an army of 10,000 and took over Mecca (Makkah). He immediately set out to destroy all the idols at Kaaba. The black stone remained embedded in the corner. The area around became the first mosque, or Muslim house of worship. Mohammad returned from Medina and began the Islamic conquest of Arabia. (ATC, p.60)(WSJ, 11/15/01, p.A16) 632 nend Jun 8, Mohammed, the founder of Islam and unifier of Arabia, died. His companions compiled his words and deeds in a work called the Sunna. Here are contained the rules for Islam. The most basic are The Five Pillars of Islam. These are: 1) profession of faith 2) daily prayer 3) giving alms 4) ritual fast during Ramadan 5) Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca. The Sunna also calls for "jihad." The term means struggle, i.e. to do one?s best to resist temptation and overcome evil. Four contenders stood out to succeed Mohammad. They were Abu Bakr, his trusted father-in-law. Umar and Uthman, long-time friends and advisers, and Ali, a cousin and blood relative. Ali was Mohammad?s son-in-law and the father of Mohammad?s grandsons. Abu Bakr was chosen as caliph i.e. successor. (ATC, p.60,63)(HN, 6/8/98)(SFC, 12/15/98, p.A7)(AP, 6/8/03) 632 nend Jun 16, Origin of Persian [Yazdegird] Era. (MC, 6/16/02) 632 nend Hiuan-tsang, an Chinese pilgrim, visited the great Buddhas of Bamiyan, Afghanistan. (WSJ, 12/20/01, p.A13) 633 nend Muhammad?s chief clerk collected Mohammad?s revelations into one work called the Koran (Quran). Loosely translated it means "recitation." "Whoever witnesses the crescent of the month, he must fast the month." (Koran, al Baqarah 2:185) Ramadan begins the day after the crescent of the new moon is sighted and confirmed by 2 witnesses. Muslims must abstain from food and sex during daylight hours for a month to celebrate the revelation of the Koran to Mohammed. The later Sunnah holy text reported the sayings and deeds of Muhammad. The Muslim beard tradition is from the Sunnah. (ATC, p.60)(WSJ, 1/7/97, p.A1)(WSJ, 11/27/01, p.A14) 633 nend Gen Khalid ibn al-Walid sent a letter to the Persian emperor that said: "Submit to our authority and we shall leave you and your land and go against others. If not, you will be conquered against your will by men who love death as you love life." (WSJ, 10/19/01, p.W19) c 633 nend Nikbanou, a 7th century Persian Zoroastrian princess, fled to a mountain refuge at Chak to escape Arab horsemen planting the green pennants of Islam in Iranian soil. (AP, 7/15/04) 633 nend The 4th Synod of Toledo took on the right to confirm elected kings. Jews were obliged to be baptized. The vernacular language, of Latin origin, prevailed over that of the Visigoths. (www.sispain.org/english/history/visigoth.html) 634 nend Aug 22, Abu Bekr Abd Allah (61), [al-Siddik], successor of Mohammed, died. He was a friend, an Arabic merchant, Mohammed?s father-in-law and the first Caliph. Before his death he appointed Mohammed's adviser Omar (Umar) as his successor. (ATC, p.66)(PC, 1992, p.61) 634 nend Sophronius (74), Christian monk, was elected patriarch and political ruler of Jerusalem. (ON, 7/03, p.3) 635 nend Damascus was captured by the Muslims. (ATC, p.78) 636 nend Summer, A Byzantine army arrived in the region of Jerusalem and was defeated by a much smaller Muslim army at the Yarmuk River. With Muslims at the gate Sophronius, head of Jerusalem, requested a meeting with Caliph Omar. (ON, 7/03, p.5) 636 nend Jul 23, Arabs gained control of most of Palestine from Byzantine Empire. (MC, 7/23/02) 636 nend Aug 15, At the Battle at Yarmuk, east of the Sea of Galilee, Islamic forces beat a Byzantine army and gained control of Syria. (PC, 1992, p.61) 636 nend Nov 1, Nicholas Boileau-Despreaux, French poet, was born. He was also a critic and official royal historian and wrote "Lutrin. " (HN, 11/1/99) 637 nend Ctesiphon, a center of Christianity southeast of Baghdad, was taken by Arabs, who renamed it Madain. (SFC, 3/31/03, p.W5) 637 nend Muslim armies conquered Mesopotamia. (ATC, p.78) 638 nend cJan, Sophronius met with Caliph Omar and obtained a set of guarantees and regulations that came to be known as "the Covenant of Omar." (ON, 7/03, p.3) 638 nend Mar 11, Sophronius of Jerusalem, saint, patriarch of Jerusalem, died. (MC, 3/12/02) 638 nend Arabs conquered the city of Hebron. They allowed the Jews to build a synagogue near Abraham?s burial site. (SFC, 12/4/08, p.A27) 640 nend Muslim Arabs invaded Armenia and capture Dvin, its principal town. (CO Enc. / Armenia) 640 nend The Muslim government began minting coins about this time. (ATC, p.83) 641 nend Feb 11, Heraclius (~65), emperor of Byzantium (610-641), died. (MC, 2/11/02) 642 nend Sep 17, Arabs conquered Alexandria and destroyed the great library. Omar, the second caliph, successor of Mohammed, conquered Alexandria, then the capital of world scholarship. (V.D.-H.K.p.103)(MC, 9/17/01) 642 nend The Arabs conquered the Sassanids. (ATC, p.33) 642 nend Pope Theodore I began using the title ?Patriarch of the West.? In 2006 the Vatican took the unusual step of explaining its decision to renounce the title, saying the omission of "patriarch of the West," from the new edition of the Annuario Pontificio, the Vatican's 2,373-page directory of prelates, should benefit relations with the Orthodox Church, not hinder them. (AP, 3/23/06) 644 nend Nov 4, Umar of Arabia, the 2nd Caliph of Islam, was assassinated at Medina and was succeeded as caliph by Uthman. On his deathbed Umar named a council to choose the next caliph. The council appointed Uthman. Uthman continued to expand the Muslim empire. [see Dec 8] (ATC, p.67)(HN, 11/4/98)(MC, 11/4/01) 644 nend Dec 8, Omar I, 2nd caliph of Islam, was murdered. [see Nov 4] (MC, 12/8/01) 645 nend Downfall of the Soga Clan in Japan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 649 nend May 14, Theodore, Greek Pope (642-49), excommunicated by Paul II, died. (MC, 5/14/02) 649 nend Jul 5, St. Martin I began his reign as Pope. (MC, 7/5/02) 650 nend The Khazars? aggressive territorial expansion drove some Bulgars westward. These Bulgars soon founded a kingdom in the southeastern Balkans that became known as Bulgaria. (TJOK, 1999, p.16) c 650 nend An early Mayan classic temple in Copan was closed and covered about this time. Ritual items of flint knives and stingray spines was later discovered. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.28) c 650 nend The first pyramid of the Teotihuacan culture was built in Cholula. Over the next 800 years a nested series of 4 pyramids were constructed. The most important and largest city of pre-Colombian central Mexico, the Nahuatl meaning of Teotihuacan was "Where Men Become Gods" or "The City of Gods." Just north of Mexico City, Teotihuacan was planned at about the beginning of the Christian era and was sacked and burned by invading Toltecs in 650 CE. (SFEC, 11/8/98, p.T10)(HNQ, 4/24/99) 650 700 In northern Peru archeological evidence later indicated that civil strife during this period, which followed some 30 years of drought, led to the demise of the Moche civilization. (PBS, 10/1/06)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moche) 650 750 In Mexico the Teotihuacan culture began declining and was almost abandoned by the end of this period. (SFC, 10/22/98, p.C2) c 650 850 The alliterative epic poem Beowulf was composed at least 100 years before the manuscript was written. It was written in the 8th century. In 1999 Seamus Heaney wrote a new translation of the old English tale of a Scandinavian warrior who kills a trio of monsters including Grendel. In the Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf, the hero of the Geats people, mortally wounds the monster Grendel--who has been terrorizing the court of the king of Danes--by tearing off one of his arms with his bare hands. Based on folk tales known to the Anglo-Saxons prior to their invasion of England, the work is made up primarily of pagan myths and legends. The poem is believed to date from the late seventh or early eighth century and the only surviving text, now in the British Museum, dates from about 1000 A.D. (WUD, 1994, p.140)(WSJ, 2/24/00, p.A16)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R53)(HNQ,1/10/02) 651 nend In Persia Yazdegird III, the last Sassanian king, was murdered. (WSJ, 2/2/00, p.A24) 652 nend Arabs introduced Islam to Afghanistan. (www.afghan-web.com/history/) 654 nend A Saxon monk founded St. Botolph?s Town in England. The name gradually changed to Boston. (SFC, 8/12/00, p.B3) 656 nend In Saudi Arabia Uthman (Othman), the 3rd caliph, was murdered. Under his rule a full, standard text of the Quran was compiled. He had appointed members of his own family as regional governors and caused bitter jealousy among other families. This caused an angry mob of 500 to murder him. This gave Ali an opportunity to claim power. Some claim that Ali plotted Uthman?s murder. Civil war broke out. Muawija, Uthman?s cousin and governor of Syria, challenged Ali?s right to rule. Ali prepared for war but was murdered by an angry former supporter. The followers of Ali became known as Shiites from the Arabic meaning "the party of Ali." Those who believe that the election of the first three caliphs was valid and who claim to follow the Sunna reject the Shiite idea of the Imam, and are called the Sunnis. (ATC, p.67-68)(WSJ, 1/12/08, p.A6) 656 nend The Imam Ali mosque in Najaf marks the grave of Ali, the son-in-law of Mohammed and a central figure in Shiite Islam. (SFC, 4/23/98, p.A16) 657 nend Jun 2, St. Eugene I ended his reign as Catholic Pope. (SC, 6/2/02) 657 nend Jul 26, Mu'awiyan defeated Caliph Ali in the Battle of Siffin in Mesopotamia. (HN, 7/26/98) 658 nend Hirafu Abe went to meet with the Ainu on Hokkaido after he had defeated an indigenous tribe called Emishi in the northeast region of Honshu. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 217) 661 nend Jan 27, Ali ibn Abu Talib, caliph of Islam (656-61), was murdered in Kufa, Iraq. Caliph Ali, son-in-law of Mohammed, was assassinated and his followers (Shiites) broke from the majority Muslim group. A member of the anarchist sect of Kharajites assassinated Ali. This sect believed that there are no verdict?s but God?s. (SFC, 3/16/02,p.A14)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib)(SSFC, 6/30/02,p.M6)(http://tinyurl.com/44dtom) 661 nend Muawija became caliph. He moved the capital from Medina to Damascus. His followers were called the Umayyads. Muawija was one of the soldiers who helped capture Damascus and for 25 years he had served as governor of Syria. Muawija began the practice of appointing his own son as the next caliph, and so the Umayyads ruled for the next 90 years. Muslim forces expanded into North Africa and completely conquered Persia. The Islamic Empire continued to expand into Afghanistan and Pakistan. After the Omayyad Caliphs conquered Damascus, they build the palace at Qasr Al-Kharaneh (in Jordan) as a recreational lodge. (ATC, p.67,78)(SFEC, 4/11/99, p.9) 662 nend Aug 13, Maximus Confessor (b.c580), Greek theologian, died. (MC, 8/13/02) 662 nend By 2004 Simon Martin, Mayan scholar, worked out an almost day-by-day account of events from this year in the plain of Tabasco, Mexico. (Econ, 5/22/04, p.79) 668 nend Jul 15, Constantine II (37), emperor of Byzantium, died. (MC, 7/15/02) 668 1392 In Korea the Silla Kingdom united the peninsula and began the Koryo Dynasty from which Korea derived its name. (SFC, 7/26/97, p.E3) 669 nend Theodore, a native of Tarsus in Cilicia, arrived in England to take over the See of Canterbury under the direction of Pope Vitalian. He was well received everywhere and was the first Archbishop whose authority the whole English Church was willing to acknowledge. (www.britannia.com/bios/abofc/theodore.html) c 670 nend A Japanese inventor based the first design of a folding fan on the structure of a bat?s wing. (SFEC, 8/3/97, Z1 p.2) c 672 nend The Venerable Bede (d.735), Beda Venerabilis, English speaking church historian, was born. (WSJ, 10/22/03, p.D12) 676 nend Cairo was built by the Arabs only 1300 years ago. The name comes from the Egyptian "El Qahir," the name of the planet Mars. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.165)(SFEC, 8/17/97, Z1 p.2) 678 nend Jun 27, St. Agatho began his reign as Catholic Pope. (SC, 6/27/02) 680 nend Oct 10, Imam Hussein, grandson of prophet Mohammed, was beheaded. He was killed by rival Muslim forces on the Karbala plain in modern day Iraq. He then became a saint to Shiite Muslims. Traditionalists and radical guerrillas alike commemorate his martyrdom as the ceremony of Ashura. The 10-day mourning period during the holy month of Muharram commemorates the deaths of Caliph Ali?s male relatives by Sunnis from Iraq. Shiites went on to believe that new leaders should be descendants of Mohammad and Ali. Sunnis went on to vest power in a body of Muslim scholars called the ulema. (SFC, 3/16/02, p.A14)(SFC, 2/24/06,p.A15)(http://countrystudies.us/iraq/15.htm) 681 nend Bulgaria?s 1st kingdom was established. (WPR, 3/04, p.28) 682 nend Aug 17, Leo II, later St. Leo, began his reign as Catholic Pope. (SC, 8/17/02) 682 721 Ah Cacaw (Lord of Cocoa) ruled over Tikal (later Guatemala) during this period. His burial tomb was later found deep inside the 145-foot high Temple of the Great Jaguar. (SFEM, 6/13/99, p.8) 683 nend Pacal, Mayan ruler of Palenque, died. His sarcophagus, found in 1952, has the intricately carved lid later suggested to represent an extra-terrestrial visitor. (SSFC, 5/5/02, p.C5)(WSJ, 9/16/04, p.A1) 683 685 Khazars invaded Transcaucasia and inflicted much damage and stole much booty. The Khazar invaders killed the rulers of Armenia and Georgia. (TJOK, p.159) 684 nend Jun 26, Benedict II (d.685) was consecrated as Pope. (PTA, 1980, p.162) 684 702 Mayan leader Kan Balam II, son of Pakal, ruled over Palenque. (SSFC, 12/7/03, p.C10) 685 nend May 8, St. Benedict II ended his reign as Catholic Pope. (MC, 5/8/02) 685 nend May 21, Battle at Nechtansmere: Picts trounced the Northumbrians. (MC, 5/21/02) 685 nend In China a manual on calligraphy was made. It summarized the aesthetic ideals and theories of Chinese writing. (SFEC, 10/6/96, DB p.37) 685 705 Abd al Malik, Umayyad caliph, influenced the shaping of Islamic culture. He declared Arabic as the official language of the empire and established a common coinage system that was purely Arabic. They had no images but were inscribed with quotations from the Koran. (ATC, p.83) 686 nend Aug 2, John V, 1st Greek-Syrian Pope (685-86), died. (MC, 8/2/02) 687 714 Pepin II united and ruled the Franks. (ATC, p.51) 688 nend North Africa was conquered by the Muslims under Abd al Malik. (ATC, p.83) 691 nend Muslims built the Dome of the Rock mosque in Jerusalem. It contained inscriptions that later were held as the 1st evidence of the Koran. (SFC, 3/2/02, p.A15)(WSJ, 5/20/06, p.P16) 694 nend Nov 9, Spanish King Egica accused Jews of aiding Moslems and sentenced them to slavery. (MC, 11/9/01) c 696 nend Feng Du, a 1,300-year-old Tang dynasty city near the Yangtze River gorges, known as the city of ghosts. (WSJ, 10/8/96, p.A20) c 697 nend The last major earthquake occurred in the Salt Lake City region of Utah about this time. A major quake hits the region about every 1300 years. (SFEC, 4/6/97, p.C13) 697 nend In Ireland an assembly was called at the hill of Tara to put an end to the participation of Irish women in battle. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.11) 699 nend Li Po (d.762), classical Chinese poet, was born. His poems included "Drinking Alone With the Moon." (SFC, 10/30/03, p.A26) 699 nend En no Ozunu appeared in the official Japanese national log of events or the 'Shoku Nihongi.' It is in this year that En was banished from society, following the charge that he "misused his magical powers to control people." It is believed that En No Gyoja was historically known as En no Ozunu. The Japanese ascetic En-no-Gyoja founded the Shugendo religion on Mount Omine (5,640 feet). He blended aspects of tantric Buddhism, Shintoism, Taoism, Confucianism and Japanese shamanism. (SSFC, 10/2/05, p.E4)(http://tinyurl.com/8s4gm) c 700 nend The mound building Caddo culture began flourishing in the Texas and Oklahoma area. It lasted to the mid-18th cent. (AM, Vol. 48, No. 3) c 700 nend Nov 1, The Celts of Ireland, Great Britain and northern France celebrated Oct. 31 to Nov 2 as their New Year from around 1000-500BC. The pagan harvest event incorporated masks to ward off evil ones, as dead relatives were believed to visit families on the first evening. The Catholic holiday of All Saints' Day, set for Nov. 1, was instituted around 700 CE to supplant the Druid holiday and Pope Gregory (731-741) made it official. Halloween was transplanted to the US in the 1840s. [see 835] (WSJ, 10/28/99, p.A24)(WSJ, 10/29/99, p.W17) c 700 nend Abd al Malik issued the first pure Islamic coins. (ATC, p.83) c 700 nend The Chinese gained control over Manchuria from the Koreans about this time. (WSJ, 10/9/95, p.A-1) c 700 nend Trade along the coast of East Africa expanded and promoted the founding of such settlements as Kismayu, Mogadiscio, Gedi, Malindi, Mombasa, Kilwas and others. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.169) c 700 nend In Mexico the Zapotec city of Monte Alban was abandoned about this time. (SFEC, 10/3/99, p.A24) c 700 nend The Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet, was constructed. It became the traditional home of the Dalai Lama. (SSFC, 10/5/03, p.D2) 700 800 King Offa decreed that an earthen barrier be built along the border between Wales and his kingdom of Mercia. Llwybr Clawdd Offa opened as a hiking trail in 1971. (SSFC, 4/7/02, p.C10) 700 800 In Bulgaria the Madara Horseman in Kaspichan was carved into a sandstone cliff. (SFEC, 8/28/98, p.T4) 700 800 The Catholic Church changed its rules on fasting and allowed fish to be eaten on Fridays and during Lent. (NH, 5/96, p.58) c 700 800 Dionysus Exiguus (Dennis the Short), a Catholic monk, created a chronology for Pope St. John I with a calendar that began in the year CE 1. (SFEC,11/16/97, BR p.5) 700 800 In Bhutan the Taktsang monastery was founded by tantric master Padmasambhava, often described as "another Buddha." (SFEC, 2/23/96, p.T5) 700 800 According to Iraqis Muslim forces "liberated" Iraq from the Persians in the 8th century qadissiyah battle. (SFC, 2/1/02, p.A18) 700 800 Escaped slaves called the Zanj took refuge from the early Islamic empire in the marshes of southern Iraq. (SSFC, 12/28/03, p.A6) 700 800 The Tanka (short song) poetry form emerged in Japan about this time. The unrhymed verse formalized to 31 syllables arranged in a 5 line pattern of 5-7-5-7-7. In 2005 it became popular on cell phones. (WSJ, 10/4/05, p.A1) 700 800 In Japan a priest in the 8th century discovered the mineral hot springs at Yamashiro Onsen. (WSJ, 7/19/05, p.A1) 700 800 The village site of Galu, Kenya, produced the world?s oldest crucible steel. (NH, 6/97, p.44) 700 800 The Bonampak site in Chiapas, Mexico, has frescoes painted on the stucco walls of Structure I from this time. They depict war, sacrifice and celebration. The name glyph for Shield Jaguar II, king of nearby Yaxchilan, was recognized. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.F)(AM, May/Jun 97 p.37) 700 800 Invading Slavs assimilated the Thracians in the area of modern Bulgaria and parts of Greece, Romania, Macedonia and Turkey. (SFC, 8/17/05, p.A2) 700 800 Slav tribes settle into the territories of present-day Slovenia, Bosnia, Croatia, Montenegro and Serbia, and assimilated the Illyrian populations of these regions. The Illyrians in the south averted assimilation. (www, Albania, 1998) 700 800 Vikings settled the Faeroe Islands in the 8th century replacing Irish settlers. In 1948 the group of 18 islands, located between Britain and Iceland, became an autonomous region of Denmark. (SSFC, 7/29/07, p.G8)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faroe_Islands) 700 800 Vikings began arriving to the Orkney Islands. (SFEC, 3/23/97, p.T3) 701 nend Sep 8, Sergius I, Syrian and Italian Pope (687-701), died. (MC, 9/8/01) 702 nend Japan's first civil and penal code was promulgated. [see 604CE] (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 705 nend Mar 1, John VII began his reign as Catholic Pope. (SC, 3/1/02) 705 nend Oct 8, Abd al-Malik, caliph of Damascus, died. (MC, 10/8/01) 708 nend Mar 25, Constantine began his reign as Catholic Pope. (HN, 3/24/98) 708 nend In France Bishop Aubert of Avranches had a dream in which Archangel Michael persuaded him to build an oratory dedicated to the saint on the rock off the Normandy coast known as Mont Tombe. Over the years it grew and became known as Mont St. Michel. (WSJ, 10/7/06, p.P18) 709 nend Apr 24, Wilfried (~76), bishop of York, died. (MC, 4/24/02) 709 nend May 25, Aldhelmus (~69) of Ealdhelm, England, abbot, bishop, poet, saint, died. (SC, 5/25/02) 710 nend The Fujiwara clan established the Kasuga Shrine in Nara, Japan. (Hem, 9/04, p.46) 710 784 The Nara Period of Japan. Japan?s 1st permanent capital arose in the Nara basin. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(Hem, 9/04, p.41) 711 nend Apr 14, Childebert III (~27), king of the French, died. (MC, 4/14/02) 711 nend Jul 19, The Muslim troops crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and defeated the Visigoth king Rodrigo at the battle of Guadalete. Berbers under Tarik-ibn Ziyad occupied Northern Spain. The Umayyads with the help of the Berbers in North Africa moved across the Strait of Gibraltar and began the conquest of Spain and Portugal. The word Gibraltar comes from the term Jabal-al-Tarik, which means the hill of Tarik. Gebel-al-Tarik means "Rock of Tarik." (ATC, p.79)(SFEC, 9/29/96, Z1p.2)(www.sispain.org/english/history/visigoth.html) 711 nend Dec 11, Justitianus II (~42), emperor of Byzantium, died. (MC, 12/11/01) 712 nend The publication of Kojiki in Japan, the Record of Ancient Matters. The work was compiled by the court to strengthen its control over various noble lineages. Fictitious rulers were inserted to project the nation?s founding back to 660BC (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.34) 712 nend Muza ben-Nosair completed the Muslim conquest of Spain. The Visigothic period ended. (www.sispain.org/english/history/visigoth.html) 713 nend In China construction began on the Great Buddha of Leshan under the direction of the monk Haitong. It was completed after 90 years. In 2002 a $30 million restoration project aimed to preserve the 233-foot statue, the largest Buddha in the world. (Arch, 9/02, p.19) 715 nend Apr 9, Constantine I, Greek-Syrian Catholic Pope (708-15), died. (HN, 4/9/98)(MC, 4/9/02) 715 nend May 19, St. Gregory II began his reign as Catholic Pope. (HN, 5/19/98) 718 nend The Japanese inn Hoshi Ryokan was founded in Komatsu. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.104)(SFC, 4/14/06, p.D1) 720 nend The Nihon Shoki (the Chronicle of Japan), the oldest recorded Japanese document, was published. It was compiled by the court to strengthen its control over various noble lineages. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.34)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R46) 721 764 Kinich Ahkal Mo' Nab ruled Palenque. (AM, Jul-Aug/99, p.16) c 722 nend In China a 233-foot Buddha was built in Sichuan province. In 2002 a $30 million restoration project was undertaken. (SFC, 7/4/02, p.A12) 727 nend May 30, Hubertus (72), bishop of Tongeren-Maastricht, saint, died. (MC, 5/30/02) 727 nend Houei-tch?ao, a Korean pilgrim, visited the great Buddhas of Bamiyan, Afghanistan. (WSJ, 12/20/01, p.A13) 729 nend Apr 24, Egbertus (89), English bishop, St. Egbert, died in Iona. (MC, 4/24/02) 729 nend Emperor Leo the Isaurian ordered the destruction of an icon of Christ set in the great Bronze Gate in Constantinople. Theodosia led a group of enraged women who killed the officer removing the image. Theodosia was killed in the forum and became a martyr-saint. Her saint?s day was May 29. (Ot, 1993, p.3) 730 nend Khazar commander Barjik led Khazar troops through the Darial Pass to invade Azerbaijan. At the Battle of Ardabil, the Khazars defeated an entire Arab army. The Battle of Ardabil lasted three days, and resulted in the death of a major Arab general named Jarrah. The Khazars then conquered Azerbaijan and Armenia and northern Iraq for a brief time. (TJOK, pages 160-161) 731 nend Feb 11, Gregory II, Greek-Syrian Pope, died. (MC, 2/11/02) 731 741 Gregory III served as Pope. (WUD, 1994, p.621) 732 nend Oct 10, At Tours, France, Charles Martel killed Yemenite general Abd el-Rahman and halted the Muslim invasion of Europe. Islam's westward spread was stopped by the Franks at the Battle of Tours (also known as the Battle of Poitiers). (http://tinyurl.com/o1uj)(HN,10/10/98) 732 nend Pope Gregory III banned horseflesh from Christian tables after he learned that pagans of northern Europe ate it in their religious rites. (SFC, 5/30/98, p.E4) 735 nend May 26, The Venerable Bede (~62), Beda Venerabilis, English speaking church historian, died. (MC, 5/26/02)(WSJ, 10/22/03, p.D12) 737 nend Marwan, an Arab general, captured the Khazar khagan and forced him to pledge support to the Caliphate and convert to Islam. (TJOK, pages 162-163) 738 nend The great Lord 18 Rabbit built a ball court at the Mayan city of Copan. In a surprise attack he was captured and decapitated by Cauac Sky from the city of Quirigia, some 60 km. to the east. In 1998 Michael D. Coe and Justin Kerr published "The Art of the Maya Scribe," a look at the progress made in decoding the Mayan writing system. (Hem, Dec. 94, p.123)(SFEC, 7/5/98, BR p.10) no_source 738 nend Butz Tiliw? or Cauac Sky defeated his overlord, Copan?s 13th ruler, 18 Rabbit. Monuments to this event are at the Quirigua Maya site in Guatemala. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.F) 739 nend Nov 7, Willibrord (81), [Clemens], 1st bishop of Utrecht (695-739) and saint , died. (MC, 11/7/01) 740 nend Tah ak Chaan (Taj Chan Ank) began a 50 year rule over the city of Cancuen in what later became Guatemala. (SFC, 9/9/00, p.A2)(AM, 7/04, p.16) 740 nend The Virupaksha temple in Pattadakal, an early capital of the Chalukyas of southern India, was built by Queen Lokamahadevi about this time to commemorate her husband's victory over the Pallavas. (http://tinyurl.com/s6lck) 741 nend Jun 18, Leo III de Isaurier, Byzantine Emperor (717-41), died. (MC, 6/18/02) 741 nend Oct 22, Charles Martel of Gaul died at Quiezy. His mayoral power was divided between his two sons, Pepin III and Carloman. (HN, 10/22/98) 741 nend The Arab slave trade was one of the elements that sparked the great Berber rebellion in North Africa and Islamic Spain (http://tinyurl.com/2zrltp). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hisham_ibn_Abd_al-Malik)(Econ, 7/7/07,p.79) 742 nend Apr 2, Charlemagne (d.814), Charles I the Great, King of the Franks and first Holy Roman emperor (800-14), was born. His capital was at Aachen (Acquisgrana in Latin). (V.D.-H.K.p.105)(SFEM, 10/12/97, p.46)(HN, 4/2/98) 743 nend Mar 1, Slave export by Christians to heathen areas was prohibited. (SC, 3/1/02) 743 1194 In France five cathedrals were built on the site of Chartres cathedral over this period. (Hem., 10/97, p.83) 744 nend Lords of the Lowland Maya city of Caracol conducted a burning ritual in the cave at Naj Tunich, in the Peten of Guatemala. (AM, 7/97, p.51) 745 nend Some 200,000 Slovenians, settled in a pocket of the eastern slopes of the Alps, were threatened by the Avars and the Bavarians. For safety they adopted Christianity and accepted the protection of the Frankish emperor (SFC, 5/26/96, T-5) 745 840 The Uighur of eastern Turkestan formed an empire in the north that was ended by an invasion of the Kyrgyz peoples. (www.gobiexpeditions.com) 746 nend Jun 12, The estimated date for the dedication of the Mayan Temple 22 in Copan. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.31) 749 nend An earthquake cause great damage in the area of the Sea of Galilee. (SFC, 6/18/02, p.A2) c 750 nend The Anasazi built entire cities into cliffs around the West since at least this time. Before that they were digging pit houses and even earlier, about 350 B.C., were probably living in Colorado caves. Their present name comes from a Navajo word meaning "the ancient ones" or "the ancient enemy." (HNQ, 7/1/01) 750 nend Constantinople, as the center of eastern rule used the Greek language for communication. (V.D.-H.K.p.65) c 750 nend Arab immigrants settled upstream from Soba, the capital of Alwa, and developed a strong new state called Funj. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.170) c 750 nend Teotihuacan, the 1st major urban center of Mesoamerica, fell about this time. It was burned, deserted and its people scattered. It contained the Pyramid of the Moon and the Pyramid of the Sun. (SSFC, 5/6/01, p.T8) c 750 850 The Maya city of La Milpa reached its peak with about 50,000 people. (SFC, 6/23/96, p.A10) 750 1258 Muslim power in Persia was held by the Abbassid caliphs, who claimed lands that stretched from Central Asia to North Africa and Spain. One Abbasid general, Abdullah, invited 80 Umayyad leaders to a banquet where they were killed by Abdullah?s men. Only one Umayyad, Abd al Rahman, was able to escape. He fled all the way to Spain where he united the warring Muslin groups there and built a new Umayyad government. So now the Muslims were split in two groups. The Abbassid dynasty of the Moslem Empire ruled Arabia and the eastern empire. All of the caliphs of this era claim descended from Abbas, the uncle of Mohammed. (AHD, 1971, p.2)(ATC, p.84)(SFC, 4/12/03, p.A14) 750 1375 The Sican culture flourished on Peru's northern desert coast. In 2006 archaeologists unearthed 22 graves containing a trove of Sican artifacts, including the first "tumi" ceremonial knives ever discovered by archaeologists rather than looted by thieves. (AP, 11/22/06) 751 nend During a raid into central Asia, the Abbasids captured some Chinese artisans skilled in paper making. (ATC, p.89) 751 987 The Frankish dynasty of Pepin the Short began the Carolingian period. (AHD, 1971, p.205) 752 nend Mar 23, Pope Stephen II was elected to succeed Pope Zacharias; however, Stephen died 4 days later. (AP, 3/23/97)(PTA, 1980, p.184) 752 nend Mar 26, Pope Stephen II died 4 days after his election. (SS, 3/26/02)(PTA, 1980, p.184) 752 nend Abu Jafar al Mansur, the second Abbasid caliph, moved the capital to Baghdad. (ATC, p.85) c 752 nend Emperor Shomu built a great Buddhist temple and started a collection from the gifts that were brought to its dedication. Rulers for the next 12 centuries added to the collection. (WSJ, 1/13/98, p.A20) 752 nend The dedication of the Great Buddha of Todai Temple in Nara. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 754 nend Jun 5, Friezen murdered bishop Boniface [Winfrid], English saint, archbishop of Dokkum, and over 50 companions. (MC, 6/5/02) 754 nend The Iconoclasts (image smashers) prevailed and religious art was banned in churches by an edict that remained in effect for a century. (WSJ, 3/10/97, p.A16) 756 nend May 15, Abd-al-Rahman was proclaimed the emir of Cordoba, Spain. Abd al Rahman united the Umayyad forces in Spain and made the ancient Roman city of Cordoba his new capital. (ATC, p.95)(HN, 5/15/98) 757 nend Apr 26, Stephen II ended his reign as Catholic Pope. (HN, 4/26/98) 757 nend May 29, St. Paul I (d.767) began his reign as Catholic Pope. (PTA, 1980, p.188)(SC, 5/29/02) 760 nend May 22, The 14th recorded perihelion passage of Halley's Comet occurred. (MC, 5/22/02) 762 nend Jul 30, A Persian astrologer, selected by caliph al-Mansur (the Victorious), selected this day as propitious for breaking ground for the city of Baghdad. Al-Mansur was one of the founders of the Abassid dynasty. (WSJ, 2/14/09, p.W8) 763 nend Tibetan armies occupied the capital of China. (SFEM, 1/24/99, p.6) 763 nend Altar Q depicts Yax Pasah (Yax Pasaj), Copan?s last dynastic ruler, receiving the symbolic baton of office from founder K?inich Yax K?uk? Mo? in this year. (NG, 12/97, p.80)(AM, 3/04, p.43) 764 770 In Japan Empress Shotoku had a million miniature pagodas made in thanks for regaining control of the throne. Sacred text was placed in each one and distributed to the 10 most important temples. (WSJ, 7/27/00, p.A20) 765 nend Dec 31, The coffin of Ho-tse Shen-hui was interred in a stupa built in China. (MC, 12/31/01) 765 790 The Mayan palace of Cancuen, one of the largest in Guatemala, was built by King Taj Chan Ahk. (AP, 4/23/04) 766 787 The Chinese poet Du Fu arrived in Baidi Cheng and was given the means to write poetry by the local warlord. He wrote a third of his life?s work with many poems in the regulated style called lushi. (NH, 7/96, p.32) 768 nend Sep 24, Pepin the Short (54) of Gaul died. His dominions were divided between his sons Charles (Charlemagne) and Carloman. (PC, 1992, p.67) 768 814 Charlemagne becomes king of the Franks and emperor of the former Western Roman Empire. (V.D.-H.K.p.105)(ATC, p.72) 770 nend The Syrian Orthodox Church of St. Thomas (Mar Toma) was built in Mosul (Iraq). (SFC, 12/24/09, p.A3) 771 nend Dec 4, With the death of his brother Carloman, Charlemagne became sole ruler of the Frankish Empire. (HN, 12/4/98) 771 814 Reign of Charlemagne. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 772 nend Mar 1, Po Tjiu-I (Bai Juyi), Chinese poet (d.846), Governor of Hang-tsjow, was born. His work included the narrative poem "Song of the Pipa," which protested the social evils of his day. (WSJ, 3/17/00, p.W2)(SC, 3/1/02) 774 814 Charlemagne became king of the Lombards. (V.D.-H.K.p.68) 776 nend Al-Jahiz (d.868), Muslim theologian and scholar, was born in Basra about this time. He is credited with writing nearly two hundred works, although fewer than one hundred survive today. His most famous work is Al-Hayawan? (The Book of animals), which merges discussions of zoology with philosophy. (Econ, 2/7/09,p.72)(www.enotes.com/classical-medieval-criticism/al-jahiz) 776 795 Chan Muan (Sky Screech Owl) reigned over the Bonampak site in what is now eastern Chiapas, Mexico. The site was abandoned at the end of his reign. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.35) 778 nend Aug 15, At the Battle at Roncesvalles the Basques beat Charlemagne. (PC, 1992, p.67) 779 nend King Trisong Detsen led Tibet. Under his rule the first Buddhist monastery, Samye, was built. It was built under the influence of Padmasambhava (Guru Rimpoche), Tibet?s greatest saint. Padmasambhava was an 8th century sorcerer and saint who converted Tibet to Buddhism. Legend has it that he dictated "sacred geography" texts to his queen consort and then hid them for future discovery. The texts were discovered by 17th century charismatic lamas. (Hem., 4/97, p.72,75)(SFEC,12/14/97, p.T5)(WSJ, 3/11/99, p.A20) 780 nend A group of West Africans called the Soninke took control of Ghana and developed it into a major trading empire. (ATC, p. 113) 781 nend Yakib ben Laith, a Saffarid prince from an eastern Iranian dynasty, stripped the sanctuaries of Bamiyan, Afghanistan, of their metal idols. (WSJ, 12/20/01, p.A13) 783 nend Jul 12, Bertha "with the great feet", wife of French king Pippin III, died. (MC, 7/12/02) 786 nend Feb 4, Harun al-Rashid succeeded his older brother the Abbasid Caliph al-Hadi as Caliph of Baghdad. (HN, 2/4/99) 786 nend Sep 24, Al-Hadi, Arabic caliph of Islam (185-86), died. (MC, 9/24/01) 786 nend Abd al Rahman began construction of the Great Mosque of Cordoba. It was under construction for 200 years. (ATC, p.95) 787 nend Sep 24, The 2nd Council of Nicaea (7th ecumenical council) opened in Asia Minor. (http://www.malaspina.com/site/person_672.asp) 787 nend Oct 23, Byzantine Empress Irene (c. 752-803) attended the final session of the 2nd church council at Nicaea, Bithynia [now Iznik, a city in Anatolia (now part of Turkey)]. The council formally revived the adoration of icons and reunited the Eastern church with that of Rome. (http://www.malaspina.com/site/person_672.asp) c 791 nend Croats established the principalities of Primortska Hrvatska on the Adriatic coast and Posavska Hrvatska in inland Croatia. (WSJ, 7/14/99, p.A23) 792 nend The first paper making factory in the Islamic Empire was built in Baghdad. (ATC, p.89) 793 nend Jun 8, Vikings raided the Northumbrian coast in England. Corfe served as a center of West Saxon resistance to Viking invaders. Vikings plundered the monastery and St. Cuthbert convent at Lindsfarne (HN, 6/8/98)(AM, 7/00, p.64)(PC, 1992, p.68) 794 nend Aug 10, Fastrada (30), 3rd wife of French king Charlemagne, died. (MC, 8/10/02) 794 nend The capital of Japan was moved from Nara to Kyoto and the new Imperial Palace was built there. It remained there until 1868. (Hem., 2/96, p.57-58)(Hem, 9/04, p.41) 794 1185 The Heian Period in Japan. The kimono originated in this period. Prof. Helen McCullough (d.1998) of UC Berkeley and her husband translated "A Tale of Flowering Fortunes," whose notes and appendixes made it an encyclopedia of Heian court life. She published 11 volumes of studies and translations of classical Japanese poetry that included: "The Tale of the Heike" and "The Great Mirror." (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(SFC, 2/7/97, p.D1)(SFC, 4/23/98, p.B4) 795 nend Taj Chan Ahk, the Mayan ruler of Cancuen (Guatemala), died. (SFC, 11/17/05, p.A17) 795 nend Vikings first raided Ireland. (SFEC, 8/1/99, p.T8) 795 1185 The Heian period was a time of elegant and refined rice papers. (SFC, 5/17/97, p.A20) 796 nend Jul 26, Offa, king of Mercia (in central England), died. (MC, 7/26/02) 796 nend Frankfurt, Germany. This 1200 year old city of 650,000 is the hub of Germany?s banking and business community. (SFC, 5/5/96, p.T-7) 796 nend A 600-pound limestone altar was carved to honor a treaty in the Mayan city of Cancuen (Guatemala). It was uncovered in 2001 and soon stolen. It was retrieved in 2003. (USAT, 10/30/03, p.12D)(SFC, 10/30/03, p.A11) 796 821 Anglo Saxon king Coenwulf of Mercia, ruled a kingdom that covered vast swathes of the English midlands and northern counties to the southeast. In 2001 a metal detector enthusiast discovered a gold coin beside the River Ivel in Bedfordshire, southern England. The 4.25 gram coin depicts Anglo Saxon king Coenwulf of Mercia. (AFP, 2/8/06) c 797 nend The 1,200 year-old Book of Kells, an illuminated manuscript of the Gospels, was made by Irish monks. It was later kept in the library of Dublin?s Trinity College. The Book of Kells is a richly decorated copy of the four gospels--Matthew, Mark, Luke and John--produced by Christian monks, possibly in the late 700s on the Scottish isle of Iona or in the Irish town of Kells. Joyce later used it as a model for Ulysses. (SFC, 3/17/97, p.A20)(HNQ, 1/13/99)(SFEM, 5/16/99, p.7) 799 nend Nov 29, Pope Leo III, aided by Charlemagne, returned to Rome. (MC, 11/29/01) 799 nend Imam Musa ibn Jaafar al-Kadhim (55), one of the 12 principle Shiite saints, died from poisoning in Baghdad. (www.shiachat.com/forum/lofiversion/index.php/t52098.html) c 799 878 St. Ignatius Nicetas. He served as the Patriarch of Constantinople from 846-858 and 867-878. (WUD, 1994 p.708) 800 nend Dec 25, Pope Leo III crowned Frankish warrior-king Charlemagne as heir of the Roman emperors at the basilica of St. Peter's at Rome. (V.D.-H.K.p.105)(Econ, 9/4/10, p.56) c 800 nend England?s King Lear lived about this time. Shakespeare wrote his play ?King Lear? in 1606. (www.rsc.org.uk/lear/current/director.html) c 800 nend The inhabitants of the British Isles did not comb their hair until they were taught by the Danes about this time. (SFC, 6/30/96, Z1 p.5) c 800 nend In Egypt an earthquake sent the Nile port cities of Herakleion, Canopus and Menouthis into the Mediterranean Sea. (SFC, 6/8/01, p.A1) c 800 nend The stone image of Fudo Myo-o, a fierce Japanese deity of fire and thunder was carved by a revered priest in Kyoto about this time. It was transferred to Narita about 940. (Hem, 8/95, p.56) 800 nend About this time unidentified conquerors destroyed the Mayan palace at Cancuen (Guatemala) and killed the members of the court. Archeologists in 2005 reported that King Maax, son of Taj Chan Ahk, was found buried in full regalia. (SFC, 11/17/05, p.A17) c 800 nend The height of the Mayan city of Copan. Some 20,000 people lived in the Copan pocket, a fertile section of the Copan River valley in what is now Honduras. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.29) 800 nend The city of Jenne-jeno on the Niger (Mali) grew to a bustling trade center of about 10,000 people. By 1400 the city was abandoned. (ATC, p.111) c 800 nend The first Polynesians come from somewhere in the central Pacific to New Zealand. These people are called the tangata whenua, which means "people of the land," but are more commonly called in English the moa-hunters, for hunting the large grass-eating, ostrich-like bird. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.196) c 800 900 In England Nennius wrote a history in the early 9th century and mentioned King Arthur as a fabulous figure. (WSJ, 3/27/98, p.W10) c 800 900 The Alawi faith was founded in the 9th century by a Muslim, who declared himself the "gateway" to the divine truth and abandoned Islam. (WSJ, 6/12/00, p.A30) 800 900 Buran, the wife of the Caliph of Baghdad, had a lavish wedding. The groom was led to a carpet of woven gold and 1,000 pearls were poured over his head in honor of a poet who had described the surface of a glass of white wine as: "pearls scattered like pebbles on a plain of gold." (SFC, 12/18/96, zz-1 p.8) 800 900 In northern Bangladesh the Buddhist monastic complex at Paharpur was built by the Pala dynasty. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.B) 800 900 In China the 9th cent. poet Chu Chen Pu wrote about the hedgehog. (NH, 7/98, p.54) c 800 900 "The Diamond Sutra,? a 9th century Chinese work, was found in 1900 in a cave in Duhuang by Sir Airel Stein, a British scholar-explorer, and handed over to the British Library. (SFEC, 6/11/00, p.A30) 800 900 Ninth century monks called Bhutan the hidden world."" " (WSJ, 3/6/97, p.A8) 962 1030 An Islamic era in Afghanistan was established with the Ghaznavid Dynasty. (www.afghan-web.com/history/) 962 1140 Under the Ghaznavid Dynasty Afghanistan became the center of Islamic power and civilization. (www.afghan-web.com/history/) 963 nend Mar 15, Romanus II (25), Byzantine emperor (959-63), died. (MC, 3/15/02) 964 nend Benedict V (d.965), succeeded John XII as Catholic Pope. (PTA, 1980, p.236) 964 nend Arab astronomers described the Great Nebula in Andromeda, our closest galaxy. (V.D.-H.K.p.333) 965 nend Mar 1, Leo VIII, Italian (anti-)Pope (963-65), died. (SC, 3/1/02) 965 nend Jul 4, Benedict V, Catholic Pope, died. (PTA, 1980, p.236) 965 nend Part of Khazaria was conquered by the Kievan Rus prince Svyatoslav. (TJOK, pp. 193-194) no_source 967 nend Nov 20, Aboe al-Faradj al-Isfahani, Arabic author (Book of liederen), died. (MC, 11/20/01) 969 nend Oct 28, After a prolonged siege, the Byzantines ended 300 years of Arab rule in Antioch. (HN, 10/28/98) 967 nend Dec 7, Abu Sa'id ibn Aboa al-Chair, Persian mystic, was born. (MC, 12/7/01) 969 nend Dec 10, Nicephorus II Phocas, Byzantine co-Emperor (963-69), was murdered. (MC, 12/10/01) 969 nend Named El Qahira -"the victorious," Cairo gained power from its position beside the Nile. (NG, May 1985, R. Caputo, p.603) 969 nend By this time the Fatimids had conquered most of North Africa and claimed Cairo as their capital. The Shiites gained control of Egypt. (ATC, p.91)(SSFC, 2/8/04, p.M2) 969 1000 Olaf Tryggvesson, Olav I, King of Norway from 995-1000. (WUD, 1994, p.1002) 971 1030 Machmud of Ghazni, ruler of Afghanistan. He made annual invasions to northern India where he pillaged temples, captured slaves, and transported his goods back by elephant. His library had a large collection of erotic manuscripts and he shared his palace with 400 poets. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 972 nend John I Tzimiskes, the Byzantine Emperor at Constantinople (969-976), granted a charter for the Monastic Republic of Holy Mount Athos in Greece. (SSFC, 10/8/06, p.H1)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_I_Tzimisces) 973 nend Jan 19, Benedict VI was consecrated as Catholic Pope. He succeeded John XIII. (PTA, 1980, p.236) 973 nend May 6, Henry II, German King (1002) and Holy Roman Emperor (1014-1024), was born. (HN, 5/6/98)(MC, 5/6/02) 973 nend Otto I, the Great (b.912), German king and Holy Roman emperor (962-73), died. (AHD, 1971, p.931)(MC, 11/23/01) 974 nend Pope Benedict VI was strangled to death by a priest named Stephen under directions of anti-Pope Boniface Franco, who called himself Boniface VII. (PTA, 1980, p.270) 975 nend Jul 25, Thietmar bishop of Merseburg, German chronicler, was born. (SC, 7/25/02) 975 nend Al-Azhar University in Egypt was founded and became the chief center of Arabic literature and Sunni Islamic learning in the world. As of 2008 it was world's second oldest surviving degree granting university. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Azhar_University) 975 1038 St. Stephen of Hungary. His crown was a fusion of Greek and Latin elements. (WSJ, 11/18/96, p.A10) 976 nend Oct 1, Al-Hakam II, the caliph of Cordoba, died. (MC, 10/1/01) 976 nend Nov 14, T'ai tsu, emperor of China and founder of Sung-dynasty, died. (MC, 11/14/01) 976 nend The Great Mosque of Cordoba (Spain) was completed and served as a religious, social and educational center. The largest of the 70 libraries in Cordoba contained 500,000 volumes. 70,000 books a year were hand-copied to satisfy the citizen?s literary appetites. (ATC, p.95,98) 976 1025 The reign of Basil the Bulgar-Slayer, ruler of Byzantium. [see 330CE] (WSJ, 10/14/95, p.A-12) 977 nend The shrine of Imam Ali, a gold-domed mosque, was built in Najaf, Iraq, on the burial site of Imam Ali, son-in-law of the prophet Mohammed. (SFC, 8/30/03, p.A1) 978 nend Mar 18, Edward the Martyr (15), King of Anglo-Saxons (975-78), was murdered. (MC, 3/18/02) 979 nend Apr 14, There was a challenge to throne of King Aethelred II, the Unrede (Unready), of England (979-1016). He attempted to buy peace with from Scandinavian invaders and called for England?s 1st general tax, the Danegeld. Some 140,000 pounds of silver was paid in tribute. (WSJ, 5/24/01, p.A20)(MC, 4/14/02) 979 nend The Isle of Man parliament, the Tynwald Court, was established. (SSFC, 8/13/06, p.G5) 980 983 Eric the Red was banished from Iceland for a murder. He sailed west and for 3 years explored the rocky land that he named Greenland. (HT, 5/97, p.31) 980 1037 Avicenna (Ibn Sina, Afghan scientist), the Muslim philosopher-scientist, was born in Bukhara (Balkh). He wrote "The Book of Healing," a vast philosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and "The Canon of Medicine," an encyclopedia of the medical knowledge of his time. Both works were translated to Latin and exerted great influence on Scholastics in the West. (www.afghan-web.com/history/)(V.D.-H.K.p.115) 981 nend Adherents to the Jainist faith consecrated a 57-foot statue of their most important siant, Bahubali, in the town of Shravana Belgola, India. (Sm, 3/06, p.23) 982 nend Eric the Red (Eiric Rauthornpi), father of Leif Ericson, discovered Greenland. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.24) 983 nend Dec 7, Otto II the Red (~28), German king and emperor (973-83), died in Italy. Otto III [aged 3] took the throne after his father's death. (HN, 12/7/98)(MC, 12/7/01) 984 nend Eric Thorvaldsson, aka Eric the Red, left Iceland and established his 1st settlement on Greenland. (ON, 12/07, p.5)(www.bookrags.com/Erik_the_Red) c 985 nend Montpellier, France, was founded at the intersection of 3 trade and pilgrimage routes. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R22) 985 1014 The Brihadeshwarar temple was built in southeastern India?s Tamil Nadu state. (WSJ, 10/1/04, p.A10) 985 1200 The Chola Kingdom prospered in southern India. Arts flourished and the economy prospered under expanding trade and military conquests. Ganesha, son of Shiva, was the first god invoked at the beginning of a new enterprise. (WSJ, 10/8/99, p.W14)(WSJ, 10/8/99, p.W14) 986 nend Mar 2, Lotharius (44), King of France (954-86), died. (SC, 3/2/02) 986 nend Eric the Red and his followers began to settle Greenland. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.24) 986 nend Bjarni Herjolfsson sailed from Norway to Iceland with cargo for his father, who had moved on to Greenland. Herjjolfsson was blown off course and reached Labrador, which he described as "worthless country." (NG, V184, No. 4, Oct. 1993, p.4)(WSJ, 7/6/04, p.D5) 987 nend May 21, Louis V, last Carolingian King of France (966-987), died. The Carolingian period of Frankish rule from the dynasty of Pepin the Short ended in France with the death of Louis V (20). [see May 22] (PCh, 1992, p.78)(AHD, 1971, p.205)(MC, 5/21/02) 987 nend May 22, Louis V le Faineant (20), the Lazy, king of France (986-87), was allegedly poisoned by his mother. [see May 21] (MC, 5/22/02) 987 nend Jul 3, The count of Paris, Hugh Capet (49), became king of France. Paris soon emerged as the center of French political, cultural and religious life, once again becoming the capital. (PCh, 1992, p.78)(HNQ, 4/18/02)(MC, 7/3/02) 987 nend Dec 30, French King Hugh Capet crowned his son Robert the Compassionate. (MC, 12/30/01) 988 nend May 6, Dirk II, West Frisian count of Holland, died. (MC, 5/6/02) 988 nend May 19, Dunstanus, English archbishop of Canterbury, died. (MC, 5/19/02) 988 nend Prince Vladimir of Kiev accepted Byzantine Orthodoxy. This is the traditional date for the beginning of Russian Christianity. (DVD, Criterion, 1998)(SSFC, 6/24/01, p.A14) 989 1020 Ani, a medieval city-site situated in the Turkish province of Kars, beside the border with Armenia, attained the peak of its power during the long reign of King Gagik I (989-1020). It was the capital of a medieval Armenian kingdom that covered much of present day Armenia and eastern Turkey. Armenian chroniclers such as Yeghishe and Ghazar Parpetsi first mentioned Ani in the 5th century AD. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ani) c 990 nend A set of instructions on chess, the Versus de Scachis (Poem About Chess), emerged in Switzerland. (Arch, 1/05, p.40) 991 nend Aug 11, Danes under Olaf Tryggvason killed Ealdorman Brihtnoth and defeated the Saxons at Maldon. (HN, 8/10/98) 992 nend Constantinople granted Venetian goods lower tariffs than other merchandise. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R50) 992 nend Ghana captured its chief trading rival, the Berber town of Audoghast. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.172) 993 nend The south Indian Cola Empire captured Anuradhapura (Sri Lanka). (Arch, 7/02, p.34) 994 nend Nov 7, Muhammad ibn Hazm, historian, jurist, author of Islamic Spain, was born. (MC, 11/7/01) 994 1035 Life of Canute, later King of England, Denmark and Norway. (AHD,1971, p.198) 995 nend Guido d?Arezzo (d.~1049, Italian monk and musical theorist, was born. He is generally credited with developing current musical notation. (WUD, 1994, p.629)(WSJ, 5/27/97, pB1) 995 1000 In Norway Olaf I was king. (WUD, 1994, p.1002) 995 1027 Heydey of the Fujiwara Clan in Japan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 995 1030 Olaf Haraldsson, aka Saint Olaf, the patron saint of Norway. He was king from 1016-1029. He and a crew of Vikings attacked London and pulled down the London Bridge with ropes. This is remembered in the nursery rhyme "London Bridge is falling down..." (WUD, 1994, p.1002)(SFC, 8/23/97, p.E3) 996 nend May 21, Otto III (16) was crowned the Roman Emperor by his cousin Pope Gregory V. (HN, 5/21/98)(MC, 5/21/02) 996 nend Oct 24, Hugh Capet, king of France (987-96), died at 58. (MC, 10/24/01) c 996 nend In Iran the Astan Ghods Ravazi religious foundation was started. (WSJ, 7/11/96, p.A4) 997 nend St. Adalbert was martyred. He brought Christianity to Bohemia. (SFC, 4/26/97, p.A12) 997 nend The name "Austria" first appeared in a medieval manuscript. (WSJ, 4/16/97, p.A16) c 998 1061 Bao Qingtian (Bao Zheng), Chinese judge of the Song Dynasty, had a reputation for sticking up for the common man. (Econ, 4/23/05, p.43)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bao_Zheng) 999 nend Feb 18, Gregory V, [Bruno] 1st German Pope, died. (MC, 2/18/02) 999 nend Turkish dynasties became the rulers of Transoxania, and area that covered much of what later became Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan. (Econ, 7/26/03, p.46-4 ) 1000 nend Jan 1, Stephen became the first king of Hungary. (SFEC, 8/8/99, p.T5) 1000 nend Oct 9, Leif Ericson discovered "Vinland." [see 1001] (MC, 10/9/01) c 1000 nend A 174-page manuscript was copied onto goatskin parchment in Constantinople from papyrus versions of Archimedes? original calculations and mathematical diagrams. Over the years it was written over. The Archimedes Palimpsest was later discovered and examined using x-ray technology at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. (SFC, 5/23/05, p.A4) c 1000 nend An early Andean culture known as the Huari cultivated crops with complex irrigation systems back to this time. (NH, 10/02, p.62) 1000 nend Gunpowder was invented in China about this time. (V.D.-H.K.p.179) 1000 nend Scientists suspect that the sun was particularly bright for a period of time that is called the Medieval Optimum with global temperatures about 1 to 2 degrees higher than today. (NOHY, 3/90, p.127) c 1000 nend The Sinagua Indians, in what is now Arizona, made granaries in the cliffs along the Verde River some 100 miles north of Phoenix. (SFEC, 9/28/97, p.T6) c 1000 nend The Numic-speaking Shoshone Indians took part in a widespread migration out of the Cosos Mountains on the northwestern edge of the Mojave Desert about this time and populated a large portion of the western US. (PacDis, Summer ?97, p.10) c 1000 nend The Cahokia settlement in Southern Illinois numbered about 30,000. (SFC, 3/20/99, p.B4) c 1000 nend The Mississippian transformation was marked by the rise of agriculture and the appearance of belligerent chiefdoms. The Calusa Indians of southern Florida avoided the Mississippian transformation and maintained their ancient lifeways based on fishing and collecting. (AM, 7/97, p.75) 1000 nend By this time the whole of East and Central Africa was occupied by the Bantu people. Older inhabitants such as the Hottentots and Bushmen were either absorbed or pushed into less desirable places such as the Kalahari. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.169) 1000 nend By about this time the initial Arctic culture had given way to a second eastward flow of a people now known as the Thule. (Evidence from Ellesmere Island in Canadian Arctic). (NG, 6/1988, 762) 1000 nend A divided England, ruled by Ethelred the Unready, was in a state of intermittent warfare with the Vikings, who controlled much of the realm. (SFC, 4/23/01, p.E1) c 1000 nend In England the Vikings established a thriving economy in the town they called Jorvik. It had been founded by the Romans as a fortress and later came to be called York. (SFEC,10/26/97, p.T4) 1000 nend The Loire Valley vineyard Chateau de Goulaine was founded. In 2004 it was considered to be Europe?s oldest and continuous family business (Econ, 12/18/04, p.104) c 1000 nend Cloisters take up brewing at about the turn of the first millennium. The monks were particularly interested in the scientific aspects of brewing, and so it was that at the Brabant Cloister zum Würzen that hops were tried for the very first time. That probably led to the legend that Brabant King Gambrinus was the inventor of beer. He is still remembered today as a great patron of the brewers and a beer lover in his own right. (www.oldworld.ws/okbeerhist.html) 1000 nend The Gypsy people (Romany) migrated from Rajasthan, India, about this time. (Wired, 9/96, p.46)(Econ, 6/21/08, p.35) 1000 nend In Agnone, Italy, the Fonderia Pontificia Marinelli, a bell foundry, was founded about this time. (SFC, 4/14/06, p.D1) 1000 nend Large portions of the island fauna of Madagascar, that once included a lemur the size of bear and the ostrich-like Elephant Bird, was eliminated by the Malagash people of Madagascar. (NOHY, 3/90, p.188) c 1000 nend Graves of rich Curonian warriors from near Kretinga in western Lithuania revealed cremated bones in a tree-trunk coffin, nine fibulae, a leather belt with bronze and amber beads, 3 spears and an iron battle-axe, an iron instrument for striking fire, a sickle, an iron key and bronze scales, a saddle and iron bridle bits along with miniature tools and weapons. (DrEE, 11/23/96, p.3) 1000 nend In Cracow, Poland, the Wawel Castle was built overlooking the Vistula River. (WSJ, 7/13/00, p.A24) c 1000 nend In Siberia the Yakut nation, a Turkish-speaking people, wandered north about this time to avoid the Mongols. (SFC, 1/21/98, Z1 p.4) 1000 nend About this time in the Hadramawt region of Yemen a dam burst near the village of Senna, and the people of the valley fled. In 1997 researchers using DNA studies found that the Lemba, a Bantu speaking people of southern Africa carry markers distinctive of the Cohanim, Jewish priests believed to be descended from Aaron. Lemba oral tradition held that they came to Africa from Senna. Dr. Tudor Parfitt authored "Journey to the Vanished City," a description of his work on the Lemba. (SFEC, 5/9/99, p.A24)(www.answers.com/topic/lemba) 1000 nend The Zapotecs founded and ruled the archeological site of Monte Alban in the Mexican state of Oaxaca for more than a millennium until about this time when the Mixtecs took over. (SFC, 5/5/96, p.T-8) 1000 nend In 1999 Robert Lacey and Danny Danziger published "The Year 1000: What Life Was Like at the Turn of the First Millennium." It focused on life in England and used the Julius Work Calendar as a major source. Other millennium books included "AD 1000: A World on the Brink of Apocalypse," and "The Last Apocalypse: Europe at the Year 1000 AD." (WSJ, 1/29/99, p.W7)(WSJ, 4/6/99, p.B1)(SFEC, 7/25/99, BR p.2) 1000 nend The population at this time was about 200 million people in the world. (WSJ, 12/23/99, p.A18) 1000 1100 There was a Confucian revival in China. The scholar Ch?eng I held that the I Ching was a means of inquiry into any possible matter. (NH, 9/97, p.12) 1000 1100 In 2002 the remains of a longhouse from this time were uncovered in northern Iceland. It was believed to be associated with Snorri Thorfinnson, son of Viking explorers and the 1st European born in the New World. (SFC, 9/16/02, p.A2) 1000 1100 The writer Mahmud of Kashgar recorded a variant of an Uighur story that Alexander the Great during his conquests ordered his doctors to invent a remedy for sick people that was good to eat. In the original story they then came up with pilaf, but Mahmud substituted tutmach (noodles) in a setting of starvation. (SFC, 8/14/96, zz-1 p.2) 1000 1100 Chinese kilns mass produced ceramics for the imperial court. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) c 1000 1100 Tenkaminen reigned as Caliph of Ghana. He exported gold, ivory and salt and kept his wealth in gold. He put glass windows into his palace in Kumbi and kept a menagerie of elephants and giraffes. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1000 1100 From India the sandstone sculpture "Uma Maheshvara" is a variant of the archetypal couple Shiva and Parvati. (SFC, 6/28/97, p.E1) 1000 1100 In southern India an 11th century temple was constructed in Thanjavur. (WSJ, 6/9/97, p.A1) c 1000 1100 A Buddhist shrine was constructed in Uji, Japan. In 1968 the Byodo-In Temple at the foot of the Koolaus Mountains on Oahu, Hawaii, was built as a replica of the 900-year-old shrine. (SFEM, 10/12/97, p.20) 1000 1100 In Laos Wat Phu was last renovated by King Suryavarnam I. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.F) 1000 1100 Marrakech was founded in the 11th century. It was the terminus of a trade route running southward to the Niger River and of another running eastward to Cairo. (NH, 5/96, p.40) 1000 1100 In Mali the desert village of Araouane, 161 miles north of Timbuktu, was first mentioned about this time. It was a wealthy settlement that flourished off the caravans and drew water from 150-foot wells. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.84) c 1000 1200 The 11th or 12th century document "De Mirabilibus Brittanniae" (the Wonders of Britain) was written by Radulfi de Diceto Lundoniensis. (AM, 9/01, p.42) 1000 1250 Early post classic period of the Maya. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.B) 1000 1300 Bantu people called the Shona build the Great Zimbabwe, which means "Houses of Stone." This grand city became Zimbabwe?s capital and trade center. (ATC, p.135) c 1000 1400 Angkor Thom, capital of the Khmer empire, reached its apogee during this period. It included the religious monument of Angkor Wat. In 2007 new technology indicated that the city covered an area over 115 square miles at its peak and used sophisticated technology for managing and harvesting water. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.A)(SFEC, 7/26/98, p.T6)(SFC, 8/14/07, p.A18) c 1000 14000 The Mapungubwe kingdom thrived in South Africa. It was rediscovered by archeologists in the 1930s. (Arch, 1/05, p.10) 1001 nend Otto III was ousted. He had moved his thrown from Germany to Rome and fancied himself Holy Roman Emperor. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R54) c 1001 nend Norse sagas claim that Leif Ericson and a band of 35 men sailed for western lands based on an account by the Viking Bjarni Herjulfsson, who had sighted land after being blown off course. They found a land they called Vinland and built houses but returned to Greenland before the winter. (HT, 5/97, p.31) 1002 nend Jun 6, German king Henry II, the Saint, was crowned. (MC, 6/6/02) 1002 nend Jun 21, Pope Leo IX was born. He brought the conflict between Rome and the eastern Church to a head in 1054, ending with the Patriarch of Constantinople being excommunicated and the creation of the Schism. (Camelot, 6/21/99) 1002 nend Aug 2, Abu Amir Mohammed ibn Abd Allah ibn Mohammed ibn Abi Amir (64) died. (MC, 8/2/02) 1002 nend Nov 13, English king Ethelred II launched a massacre of Danish settlers. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethelred_the_Unready) 1002 nend Thorer Eastman (d.1002), a Norwegian sea captain, was blown off course on a trading voyage from Iceland to Greenland. He and his wife, Gudrid, along with a crew of 13 became stranded on a rock near the coast of Newfoundland for weeks until they were rescued by Leif Eriksson, who was on his way home to Greenland from North America with a cargo of timber. That fall an epidemic swept Greenland and Eastman died. (ON, 12/07, p.4) 1002 1019 In Japan Lady Murasaki Shikibu wrote her classic court novel "The Tale of Genji." The novel "Genji Monogatari" (Genji the Shining One) was later considered the world's 1st novel. The long work explored the imperial court of the Heian period through the life and many loves of Genji, son of the emperor's favorite concubine. Arthur Waley made an English translation in 6 installments between 1925 and 1933. Edward Seidensticker made a translation in 1976. Royall Tyler made a new translation in 2001. In 2000 Liza Dalby authored her novel "The Tale of Murasaki." (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(WSJ, 2/5/98, p.A20)(WSJ, 1/11/99,p.R34)(WSJ, 7/5/00, p.A20)(WSJ, 11/16/01, p.W14)(SFEC, 7/16/00, BR p.3) c 1002 1066 Edward the Confessor, English king (1042-1066), saint and founder of Westminster Abbey. (WUD, 1994, p.454) 1003 nend May 12, Gerbert, French scholar, died in Rome. (SC, Internet, 5/12/97) 1003 nend The church of Maria di Criptu was built in the village of Fossa in the Grand Sassi mountains of central Italy. (SFC, 7/26/00, Z1 p.1) 1004 nend The San Nilo abbey was founded atop a Roman villa in the Alban Hills. (SSFC, 11/10/02, p.C6) c 1004 nend In 2004 archaeologists in western Norway found the remains of a harbor complex built by the Vikings about this time, at the ancient harbor complex at Faanestangen, near the west coast city of Trondheim, some 250 miles north of Oslo. (AP, 3/6/04) 1005 nend Leaf Ericson?s brother, Thorvald, had arrived in Vinland but was killed by native Indians and his Viking companions returned to Greenland. A 3-year settlement was begun a few years later when Thorfin Karlsefni established a base with around 100 men and women at the L?Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland. (HT, 5/97, p.33)(ON, 12/07, p.5) 1005 nend Gudrid Thorbjarnardottir and Thorstein Erikson set sail to the New World to recover the body of Thorvald Erikson and to start a new colony. They failed to catch easterly winds and spent the winter in northwest Greenland. That winter Thorstein died. (ON, 12/07, p.5) 1006 nend Thorfinn Karlsefni arrived in Greenland from Iceland and married Gudrid Thorbjarnardottir. She soon talked him into leading an expedition to the New World. (ON, 12/07, p.5) 1007 nend Thorfinn Karlsefni and Gudrid Thorbjarnardottir embarked with a 3-ship expedition to the new World. Snorri Thorfinnson, son of Gudrid Thorbjarnardottir and Thorfinn Karlsefni, was born in Vinland (probably Newfoundland), the 1st European born in the New World. The family later returned east and settled in Iceland. (SFC, 9/16/02, p.A2)(ON, 12/07, p.5) 1005 nend Kazan, the capital of the Russian province of Tatarstan, was founded on the Volga River. In 2005 the city celebrated a millennial anniversary. (AP, 8/26/05) 1006 nend May 1, A supernova was observed by Chinese and Egyptians in constellation Lupus. (MC, 5/1/02) 1008 nend The Univ. of Bologna (Italy) was founded. It was later recognized as the oldest university in Europe. (Econ, 4/25/09, p.57) 1008 nend The earliest known water-powered wool-processing plant was operated at Ludi near Milan. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1009 nend Feb 14, Lithuania was 1st mentioned in relation to an announcement of the death of St. Bruno. [see Mar 9] (LHC, 2/14/03) 1009 nend Mar 9, Lithuania?s name (Lituae) was first mentioned in Quedlinburg?s annals: "St. Bruno, an archbishop and monk, who was called Boniface, was struck in the head by Pagans during the 11th year of his conversion at the Russian and Lithuanian border (in confinio Rusciae et Lituae), and along with 18 of his followers, entered heaven on March 9th" (Feb 14 is also cited in other sources). (DrEE, 10/12/96, p.2)(Book of the Millennium. Kaunas: Krastotvarka, 1999. Vol. 1: The State, p. 10, series "Acquaintance with Lithuania") http://www.krastotvarka.lt (DrEE, 10/12/96, p.2) 1009 nend In Jerusalem the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was burned by Muslims under Caliph Hakim of Egypt. (WSJ, 5/7/01, p.A20)(WSJ, 1/27/07, p.W13) 1010 nend May 3, Ansfried (~69), 9th bishop of Utrecht (995-1010), saint, died. (MC, 5/3/02) 1010 nend Thorfinn Karlsefni and Gudrid Thorbjarnardottir returned from the New World to Greenland and then moved to Iceland the following year, where they raised a large family. (ON, 12/07, p.5) 1010 nend Abolqasem Firdawsi (Ferdowsi), a Persian poet, completed the ?Shahnameh,? or ?Book of Kings.? It is an epic of more than 50,000 rhyming couplets weaving the history of ancient shahs with myth and legend. One might call it the Iliad of Persia. Over the centuries shahs have had the poem copied and illustrated by the best artists of the day. In 2006 Dick Harris made an abridged translation to English in prose. (WSJ, p. A-18, 10/13/94)(WSJ, 3/7/06, p.D8) 1010 nend King Ly Thai To decided to move Vietnam's capital 62 miles (100 km) north to Hanoi, then called Thang Long. (AP, 10/10/10) 1012 nend The Arabian trade with Europe abruptly ceased and no more Cufic coins streamed into Europe. (VilNews, 12/17/10) 1013 nend The last Viking attempt to settle Vinland was made. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.25) 1014 nend Feb 3, Sweyn Forkbeard (b.960), Danish-born Viking king of England (1013-14), died. (www.nndb.com/people/718/000093439/) 1014 nend Feb 14, Pope Benedict VIII crowned Henry II, German King (1002), as Roman German emperor (1014-1024). (HN, 5/6/98)(MC, 5/6/02)(MC, 2/14/02) 1014 nend Apr 23, The Battle of Contarf ended Danish rule in Ireland but a Dane killed Irish King Brian Boru (87). (PCh, 1992, p.80)(MC, 4/23/02) 1014 nend Oct 6, The Byzantine Emperor Basil II (958-1025) earned the title "Slayer of Bulgars" after he ordered the blinding of 15,000 Bulgarian troops. Basil II was godfather to Russia?s Prince Vladimir. (HN, 10/6/98)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil_II)(Econ, 2/16/08,p.60) 1015 nend Sep 12, Lambert I with the Beard, count of Leuven, died in battle at about 65. (MC, 9/12/01) 1015 nend After converting to Christianity in France, Olaf Haraldsson returned to Norway and promptly conquered land held by Denmark, Sweden and Norwegian lords. (HNQ, 11/30/00) 1016 nend Apr 23, Ethelred II "the Unready", king of England (979-1016), died. (MC, 4/23/02) 1016 nend Oct 18, Danes defeated the Saxons at Battle of Assandun (Ashingdon). (MC, 10/18/01) 1016 nend Nov 30, Edmund II (27), Ironsides, King of Saxons, died. (MC, 11/30/01) 1016 1029 In Norway Olaf Haraldsson served as king. He later became Saint Olaf, the patron saint of Norway. (WUD, 1994, p.1002) 1016 nend Canute, Prince of Denmark became King of England as Canute I. (AHD, 1971, p.198) 1017 nend Oct 28, Henry III, Roman Catholic German emperor (1046-56), was born. (MC, 10/28/01) 1017 nend In China a hermit introduced the prime minister to "variolation," an inoculation using germs from smallpox survivors. (NW, 10/14/02, p.47) 1017 nend The south Indian Cola Empire transferred the capital of Sri Lanka to Polonnaruva which then served as the capital of Sri Lanka until 1300. It was a fortified citadel surrounded by Hindu and Buddhist religious complexes. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.D)(Arch, 7/02, p.34) 1017 1144 A Romanesque nave was added to the abbey Mont St. Michel off the coast of Normandy, France. (WSJ, 10/7/06, p.P18) 1018 nend By this year Basil II had annexed Bulgaria. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1019 nend Canute, King of England, became also King of Denmark as Canute II or Canute the Great. (AHD, 1971, p.198) 1019 nend Machmud of Ghazni, a kingdom in central Asia, invaded India and took so many captives that the prices of slaves plummeted for several years. He invade India annually for 25 years. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R4) 1019 20 BabaTaher, Persian poet, died. (WSJ, 1/25/00, p.A18) 1023 nend In China a government agency was formed to print paper money. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1024 nend Apr 7, Pope Benedict VIII died. (PTA, 1980, p.288) 1024 nend Jul 13, Henry II, the Monk, German King (1002-24), died. (MC, 7/13/02) 1024 nend Sep 4, Conrad II (the Sailor) was chosen as German king. (MC, 9/4/01) 1024 nend Olaf Haraldsson introduced a religious code in his efforts to convert the Norwegians to Christianity. (HNQ, 11/30/00) 1025 nend Dec 15, Basil II was succeeded as emperor [by] Constantine VIII, his brother and co-ruler. (HN, 12/15/98) 1026 nend Mar 23, Koenraad II (Conrad II) crowned himself king of Italy. (SS, 3/23/02) 1027 nend Mar 26, John XIX crowned Conrad II the Salier Roman German emperor. (SS, 3/26/02) 1028 nend Canute the Great (d.1035) became also King of Norway. (AHD, 1971, p.198) 1028 nend Olaf Haraldsson was forced to flee Norway by Canute, king of England and Denmark, Olaf returned to reconquer Norway, but was defeated and killed at the Battle of Stiklestad in 1030. (HNQ, 11/30/00) 1029 1094 Al-Mustansir, ruler of most of North Africa. He was the wealthiest of the Fatimid caliphs and was based in Cairo. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1030 nend Jul 29, The patron saint of Norway, King Olaf the Second, was killed in the Battle of Stiklestad. Olaf Haraldsson was born a pagan and lived as a warrior for most of his years going on to become the patron saint of Norway. The son of Harald I, Oaf?s early career was spent outside Norway fighting the Danes and English among others. (HNQ, 11/30/00)(AP, 7/29/01) 1030 nend In Afghanistan Mahmud Ghazni died. Conflicts between various Ghaznavid rulers arose and as a result the empire started to crumple. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1030 nend In China a landslide on the Yangtze River cut off navigation for 21 years. (NH, 7/96, p.32) 1030 nend Fan Kuan (b.960), Chinese artist, died. His work included ?Travelers and Streams and Mountains.? (WSJ, 10/29/08, p.D9) 1030 nend The city of Tartu in Estonia was founded. (Hem, 4/96, p.24) 1030 1093 In China Shen Kua was an engineer and high official Chinese astronomer. In his1086 work "Dream Pool Essays," Shen Kua made the first reference to the magnetic compass. The work also gave the first account of relief maps and an explanation of the origin of fossils, along with other scientific observations. Shen Kua wrote his essays after being banished from office after an army under his command lost 60,000 killed in a battle with Khitan tribes. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14)(HNQ, 4/22/99) 1031 nend Oct 19, Abbot Humbertus van Echternach opened the grave of Saint Willibrord. (MC, 10/19/01) 1031 nend Olaf II, aka Olaf Haraldsson (d.1030) of Norway, was named a saint. (HNQ, 11/30/00) 1032 nend Feb 2, Conrad II claimed the thrown of France. (HN, 2/2/99) 1033 nend An enormous pilgrimage to Jerusalem marked the 1000th anniversary of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. (SFC, 1/6/97, p.A3) 1034 nend Apr 11, Romanus III Argyrus, Byzantine emperor (1028-34), was assassinated by his wife. (MC, 4/11/02) 1035 nend Nov 12, King Canute (b.994) died. He was king of Denmark, England and Norway. (HN, 11/12/98) 1032 nend Theophylactus, the nephew of Pope John XIX, became Pope Benedict IX. (PTA, 1980, p.292) 1036 nend The Romans drove Pope Benedict IX out of Rome. (PTA, 1980, p.292) 1036 1056 Henry III ruled the Holy Roman Empire, which extended from Hamburg and Bremen in the north to the instep of Italy to the south, Burgundy in the west, and Hungary and Poland to the east. (V.D.-H.K.p.111) 1038 nend King Stephen of Hungary died. (SFC, 8/7/99, p.A8T5) 1040 nend Mar 7, Harold I, King of England (1035-40), died. (MC, 3/7/02) 1040 nend Aug 15, In Scotland Donnchad led an army into Moray, where he was killed by Mac Bethad at Pitgaveny near Elgin. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macbeth_of_Scotland) 1040 1057 Macbeth ruled over Scotland. He succeeded King Duncan. (WSJ, 5/23/96, p.B-1) 1040 1100 Eruptions at Sunset Crater, Az., are believed to have lasted over this period. (NH, 6/97, p.56)(AM, 3/04, p.50) 1040 1275 In Arizona as many as 12 families occupied the White House of Canyon de Chelly. (SSFC, 1/7/01, p.T10) 1041 nend In China Bi Sheng devised the first movable-type printing system with clay characters. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1042 1066 Edward the Confessor (b.1002) served as King of England. Monks penned the manuscript "The Life of King Edward the Confessor" and in 1998 it was put on a WWW page: www.lib.cam.ac.uk/MSS/Ee3.59 (WUD, 1994, p.454) 1043 nend Apr 3, Edward the Confessor was crowned king of England. (MC, 4/3/02) 1044 nend The Romans drove Pope Benedict IX out of Rome for a 2nd time. John, bishop of Sabina, was set up as Pope Sylvester III, but Benedict?s family base from Tusculum fought their way back into Rome and restored Benedict. (PTA, 1980, p.292) 1045 nend Pope Benedict IX abdicated and, for a large sum of money, turned the papacy over to his godfather, archpriest John Gratian, who became Pope Gregory VI. (PTA, 1980, p.292) 1045 nend Richard of Aversa, a nephew of Rainulf of Aversa, came from Normandy to southern Italy in 1045 with 40 knights. (HNQ, 7/17/00) 1045 1066 In Norway King Harold Hardready reigned. (DrEE, 11/23/96, p.3) 1046 nend Sep 24, In Hungary Gerard Sagredo (b.980), an Italian bishop from Venice (also known as Gellert or Gerhard), was placed on a 2-wheel cart, hauled to a hilltop and rolled down the later named Gellert Hill, and still being alive at the bottom was beaten to death. He operated in the Kingdom of Hungary (specifically in Budapest), and educated Saint Emeric of Hungary, the son of Saint Stephen of Hungary). Gellert played a major role in converting Hungary to Christianity. He was canonized in 1083 along with St. Stephen and St. Emeric and became one of the patron saints of Hungary. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_Sagredo) 1046 nend Dec, Pope Gregory VI abdicated. As Benedict IX, Sylvester III, and Gregory VI claimed the papal throne, all were deposed by Henry III in the Synod of Sutri. Henry selected Clement II. Clement then crowned Henry and his wife as emperor and empress. (PTA, 1980, p.294)(V.D.-H.K.p.111) 1046 nend Dec 25, Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, was enthroned as Pope Clement II. (PTA, 1980, p.296) 1046 nend Synod of Sutri where three men claimed the papal throne, but were all deposed by Henry III, who selected Clement II. Clement then crowned Henry and his wife as emperor and empress. (V.D.-H.K.p.111) 1047 nend Oct 9, Pope Clement II died. (PTA, 1980, p.296) 1047 nend Oct 25, Magnus I Godhi, king of Norway and Denmark (1035-47), died. (MC, 10/25/01) 1047 nend Pope Gregory VI died. (PTA, 1980, p.294) 1047 nend In France construction began on the Abbaye-aux-Dames near the town of Saintes. (SFEC, 6/15/97, p.T8) 1048 nend Dec 13, Al-Biruni (74), Arabic royal astrologer, died. (MC, 12/13/01) 1049 nend King Svein ruled in Denmark. (DrEE, 11/23/96, p.3) 1049 1051 Snorre Sturleson wrote the "Heimskringla." http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Heimskringla/ (DrEE, 11/23/96, p.3)(TB-Com, 10/11/00) no_source 1050 nend Nov 11, Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, was born. (HN, 11/11/98) 1050 nend An Anasazi trade center in New Mexico offered pottery, turquoise and buffalo meat. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1050 nend Arabs brought their decimal system to Spain. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) c 1050 nend In 2004 some 280 silver coins, that probably originated from a trade journey by Gotlanders to the area around the river Elbe in Germany around 1050, were found on the Swedish island of Gotland. (AP, 3/1/04) 1051 nend King Magnus ruled in Denmark. (DrEE, 11/23/96, p.3) 1053 nend Jun 18, In Italy Richard of Aversa helped win the Battle of Civitate, inflicting a decisive defeat over the papal army, which had joined Byzantium in an alliance against the Normans. (www.fanaticus.org/DBA/battles/civitate.html) 1054 nend Mar 12, Pope Leo IX escaped captivity and returned to Rome. (MC, 3/12/02) 1054 nend Jul 4, Chinese and Arabian observers first documented the massive supernova of the Crab Nebula created thousands of years ago and consisting of a huge expanding cloud of gas and dust 6,000 light-years from Earth. The great nova, as Oriental astronomers described it, was six times brighter than Venus and was only outshone by the sun and moon. For 23 days the nova could be observed in broad daylight. An entry in the Records of the Royal Observatory of Peking reads: "In the first year of the period Chihha, the fifth moon, the day Chi-chou, a great star appeared approximately several inches southeast of T?ien-Kuan (i.e. Zeta Tauri). After more than a year it gradually became invisible." In 1999 the Chandra X-Ray Telescope observed a ring around the heart of the Crab Nebula which continued to generate energy of more than 100,000 suns. (LSA., p.29)(TNG, p.96)(SCTS, p.183)(IB, Internet, 12/7/98)(SFC,9/30/99, p.A7) 1054 nend Jul, The Council of Florence in 1445 established this date for the Great Schism between the Eastern and Western (Orthodox and Catholic). An official date was needed so that talks could begin on reunion. (WSJ, 7/16/97, p.A23) 1054 nend The Roman and Orthodox Churches split decisively. [see 330AD] The Orthodox Church did not accept the papal authority from Rome. Christians in southern Albania were left under the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople and those in the north under the pope in Rome. The Orthodox Church maintained the tradition of married priests. (WSJ, 11/14/95, p. A-12)(WP, 6/29/96, p.B7)(www, Albania, 1998)(SFC,3/16/02, p.A3) 1055 nend The Seljuks under Tughril Beg ousted the Buyids (Buwayhids) in Baghdad. The nomadic Turks from Central Asia, descended from a warrior named Seljuk, took control of the government and continued governing the empire in the tradition of Islamic law. (www.mongabay.com/reference/country_studies/iraq/HISTORY.html) 1056 nend Apr 22, Supernova Crab nebula was last seen by the naked eye. (MC, 4/22/02) 1057 nend Jul 10, Lady Godiva rode naked on horseback throughout Coventry on a dare from her husband, the Earl of Mercia, who abolished taxation in this year. (MC, 7/10/02) 1057 nend Aug 15, Macbeth, the King of Scotland, was mortally wounded at the Battle of Lumphanan, by Malcolm Canmore, the eldest son of King Duncan I, who was killed by Macbeth 17 years earlier. (AP, 8/15/07)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macbeth_of_Scotland) 1057 nend Aug 31, Leofric, count of Mercia and husband of Lady Godiva, died. His wife, the Countess Godgifu (Godiva), had founded a Benedictine priory on a hill overlooking the River Sowe, and the town of Coventry grew up around it. The priory probably ran a market that would have formed the nucleus of the growing town. Such a market would bring fees and taxes to the priory and the Earl while flooding the district with goods and money. Godiva may well have ruled the settlement between Leofric?s death and her own in 1066. (HNC, 12/2/00)(MC, 8/31/01) 1057 nend King Anawratha, founder of the first Burmese empire, conquered the Mon kingdom to the south and introduced Theravada Buddhism to the Burmese people. He and his heirs oversaw building projects and Bagan (Pagan) became a center of Buddhist learning. (WSJ, 1/23/09, p.W12) 1057 nend In Italy Richard of Aversa seized Capua. (HNQ, 7/17/00) 1058 nend Nov 28, Kazimierz I Restaurator (b.1015), grand duke of Poland (1034-58), died. He succeeded in reuniting the central Polish lands under the hegemony of the Holy Roman Empire, but he was never crowned king. (MC, 11/28/01)(www.infoplease.com) 1058 nend Despite protests from the cardinals Count Gregory of Tusculum led the selection of John, bishop of Velletri, as Pope Benedict X. (PTA, 1980, p.306) 1058 1111 Al-Ghazali (Algazal), Islamic scholar. (WSJ, 7/7/99, p.A23) 1059 nend May 23, Henri I crowned his son King Philip I of France. (MC, 5/23/02) 1059 nend A council gathered at Lateran and declared that the election of Benedict X was invalid. The council enthroned Gerard of Burgundy as Pope Nicholas II. A synod at Rome followed and set decrees for papal elections that rested election powers with the cardinal-bishops. (PTA, 1980, p.306) 1059 nend Richard of Aversa and his brother-in-law, Robert Guiscard, met with Pope Nicholas II. The Norman chiefs swore allegiance to the Pope in return for papal recognition for their conquests, whereupon Richard was invested as prince of Capua. (HNQ, 7/17/00) 1060 nend Aug 4, Henry I (52), King of France (1027-60), died. (MC, 8/4/02) 1060 nend England minted a coin shaped like a four-leaf clover. Users broke off each leaf as needed as a separate piece of currency. (SFC, 6/30/96, Z 1 p.5)(SFEC, 8/1/99, Z1 p.8) 1060 nend Rashi, the great Talmudist, studied in Worms. (NH, 9/96, p.24) 1061 nend Apr 24, Halley's Comet inspired an English monk to predict that England would be destroyed. (MC, 4/24/02) 1061 nend Jul, Pope Nicholas II died in Florence. (PTA, 1980, p.306) 1062 nend Marrakech [Marakesh], the Arab name for Morocco, was built as a fortified city by the first Berber dynasty, the Almoravids. It was the terminus of a trade route running southward to the Niger River and of another running eastward to Cairo. (NH, 5/96, p.40)(SFEC, 7/25/99, p.T10) 1065 nend Apr 12, Pilgrims under bishop Gunther of Bamberg reached Jerusalem. (MC, 4/12/02) 1064 nend Jun 9, Coimbra, Portugal, fell to Ferdinand, the King of Castile. (HN 6/9/98) 1065 nend Apr 16, The Norman Robert Guiscard took Bari, ending five centuries of Byzantine rule in southern Italy. (HN, 4/16/98) 1065 nend Dec 28, Westminster Abbey opened in London. (MC, 12/28/01) 1066 nend Jan 5, Edward the Confessor, king of England (1043-66), died. (MC, 1/5/02) 1066 nend Jan 6, (Harald) Harold Godwinson, Earl of Wessex, was crowned King of England. (TLC, BTCW, 6/25/95)(HN, 1/6/99) 1066 nend Feb 28, Westminster Abbey opened. (HN, 2/28/98) 1066 nend Mar 23, The 18th recorded perihelion passage of Halley's Comet. Haley?s Comet was seen and soon after depicted on the Bayeux Tapestry. The 230-foot tapestry was created by craftsmen working for a Norman Bishop to depict the 1066 Norman invasion. In 2005 Andrew Bridgeford authored ?1066: The Hidden History in the Bayeux Tapestry.? (SS, 3/23/02)(NH, 7/98, p.78)(WSJ, 4/22/05, p.W6) 1066 nend Sep 21, At the Battle at Fulford Norway king Harald III Hardrada beat the British militia. (MC, 9/21/01) 1066 nend Sep 25, King Harold Godwinson II marched north and attacked the Vikings at the Battle of Stampford Bridge in Yorkshire. The King of Norway was killed and Harold?s forces destroyed the Vikings who returned to Norway in 24 of their 300 ships. Marching north to face a Norwegian invasion force commanded by King Harald Sigurdsson, aka Hardraade, and by his usurper brother, Tostig, Harold Godwinson defended his crown at Stamford Bridge, resulting in a Saxon victory and the deaths of both Harald and Tostig. Soon afterward, however, Harold had to march south to face another invading contender for his throne, Duke William the Bastard of Normandy, who defeated and killed Harold at Hastings on October 14, and took the English crown as William the Conqueror. (TLC, 6/25/95) 1066 nend Sep 25, Harald III Hardrada (51), king of Norway and England (1047-66), died in battle. Herald was later laid to rest in Waltham Abbey. (MC, 9/25/01)(AP, 1/3/03) 1066 nend Sep 28, William the Conqueror invaded England to claim the English throne. (AP, 9/28/97)(HN, 9/28/98) 1066 nend Sep, Duke William of Normandy sailed with 12,000 men to capture the English crown. His fleet encountered a severe storm that disrupted his landing. (TLC, Battles That Changed the World, 6/25/95) 1066 nend Sep, Harold Hardrata, King of Norway, sailed south with 10,000 men in 300 ships to attack England. (TLC, Battles That Changed the World, 6/25/95) 1066 nend Oct 2, The Normans landed in southern England and King Harold was forced to march his men south to face the Normans. (TLC, Battles That Changed the World, 6/25/95) 1066 nend Oct 14, King Harold and his army locked into a massive shield wall and faced Duke William, William the Conqueror, and his mounted knights near the town of Hastings, Battle of Hastings. Duke William planned a three point attack plan that included a) heavy archery b) attack by foot soldiers c) attack by mounted knights at any weak point of defense. The bloody battle gave the name Sen Lac Hill to the battle site. The Normans won out after Harold was killed by a fluke arrow. This placed William on the throne of England. http://members.tripod.com/~Battle_of_Hastings/Contents.html (TLC, Battles That Changed the World, 6/25/95)(AP, 10/14/97)(HN,10/14/98) 1066 nend Dec 25, William the Conqueror (d.1087), Duke William of Normandy, was crowned king of England. Under the reign of William I the construction of Windsor Castle began. http://members.tripod.com/~Battle_of_Hastings/Contents.html (TLC, 6/25/95)(SFC, 5/25/96, p.A12)(AP, 12/25/97)(HN, 12/25/98) 1066 nend Edith Svanneshals was the beautiful mistress of the ill-starred Harold Godwinsson, king of the Anglo-Saxons and loser at Hastings. No picture of her exists. Her last name means "swan's throat." (EHC, 5/12/98) 1066 nend The Channel Islands, 35 miles off the coast of France, became possessions of the English Crown when the Normans conquered England. (SFC, 8/10/96, p.A10) 1066 nend In England prior to 1066, hunting was virtually unrestricted. The Forest Laws, strictly enforced by English kings starting in the 11th century, placed restrictions on hunting, making it the sole privilege of the nobility. Unauthorized slayers of the king?s deer were often put to death. The Game Act of 1831, enacted under William IV, extended hunting rights to anyone who obtained a license. (HNQ, 3/3/00) 1066 nend The Countess Godgifu (Godiva) died. She had founded a Benedictine priory on a hill overlooking the River Sowe, and the town of Coventry grew up around it. (HNC, 12/2/00) 1067 nend Mar 25, William the Conqueror ordered the 1st Doomsday Survey of England. (MC, 3/25/02) 1067 nend In Belorus Minsk was founded. (SFC, 7/5/97, p.C2) 1067 nend Chepstow Castle was built in Wales to protect a strategic crossing of the River Wye and for the defense of the Wye Valley near the English border by the troops of William the Conqueror. (SFEC, 5/25/97, p.T5)(SFEC, 5/10/98, p.T4) 1068 nend Historian al-Bakri wrote his "Book of the Roads and Kingdoms." He described Ghana in the Western Sudan from information given him by merchants and others. (ATC, p.113)(Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.171) 1070 nend Jun 4, Roquefort cheese was accidentally discovered in a cave near Roquefort, France, when a shepherd found a lunch he had forgotten several days before. (HN, 6/4/01) 1070 nend In Egypt a famine forced Al-Mustansir to send the women of Cairo to Baghdad to escape starvation. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1070 nend The 8 gates of Marrakech, Morocco, were built. (SSFC, 12/18/05, p.F5) 1070 nend Bergen was founded on the southwest coast of Norway. (SSFC, 6/5/05, p.F7) 1071 nend Aug 26, Turks defeated the Byzantine army under Emperor Romanus IV at Manzikert (Malaz Kard), Eastern Turkey. Romanus was taken prisoner. (PCh, 1992, p.85)(Ot, 1993, p.4) 1072 nend Jan 10, Robert Guiscard and his brother Roger took Palermo in Sicily. (HN, 1/10/99) 1072 nend Oct 6, Sancho II, king of Castilia (1065-72), was murdered. (MC, 10/6/01) 1073 nend Sep 30, Pope Alexander II, born as Anselmo da Baggio, began serving as Pope. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Alexander_II) 1073 nend Apr 21, Pope Alexander II, born as Anselmo da Baggio, died. He had begun serving as Pope in 1061. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Alexander_II) 1073 nend Apr 22, Gregory VII, St. Hildebrand, became Pope. He was later driven from Rome and died in exile in 1085. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VII)(WSJ, 3/10/99, p.A22) 1073 nend Dec 20, Domingo, Spanish monastery founder, abbot, saint, died. (MC, 12/20/01) 1074 nend Pope Gregory VII summoned a council in the Lateran palace, which condemned simony and confirmed celibacy for the Church's clergy. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VII) 1075 nend Feb 16, Ordericus Vitalis, French monk, historian, poet, was born. (MC, 2/16/02) 1075 nend The Jiaozhi (Vietnam) launched a war against China, with a force of some 100,000 surrounding Yongzhou (the southern region of Nanning). It was captured after a siege of 42 days. (www.international-relations.com/cm4-1/Nanningwb.htm) 1075 nend The 3rd Cathedral at Santiago de Compostela in Spain was built on the site of the tomb of St. James. There had been a Cathedral on the site since the 9th century. (SFC, 9/22/96, p.T5) 1076 nend Feb 14, Pope Gregory VII excommunicated Henry IV. (MC, 2/14/02) 1076 nend Feb 22, Godfried III, with the Hump, duke of Lower Lorraine, was murdered. [see Feb 26] (MC, 2/22/02) 1076 nend Feb 26, Godfried III with the Hump, duke of Netherlands-Lutheran, was murdered. [see Feb 24] (SC, 2/26/02) 1076 nend The Al Moravids, a group of Muslim warriors who lived in the Sahara, set out to conquer Ghana. They captured Koumbi in this year but gave it back up to the Soninke in 1087. The Muslim religious reform Almoravid movement under Abu Bakr recaptured Audoghast and then all of Ghana. (ATC, p.117)(Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.172) 1076 nend The Danish King Svein Estrithson died. (DrEE, 1/4/97, p.3) 1077 nend Jan 28, Pope Gregory VII pardoned German emperor Henry IV at Canossa in northern Italy. Henry had insisted that he reserved the right to "invest" bishops and other clergymen, despite the papal decree, but became penitent when faced with permanent excommunication. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walk_to_Canossa)(Econ, 5/9/09, p.88) 1077 nend Apr 24, Geza I, King of Hungary (1074-7), died. (MC, 4/24/02) 1077 nend Windsor Castle was erected by William the Conqueror to monitor travel on the Thames River. (USAT, 11/19/97, p.2D) 1077 1090 The "heavenly clockwork," a mechanical water clock of Su Sung, was housed in a pagoda 5 stories high. (AM, 3/04, p.44) 1078 nend William the Conqueror began work on the Tower of London. Henry III ordered it whitewashed in 1240. (NG, V184, No. 4, Oct. 1993, p.41)(Hem, 9/04, p.28) 1079 nend May 9, Stanislaus, Polish bishop of Cracow, was murdered. (MC, 5/9/02) 1079 nend Peter Abelard (d.1142) was born in Brittany. He later became a great medieval scholar in Paris. Around 1117 he secretly married Heloise, niece of the Canon Fulbert of the Cathedral of Notre Dame. The Canon Fulbert hired gangsters who waylaid and castrated Abelard. His most famous theological work, "Sic et Non" (Yes and No), consisted of a collection of apparent contradictions drawn from various sources, together with commentaries showing how to resolve the contradictions and providing rules for resolving others. He also wrote "Scito te Ipsum" (Know Thyself), which advanced the notion that sin consists not in deeds, which in themselves are neither good nor bad, but only in intentions. In 2005 James Barge authored ?Heloise and Abelard: A New Biography.? (V.D.-H.K.p.116)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R22)(WSJ, 2/11/05, p.W6) 1080 nend The Knights of St. John (the Hospitallers) were founded in Jerusalem about this time to care for the sick. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller) 1081 nend Albania and Albanians were mentioned for the first time in a historical record by a Byzantine emperor. (www, Albania, 1998) 1081 1151 Abbot Suger of St. Denis, France. He was the 1st great patron of the arts in the current millennium. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R53) 1083 nend Jun 3, Henry IV of Germany stormed Rome capturing St. Peter's Basilica. (MC, 6/3/02) 1084 nend Mar 31, Anti-pope Clemens crowned German emperor Hendrik IV. (MC, 3/31/02) 1085 nend May 25, Alfonso VI, Spanish Christian ruler, took Toledo, Spain, from the Moslems. (ATC, p.100)(HN, 5/25/99) 1085 nend May 25, Gregory VII [Ildebrando], Pope (1073-85), died. (SC, 5/25/02) 1085 nend Oct 8, San Marcos monastery in Venice started. (MC, 10/8/01) 1085 nend William the Conqueror ordered the Doomsday survey of English manor's production capacity in order to collect taxes. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1086 nend Jul 10, Knut IV, the Saint, king of Denmark (1080-86), was murdered. (MC, 7/10/02) 1086 nend Aug 1, English barons submitted to William the Conqueror. (MC, 8/1/02) 1086 nend In China Shen Kua (1030-1093) gave an account of a magnetic compass for navigation in his work "Dream Pool Essays." The work also gave the first account of relief maps and an explanation of the origin of fossils, along with other scientific observations. Shen Kua wrote his essays after being banished from office after an army under his command lost 60,000 killed in a battle with Khitan tribes. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14)(HNQ, 4/22/99) 1086 nend In France St. Bruno founded the austere Carthusian order of monks in Grenoble. The silent order?s mother house in La Grand Chartreuse, France, later maintained support by the sale of its Chartreuse liqueur. (WUD, 1994, p.227)(SFC, 2/24/98, p.A22) 1087 nend Sep 9, William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy and King of England, died in Rouen while conducting a war which began when the French king made fun of him for being fat. (HN, 9/9/00) 1087 nend The Soninke of Ghana recaptured their capital, Koumbi, from the Al Moravids. They tried to re-establish their empire but a number of their states had adopted Islam and others broke away to form separate kingdoms. (ATC, p.117) 1087 nend At Myra (Demre), Turkey, merchants from the Italian port of Bari reportedly stole the bones of St. Nicholas. (WSJ, 8/31/98, p.B1) 1088 nend Cristodoulos persuaded the Byzantine emperor to let him develop the Greek island of Patmos as an independent monastic state. (WSJ, 6/28/02, p.AW8) 1089 nend May 28, Lanfrance, Archbishop of Canterbury, died. (MC, 5/28/02) 1089 1125 David the Builder, a king who increased Georgia's wealth and prestige after, at age 16, taking the reins of a country beset by attackers. (AP, 1/25/04)(Internet) 1090 nend Bernard of Clairvaux. He was known as "doctor mellifluus" for the honeyed sweetness of his style. It was Bernard who got the pope to silence Abelard. He said of Abelard: "This man presumes to be able to comprehend by human reason the entirety of God." Bernard had a simple favorite prayer: "Whence arises the love of God? From God. And what is the nature of this love? To love without measure." He wrote a letter to kings and popes on the monsters decorating churches: "What is the meaning of these unclean monkeys, these savage lions, and monstrous creatures?... Almighty God! If we do not blush for such absurdities we should at least regret what we have spent on them." (V.D.-H.K.p.117)(Hem, 4/96, p.51) 1090 nend Guo Xi (b.~1001), Chinese artist of the song Dynasty, died about this time. (SFC, 6/28/08, p.E1) 1091 nend The Norman conquest of Saracen-held Sicily provided access to Arabic manuscripts that showed a place-notated decimal system that forms the basis of modern mathematics. (I&I, Penzias, p.47) 1091 nend A trading deal was made between Mahdiyah, near Tunis, and Genoa. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R50) 1093 nend Aug 12, In England the foundation stone for Durham Cathedral was laid down. The main chapel was completed in 1175. It served as the seat of the Bishop and the church of the Benedictine monastery of Durham. (SSFC, 12/14/08,p.E4)(www.sacred-destinations.com/england/durham-cathedral.htm) 1093 nend Trade guilds were noted in England. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1094 nend Jun 15, Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar [El Cid] occupied Valencia on the Moren. (MC, 6/15/02) 1094 nend Oct 8, St. Mark?s Basilica in Venice was dedicated. Remains believed to have belonged to St Mark, the Evangelist, were buried there. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Marco_di_Venezia) 1094 nend The Islamic terrorist organization Nizari Ismailiyun, a Shiite politico-religious sect, was founded by Hasan-e Sabah. He and his followers captured the hill fortress of Almaut in northern Iran, which became their base of operations. (www.jihadwatch.org/dhimmiwatch/archives/006664.php) 1095 nend Nov 26, Pope Urban urged the faithful to wrest the Holy Land from the Muslims, heralding start of Crusades. (AP, 11/26/02) 1095 nend Nov 27, In Clermont, France, Pope Urbana II made an appeal for warriors to relieve Jerusalem, defeat the Turks and recapture the Holy Sepulchre from the Muslims. He was responding to false rumors of atrocities in the Holy Land. The first Crusade sparked a renewal of trade between Europe and Asia. Urban declared to the assembled that Europe was "too narrow for your large population" and urged them to take up swords against the Saracens who defiled "that land that floweth with milk an honey," thus inspiring the Crusaders. Peter, a disheveled former soldier, seized the moment, preaching the "People?s Crusade" and quickly gathering a following of more than 20,000 Crusaders, including Walter, a French Knight. (V.D.-H.K.p.109)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49)(HN, 11/27/99)(HN, 6/26/98) 1095 1099 The 1st Crusade. (WSJ, 1/4/02, p.A11) 1096 nend May 18, Crusaders massacred the Jews of Worms. Before embarking on the First Crusade to wrest the Holy Land from Muslim Turks, Count Emich von Leiningen and his army swept through their own German homeland, murdering thousands of Jews, whom they had declared "murderers of Christ." When Emich arrived in the town of Worms in May, the town's Roman Catholic Bishop tried to protect the Jewish population, but the Crusaders overran his palace and slaughtered some 500 people who had taken shelter there. Another 300 were killed over the next two days. The graves of the massacre victims can still be seen at the Jewish Cemetery at Worms. (HNPD, 5/12/99)(SC, 5/18/02) 1096 nend Jun 25, The 1st Crusaders slaughtered the Jews of Werelinghofen, Germany. (MC, 6/25/02) 1096 nend Jun 26, Peter the Hermit?s crusaders forced their way across Sava, Hungary. Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless (also known as Peter of Amiens and Walter Sansavoir) were two of the leaders of the "Crusade of the Poor People" in 1096-1097, an ill-fated prelude to the several campaigns waged in the Holy Lands between 1096 and 1270 that are commonly referred to as the Crusades. (HN, 6/26/98) 1096 nend Jul 12, Crusaders under Peter the Hermit reach Sofia in Hungary. (HN, 7/12/99) 1096 nend Aug 1, The crusaders under Peter the Hermit reached Constantinople. Anna Comnena, a 13 year-old Christian in Constantinople, watched as the crusaders marched into the city. (ATC, p.18)(HN, 8/1/98) 1096 nend Oct 21, Seljuk Turks under Sultan Kilidj Arslan of Nicea slaughtered thousands of German crusaders at Chivitot. (HN, 10/21/99)(MC, 10/21/01) c 1096 nend The Church of the Holy Sepulcher was built in Jerusalem on the traditional site of the burial and resurrection of Jesus Christ. In 1997 renovation was completed with a new 115-foot dome, designed by Fresno architect Ara Normart. (SFC, 1/3/97, p.A18) 1096 nend In France Saint-Eutrope?s church was consecrated in the town of Saintes, the ancient capital of the Saintonge. (SFEC, 6/15/97, p.T8) 1096 1291 European Christians fought Arab Muslims for control of Jerusalem and the Holy Land. In 2000 Evan S. Connell authored "Deus Lo Volt," a history of the Crusades that included the 12th century accounts by pilgrims Geoffrey de Villehardouin and Jean de Joinville that had been earlier published as "Chronicles of the Crusades." (ATC, p.160)(WSJ, 6/9/00, p.W8) 1097 nend Jun 30, The Crusaders defeated the Turks at Dorylaeum. (HN, 6/30/98) 1097 nend Jul 1, The 1st Crusaders defeated Sultan Kilidj Arslan of Nicea. (MC, 7/1/02) 1097 nend Oct 20, The 1st Crusaders arrived in Antioch. (MC, 10/20/01) c 1097 nend The pilgrimage routes of France (chemins de pelerinage) were begun. Their 900th anniversary was celebrated in 1997. (SFEC, 6/15/97, p.T8) 1081 nend Jan 8, Henry V, Roman German king, emperor (1098/1111-25), was born. (MC, 1/8/02) 1098 nend Jun 3, Christian Crusaders of the First Crusade seized Antioch, Turkey. (HN, 6/3/99) 1098 nend Feb 10, Crusaders defeated Prince Redwan of Aleppo at Antioch. (MC, 2/10/02) 1098 nend Dec 12, The 1st Crusaders captured and plundered Mara, Syria. (MC, 12/12/01) 1099 nend Jan 13, Crusaders set fire to Mara, Syria. (MC, 1/13/02) 1099 nend Apr 14, Conrad, bishop of Utrecht, was stabbed to death. (MC, 4/14/02) 1099 nend Jun 5, Knights and their families on the First Crusade witnessed an eclipse of the moon and interpreted it as a sign from God that they would recapture Jerusalem. (HN, 6/5/99) 1099 nend Jul 8, In Jerusalem 15,000 starving Christian soldiers marched around barefoot while the Muslim defenders mocked them from the battlements. (HN, 5/23/99) 1099 nend Jun 12, Crusade leaders visited the Mount of Olives where they met a hermit who urged them to assault Jerusalem. (HN, 6/12/99) 1099 nend Jul 13, The Crusaders launched their final assault on Muslims in Jerusalem. (HN, 7/13/99) 1099 nend Jul 15, Jerusalem fell to the crusaders following a 7 week siege. A massacre of the city's Muslim and Jewish population followed with the dead numbered at about 3,000. (V.D.-H.K.p.109)(HN, 7/15/98)(SSFC, 4/13/03, p.E3) 1099 nend Jul 16, Crusaders herded the Jews of Jerusalem into a synagogue and set it afire. (MC, 7/16/02) 1099 nend Aug 12, At the Battle of Ascalon 1,000 Crusaders, led by Godfrey of Bouillon, routed an Egyptian relief column heading for Jerusalem. The Norman Godfrey, elected King of Jerusalem, had assumed the title Defender of the Holy Sepulcher. Disease starvation by this time reduced the Crusaders to 60,000, down from an initial 300,000, and most of the survivors left for home. (HN, 8/12/99)(PC, 1992, p.88) 1099 nend The Aleppo Codex, owned by Jewish community in Jerusalem, was seized by Crusaders who sacked the city. It was then ransomed and made its way to Cairo, Egypt. (AP, 9/27/08) 1100 nend Aug 2, William II (44), [Rufus], king of England, was shot dead in New Forest. (MC, 8/2/02) c 1100 nend St. Cono was born in Teggiano in southern Italy. He became a Benedictine monk and went on to perform numerous miracles. His remains were later embedded in a statue in the church of Santa Maria Maggiore. (WSJ, 11/10/98, p.A1) 1100 nend The Tower of London took in its 1st prisoner. (Hem, 9/04, p.28) c 1100 nend Timbuktu was founded about this time as a seasonal Tuareg nomad camp around a well that was maintained by a group of slaves under an old woman, Buktu, "the place of Buktu." Tuareg is a derisive Arab term meaning abandoned by the gods. Natives prefer to be know as Kel Tamashek people. (AM, 11/00, p.51)(SSFC, 4/11/04, p.D6)(SFC, 10/30/04, p.E1) 1100 nend In the Netherlands Wittem Castle in Limburg dates to this time. (SFEC, 1/31/99, p.T13) c 1100 nend In Spain the town of Santo Domingo de la Calzada was founded by a man known as St. Dominic of the Walkway. (SFEC, 6/15/97, p.T5) 1100 nend By the 1100s the Chinese began to use the magnetic compass. (ATC, p.11) 1100 nend By this time East African traders in Kilwa controlled the export of gold and ivory from the southern kingdoms. Kilwa was the most prosperous of the east African city-states. (ATC, p.143) 1100 nend Statue (moai) building began about this time on Easter Island and continued to the 1700s. (SSFC, 9/18/05, p.E14) 1100 nend A volcano erupted about this time in the area of Flagstaff, Arizona. (SSFC, 7/23/06, p.G4) 1100 nend s Troubadour musicians organized in southern France. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1100 nend s Bushmills Distillery in Northern Ireland began producing whiskey. (SFEC, 1/10/99, p.T8) c 1100 1154 Geoffrey of Monmouth, English chronicler. The Welsh cleric claimed that Merlin used magic to bring the stones of Stonehenge from Ireland. (WUD, 1994, p.592)(AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.12) 1100 1200 The 16-foot scroll titled ?Qingming Shanghe Tu? (Qingming Festival on the River) was created in the 12th century. It was believed to have been painted by Zhang Zeduan, an artist of the Song Dynasty. (SFC, 9/14/05, p.E2)(www.ibiblio.org/ulysses/gec/painting/qingming/) 1100 1200 Muhammed ibn-Musa al-Khwarizmi, Arab mathematician and astronomer, wrote ?hisab al-jabr w? al muqabalah? (the science of reduction and comparison) in the 9th cent. The work dealt with solving equations. It was the first time that algebra was discussed as a separate branch of mathematics. In the 12th century it was translated into Latin as ?Ludus algebrae et almucgrabalaeque.? (Alg, 1990, p.87) c 1100 1200 Shihab el-Din was an anti-Crusader cleric. He was believed to be buried in Nazareth next to the Basilica of the Annunciation. A cornerstone for a mosque was laid at the site in 1999. (SFC, 11/24/99, p.A16) c 1100 1200 Judah Halevi was a Jewish poet who lived in Muslim Spain in the 12th century. He wrote ?City of the Great King, for thee my soul is longing.? (WSJ, 12/12/00, p.A24) 1100 1200 Chretien de Troyes of France in the 12th century introduced Camelot into the Arthurian legend and placed Lancelot in the saga along with the quest for the Holy Grail. (WSJ, 3/27/98, p.W10) c 1100 1200 Albigenses were members of the Catharistic sect that arose in southern France in the 11th century. [see 1244] (WUD, 1994 p.34) 1100 1200 In France the Abbot Suger was busy embellishing the abbey of St. Denis. (WSJ, 3/28/97, p.A16) 1100 1200 In Cambodia the Khmer empire reached its peak under King Jajavarman II in the 12th century. (SFEC, 7/26/98, p.T7) 1100 1200 The German Stammheim Missal was made. It told stories from Creation to the crucifixion of Christ. In 1997 it was acquired by the J. Paul Getty Museum. (SFC, 4/26/97, p.E3) 1100 1200 Berlin was founded amid the sandy plains and swamps of Brandenburg. In 1998 Alexandra Richie published ?Faust?s Metropolis: A History of Berlin.? (WSJ, 5/1/98, p.W5) 1100 1200 In Germany the Oberburg Castle was built in the 12th century by the Knights of Leyen. (SFEC, 4/30/00, p.T8) 1100 1200 Two 12th century castles along the Rhine were owned, according to legend, by the brothers Conrad and Heinrich of Boppard. They came to blows over a woman, Hildegarde, and the ruins of the castles were named the Warring Brothers. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.T5) c 1100 1200 The Festung Ehrenbreitsen, Europe?s largest fortress, was built at the convergence of the Mosel and Rhine Rivers. (SFEC, 4/30/00, p.T1) 1100 1200 In India the bronze sculpture ?Shiva Nataraya? depicted the Hindu god of creation and destruction doing the dance that sustains the universe. (SFC, 6/28/97, p.E1) 1100 1200 In India the comic man-elephant ?Ganesha? sculpture was carved in schist. (SFC, 6/28/97, p.E1) 1100 1200 In Ireland Cistercian monks established an abbey on Clare Island. (SFEC, 4/12/98, p.T8) 1100 1200 In Limerick, Ireland a 12th century cathedral was built. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.T11) c 1100 1200 In Japan Nichiren Daishonin, the son of a fisherman in Awa, established a new sect of Buddhism. In 1930 the Soka Gakkai (value-creation society) was founded in Tokyo based on his teachings. (WSJ, 4/23/99, B1) 1100 1200 The Norse visited Ellesmere Island in the Canadian Arctic as early as the 12th century and traded with the Thule, evidenced by chain mail. boat rivets, knife blades, and other artifacts turned up near Bache Peninsula. (NG, 6/1988, p.763) 1100 1200 Norwegian Chronicles mentioned a stave church in the village of Vaga. (WSJ, 8/27/96, p.A12) 1100 1200 Era of the 12 century Persian poet Nizami of Ganja. (SFC, 5/19/96, p.C-13) 1100 1200 Serbs occupied parts of northern and eastern Albanian inhabited lands. (www, Albania, 1998) c 1100 1200 San Isidro, a Spanish farmer, later became the patron saint of Madrid. (WSJ, 11/18/97, p.A20) 1100 1200 In Turkey Constantinople was devastated by fires in the 12th century. (SFC, 7/27/98, p.A8) 1100 1200 The 12th century book ?Gyuschi? was a compilation of Tibetan medicine that described the making and applications of medications extracted from herbs, roots and minerals often served as hot teas. (SFC, 2/20/98, p.C4) 1100 1300 About this period volcanic ash and molten rock sprayed the area of the Wupatki Basin near Flagstaff, Arizona for as long as 200 years. (SSFC, 7/23/06, p.G5) 1100 1400 The official stave churches of Norway were mostly built during this period. (WSJ, 8/27/96, p.A12) 1101 nend William IX, the Duke of Aquitaine, returned from the Crusades and composed songs about his adventures, thus becoming the first troubadour. He was excommunicated for licentious acts, but his lyrics led to the "courtly love" genre. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1101 1125 Huizong ruled over China. He was a calligrapher, painter and Confucian advocate of embracing antiquity. He broadened the scope of Imperial collecting to embrace bronze ritual objects as well as old paintings and calligraphy. (SFEC, 10/6/96, DB p.36) 1102 nend In England the Westminster Council outlawed ?the selling of men like brute animals.? (ON, 12/08, p.8) 1102 nend Coats were forced to enter into a union with Hungary and to recognize the Hungarian king as their own. (WSJ, 7/14/99, p.A23) 1103 nend Aug 24, Magnus III Berbein, [Blootbeen], King of Norway (1093-1103), died. (MC, 8/24/02) 1105 nend Nov 24, Rabbi Nathan ben Yehiel of Rome completed a Talmudic dictionary. (MC, 11/24/01) 1106 nend Aug 7, Henry IV (54), Holy Roman Emperor (1056/84-1105), died. (MC, 8/7/02) 1106 nend Sep 28, King Henry I of England defeated his brother Robert Curthose of Normandy at the Battle of Tinchebrai and reunited England and Normandy. Robert remained a prisoner until he died in 1134. (HN, 9/28/98)(PC, 1992, p.90) 1107 nend China printed money in 3 colors to thwart counterfeiters. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1107 nend Mi Fu (b.1051), Chinese calligrapher of the Northern Song period, died. (SFC, 5/14/03, p.D3)(SFC, 7/1/06, p.E1) 1107 1205 Enrico Dandolo, ruler of Venice. He was blind and spearheaded the 4th Crusade. He funded an army to capture Constantinople and after the "rape of Constantinople" pocketed some of the city's riches. He stole 4 bronze horses and placed them over the entry to the Cathedral of San Marco. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1109 nend Apr 21, Anselmus, philosopher, archbishop of Canterbury, died. (MC, 4/21/02) 1109 nend Apr 28, Hugo van Cluny, 6th abbot of Cluny, saint, died. (MC, 4/28/02) 1109 nend Jul 12, Crusaders captured harbor city of Tripoli. (MC, 7/12/02) 1110 nend May 13, Crusaders marched into Beirut causing a bloodbath. (MC, 5/13/02) 1110 nend Dec 4, Syria harbor city of Saida (Sidon) surrendered to the Crusaders. (MC, 12/4/01) 1111 nend Feb 12, Henry V of Germany presented himself to Pope Paschal II for coronation along with treaty terms that commanded the clergy to restore fiefs of the crown to Henry. The pope refused to crown and Henry left Rome taking the pope with him. When Paschal was unable to get help, he confirmed Henry?s right of investiture and crowned him. (PCh, 1992, p.91) 1113 nend Aug 24, Geoffrey Plantagenet, conquered Normandy, was born in France. (MC, 8/24/02) 1114 nend Trade fairs were held at Champagne, France, at the crossing of roads from Flanders, Germany, Italy and Provence. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1117 nend Dec 21, Thomas Becket (d.1170), archbishop of Canterbury, was born. His close friend Henry II of England later ordered his martyrdom. (MC, 12/21/01) c 1117 nend Abelard (1079-1142), master of a school in Paris, impregnated Heloise, his single female student. [See 1079] (WSJ, 2/11/05, p.W6) 1118 nend Apr 2, Boudouin I of Bologne and Edessa, 1st crusader, king of Jerusalem, died. (MC, 4/2/02) 1118 nend Apr 7, Pope Gelasius II excommunicated Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor. (MC, 4/7/02) 1118 nend Dec 18, Afonso the Battler, the Christian King of Aragon captured Saragossa, Spain, a major blow to Muslim Spain. (HN, 12/18/98) 1118 nend The military order of the Poor Knights of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon was founded in Jerusalem to protect pilgrims in the Holy Land following the First Crusade. The Knights Templar were founded to protect pilgrims in the Holy Land during the second Crusade. (AHD, 1971, p.724)(AP, 10/12/07) 1118 nend Seborga became the provenance of nine Knight Templars returning from the crusades. (SFEC, 3/30/97, p.T7) 1120 nend Nov 25, Countess of Perche, bastard daughter of English king Henry I, drowned along with William (17), English crown prince and son of Henry I. (MC, 11/25/01) 1121 nend Mar 2, Dirk VI became count of Holland. (SC, 3/2/02) 1122 nend Mar 2, Floris II, the fat one, count of Holland, died. (SC, 3/2/02) 1123 nend In the film ?The Visitors? The noble Sir Godefroy of this time is transformed to 1996 France to do battle with short order cooks, rescue bag ladies and learn modern etiquette in order to find the descendant of his betrothed sweetheart's descendant, the Duchess Frenegonde. (SFC, 7/16/96, p.E1) 1123 nend Omar Khayyam, Persian poet and mathematician, died. (WUD, 1994, p.1005) 1124 nend Apr 27, Alexander I, king of Scotland (1107-24), died. (MC, 4/27/02) 1124 nend May 6, Balak, Emir of Aleppo (Syria), was murdered. (MC, 5/6/02) 1124 nend Jul 7, Tyre [Tyrus] surrendered to the Crusaders. (MC, 7/7/02) 1124 nend The quality of English silver coins improved after mint masters caught adulterating coins had their right hands cut off. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1125 nend May 25, Hendrik V, last Salische German king, died. (SC, 5/25/02) 1125 nend Sinaguan people built a 5-story limestone dwelling, later known as Montezuma Castle, near Sedona, Az. (SSFC, 7/6/03, p.C9) 1126 nend Nov 26, Al-Borsoki, emir of Aleppo-Mosoel (Syria), was assassinated. (MC, 11/26/01) 1126 nend A drought that lasted 1-2 centuries, as measured from tree rings in the Sierra Nevada, was centered on this time. It coincided with a Medieval warm period when Vikings navigated the waters surrounding Greenland. A 2nd drought centered at 1340AD. (NH, 9/96, p.38) 1126 1198 Averroes (Ibn Rushd), Arab philosopher and commentator who translated Aristotle from the original Greek to Arabic, which was then translated to Latin. He wrote a major reinterpretation of Plato's Republic. He lamented the fact that Islam had not adopted Plato's view of women as the equal of men and had thus failed to give them civic equality. (V.D.-H.K.p.117)(WSJ, 7/7/99, p.A23) 1127 nend Mar 2, Charles the Good, Count of Flanders, was murdered. Flemish towns (Ghent, Bruges and Ypres) forced the selection of Thierry of Alsace as the new count despite Louis VI?s choice of the son of Normandy?s Robert Curthose. (PCh, 1992, p.92)(SC, 3/2/02) 1127 1279 In 2007 Chinese archeologists raised a merchant ship loaded with porcelain and other rare antiques to the surface in a specially built basket. The 100-foot Nanhai No. 1, discovered in 1987, sank off the south China coast during the Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279). (AP, 12/21/07) 1128 nend Jun 24, Afonso I of Portugal defeated the army of his mother Theresa. (MC, 6/24/02) 1128 nend The Royal High School in Scotland was founded by a group of Edinburgh Friars. (SFC, 4/22/98, p.A10) 1129 nend Aug 21, The warrior Yoritomo was made Shogun without equal in Japan. (HN, 8/21/98) 1130 nend Feb 14, Jewish Cardinal Pietro Pierleone was elected as anti-pope Anacletus II. (MC, 2/14/02) 1130 nend The Knights of St. John (the Hospitallers) became a military order some 60 years after having been founded in Jerusalem to care for the sick. (Arch, 9/02, p.27) 1130 nend China?s Master-of-the-Nets Garden in Suzhou was built about this time. (SSFC, 6/25/06, p.A16) 1130 nend The first travel book was written by a French priest about travel on the Camino de Santiago (the road of St. James) in northern Spain. (SFEC, 6/15/97, p.T5) 1130 nend The French church at the abbey at Cluny was completed and measured over 400 feet long. (SFEC, 11/21/99, p.T4) 1130 1150 Tree growth rings revealed that a drought occurred in the southwest US. This period corresponded with the abandonment of Anasazi dwelling sites in Arizona. (Hem., 5/97, p.79) 1130 1200 Chu codified Confucian thought. (SFEC, 11/28/99, Z1 p.5) 1131 nend Mar 1, Stephen II, King of Hungary (1116-31), died. (SC, 3/1/02) 1131 nend Oct 25, Louis VII the Young, King of France, was crowned. (MC, 10/25/01) 1132 nend In China invaders established what became known as the southern Song dynasty in Hangzhou. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R51) 1133 nend Mar 25, Henry II, King of England (1154-1189) , was born. (HN, 3/24/98) 1133 nend Jun 4, In Rome Pope Innocentius II crowned German King Lothair II as emperor at the Church of the Lateran. (MC, 6/4/02)(PCh, 1992, p.92) 1133 1193 Rashid Al-Din Sinan, also known as "The Old Man of the Mountain," was a leader of the Assassins. He used the Syrian Masyaf castle as a base for spreading the beliefs of the Nizari Ismaili sect of Islam to which he and his followers belonged. (www.iis.ac.uk/view_article.asp?ContentID=104843)(Reuters, 7/13/07) 1135 nend Dec 1, Henry I Beauclerc of England died and the crown was passed to his nephew Stephen of Bloise. He had decreed that the standard linear measure of one foot be a third the length of his arm which was 36 inches. He was the 1st English king able to read. (HN, 12/1/98)(SFEC, 2/14/99, Z1 p.8)(MC, 12/1/01) 1135 nend Dec 22, Stephen of Blois was crowned the king of England. (HN, 12/22/98) 1135 nend Maimonides (d.1204), Jewish scholar, philosopher and rabbi was born in Spain. He analyzed linkages between wealth and charity and created a ladder of giving with each rung representing a higher degree of virtue. The most virtuous way to give was to help a stranger by offering him a loan or job so that he would no longer need help. The lowest rung was to make a grudging donation. (WUD, 1994, p.864)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14)(WSJ, 10/5/01, p.W17) 1136 nend The people of Novgorod, Russia, expelled their prince, assigned by Kiev, and transferred his power to the local nobility and merchant class who formed a sort of city council known as the vieche. (AM, 11/00, p.32) 1138 nend May 29, Anti-Pope Victor IV (Gregorio) overthrew self for Innocentius II. (SC, 5/29/02) 1139 nend Apr 20, The Second Lateran Council opened in Rome. The crossbow was outlawed in the 12th century, at least against Christians, by the second Lateran council (the 10th ecumenical council), called by Pope Innocent II. Capable of piercing chain mail from a range of up to 1,000 feet, this formidable missile weapon remained a fixture of technically-advanced European armies throughout the Middle Ages. Although it was used after the introduction of firearms, it was eventually succeeded by the harquebus?a primitive gun?in the late 15th century. The council attempted universal enforcement of priestly celibacy in the Roman Catholic Church. (HN, 4/20/98)(HN, 4/20/98)(HNQ, 12/5/00)(SFC, 3/16/02, p.A3) 1138 nend Aug 22, English defeated Scots at Cowton Moor. Banners of various saints were carried into battle which led to its being called Battle of the Standard. (MC, 8/22/02) 1139 nend Incendiary weapons that burned people to death were banned by the countries of northern Europe as ?too murderous.? The practice was resumed the next century. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.57) 1140 nend Gratian wrote the illuminated ?Decretum,? a standard treatise on canon law in Bologna about this time. He wrote three volumes on the subject which were lavishly illustrated. The three volumes were later published by the Vatican in 1975. (WSJ, 7/13/95, p.A-12) 1140 nend Ghorid leaders from central Afghanistan captured and burned Ghazni, then moved on to conquer India. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1140 nend Somerled first appeared in historical chronicles as the regulus, or King, of Kintyre (Cinn Tìre) when he marries Raghnailt the daughter of Olaf (or Amhlaibh), King of Mann and the Scottish Isles. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerled) 1141 nend Jan 31, Pope Innocent II authorized Bishop Henry of Moravia to preach Catholicism in Prussia. (LHC, 1/31/03) 1141 nend Sep 8, Battle of Samarkand (Uzbekistan): Yelutashi defeated Islams. (MC, 9/8/01) 1141 nend Dec 29, Yue Fei, Chinese general, was executed. (MC, 12/29/01) 1141 nend The Barone Ricasoli family founded a wine and oil firm and produced Chianti wine. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42)(SFC, 4/14/06, p.D1) 1142 nend Apr 21, Pierre Abelard (62), French philosopher (priestly lover of Heloise), died. (MC, 4/21/02) 1144 nend Mar 8, Celestine II [Guido], Italian Pope (1143-44), died in battle. (MC, 3/8/02) 1144 nend The Saracens recaptured the crusader?s castles along the Palestine coast. (V.D.-H.K.p.109) 1144 nend In Syria the Knights Hospitallers began expanding a fortress 90 miles northwest of Damascus. It became known as The Crac des Chevaliers. The Mamelukes captured it in 1271 and converted the chapel into a mosque. (WSJ, 1/31/09, p.W12) 1146 nend Aug 30, European leaders outlawed the crossbow with the intention to end war for all time. [see 1139] (MC, 8/30/01) 1146 nend Sep 14, Zangi of the Near East was murdered. The Sultan Nur ad-Din, his son, pursued the conquest of Edessa (NW Mesopotamia). (HN, 9/14/98) 1146 nend France?s warrior-abbot Bernard of Clairvaux built the La Cordelle chapel in northern Burgundy. (SFCM, 10/7/07, p.18) 1147 nend Oct 25, At the Battle at Doryleum Arabs beat Konrad III's crusaders. Conrad III of Germany and Louis VII of France had assembled 500,000 men for the 2nd Crusade. Most of the men were lost to starvation, disease and battle wounds. (PCh, 1992, p.94)(MC, 10/25/01) 1147 nend Moscow was founded by Prince Yuri Dolgoruky, a ruler of the northeastern Rus. He built the first fortress, or Kremlin, along the Moscow River. (SFC, 11/12/96, p.A14)(AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.27,28) 1148 nend Jul 23, Crusaders of the 2nd Crusade attacked Damascus. (MC, 7/23/02)(V.D.-H.K.p.109) 1149 nend In Jerusalem the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, rebuilt by the Crusaders, was consecrated. (Arch, 9/02, p.28) 1150 nend Mar 26, Tichborne family of Hampshire, England, started tradition of giving a gallon of flour to each resident to keep deathbed promise. (SS, 3/26/02) c 1150 nend The original Hopi territory in the southwest encompassed some 225,000 sq. miles around villages established about this time. (SFC, 1/3/97, p.A26) c 1150 nend A group of Anasazi villages in southwest Colorado were suddenly abandoned during a period of severe drought. In 2000 evidence showed that a raiding party had swept through the area, killed the inhabitants and ate their flesh. (SFC, 9/6/00, p.A3) 1150 nend Adelard of Bath (b.1080), Englishman, died. He had traveled widely and translated the Arabic version of Euclid's "Elements" into Latin as well as several Arabic books on astronomy. (SSFC, 2/8/04, p.M2) c 1150 nend Suryavarman II, Khmer ruler, died about this time. He commissioned the building of Angkor Wat, possibly the largest religious monument in the world. He traded elephant tusks, rhinoceros horns and kingfisher feathers for gold. The feathers were prized in China for bridal attire. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1150 nend The municipality of Genoa raised 400 lira by granting to investors the tax revenue raised from stallholders in the marketplace over a term of 29 years. This became the first recorded public bond. (Econ, 1/10/09, p.74) 1151 nend Sep 7, Geoffrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou and duke of Normandy, died at 38. (MC, 9/7/01) 1151 nend In Iceland the first known fire and plague insurance was offered. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1152 nend Mar 4, Frederick Barbarossa was chosen as emperor and united the two factions, which emerged in Germany after the death of Henry V. (HN, 3/4/99) 1153 nend Mar 23, Treaty of Konstanz between Frederik I "Barbarossa" and Pope Eugene III. (SS, 3/23/02) 1153 nend May 23, David I (~68), king of Scotland (1124-53), died. (MC, 5/23/02) 1153 nend May 24, Malcolm IV became king of Scotland. (MC, 5/24/02) 1153 nend Aug 20, Bernard de Clairvaux, French saint, died. (MC, 8/20/02) 1153 nend A wandering Arab holy man converted the king of the Buddhist islanders of the Maldives. (WSJ, 7/22/96, p.A12) 1153 nend A chicken restaurant, the world's oldest existing eatery, opened in Kai-Feng, China. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1153 nend Anna Komnene (b.1083), Byzantine princess and scholar, died. She was a daughter of the Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos and Irene Doukaina. She is one of the first known female historians, having written the Alexiad. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Komnene) 1154 nend Feb 26, Rogier II Guiscard (60), King of Sicily (1101-54), died. William the bad succeeded his father, Roger the II. (SC, 2/26/02)(HN, 2/26/99) 1154 nend Oct 25, King Steven of England (1135-54), died. (MC, 10/25/01) 1154 nend Dec 19, Henry II of the Angevin dynasty was crowned King of England. (HN, 12/19/98)(WSJ, 3/10/99, p.A22) 1154 nend Sir Thomas Becket was given the high office of Chancellor to the King, Henry II. (HN, 9/3/98) 1155 nend Jun 18, German-born Frederick I, Barbarossa, was crowned emperor of Rome by Pope Adrian IV. (HN, 6/18/98)(MC, 6/18/02) 1155 nend A map of western China was printed and is the oldest known printed map. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1156 nend May 28, Battle at Brindisi: King William of Sicily beat a Byzantine fleet. (MC, 5/28/02) 1156 nend The first foreign exchange contracts were issued and allowed the repayment of Genoese pounds debt with Byzantine bezants. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1157 nend Sep 8, Richard I, [Richard the Lion Hearted], King of England (1189-99), was born. (MC, 9/8/01) 1157 nend The Bank of Venice issued the first government bonds to raise funds for was with Constantinople. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1158 nend Aug 31, Sancho III, King of Castilia, died. (MC, 8/31/01) 1158 nend Nov 11, Emperor Frederik I Barbarossa declared himself ruler of North Italy. (MC, 11/11/01) 1159 nend Sep 1, Adrian IV, [Nicole Breakspear], only English pope (1154-59), died. (MC, 9/1/02) 1159 nend John of Salisbury authored a religious book called ?The Metalogicon.? It included the phrase: ""We are like dwarfs sitting on the shoulders of giants. We see more, and things that are more distant, than they did, not because our sight is superior or because we are taller than they, but because they raise us up, and by their great stature add to ours." In 2003 Robert Merton's book ?On the Shoulders of Giants? quotes Bernard of Chartres as saying in about 1130: "We are like dwarfs standing [or sitting] upon the shoulders of giants, and so able to see more and see farther than the ancients." (www.aerospaceweb.org/question/history/q0162b.shtml) 1160 nend Feb 3, Emperor Frederick Barbarossa hurtled prisoners, including children, at the Italian city of Crema, forcing its surrender. (HN, 2/3/99) 1160 nend May 18, Erik IX Helgi, [The Saint] King of Sweden, died. (SC, 5/18/02) 1160 nend Jul 21, Peterus Lombardus, Italian theologian, bishop of Paris, died. (MC, 7/21/02) 1160 nend Dec 6, Jean Bodel's "Jeu de St Nicholas," premiered in Arras, France. (MC, 12/6/01) 1160 1216 Giovanni Lotario de' Conti, served as Pope Innocent III from 1198-1216. (WUD, 1994, p.733)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1160 1225 Ma Yuan, an academic painter, made his Southern Song masterpiece ?Banquet by Lantern Light.? (SFEC, 10/6/96, DB p.37) 1162 nend This date was given by Marco Polo for the Tartars settling around the area south of Lake Baikal and forming a city called Karakoram. (TMPV, P.80) 1162 nend A man in Constantinople fashioned sail-like wings from fabric into pleats and folds. He plummeted from the top of a tower and died. (NPub, 2002, p.2) 1164 nend Jan 27, Abraham ibn Ezra, poet, philosopher, died. (MC, 1/27/02) 1164 nend Apr 20, Victor IV, [Ottaviano Montecello], Italian antipope (1159-64), died. (MC, 4/20/02) 1164 nend Apr 22, Raynald of Dassel named Guido di Crema as anti-pope Paschalis III. (MC, 4/22/02) 1164 nend Somerled, military and political leader of the Scottish Isles, assembled an army to repel the Stuarts. He advanced to the centre of the their territory at Renfrew, where a great battle was fought. Much confusion surrounds the manner of the battle, and indeed whether a battle occurred at all, but what is certain is that Somerled was assassinated, after which his army retreated from the area. DNA evidence later suggested that Somerled was of Viking descent. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerled)(AM, 7/05, p.14) 1165 nend Jul 28, Ibn al-'Arabi, Muslim mystic, philosopher, was born. (SC, 7/28/02) 1165 nend Aug 21, Philip II Augustus, 1st great Capetian king of France (1179-1223), was born. (SC, 8/21/02) 1165 nend Nov 23, Pope Alexander III returned from exile to Rome (MC, 11/23/01) 1165 nend Dec 9, Malcom IV (24), king of Scotland (1153-65), died. (MC, 12/9/01) 1166 nend El-Idrisi (b.1099), a Muslim geographer, died. The Arab geographer Idrisi claimed that Indians preferred iron from East Africa over their own because of its malleability. (SSFC, 9/2/07, p.A18)(NH, 6/97, p.44) 1167 nend Feb 27, Robert of Melun, English philosopher, bishop of Hereford, died. (MC, 2/27/02) 1167 nend Aug 14, Raynald van Dassel, archbishop of Cologne, died. (MC, 8/14/02) 1167 nend Dec 1, Northern Italian towns formed the Lombardi League. (MC, 12/1/01) 1167 nend Dec 24, John "Lackland" Plantagenet, King of England (1199-1216), was born. (HN, 12/24/98)(MC, 12/24/01) 1167 nend Sweden?s King Charles VII was assassinated after ruling for 6 years. Charles VII was the first Swedish king with the name Charles. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_VII_of_Sweden) 1167 1227 Genghis Khan was born in the Hentiyn Nuruu mountains north of Ulan Bator in the early 1160's (it has been argued between 1162 and 1167, but recently agreement has been made for 1167), the son of the Kiyat-Borjigid chieftain Yisugei. His given name was Temujin, "the ironsmith," and he seized control over much of 5 million square miles that covered China, Iran, Iraq, Burma, Vietnam, and most of Korea and Russia. His efforts in Vietnam were not successful. "In Search of Genghis Khan" is a book by Tim Severin. He was succeeded by his son Ogedai, who was succeeded by Guyuk. Ogedai ignored numerous pleas from his brother Chaghatai to cut down on his drinking and died of alcoholism as did Guyuk. [see 1167] (WSJ, 1/11/99,p.R6)(www.royalalbertamuseum.ca/vexhibit/genghis/biog.htm) 1168 nend Sep 20, Paschal III, [Guido di Crema], Italian anti-Pope, died. (MC, 9/20/01) 1169 nend Mar 23, Shirkuh, Kurd General, vizier of Cairo, Saladin's uncle, died. (SS, 3/23/02) 1169 nend May 1, The Norman invasion of Ireland, a two-stage process, began when a force of loosely associated Norman knights landed near Bannow, County Wexford. This was at the request of Dermot MacMurrough (Diarmait Mac Murchada), the ousted King of Leinster, who sought their help in regaining his kingdom. Stage 2 began in 1171 with the arrival of Henry II. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarmait_Mac_Murchada) 1169 nend Dec, Owain Gwynedd, ruler of North Wales in the twelfth century, died. He had nineteen children, six of whom were legitimate. MADOC, one of the bastard sons, was born in a castle at Dolwyddelan, a village at the head of the Lledr valley between Betws-y-Coed and Blaenau Ffestiniog. The brothers fought amongst themselves for the right to rule Gwynedd. MADOC, although being brave and adventurous, was a man of peace. He and his brother, Riryd, left the quay on the Afon (River) Ganol at Aber-Kerrik-Gwynan, on the North Wales Coast (now Rhos-on-Sea) in two ships, the Gorn Gwynant and the Pedr Sant. They sailed west, leaving the coast of Ireland 'farre north' and landed in Mobile Bay, in what we now know as Alabama in the USA. (www.madoc1170.com/home.htm) 1169 1181 The heyday of the Kiyomori Clan in Japan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 1170 nend Dec 29, Thomas Becket (b.1117), St. Thomas archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered in Canterbury Cathedral in England. Barons had heard Henry II cry out, "Will no one rid me of this meddlesome priest?" (HFA, '96, p.20)(AP, 12/29/97)(HN, 12/29/98)(MC, 1/29/02) c 1170 nend Leonardo Fibonacci, Italian mathematician, was born. It is believed Fibonacci discovered the relationship of what are now referred to as Fibonacci numbers while studying the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt and by investigating how fast rabbits could breed in ideal circumstances. Suppose a newborn pair of rabbits, one male, one female, is put in a field. Rabbits are able to mate at the age of one month so at the end of its second month a female can produce another pair of rabbits. Suppose our rabbits never die and the female always produces one new pair (one male, one female) every month from the second month on. The puzzle Fibonacci posed was: How many pairs will there be in one year? At the end of the first month, they mate, but there is still one only 1 pair. At the end of the second month the female produces a new pair, so now there are 2 pairs of rabbits in the field. At the end of the third month, the original female produces a second pair, making 3 pairs in all in the field. At the end of the fourth month, the original female has produced yet another new pair, the female born two months ago produces her first pair also, making 5 pairs. The number of pairs of rabbits in the field at the start of each month is 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ... The next number in the Fibonacci sequence is arrived at by adding the previous two values together. Thus, to get the next value after 34 add 21 to 34 and arrive at 55. As you can see, Fibonacci numbers are a sequence of numbers in which each successive number is the sum of the two previous numbers: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, etc. Now, if you take any two adjacent values and divide each one by their sum, a peculiar thing occurs, the values converge to 38.2% and 61.8%. These numbers also possess an intriguing number of natural interrelationships, such as the fact that any given number is approximately 1.618 times the preceding number and any given number is approximately 0.618 times the following number. The booklet Understanding Fibonacci Numbers by Edward Dobson contains a good discussion of these interrelationships. (BMTI, 8/2/00) c 1170 nend Hua was chief of Hana, in what is now the Hawaiian Islands. (SFEM, 3/16/97, p.46) 1170 nend Madoc, a Welsh prince, is reputed to have discovered America. Many believe that he and his followers initially settled in the Georgia/Tennessee/ Kentucky area, eventually moving to the Upper Missouri, where they were assimilated into a tribe of the Mandans. New evidence is also emerging about a small band of Madoc's followers who remained in the Ohio area and are called ?White Madoc.? (www.madoc1170.com/home.htm) 1170 1221 Domingo de Guzman, a Spanish monk founded the Dominicans, also called mendicants, for they abjured great abbeys and cloisters in favor of a life of utmost simplicity and poverty. The Order of St. Dominic was fashioned to minister to the educated classes in the new towns. (V.D.-H.K.p.108)(CU, 6/87) 1171 nend May 1, Dermot MacMurrough (b.1110), last Irish King of Leinster, died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarmait_Mac_Murchada) 1171 nend Oct 18, Henry II (1133-1189) arrived in Ireland from France with an army and declared himself "Lord of Ireland". All of the Normans, along with many Irish princes, took oaths of homage to Henry by November, and he left after six months. He never returned, but in 1177 he named his youngest son, Prince John, as Lord of Ireland. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_II_of_England) c 1171 nend Benjamin ben Jonah, a Spanish Jew, returned to his home in Tudela and published an account of his 6-year journey to Constantinople, Cyprus, Palestine, Damascus, Persia and Egypt: ?The Travels of Benjamin of Tudela.? (WSJ, 8/8/02, p.D10) 1172 nend Mar 4, Stephan III, King of Hungary (1162-72), died. (SC, 3/4/02) 1172 1216 Shota Rustaveli, a Georgian poet, lived about this time. He is considered by many to be one of the greatest representatives of the literature of the medieval world. His literary work included ?The Knight in the Panther's Skin? ("Vepkhistkaosani" in Georgian), the Georgian national epic poem. (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9064497) 1173 nend Feb 21, Pope Alexander III canonized Thomas Becket (1117-1170) of Canterbury. (MC, 2/21/02) 1173 nend The first stone of the Tower of Pisa was laid. It began tilting in 1174 and became known as the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Work halted for nearly a century as Pisa warred with Florence. (WSJ, 2/16/99, p.A1)(SSFC, 10/19/03, p.C3) 1174 nend Jul 11, Amalric I, king of Jerusalem, died. (ON, 6/07, p.5) 1174 nend Jul 15, Baldwin (13), son of Amalric I, was crowned Baldwin IV, king of Jerusalem. (ON, 6/07, p.5) 1174 nend Nureddin, the ruler of Syria died. Saladin, the vizier of Egypt, married Nureddin?s widow and assumed control of both state. (ON, 6/07, p.5) 1174 nend The earliest known English horse races were held. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1176 nend May 22, There was a murder attempt by "Assassins" (hashish-smoking mountain killers) on Saladin near Aleppo. (MC, 5/22/02) 1176 nend May 29, Lombard League defeated Frederick Barbarossa at Battle of Legnano. (SC, 5/29/02) 1177 nend Aug 2, Philip of Flanders arrived in Acre. A Christian army under the joint command of Philip of Flanders and Raymond of Tripoli marched west to campaign against the Muslims around Tripoli. (ON, 6/07, p.5)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_of_Flanders) 1177 nend Nov 18, Saladin marched north from Egypt with 26,000 light cavalry intent on capturing the Kingdom of Jerusalem. (ON, 6/07, p.5)(www.historyofwar.org/articles/battles_ramleh.html) 1177 nend Nov 25, Baldwin of Jerusalem and his armored knights encountered the Muslim army of Saladin below the castle of Montgisard and defeated them in a surprise attack. (ON, 6/07, p.6) 1177 nend Lal Shahbaz Qalandar (d.1274) was born as Seyyed Shah Hussain Marandi in Marand (near the city of Tabriz) in Azerbaijan (at this time a part of Iran). He is also known as Shaikh Hussain Marandi. He migrated to Sindh and settled in Sehwan and was buried there. He was a Sufi in the regions that lie in the Sindh province of Pakistan. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahbaz_Qalander) 1178 nend Aug 29, Anti-Pope Callistus III gave pope title to Alexander III. (MC, 8/29/01) 1178 nend Jun 18, 5 Canterbury monks reported an explosion on moon (only known observation). This is the proposed time of origin of lunar crater Giordano Bruno. (MC, 6/18/02) 1178 nend Jul 30, Frederick I (Barbarossa), Holy Roman Emperor, was crowned King of Burgundy. (MC, 7/30/02) 1178 nend A Chinese colored scroll from this time depicted Buddhist guardians washing their clothes in a mountain stream. Buddha (d.483BCE) was said to have entrusted 16 disciples with the task of guarding the faith. (SFC, 12/5/03, p.D7) 1178 nend English raiders attacked the Irish town of Clonmacnoise but spared the churches. (SFEC, 8/1/99, p.T8) 1178 nend The wise King Giorgi III of Georgia had his daughter, Tamara (19), crowned as his co-ruler to provide an orderly succession. (www.undelete.org/woa/woa01-18.html) 1179 nend Sep 17, Hildegard van Bingen, mystic and composer (Ordo Virtutum), died at 81. The abbess Hildegard concocted the Lingua Ignota, an artificial language. Her work included the morality play ?Ordo Virtutum.? (WSJ, 6/20/96, p.A16)(Wired, 8/96, p.84)(WSJ, 7/30/98, p.A16)(MC,9/17/01) 1179 nend Pope Alexander III established The Apostolic Penitentiary, or Tribunal of Conscience, for sins considered so heinous by the Catholic Church that only the Pope can grant absolution to those who perpetrate them. (www.bishop-accountability.org/AbuseTracker/)(AP, 1/14/09) 1180 nend Aug 11, Guillaume de Sens, French master builder (Canterbury), died. (MC, 8/11/02) 1180 nend The Kingdom of Jerusalem under Baldwin IV reached a truce with Egypt under Saladin. (ON, 6/07, p.6) 1180 nend In Montpellier, France, a medical school was founded. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R22) 1180 1185 War between the Taira and Minamoto clans in Japan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 1181 nend Aug 4, A supernova was seen in Cassiopeia. Chinese and Japanese astronomers observed a supernova. The star 3C58 was later identified as the heart of the explosion in the constellation Cassiopeia. In 2002 it was thought to be composed of quarks. (MC, 8/4/02)(SFC, 4/11/02, p.A2) 1182 nend Francis of Assisi was born as Guiovanni di Bernardone (d.1226), the son of a rich Umbrian cloth merchant. He later created an Order to minister to the poor and destitute clustered in the slums outside the walled towns. (V.D.-H.K.p.108)(CU, 6/87)(SFC, 10/4/99, p.A21) 1182 nend In Constantinople a mob massacred the Latins who ruled as agents of the regent Maria of Antioch. They killed the city officials and proclaimed an uncle of Alexius II Comnenus co-emperor to rule as Andronicus I Comnenus together with his nephew. (PCh, 1992, p.98) 1183 nend James Goldman wrote his 1966 play "The Lion in Winter," set in 1183 England. The 1968 film ?The Lion in Winter? focused on Henry II and his estranged wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, and their battle over succession. The 1834 opera by Gaetano Donizetti, ?Rosmonda d?Inghilterra,? was the story of Rosamond Clifford, who was put in a tower by her lover King Henry II, and offered death by dagger or poison by Queen Eleanor. (SFC, 10/30/98, p.D4)(WSJ, 11/10/98, p.A20)(WSJ, 3/17/99, p.A24) 1184 nend Jun 15, King Magnus of Norway was defeated by his rival, Sverre. (HN, 6/15/98) 1185 nend Mar, Baldwin IV (23), king of Jerusalem, succombed to his leprosy. (ON, 6/07,p.6)(http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9356429/Baldwin-IV) 1185 nend Sep 12, Andronicus I Comnenus, Byzantine emperor (1183-85), was lynched. (MC, 9/12/01) 1185 nend The Bishopric of Livonia was founded by Meinhard of Germany. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1185 1333 The Kamakura Period of Japan. A sect known as Pure Land Buddhism began to enjoy great popularity. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(SFC, 3/14/03, p.D1) 1186 nend In Cambodia the temple monastery of Ta Prohm at Angkor was consecrated. Inscriptions say that 79,365 servants were required to for its upkeep. It was paid by funds from over 3,000 villages. (SFEC, 7/26/98, p.T7) 1186 nend Zara (present-day Zadar, Croatia), previously part of the Venetian republic, rebelled against Venice and allied itself with Hungary, posing competition to Venice?s maritime trade. (HNQ, 1/23/01) 1187 nend Jul 4, In the Battle of Hittin (Tiberias) Saladin defeated Reynaud of Chatillon. Salah al Din, who ruled from his imperial seat in ancient Syria, defeated Christian armies of the Crusaders and forced their retreat from the Holy Land. The battle was depicted in a mosaic that was found and restored for the palace of Pres, Hafez Assad of Syria. Saladin personally executed Crusader Reynaud of Chatillon (b.1124/5). Reynaud of Chatillon, Lord of Kerak, Jordan, had violated twice violated a tenuous truce and earlier this year attacked a caravan of pilgrims returning from Mecca. (WSJ, 9/30/96, p.A1)(Econ, 5/30/09,p.24)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raynald_of_Chatillon) 1187 nend Sep 5, Louis VIII, [Coeur-de-Lion] king of France (1223-26), was born. (MC, 9/5/01) 1187 nend Oct 2, Sultan Saladin captured Jerusalem from Crusaders. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saladin) 1189 nend Jan 21, Philip Augustus, Henry II of England and Frederick Barbarossa assembled the troops for the Third Crusade. (V.D.-H.K.p.109)(HN, 1/21/99) 1189 nend Feb 6, Riots of Lynn in Norfolk spread to Norwich, England. (MC, 2/6/02) 1189 nend May 11, Emperor Frederik I Barbarossa and 100,000 crusaders departed Regensburg. (MC, 5/11/02) 1189 nend Jul 6, Henry II (56), King of England (1154-89), died. (SFC, 10/30/98, p.D4)(MC, 7/6/02) 1189 nend Sep 3, After the death of Henry II, Richard Lionheart, King Richard I, was crowned king of England in Westminster. (AP, 9/3/97)(HN, 9/3/98) 1189 nend Sep 3, Jacob of Orleans, Rabbi, was killed in the London anti Jewish riot in which 30 Jews were massacred. (MC, 9/3/01) 1189 nend Giraldus Cambrensis authored "History of the Conquest of Ireland." (ON, SC, p.1) 1189 nend The first lord mayor was elected in London. (WSJ,3/13/95, p.A-1) 1189 nend Temiijin (27) became the acknowledged leader of the Mongols and was named Genghis Khan (King of Everything). (SSFC, 3/27/05, p.F4) 1190 nend Mar 16, The Crusades began the massacre of Jews in York, England. The Jewish population of York fled to Clifford?s Tower overlooking the rivers Ouse and Foss during an anti-Jewish riot. A crazed friar set fire to the tower and rather than be captured, the inhabitants committed mass suicide, (SFEC,10/26/97, p.T5)(HN, 3/16/99) 1190 nend Mar 17, Crusaders completed the massacre of Jews of York, England. (MC, 3/17/02) 1190 nend Mar 18, Crusaders killed 57 Jews in Bury St. Edmonds, England. (MC, 3/18/02) 1190 nend Jun 10, Frederick I van Hohenstaufen, Barbarossa (1123-1190), king of Germany and Italy and the Holy Roman Empire, drowned crossing the Saleph River while leading an army of the Third Crusade. Frederick struggled to extend German influence throughout Europe, maneuvering both politically and militarily. He clashed with the pope, the powerful Lombards and fellow Germans among others throughout the years. He joined the Third Crusade in the Spring of 1189 in their efforts to free Jerusalem from Saladin's army (WUD, 1994, p.565)(HN, 6/10/98)(HNQ, 2/3/01) 1190 nend Matthaeus Platerius, a teaching physician at the School of Salerno, wrote his manuscript ?Circa Instans,? a Latin work on the medicinal properties of plants. (WSJ, 7/7/98, p.A14) 1190 nend The Louvre Museum in Paris was built as a fortress. (SFC, 6/16/96, T-5) 1190 nend Emo of Friesland entered Oxford and was later remembered as Oxford?s first recorded foreign student. (Econ, 8/7/10, p.13) 1191 nend Apr 14, Giacinto Bobo (85) became Pope Coelestinus III. (MC, 4/14/02) 1191 nend May 12, Richard the Lionheart married (Bernegaria) Berengaria of Navarre in Limassol, Cyprus. (NH, 4/97, p.62)(EofA, p.161) 1191 nend Jul 12, Richard Coeur de Lion and Crusaders defeated the Saracens at Acre. (MC, 7/12/02) 1191 nend Aug 20, Crusader King Richard I (1157-1199), Coeur de Lion (the "Lionheart"), executed some 2,700-3,000 Muslim prisoners in Acre (Akko). (MC, 8/20/02) 1191 nend Zen Buddhism, guided by the Dao (The Way) arrived to Japan from China. (Hem., 2/96, p.58) 1191 nend In Cambodia Preah Khan was dedicated on what is thought to be the site where the Khmer defeated their eastern neighbors the Cham. The central temple was dedicated by Jayavarman VII to his father, King Dharanindravavarman II, in the name of Lokesvara, a god who embodies the compassionate qualities of the Buddha. The temple covers 140 acres. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.E)(Arch, 5/04, p.64) 1192 nend Sep 2, Sultan Saladin and King Richard the Lion Hearted signed a cease fire. (MC, 9/2/01) 1192 nend Oct 9, Richard Coeur de Lion left Jerusalem in disguise. [see Sep 21, 1192] (MC, 10/9/01) 1192 nend Dec 20, English King Richard I the Lion Hearted was captured in Austria on his return from the Third Crusade. An entire year?s supply of wool from the Cistercian and two other monasteries in England was promised as ransom for the King. It was never paid in full. (NG, 5.1988, pp. 569)(http://tinyurl.com/33kall) 1192 nend The Order of the Teutonic Knights of St. Mary's Hospital in Jerusalem established their headquarters in Acre. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teutonic_Knights) 1192 nend The founding of the Kamakura Shogunate in Japan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 1192 nend Enrico Dandolo (85) was elected doge of Venice. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1193 nend Mar 4, Saladin [Salah ed-Din]) Yusuf ibn Ayyub (52), Kurdish sultan of Egypt and Syria (1175-1193), died. Saladin led the Muslims against the Crusaders. (SSFC, 9/29/02, p.M6)(PC, 1992, p.100)(AP, 3/4/04) 1193 nend In 1779 The German playwright, Gotthold Lessing, wrote a play that was set at this time in Jerusalem. [see 1779, Lessing] (WSJ,11/24/95, p.A-6) 1193 nend The Nalanda Buddhist learning center in Bihar state was sacked by Turkic Muslim invaders under Bakhtiyar Khalji, a milestone in the decline of Buddhism in India. Khalji was a member of the Muslim Turkic Khilji, or the Khalaj tribe as it is known in Iran and Afghanistan. no_source 1193 nend In Tibet the Karma Kargyu sect preceded the Geluk sect of the Dalai Lama. It introduced the idea of religious succession by reincarnation when a great lama used it to predict his own rebirth. (SFEM, 12/20/98, p.18) 1194 nend Feb 4, Richard I, King of England, was freed from captivity in Austria with the payment of Leopold VI's ransom of 100,000 (HN, 2/4/99)(ON, 8/07, p.9) 1194 nend Feb 20, Tancredo of Lecce, King of Sicily, died. (MC, 2/20/02) 1194 nend Mar 13, Richard I, King of England, landed at Sandwich and immediately prepared to march north to recover his castles. (ON, 8/07, p.9) 1194 nend Mar 27, The Archbishop of Canterbury, on behalf of King Richard I, talked with the rebels inside the castle at Nottingham, who soon surrendered. (ON, 8/07, p.10) 1194 nend May 5, Kazimierz II, the Justified, grand duke of Poland (1177-94), died. (MC, 5/5/02) 1194 nend Dec 26, Frederick II, German Emperor (1212-1250) and King of Sicily, was born in Lesi, Italy. (HN, 12/26/98)(MC, 12/26/01) 1194 nend Dec 27, Frederick II, German Emperor, was born. (HN, 12/27/98) 1194 nend The French cathedral at Chartres was mostly destroyed by fire. The Sancta Camisia relic survived intact and the cathedral was rebuilt in 29 years. In 2008 Leo Hollis authored ?Universe of Stone: Chartres Cathedral and the Triumph of the Modern Mind.? (Hem., 10/97, p.86)(Econ, 6/7/08, p.97) 1195 1270 Rabbi Moshe ben Nahman (Nahmanides) was a Catalan kabbalist. (SFEC, 10/25/98, BR p.6) 1196 nend The Chateau Gaillard in Normandy was built by Richard the Lionhearted, Duke of Normandy, to protect his domain from Philip Augustus, King of France. (AMNH, DT, 1998) 1197 nend Dec 4, Crusaders wounded Rabbi Elezar ben Judah. (MC, 12/4/01) 1197 nend Sep 29, Emperor Henry VI died in Messina, Sicily. (HN, 9/29/98) c 1197 nend The sacred cross of Lalibela dates to this time. It was believed to belong to King Lalibela of Ethiopia who ordered "on command of God and with the help of angels" the construction of a holy city hewn from rock. In 1997 it was reported lost. (SDUT, 6/6/97, p.E4) 1198 nend Jan 8, Lotario de Conti di Sengi became Pope Innocent III (d.1216). He raised the papacy to an acme of papal prestige and power, and Christian Europe came close to being a unified theocracy with no internal contradictions. He oversaw 2 crusades and established fees for indulgences to fatten the Church's treasury. He hired Italian merchant bankers to manage papal funds and sanctioned the new Franciscan and Dominican orders. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Innocent_III)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1198 nend The German Bishop Bertold shipped up the Baltic with armed forces and attacked the native people of Livonia. The attack was repulsed. (Ist. L.H., 1948, p.39-40)(TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1198 nend The Fourth Crusade was funded by Enrico Dandolo, doge of Venice. (V.D.-H.K.p.109) 1198 nend Fleeing from the Turks, a group of Armenian nobles and their followers settled in Byzantine Cilicia where they established a state know as Lesser or Little Armenia. In this year the area attained the status of kingdom and survived to 1375. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia) 1198 nend The Giralda bell tower in Seville, Spain, was built as a Muslim minaret. (SSFC, 8/15/10, p.M5) 1199 nend Apr 6, Richard I "the Lion-hearted" (41), King of England (1189-99), died. Richard was killed by an arrow at the siege of the castle of Chaluz in France. (HN, 4/6/99)(MC, 4/6/02) 1199 nend Sep 30, Rambam (Maimonides) authorized Samuel Ibn Tibbon to translate ?Guide of Perplexed? from Arabic into Hebrew. (MC, 9/30/01) 1199 nend Prince John (d.1216) was crowned King of England. (ON, 7/04, p.1) 1200 nend Jul 1, Sunglasses were invented in China. (MC, 7/1/02) c 1200 nend In China the painting ?Reading the I Ching in the Pine Shade? was made. (NH, 9/97, p.) c 1200 nend Condesa de Dia was a female troubadour of this time. Her songs included ?Of things I?d rather keep in silence I must sing.? (WSJ, 5/14/97, p.A20) 1200 nend Bishop Albert, the head of a group of pilgrim knights, led 23 ships of armed soldiers up the Baltic to Livonian lands at the mouth of the Dauguva River. (Ist. L.H., 1948, p.39-40) c 1200 nend Buttons were invented as a decoration to embellish hemlines, collars and the sides of sleeves. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R40) 1200 nend The Anasazi in southwest Colorado began building their cliff dwellings. Population was thriving. They were making corrugated pottery and handsomely decorated black and white pottery. (HN, 2/11/97) c 1200 nend A drought hit the southwest (USA) around the Coso Mountains about this time. Shamanism and rain-making grew in importance and helped men counterbalance the importance of women engaged in food gathering when hunting declined. (PacDis, Summer ?97, p.15) 1200 nend In Germany ?The Nibelungenlied? (the Song of the Nibelungs) was written about this time. The epic poem of some 10,000 lines was based on tales that reached back to the 5th century destruction of the Burgundian kingdom by the Huns. In 2006 Burton Raffel wrote an English translation ?Das Nibelungenlied.? (WSJ, 10/28/06, p.P13) 1200 nend The Inca Empire conquered the area of Bolivia around this time and remained in control until arrival of Spaniards. (AP, 12/17/05) 1200 nend In 2007 Mexican archeologists discovered the ruins of an Aztec pyramid in the heart of Mexico City that dated to about this time. (Reuters, 12/27/07) c 1200 nend Polynesians settled the 14 Cook Islands that included Rarotonga. (SFEC, 1/5/97, p.T5) c 1200 nend The Sorbs, a Slavic people, settled in areas that later became Germany. They spoke a language similar to Czech. (SFC, 11/8/00, p.B2) c 1200 nend In Tibet the Rakhor nunnery was established. In 1997 Chinese authorities ordered the nuns to leave and everything except the main assembly hall was destroyed. (SFC, 1/29/99, p.E9) 1200 nend s Persia introduced polo to Arabia, China and India. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1200 1250 The Longbow was developed from a Welsh bow that had been used against the English. During the numerous skirmishes with the Welsh, the English had witnessed the power of this weapon. An arrow from this weapon had a maximum range of 400 yards, could penetrate four inches of wood at closer range, and could kill an armored knight at 200 yards. The British would use it to destroy a French army at Crecy in 1346. This would be the world's premiere weapon until the development of cannon (artillery) circa 1450. (www.archers.org/default.asp?section=History&page=longbow) 1200 1258 Jean Buridan, a scholar whose theory of the earth was absorbed and defended by Leonardo da Vinci. (NH, 5/97, p.59) 1200 1280 Albertus Magnus, the teacher of Thomas Aquinas. He wrote extensively on the form and behavior of the earth. ?The Book of Secrets of Albertus Magnus? was edited by Michael R. Best and Frank H. Brightman in 1974. He and Aquinas created a synthesis of Aristotelian thought and Catholic theology. (NH, 5/97, p.59)(AM, 5-6/97, p.10)(NH, 10/98, p.4) c 1200 1300 A mural at Massa Marittima, Italy, dating to the 13th century, depicts a spidery tree with 25 penises and testicles hanging in the branches. "It's a message from the Guelphs, telling people that if the Ghibellines are allowed power they will bring with them heresy, sexual perversion, civic strife and witchcraft." (Reuters, 12/7/04) 1200 1300 Moses de Leon, a Spanish Jewish mystic, wrote the "Zohar," in Aramaic. It was a mystical interpretation of the Torah disguised as a novel. The Zohar consists of mystical interpretations and commentaries of the Pentateuch, the first 5 books of the Old Testament. It became the major text of Jewish mysticism that came to be called the Kabbalah, as developed a few centuries later by Isaac Luria in Palestine. In 2003 a new translation was made by Daniel C. Matt, as part of a 12-volume new edition of the Kabbalah. (WUD, 1994, p.1662)(WSJ, 5/22/98, p.W11)(SFC, 12/16/03, p.D1) c 1200 1300 Nichiren was 13th-century Japanese monk and reformer. He founded a Buddhist school and wrote: ?When great evil occurs, great good will follow.? (WSJ, 3/28/02, p.A20) c 1200 1300 Cesky Krumlov, 100 miles south of Prague, was founded on the Vltava River on the main trading route between Bavaria and Italy. (SSFC, 7/21/02, p.C5) 1200 1300 The Danes built a castle at Narva, Estonia. (WSJ, 1/25/99, p.A1) 1200 1300 The Mont Orgueil Castle on the east coast of island of Jersey in the English Channel was built to withstand any French attack. (Sky, 4/97, p.28) c 1200 1300 In France the Abbey of Royaumont was established. (SFC, 9/8/97, p.D5) 1200 1300 In France the abbey on Mont St. Michel was established. In 1998 it was planned to remove the sand around the rocky island off the Normandy coast and re-establish its maritime character. (SFEC, 5/10/98, p.T3) 1200 1330 A Mayan city in Peten state (Guatemala), the ?El Pajaral? site, dated to the post-classic period of this time. The ruins were found in 2000. (SFC, 5/15/00, p.A13) 1200 1300 In Germany the Mauseturm, Tower of Mice, was built downriver from Rudesheim on an islet on the Rhine in the 13th century. It was named after the plight of the 9th century Archbishop Hatto of Mainz. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.T4) 1200 1300 Burg Reichenstein, downstream from Assmannshausen on the Rhine, was the stronghold of the 13th century robber-knight Philip von Hohenfels who ?robbed ladies, imprisoned the clergy, mistreated vassals and plundered merchants.? (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.T4) c 1200 1300 St. Gertrude, a German nun, was an important Catholic mystic. (WSJ, 12/26/97, p.A9) 1200 1300 In Limerick, Ireland, a 13th century castle was built overlooking the Shannon River. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.T11) 1200 1300 Rival Italian political factions and families collided in the 13th century at Montaperti, the "hill of death". (HN, 5/14/98) 1200 1300 On the coast of Kenya the great palace and main mosque at Gede (Gedi) were built. (NH, 6/97, p.41) 1200 1300 In Thailand the site at Prang Ku was probably one of 108 hospital sites built by the Khmer king Jayavarman VII. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.G) c 1200 1300 Sidi Bou Said was a 13th century Sufi holy man. A town 12 miles from Tunis was named after him. It was closed to non-Muslims until the 1820s. (SSFC, 8/4/02, p.C12) 1200 1400 Timbuktu, a major trading center in the Malian Empire, reached a population of some 100,000 during this period. (WSJ, 2/1/06, p.D12) 1200 1400 Stone birds from Great Zimbabwe were made in this period and later displayed as part of an African Art exhibit by the London Royal Academy 1995. (WSJ, 11/16/95, p.A-18) 1200 1450 As many as 18,000 people in the iron-age center of Great Zimbabwe. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.72) 1200 1500 Bhaktapur, Nepal, rose to dominate the entire Kathmandu Valley region culturally and politically. (SSFC, 9/21/03, p.C8) c 1200 1500 In 2005 researchers using mitochondrial DNA estimated that 3-6 individuals founded the Mlabri hunter gatherers of Northern Thailand about this time. (Econ, 4/16/05, p.71) 1201 nend Jul 5, An earthquake in Syria and upper Egypt killed some 1.1 million people. (www.geohaz.org/member/news/signif.htm) 1201 nend Oct 9, Robert de Sorbon, founder of Sorbonne University, Paris, was born. (MC, 10/9/01) 1201 nend The Germans founded the city of Riga in Livonia, now Latvia, and built a castle under the direction of Bishop Albert. (Ist. L.H., 1948, p.39-40) 1202 nend Apr 28, King Philip II threw out John-without-Country, from France. (MC, 4/28/02) 1202 nend Nov, The Fourth Crusade sacked Zara. The leaders of the Fourth Crusade agreed to sack Zara (present-day Zadar, Croatia)--a rival of Venice--as payment for transportation the Venetians supplied the crusaders. Zara, previously part of the Venetian republic, had rebelled against Venice in 1186 and since allied itself with Hungary, posing competition to Venice?s maritime trade. Unable to raise enough funds to pay to their Venetian contractors, the crusaders agreed to lay siege to the city despite letters from Pope Innocent III forbidding such an action and threatening excommunication. The fleet set sail in October of 1202, reaching Zara in Nov. Zara--the first Christian city to be assaulted by crusaders--surrendered after just two weeks. The army then wintered in the city and planned an attack on the Byzantine capital of Constantinople the following year. (HNQ, 1/23/01) 1202 nend King John of England proclaimed the 1st food law, the Assize of Bread. It prohibited the adulteration of bread with ground peas. (Econ Sp, 12/13/03, p.15) 1202 nend The English again attacked the Irish town and monastery at Clonmacnoise. (SFEC, 8/1/99, p.T8) 1202 nend Assisi fought against Perugia in the Battle of Collestrada. St. Francis faced his first test in life as a soldier in this battle. (SSFC, 3/25/01, BR p.6) 1202 nend The Hindu-Arabic numbering system was introduced to the West by Italian mathematician Fibonacci (Leonardo of Pisa). The Fibonacci series is a sequence of numbers where each new number is the sum of the previous two. Fibonacci wrote ?Liber abaci? describing how algebraic methods developed in India and how they could be used in business and commerce. (WSJ, 10/21/96, p.A18)(WSJ, 12/9/96, p.B8)(Econ, 5/15/04, p.80)(SFC,8/25/08, p.A10) 1202 nend Court jesters made their debut in Europe. [see 1549] (WSJ, 9/2/99, p.A12) 1203 nend The Fourth Crusade murdered 100,000 Orthodox Christians. (WSJ, 7/16/97, p.A23) 1203 nend Arthur of Brittany, a political rival of King John of England, died while being held prisoner in one of John?s dungeons. (ON, 7/04, p.1) 1203 nend King Sumanguru, ruler of a break-away Ghanian kingdom, overthrew the Soninke king and took over Koumbi. At about the same time a new kingdom to the east called Mali and ruled by Mandinke, was gaining power. (ATC, p.113) 1204 nend Apr 1, Eleanor of Aquitaine (81), wife of Louis VII and Henry II, died. In 1950 Amy Kelly authored ?Eleanor of Aquitaine and the Four Kings.? (www.britannica.com/eb/article-9032256/Eleanor-of-Aquitaine)(WSJ,5/12/07, p.P10) 1204 nend Apr 9, The Venetians began their assault on Constantinople. no_source 1204 nend Apr 12, The Fourth Crusade, led by Boniface of Montferrat, sacked Constantinople. Constantinople fell to a combined force of Franks and Venetians. The 4th Crusade failed to reach Palestine but sacked the Byzantine Christian capital of Constantinople. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.)(NH, 9/96, p.22)(HN, 4/12/98) 1204 nend Dec 13, Maimonides (b.1135), Spanish-born Jewish scholar, died in Cairo. His books included the ?Mishnah Torah,? the single most important Jewish book after the Bible and Talmud, and ?Guide for the Perplexed.? In 2005 Sherwin B. Nuland authored ?Maimonides.? (www.newadvent.org/cathen/09540b.htm)(SSFC, 10/23/05, p.M1) 1204 nend Frankish knights established the principality of Achaia in southern Greece. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.54) 1204 nend France won back Normandy but the people of the isle of Jersey chose to remain loyal to England. The Chateau Gaillard of Richard the Lionhearted was defeated and partly dismantled as punishment. (Sky, 4/97, p.28)(AMNH, DT, 1998) 1204 nend Venice won control over most of Albania, but Byzantines regained control of the southern portion and established the Despotate of Epirus. (www, Albania, 1998) 1204 nend The rule of Venice over Crete dates to this year, when the Republic was awarded 3/8 of the Eastern Roman Empire for its role in supporting the Fourth Crusade. (http://romeartlover.tripod.com/Creta.html) 1204 1205 Georgia?s Queen Tamara marched with her men to the rousing victory over the Turks at the Battle of Basiani where she is hailed with the cry, "Our King Tamara." (www.undelete.org/woa/woa01-18.html) 1205 nend Jun 19, Pope Innocent III fired Adolf I as archbishop of Cologne. (MC, 6/19/02) 1205 nend Jul 15, Pope Innocent III decreed that the Jews were doomed to perpetual servitude and subjugation due to crucifixion of Jesus. (MC, 7/15/02) 1206 nend The city of Dresden, Germany, was founded. (SFEC, 7/27/97, p.T6) 1206 nend Francesco di Pietro di Bernardone, later Francis of Assisi, renounced his worldly possessions. (SFC, 10/4/99, p.A21) 1206 nend Genghis Khan declared himself ?the ruler of those who live in felt tents.? (SFEM, 10/12/97, p.27) 1206 1226 Genghis Khan unified the Mongols and over the next twenty years conquered northern China and all of Asia west to the Caucasus. The Mongols numbered about 2 million and his army about 130,000. (V.D.-H.K.p.169)(SFEM, 10/12/97, p.27) 1207 nend Sep 4, Boniface of Montferrat, leader of the 4th Crusade, was ambushed and killed by the Bulgarians. (Nationmaster.com) 1207 nend Sep 8, Sancho II, king of Portugal, was born. (MC, 9/8/01) 1207 nend Sep 30, Jalal ud-din Rumi (Jelaluddin Rumi, d.1273), Persian poet and mystic was born in the area of Balkh, Afghanistan. He later fled the Mongol invasions with his family to Konya (Iconium), Anatolia. His work ?Mathwani? (Spiritual Couplets) filled 6 volumes and had a great impact on Islamic civilization. He founded the Mevlevi order of Sufis, later known as the ?whirling dervishes.? In 1998 a film was made about the Sufi poet?s influence on the 20th century. In 1998 Kabir Helminski edited ?The Rumi Collection? with translation by Robert Bly and others. His work also included the ?Shams I-Tabriz? in which he dismissed the terminology of Jew, Christian and Muslim as ?false distinctions.? The poet Rumi was also known as Mowlana. (SFC, 7/9/96, p.B5)(SFEC, 9/20/98, DB p.50)(SFEC, 10/25/98, BRp.6)(WSJ, 9/7/01, p.A14)(SSFC, 10/28/01, p.B7)(SSFC, 4/1/07, p.E3) 1207 nend Oct 1, Henry III, king of England (1216-72), was born. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1207) 1208 nend Feb 24, Francis of Assisi (26) decided to become a priest in Portiuncula, Italy. (MC, 2/24/02) 1208 nend Mar 24, King John of England opposed Innocent III on his nomination for archbishop of Canterbury. (HN, 3/24/99) 1209 nend King John of England was excommunicated by Pope Innocent III. (HN, 10/19/98) 1209 nend England?s Cambridge University was established. (AFP, 10/11/06) 1209 nend The Delhi Sultanate established Muslim rule in northern India. (AM, 7/04, p.51) 1209 nend In Kinnitty, Ireland, the Kinnitty Castle was built. It was later converted to a hotel. (WSJ, 2/27/98, p.B8) 1209 nend Pope Innocent III urged a crusade against the Albigensians. They were ascetic communitarians of southern France who viewed the clergy and secular rulers as corrupt. A war resulted that effectively destroyed the Provencal civilization of southern France. (NH, 9/96, p.20) 1209 nend The Franciscan brotherhood received papal approval. (SFC, 7/23/99, p.C8) 1210 nend Oct 18, Pope Innocent III excommunicated German emperor Otto IV. (MC, 10/18/01) 1210 nend Nov 1, King John of England began imprisoning Jews. (MC, 11/1/01) 1210 nend Francis founded the Franciscans, and demanded that his followers subsist entirely on what they can beg while preaching. (V.D.-H.K.p.108) 1211 nend St. Francis reportedly landed on the Isola Maggiore, an island on Lake Trasimeno. (SFEM, 10/12/97, p.48) 1211 nend In Latvia construction began on Riga?s Lutheran Cathedral. (SSFC, 7/22/07, p.G5) 1211 1228 Vaulted halls called ?La Marveille? were added to the abbey of Mont St. Michel off the coast of Normandy, France. (WSJ, 10/7/06, p.P18) 1212 nend Jan 18, Queen Tamara of Georgia in Transcaucasia died after a 24-year reign during which her soldiers proclaim her "our King." (www.undelete.org/woa/woa01-18.html) 1212 nend Jul 16, Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa marked the end of Muslim power in Spain. (MC, 7/16/02) 1212 nend Jul 17, Moslems were crushed in the Spanish crusade. (HN, 7/17/98) 1212 nend Aug 25, Children's crusaders under Nicolas (10) reached Genoa. (MC, 8/25/02) 1212 nend Stephen, a shepherd boy from Cloyes-sur-le-Loir, France, had a vision of Jesus and set out to deliver a letter to the King of France. He gathered 30,000 children who went to Marseilles with plans to ship to the Holy Land and conquer the Muslims with love instead of arms. They got shipped to North Africa and were sold in the Muslim slave markets. (V.D.-H.K.p.110) no_source 1213 nend May 15, King John submitted to the Pope, offering to make England and Ireland papal fiefs. Pope Innocent III lifted the interdict of 1208. He named Stephen Langton Archbishop of Canterbury. (HN, 5/15/99)(MC, 5/15/02) 1213 nend Sep 12, Simon de Montfort defeated Raymond of Toulouse and Peter II of Aragon at Muret, France. (HN, 9/12/98) 1214 nend Apr 25, Louis IX, king of France (1226-1270), was born. (HN, 4/25/02) 1214 nend Jul 27, At the Battle of Bouvines in France, Philip Augustus of France defeated John of England. (HN, 7/27/98) 1214 nend ?-1294? Roger Bacon, English philosopher and scientist. He was imprisoned for alchemy in 1284. (WUD, 1994, p.109)(HC, 1/9/98) 1215 nend Jan 6, King John met with disgruntled barons of northern England who demanded that taxes be lowered. (ON, 7/04, p.1) 1215 nend Apr 19-26, During Easter week English barons assembled an army of some 2,000 men near London and demanded that King John address their call for tax relief. (ON, 7/04, p.1) 1215 nend May 3, English barons led their forces on an attack of Northampton Castle. Loyalists to King John successfully defended the castle and the rebels returned to London. (ON, 7/04, p.2) 1215 nend May 12, English barons served an ultimatum on King John (known as "Lack land"). (MC, 5/12/02) 1215 nend June 15, The Magna Carta ("the Great Charter") was adopted and sealed by King John, son of Henry II, at Runnymede, England, granting his barons more liberty. King John signed the Magna Carta, which asserted the supremacy of the law over the king, at Runnymede, England. Commercial clauses protected merchants from unjust tolls. (CFA, '96, p.48)(HFA, '96, p.32)(AP, 6/15/97)(HN, 6/15/98)(WSJ,1/11/99, p.R49) 1215 nend Aug 24, Pope Innocent III, following a request from King John, declared the Magna Carta invalid. The barons of England soon retaliated by inviting King Philip of France to come to England. Philip accepted the offer. (MC, 8/24/02)(ON, 7/04, p.2) 1215 1216 King John avoided rebel forces in the south but marched his army across the countryside subduing adversaries in the north, east and west. Scottish and Welsh armies raided the English borders. (ON, 7/04, p.2) 1215 1250 Frederick II became emperor and renewed conflicts with the papacy. [see Nov 22, 1220, 1250] (V.D.-H.K. p.111) 1215 1294 Kublai Khan founded the Yuan dynasty and reunited China for the first time since the fall of the T?angs in 907. He was the grandson of Genghis Khan and established the Yuan dynasty in China. He built a court of gilded cane at Tatu (later Beijing) that inspired Marco Polo and Coleridge. He enforced the use of paper money and had ships built to carry 1,000 men. (V.D.-H.K.p.169)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1216 nend Jun 16, Pope Innocent III died. In 2003 John C. Moore authored ?Pope Innocent III.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Innocent_III)(WSJ, 4/12/08, p.W8) 1216 nend Jul 11, Hendrik of Constantinople, emperor of Constantinople (1206-16), died. (MC, 7/11/02) 1216 nend Oct 19, John, King of England (1199-1216) died at Newark at age 49. He signed the Magna Carta and was excommunicated in 1209. King John was succeeded by his nine-year-old son Henry. The Royal Menagerie was begun during the reign of King John. (HN, 10/19/98)(SFEC, 10/10/99, p.T3) 1216 nend Oct 28, Henry III of England (9) was crowned. Regents led him to agree to the demands made by the barons at Runnymede. Prince Louis, repudiated by the barons, returned to France. (HN, 10/28/98)(ON, 7/04, p.2) 1217 nend Feb 18, Alexander Neckum de Sancto Albano (59), English encyclopedist, died. (MC, 2/18/02) 1217 nend Aug 24, Eustace "the Monk", French buccaneer, was killed in battle. (MC, 8/24/02) 1218 nend May 19, Otto IV (36), Holy Roman Emperor, died. (PC, 1992, p.106) 1218 nend Aug 31, Al-Malik ab-Adil, Saphadin, Saif al-Din, brother of Saladin, died. (MC, 8/31/01) 1218 nend The university at Salamanca, Spain, was founded by King Alfonso IX. (SSFC, 6/8/03, p.C8) 1218 nend Simon IV de Montfort (b.1160), Norman knight and leader of the crusade against the Albigenses (1202-1204), died at the siege of Toulouse. (WUD, 1994, p.928) 1219 nend Jan 16, Floods followed a storm in Northern Netherlands and thousands were killed. (MC, 1/16/02) 1219 nend Nov 5, The port of Damietta (in the Nile delta of Egypt) fell to the Crusaders after a siege. (WUD, 1994, p.365)(HN, 11/5/98) 1219 nend St. Francis d?Assisi journeyed to Egypt and met with the sultan to work for peace. (SSFC, 9/29/02, p.D2) 1219 1221 Genghis Khan invaded Afghanistan. Destruction of irrigation systems by Genghis Khan turned fertile soil into permanent deserts. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1220 nend Apr 15, Adolf I, archbishop of Cologne, died. (MC, 4/15/02) 1220 nend May 30, Alexander Nevski, Russian ruler (1252-63), was born. (MC, 5/30/02) 1220 nend Nov 22, After promising to go to the aid of the Fifth Crusade within nine months, German King Frederick II was crowned emperor by Pope Honorius III. (HN, 11/22/98)(PCh, 1992, p.106) 1220 nend Construction began on the English Cathedral of Salisbury. It was inaugurated in 1258. (MC, 9/20/01)(Econ, 12/20/03, p.29) 1220 nend In France the main structure of Chartres cathedral was completed. In 2008 Philip Ball authored ?Universe of Stone: A Biography of Chartres Cathedral.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedral_of_Chartres)(WSJ, 7/5/08, p.W9) c 1220 nend Genghis Khan made Karakorum his capital. (SSFC, 3/27/05, p.F4) 1220 nend Klosters, Switzerland, a future ski center, has roots to this date. (Hem, Dec. 94, p.76) 1221 nend Aug 6, St. Dominic, Italian founder of the Dominicans religious order, died. (MC, 8/6/02) 1221 nend Nov 23, Alfonso X (the Wise, d.1284), king of Castile & Leon (1252-84), was born. Also known as Alfonso the Wise, he served as king of Castile from 1252-1284. His manuscript ?Cantigas de Santa Maria? is one of the most important of the period. (WUD, 1994, p.36)(WSJ, 5/14/97, p.A20)(MC, 11/23/01) 1221 nend In France the Chateau de Bagnols castle was built. Guichard, Lord of Oingt, built the first three of its 5 round towers. It was restored in the 1990s by English publishing mogul Paul Hamlyn and his wife Helen. (SFEM, 10/4/98, p.6) 1221 nend Emperor Frederick II issued a law that declared that violence could be committed against jesters without punishment. (SFC,12/897, p.A17) 1221 nend In Russia Nizhny Novgorod was founded. (USAT, 10/9/98, p.12A) 1221 nend Genghis Khan razed the city of Bamiyan, Afghanistan, and exterminated its inhabitants. (WSJ, 11/16/01, p.W12) 1221 nend Genghis Khan is said to have killed 1,748,000 people at Nishapur in just one hour. (SFC, 5/25/96, p.B4) 1222 nend A group of professors broke free from the Univ. of Bologna, under the control of the Catholic Church, and created the Univ. of Padua, independent of Catholic constraints. (SSFC, 3/25/07, p.G3) 1223 nend Jul 14, Philip II Augustus (57), King of France (1180-1223), died. Louis VIII succeeded his father. (HN, 7/14/98)(MC, 7/14/02) 1223 nend Dec 25, St. Francis of Assisi assembled one of the first Nativity scenes, in Greccio, Italy. (AP, 12/25/97) c 1224 nend /25-1274 Thomas Aquinas born in Aquino between Rome and Naples. He was a pupil of the Benedictines in the monastery of Monte Cassino. After nine years Emperor Frederic II temporarily disbanded the monks at Cassino and Thomas went to Naples to study and joined the Dominicans. He tried to reconcile theology with the emerging economic conditions of his time. (V.D.-H.K.p.119)(NH, 10/98, p.4)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R20) 1225 nend Nov 7, Engelbert I (40), the Saint, archbishop of Cologne, was murdered. (MC, 11/7/01) 1226 nend Oct 3, St. Francis of Assisi (b.1182), founder of the Franciscan order, died. He was canonized in 1228 and entombed in the St. Francis Basilica in 1230. In 1983 Olivier Messiaen premiered his opera ?Saint Francis d?Assise.? In 2001 Adrian House authored ?Francis of Assisi: A Revolutionary Life;? Valerie Martin authored ?Salvation: Scenes From the Life of St. Francis.? In 2002 Donald Spoto authored ?Reluctant Saint: The Life of Francis of Assisi.? [see Oct 4] (AP, 10/3/97)(SFEC, 7/25/99, DB p.32)(SSFC, 3/25/01, BR p.1,6)(SSFC,9/29/02, p.D2)(SFC, 10/3/02, p.A19) 1226 nend Oct 4, St. Francis of Assisi, founder of the Franciscans and one of history's most famous nature lovers, died. [see Oct 3] (MC, 10/4/01) 1226 nend Nov 8, Louis VIII (39), the Lion, King of France (1223-26), died. He was succeeded by Louis IX. (HN, 11/6/98)(MC, 11/8/01) 1226 nend Following Prussian attacks on Polish lands, the Catholic Poles invited German religious-military orders to attack Prussia. (H of L, 1931, p.25)(TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1226 nend The last mega hurricane struck the gulf coast of Alabama. The mega hurricane seems to happen on average every 600 years. (SFEC, 9/15/96, p.A10) 1226 1270 Era of King Louis IX. In France, the urban middle-class became a new, economic factor, and King Louis IX tried to control his vassals through his policy of increased centralization. It was the era in which the crusades were winding down, and the embassies of Franciscans and Dominicans to the courts of Mongolian princes were beginning. (http://www.let.ruu.nl/C+L/voorbij/vincent/txt/albrecht.htm) 1227 nend In Spain construction of the Gothic Cathedral in Toledo was begun. (SFEC, 3/22/98, p.T11) 1227 nend Aug 18, Genghis Khan (Chinggis), Mongol conqueror, died in his sleep at his camp, during his siege of Ningxia, the capital of the rebellious Chinese kingdom of Xi Xia. Subotai was one of Genghis Khan's ablest lieutenants, and went on to distinguish himself after the khan's death. In Khan's lifetime he and his warriors had conquered the majority of the civilized world, ruling an empire that stretched from Poland down to Iran in the west, and from Russia's Arctic shores down to Vietnam in the east. Russian archaeologist Peter Kozloff uncovered the tomb of Genghis Khan in the Gobi Desert in 1927. In 2006 Zhu Yaoting, a Beijing academic, authored a biography of Genghis Khan. (AP, 8/18/97)(HN, 10/29/98)(Econ, 12/23/06, p.61) 1227 nend In the Polish Kulm region there was a struggle with Prussia over land. The Poles called in the German Knights of the Cross (aka Teutonic Knights) for help in exchange for the lands of Kulm. The Knights arrived and began to fight Prussia in wars that lasted some 60 years. (Ist. L.H., 1948, p. 41) 1227 nend Roman Emperor Frederick II was first excommunicated by the Catholic Pope because his growing empire threatened the independence of the papal states. [see 1239] (AP, 5/5/06) 1227 1234 The Madrassa al Mustansirija was constructed in Baghdad by the Caliph al Mustansir. It became world epicenter of medical sciences and also taught theology, mathematics, jurisprudence, astrology and other subjects. (WSJ, 9/20/08, p.W14) 1228 nend The Basilica di San Francesco was constructed in Assisi, Italy. (WSJ, 3/25/99, p.A24) 1228 nend St. Francis of Assisi, founder of the Franciscan order, was canonized. (AP, 10/3/97) 1229 nend Mar 18, German emperor Frederick II crowned himself king of Jerusalem. (MC, 3/18/02) 1229 nend Apr 14, A scribe name John completed a religious text that overwrote a manuscript attributed to Archimedes that had been copied by a scribe in the 10th century. In 2006 scientists attempted to read the final pages of the Archimedes palimpsest, which contained text from his ?Method of Mechanical Theorems.? (Econ, 7/22/06, p.76) 1229 1241 Ugoodei, Genghis? successor, reigned Mongolia over this period. (www.gobiexpeditions.com) 1230 nend Mindaugas began to rule over Lithuania. Mindaugas found resistance amongst some local rulers who called in German military orders for assistance. Mindaugas hosted the German magistrate who said that the only way to save Lithuania would be to convert to Catholicism and pass western territory over to the German Order. (H of L, 1931, p.29) 1230 1253 King Wenceslas I reigned over Bohemia. His sister, St. Agnes, was canonized in 1989. Both are buried in the Convent of St. Agnes in Prague. (SFC, 4/14/96, T-12) 1231 nend Guo Shoujing (d.1314), Chinese astronomer, was born. He developed water clocks with temperature compensation and escapements to provide high resolution time accuracy for astronomical observations, a ?pinhole camera? to sharpen shadows cast by the sun and moon, mathematical tools for polynomial generation and interpolation, and other inventions for measurements. (www.1421.tv/pages/evidence/content.asp?EvidenceID=420) 1231 1322 The illustrated text of the Chinese Dharani Sutra of Great Splendor was created. (SFC, 8/21/03, p.E2) 1232 1316 Ramon Llull proposed an artificial language that used 4 figures and 9 letters called his Ars magna. It was proposed as the perfect tool for Christian missionaries. (Wired, 8/96, p.84) 1233 nend The Inquisition began and lasted into the 19th century. (SFC, 10/30/98, p.A16) 1233 nend The Japanese royal family began to stain their teeth black in a fashion statement. (WSJ, 9/2/99, p.A12) 1234 nend Ugoodei attacked and overcame the Chin (Juchen) dynasty of China. (www.gobiexpeditions.com) 1235 nend Jan 2, Emperor Joseph II ordered the Jews of Galicia, Austria, to adopt family names. (MC, 1/2/02) 1235 nend Sep 5, Henry I, duke of Brabant, died. Brabant was a duchy later divided between Netherlands and Belgium. (WUD, 1994 p.177)(MC, 9/5/01) 1235 nend Henry III received 3 leopards from Frederick II, the Holy Roman Emperor. They became part of the Royal Menagerie housed in the Tower of London. (SFEC, 10/10/99, p.T3) 1235 nend In China a murder was solved when field men were told to lay down their rice sickles and flies landed on only one. (SFEC, 9/28/97, Z1 p.2) 1235 nend The king of Mali, Sundiata, defeated Sumanguru at the battle of Kirina. From then on Mali replaced Ghana as the major power in West Africa. Sundiata established his capital at Niana on the upper Niger. (ATC, p.113,118) 1235 1315 Raimon Llull, a Mallorcan Catholic Franciscan poet. He declared that his ecstatic Christian spirituality drew from the example of Sufis like Rumi. (SFEC, 10/25/98, BR p.6) 1236 nend Jan 14, Henry III married Eleanor of Provence. (HN, 1/14/99) 1236 nend Jun 29, Ferdinand III of Castile and Leon took Cordoba in Spain. Cordoba, Spain, fell to Christian forces. The last Islamic kingdom left in Spain is that of the Berbers in Granada. (ATC, p.100)(HN, 6/29/98) 1236 nend Aug 22, The German Master Volkwin of Riga had prepared a large force of his Knights of the Sword to attack Lithuania. The Lithuanians learned of the planned attack and called for forces across the land to repulse the Germans. The Germans were lured to a marsh near the town of Siauliai and were severely beaten. Only a tenth of their forces were said to escape back to Riga. (Ist. L.H., 1948, p. 41)(TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1236 nend Dec 23, Philippus Cancellarius, French theologian and poet (Summa Cum Laude), died. (MC, 12/23/01) 1236 nend Queen Rusudani (41), the daughter of Queen Tamara, fled Georgia as the unstoppable Mongol hordes ravished the area. She had been proclaimed "King" at the death of her brother. (www.undelete.org/woa/woa01-18.html) 1237 nend Feb 13, Jordanus of Saxon, 2nd father-general of Dominicans, drowned. (MC, 2/13/02) 1237 nend Mar 23, Jan of Brienne, King of Jerusalem, Emperor of Constantinople, died. (SS, 3/23/02) 1237 nend The Bishop of Riga sent a request to Rome that the Pope unite the German Knights of the Sword and Knights of the Cross into one order. The Pope agreed and the two orders agreed to fight under one magistrate. (Ist. L.H., 1948, p. 41) 1237 nend The Knights of the Sword ended their activities in Livonia. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) no_source 1237 1238 Batu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan, invaded Russia. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.28) 1237 1240 Mongols conquered Russian lands. (DVD, Criterion, 1998) 1238 nend Feb 3, The Mongols took over Vladimir, Russia. (HN, 2/3/99) 1238 nend Sep 28, James of Aragon retook Valencia, Spain, from the Arabs. (HN, 9/28/98) 1238 nend The Knights of the Sword merged with the German Knights of the Cross. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1238 nend Mindaugas is mentioned for the 1st time. He ruled to 1263. (H of L, 1931, p.29)(TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1239 nend Jun 17, Edward I (Longshanks), king of England (1272-1307), was born. He became king of England following the death of his father Henry III. Edward I has been called "the English Justinian" because of his legal reforms, but is usually known as one of the foremost military men of the medieval world. His rule strengthened the authority of the crown and England?s influence over her neighbors. While successfully subduing Wales he died while attempting to conquer Scotland. (HN, 6/17/00)(HNQ, 2/1/01) 1239 nend Roman Emperor Frederick II was excommunicated a 2nd time because his growing empire threatened the independence of the papal states. (AP, 5/5/06) 1240 nend Apr 11, Llywelyn ab Iorwerth the Great, monarch of Wales (1194-1240), died. (MC, 4/11/02) 1240 nend Nov 26, Edmund Van Abingdon, archbishop of Canterbury and Saint, died. (MC, 11/26/01) 1240 nend Dec 6, Mongols under Batu Khan occupied and destroyed Kiev. (MC, 12/6/01) 1240 nend A chronicle of the life of Genghis Khan and his successors: ?The Secret Life of the Mongols,? was written about this time. A Chinese version was discovered by a Russian diplomat in the early 1800s. In 1982 Francis Woodman Cleaves produced a modern version. (www.ezlink.com/~culturev/secret.html)(SSFC, 5/22/05, p.C3) 1240 nend Henry III ordered the Tower of London to be whitewashed. (Hem, 9/04, p.28) c 1240 1302 Giovanni Cimabue, Italian painter and mosaicist. In 1998 a collection of his work was published with text by Luciano Bellosi. Cimabue was a teacher of Giotto. Many of his creations were damaged by a 1966 flood in the Church of Santa Croce in Florence. (WUD, 1994, p.266)(WSJ, 12/3/98, p.W4) 1240 1630 The site of Thulamela in Kruger Nat?l. Park in northeastern South Africa had graves containing people with gold ornaments. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.71) 1241 nend Apr 9, In the Battle of Liegnitz, Silesia, Mongol armies defeated the Poles and Germans. In this year the Mongols defeated the Germans and invaded Poland and Hungary. The death of their leader Ughetai (Ogedei) forced them to withdraw from Europe. (HN, 4/9/98)(TOH) 1241 nend May 25, 1st attack on Jewish community of Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany. (SC, 5/25/02) 1241 nend A trumpeter in Krakow, Poland, was shot through the throat by an archer as he warned the city of a fast-approaching Mongol army. (SSFC, 12/28/03, p.C6) 1241 nend The Great Khan Ogedei died after completing the Mongol conquest of China and Korea. In April the Mongols routed the armies of Poles, Germans, and Hungarians, at Liegnitz and Mohi, within easy distance of Vienna. Only the death of Ogedei stopped their advance into Europe. (V.D.-H.K.p.169) 1242 nend Feb 12, Henry VII, Roman Catholic German king (1220-35), committed suicide. (MC, 2/12/02) 1242 nend Apr 5, Russian troops repelled an invasion attempt by Teutonic Knights. Alexander Nevsky of Novgorod defeated Teutonic Knights (HN, 4/5/99)(MC, 4/5/02) 1242 nend Jun 6, 24 wagonloads of Talmudic books were burned in Paris. (MC, 6/6/02) 1242 nend In Italy the city wall of Montagnana were built. (AMNHDT, 5/98) 1242 nend Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, established his ?Golden Horde? at Sarai on the Lower Volga. (TOH) 1243 nend Jun 26, The Seljuk Turkish army in Asia Minor was wiped out by the Mongols. (HN, 6/26/98) 1243 nend A Charter granted permission for a fair at the monastery of St. Michael at Glastonbury Tor. (Local Inscription, 2000) 1243 1254 Pope Innocent IV. He established canon law that recognized communities such as cathedral chapters and monasteries as legal individuals. (WSJ, 12/23/99, p.A18) 1244 nend Aug 23, Turks expelled the crusaders under Frederick II from Jerusalem. (HN, 8/23/98) 1244 nend Oct 17, The Sixth Crusade ended when an Egyptian-Khwarismian force almost annihilated the Frankish army at Gaza. (HN, 10/17/98) 1244 nend The Cathars, a group of Catholic heretics, settled at Montsegur, France, in the Ariege region. They were besieged for more than a year and chose to burn at the stake rather than submit. Occitania was the ancient name for this region. (SFEC, 12/8/96, p.T1) 1244 nend Sheikh Abu el Haggag, Tunisian born Sufi, died in Luxor, Egypt. His family was from Mecca and traced its lineage to Mohammed. He founded a Sufi mosque in Luxor and is buried there. An annual celebration in Luxor, called the moulid, celebrates his birthday. Egyptologists believe this event is related to the ancient Opet Festival from the 18th Dynasty. (Arch, 7/02, p.36) 1244 1248 Mevlana Jalaluddin Rumi met Shams of Tabriz, a wandering dervish, and the two became mystical companions for 4 years until Shams disappeared. Rumi called his own writings ?The Works of Shams of Tabriz.? (SFEC, 10/25/98, BR p.6) 1245 nend Jul 27, Frederick II of France was deposed by a council at Lyons, which found him guilty of sacrilege. (HN, 7/27/98) 1245 nend Thomas Aquinas was sent to Paris where he enrolled as a student of Albertus Magnus to study theology, philosophy, and history. In 1974 Michael R. Best and Frank H. Brightman edited ?The Book of secrets of Albertus Magnus,? which contained a recipe for Greek Fire. (V.D.-H.K.p.119)(AM, May/Jun 97 p.10) 1245 nend John of Plano Carpini was a Franciscan monk who set out on the instructions of Pope Innocent IV to gather intelligence. He was met by Mongol horseman and was brought to witness the enthronement of Guyuk Khan. He experienced a sudden hailstorm followed by a flash flood that killed 160 people. (SFC, 4/14/96, T-10)(SFEM, 10/12/97, p.22) 1245 nend The Rheinfels Castle above St. Goar was erected by Count Diether III of Katzenelbogen to enforce a new toll on the Rhine. His family was responsible for many of the Rhine castles. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.T5) 1245 nend In Flanders cottage weavers went on strike against cloth merchants. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1246 nend May 22, Henry Raspe was elected anti-king by the Rhenish prelates in France. (HN, 5/22/98) 1246 nend The Spanish island of Mallorca was occupied by the Arabs and reconquered by the Catalans 750 years ago. (SFC, Z-1, 4/28/96, p.6) 1247 nend Nov 22, Robin Hood died according to the 1400 ballad "A Lytell Geste of Robyn Hode." The legend of Robin Hood is believed to extend into antiquity. (MC, 11/22/01)(SFC, 2/17/04, p.A2) 1247 nend Zen monk Yishan Yining (d.1317), calligrapher and poet, was born in China. (WSJ, 1/8/02, p.A16) 1248 nend May 15, Archbishop Konrad von Hochstaden laid the cornerstone for Köln (Cologne) cathedral. [see Aug 14] (MC, 5/15/02) 1248 nend Aug 14, Construction of Cologne Cathedral began. [see May 15] (MC, 8/14/02) 1248 nend Nov 23, Seville, France surrendered to Ferdinand III of Castile after a two-year siege. (HN, 11/23/98) 1248 nend Sainte Chapelle in Paris was completed and commissioned by Louis IX to contain what was believed to be Christ?s crown of thorns. (Hem. 1/95, p. 78) 1248 nend In Wales Carreg Cennen, a castle on a hilltop above Trapp, was built as a Welsh stronghold. (SFEC, 5/10/98, p.T4) 1249 nend Feb 7, The Christburg Peace Treaty forced the Prussians to recognize the rule of the Teutonic Knights. Within about 50 years the Teutonic Knights and Knights of the Cross had overcome most of Prussia and established German as the dominant culture and language. The German orders then turned to Lithuania. (H of L, 1931, p.25)(LHC, 2/7/03) 1249 nend Oxford?s first college, University College, was founded by William of Durham. (The oldest part of the existing buildings dates from 1634). (Econ, 5/21/05, p.16)(http://tinyurl.com/c6eny) 1249 1254 A civil war was fought in Lithuania. Mindaugas, the feudal ruler of Lithuania found resistance amongst some local rulers who called in German military orders for assistance. Mindaugas hosted the German magistrate who said that the only way to save Lithuania would be to convert to Catholicism and pass western territory over to the German Order. (H of L, 1931, p.29)(TB-Com, 10/11/00)(TB-Com, 10/11/00) no_source 1250 nend Feb 8-1250 Feb 11, The Battle of Al Mansurah was fought between crusaders led by Louis IX, King of France, and Ayyubid forces led by Emir Fakhr-ad-Din Yussuf, Faris ad-Din Aktai and Baibars al-Bunduqdari. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Al_Mansurah) 1250 nend Apr 6, Louis IX (1214-1270), King of France, lost the Battle of Fariskur, Egypt, and was captured by Muslim forces . (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Al_Mansurah) 1250 nend Apr 15, Pope Innocent III refused Jews of Cordova, Spain, permission to build a synagogue. (MC, 4/15/02) 1250 nend Apr 30, King Louis IX of France was ransomed for one million dollars. The Mamluk dynasty exacted 240 tons of silver for his release. (HN, 4/30/98)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R4) 1250 nend May 2, Toeransa, sultan of Egypt, was murdered. (MC, 5/2/02) 1250 nend Dec 13, Frederick II (55), German Emperor (1212-1250), died. (MC, 12/13/01) 1250 nend Nicolo and Mafeo Polo embarked on their own cargo ship for Constantinople. (TMPV, P.4)(This date is questionable and is given as 1260 in otherversions) 1250 nend China began manufacturing guns. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1250 nend The Mamelukes, a military class initially composed of slaves, seized control of the Egyptian Sultanate and ruled until 1517. (WUD, 1994, p.869) 1250 nend The Anasazi in southwest Colorado fought a battle against unknown enemies. Number of kivas built greatly increased. Quality of workmanship in building decreased. People began to leave. (HN, 2/11/97) c 1250 nend The Tsama Pueblo in New Mexico contained 1100 rooms and was occupied to the mid-1500s. (AM, adv. circular, p.2) 1250 nend Florence, Italy, became a major center for commerce and industry. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) c 1250 nend A supernova 650 light-years away should have been visible to observers on Earth according to scientists who analyzed evidence in 1998. (SFC, 11/12/98, p.A12) 1250 1350 The 1999 book by Lauren Arnold: "Princely Gifts and Papal Treasures: The Franciscan Mission to China and Its Influence on the Art of the West 1250-1350" covered this period. (WSJ, 12/16/99, p.A20) 1250 1382 The Bahri Mamluks ruled Egypt. (SSFC, 7/24/11, p.F7) 1250 1400 In the Upper Xingu region of Brazil's Mato Grosso state thousands of people occupied 19 settlements in 2 clusters over this period according to archeological findings in 2003. (Econ, 9/20/03, p.76) 1250 1540 Late postclassic period of the Maya. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.B) 1251 nend The Polo brothers resided for a year in the dominions of the Western Tartar chief Berca, who dwelt in the cities of Bolgara and Assara. A war soon developed between Berca and Alau, chief of the Eastern Tartars. This war was won by Alau and the brothers were forced to travel east in order to skirt unsafe roads. (TMPV, P.5)(This date is questionable and is given as 1261 in otherversions) 1251 nend In Lithuania Mindaugas accepted Christianity with his wife, 2 sons, about 600 of his nobility and many of his people. An envoy was then sent to Rome to request the Pope?s formal approval for coronation which was granted. The German Order then worked closely with Mindaugas in establishing the first Bishopric in Lithuania and were in turn granted lands in western Lithuania (Zemaiciuose). Pope Innocent IV authorized Mindaugas to be crowned King. (H of L, 1931, p.30,32)(XXIA, 7/21/99) c 1251 1254 The Polo brothers traveled to Persia and arrived at the province of Bokhara ruled by Prince Barak. They remained there for three years. (This date is questionable and is given as 1261-64 in other versions). (TMPV, P.6) 1252 nend Apr 6, Peter of Verona (45), [Peter Martyr], Italian inquisitor died. (MC, 4/6/02) 1252 nend The new "Round Table" jousting tournament appeared in England. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1253 nend Jul 6, Mindaugas was crowned as King of Lithuania. (www.itar-tass.com/eng/level2.html?NewsID=12845046&PageNum=0) 1253 nend Jul 23, Jews were expelled from Vienne, France, by order of Pope Innocent III. (MC, 7/23/02) 1253 nend A Franciscan friar journeyed to China to see the Great Khan. (WSJ, 9/4/98, p.W12) 1253 1260 Ata-Malik Juvaini (b.1226) authored ?The History of the World Conqueror,? an account of the life of Genghis Khan and his successors. Juvaini, in service to the Mongol governors, drew on the recollections of his father and grandfather. In 1997 J.A. Boyle published an English translation. (www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2082/is_3_61/ai_55426809) 1254 nend Mar 12, Mindaugas granted Christian, Lithuania?s 1st Bishop, lands in Samogitia. (LHC, 3/12/03) 1254 1324 Marco Polo was born in Venice. (V.D.-H.K.p.169) 1255 nend Mar 6, Pope Alexander IV permitted Mindaugas to crown his son as king of Lithuania. (LHC, 3/6/03) c 1255 nend Duccio di Buoninsegna (d.1319), Sienese painter, was born. (Econ, 1/17/04, p.75) 1255 nend Konigsberg (Kaliningrad) was founded on the Baltic Sea by the Bohemian King Otakar II, who came to help Teutonic Knights during their conquest of Prussia disguised as the Christianization effort called the Northern Crusades. It was annexed by Russia in 1945. (Econ, 5/14/05, p.55)(www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Konigsberg) c 1255 nend The Polo brothers met an ambassador of Alau on his way to see the supreme chief of the Tartars, Kublai. The ambassador offered to take the brothers to meet the grand khan and the Polo?s accepted. (This date is questionable and is given as 1265 in other versions). (TMPV, P.7) 1256 nend Thomas Aquinas received his license to teach. He became involved in the current questions of doctrine on two basic issues. He sided with the Nominalists as opposed to the Realists on the question of "universals". The second issue was based on Aristotle's notion of nature. Aquinas saw a distinction between spirit and nature but also a unity. (V.D.-H.K.p.121) 1256 nend Kublai-khan began his reign as the sixth grand khan, ruler of the Tartars. [see 1259] (TMPV, p.108) 1256 nend France banned gambling with dice. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1258 nend Feb 10, Huegu (Hulega Khan), a Mongol leader and grandson of Genghis Khan, seized Baghdad following a 4-day assault. Mongol invaders from Central Asia took over Baghdad and ended the Abbasid-Seljuk Empire. They included Uzbeks, Kazaks, Georgians and other groups. Some 200 to 800 thousand people were killed and looting lasted 17 days. (ATC, p.91)(AP, 2/10/99)(SFC, 4/12/03, p.A1) 1258 nend Mar 26, Floris the Guardian, count-regent of Holland, died. (SS, 3/26/02) 1258 nend Sep 20, The Cathedral of Salisbury, begun in 1220, was inaugurated. (MC, 9/20/01)(Econ, 12/20/03, p.29) 1259 nend Aug 11, Mongke, Mongol great-khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, died. (MC, 8/11/02) 1259 nend Sep 27, Ezzeline III da Romano, gentleman of Verona, "cruel monster", died. (MC, 9/27/01) 1259 1282 Michael VIII Palaeologus governed over Byzantium from Constantinople. [see 330AD] (WSJ, 11/14/95, p. A-12) 1259 1294 The great Kublai Khan, a grandson of Genghis, reigned. (www.gobiexpeditions.com) 1260 nend Mar 1, Hulagu Khan, grandson of Genghis, conquered Damascus. (SC, 3/1/02) 1260 nend Sep 3, Mamelukes under Sultan Qutuz defeated Mongols and Crusaders at Ain Jalut. (HN, 9/3/98) 1260 nend Sep 4, At the Battle of Montaperto in Italy, the Tuscan Ghibellines, who supported the emperor, defeated the Florentine Guelfs, who supported papal power. (HN, 9/4/98) 1260 nend Oct 23,Koetoez, Turkish sultan of Egypt, was murdered. (MC, 10/23/01) 1260 nend The people of western Lithuania (Zemaiciai) attacked the German Order of the Cross at a battle near Durbe Lake. This forced Mindaugas to turn against the Germans but he was not able to gain the full trust of the western Lithuanians. (H of L, 1931, p.32)(TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1260 1274 A large scale Prussian uprising took place against the Knights of the Cross. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1260 1294 The Mongol Empire under Kublai Khan reached its height. (ATC, p.160) 1260 1348 Siena flourished as a univ. town and center for banking, trading, and art. (SFEC, 6/29/97, p.T11) 1260 1368 The Yuan Dynasty ruled in China. The Yuan Dynasty was founded by Kublai Khan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(SFC, 6/25/98, p.A8) 1260 1368 In China musical productions known as Zaju became popular during the Yuan Dynasty. Zaju, an early form of opera, combined music, dance, song and speech into 4-act dramas with complex plots and characters. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1260 1390 Carbon-14 dating techniques in 1988 determined that the cloth of the Shroud of Turin dated to this period. E.T. Hall (d.2001 at 77) of Oxford Univ. led the testing, which was later held in question. In 1978 Walter C. McCrone (d.2002), chemical analyst, determined that the image was painted on the cloth some 1300 years after the crucifixion of Christ. (SFEC, 2/1/98, p.A24)(SFC, 8/22/01, p.D2)(SFC, 7/29/02,p.B5)(www.tqnyc.org/NYC063363/) 1260 1555 In 2004 Diana Norman covered this period in her book: "Painting in the Late Medieval and Renaissance Siena." (Econ, 1/17/04, p.75) 1261 nend Feb 3, Samogitian fighters defeated the Livonian Knights of the Cross at Lielvarde. (LHC, 2/3/03) 1261 nend May 25, Alexander IV [Rinaldo dei conti di Segni], Pope (1254-61), died. (SC, 5/25/02) 1261 nend Aug 15, Constantinople fell to Michael VIII of Nicea and his army. (HN, 8/15/98) 1261 nend Oct 9, Dionysius, the Justified, king of Portugal (1279-1325), was born. (MC, 10/9/01) 1261 nend A great quarrel arose between king Alau, lord of the Tartars of the East, and Berca, king of the Tartars of the West based on a border dispute. A great battle was waged in which Alau was the victor. (TMPV, pp. 336-340) 1262 nend After a long and bloody conflict between the various families and clans, the Icelanders accepted the rule of the Norwegian kingdom. (DrEE, 1/4/97, p.4) 1263 nend Feb 9, A Lithuania army under Treniota defeated the Livonian Knights of the Cross. (LHC, 2/9/03) 1263 nend Aug 19, King James I of Aragon censored Hebrew writing. (MC, 8/19/02) 1263 nend Oct 2, At Largs, King Alexander III of Scotland repelled an amphibious invasion by King Haakon IV of Norway. (HN, 10/2/98) 1263 nend Nov 14, Alexander Nevski (43), Russian ruler (1252-63), died. (MC, 11/14/01) 1263 nend In Lithuania King Mindaugas was assassinated along with his 2 sons by Duke Treniota. (H of L, 1931, p.32)(TB-Com, 10/11/00) no_source 1263 nend In a Spanish court Rabbi Moses ben Nachman defended the legitimacy of Judaism against Pablo Christiani, a converted Jew, who argued for Christianity. The trial was set up by King James I of Aragon to please the pope. In 1982 Hyam Maccoby wrote "Judaism on Trial" and turned in into a play, "The Disputation" in 1999. (WSJ, 3/23/99, p.A20) 1263 1264 In Lithuania Treniota served as Grand Duke. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) no_source 1264 nend May 14, The Baron's War was fought in England. King Henry III was captured by his brother in law Earl of Leicester Simon de Montfort at the Battle of Lewes in England. (HN, 5/14/99)(PC, 1992, p.113) 1264 nend Aug 5, Anti-Jewish riots broke out in Arnstadt, Germany. (MC, 8/5/02) c 1264 nend Vincent of Beauvais and the Speculum Maius: the compiling and adapting techniques of a thirteenth-century Dominican. (http://www.let.ruu.nl/C+L/voorbij/vincent/txt/albrecht.htm) 1264 nend Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, moved his capital from Karakorum to what later became Beijing. Karakorum was all but abandoned and eventually destroyed by Manchurian invaders over the next century. (SSFC, 3/27/05, p.F4) 1264 nend According to Marco Polo, Kublai Khan in this year sent a large body of troops to attack Japan, then known as the island of Zipangu. The two officers in charge, named Abbacatan and Vonsancin, failed to cooperate and the adventure failed. (TMPV, P.255) 1264 1267 In Lithuania Vaisalgas (Vaiselga) served as Grand Duke. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) no_source 1265 nend Jan 20, The 1st English Parliament was called into session by Earl of Leicester. (MC, 1/20/02) 1265 nend Jan 23, The 1st English Parliament formally convened. (MC, 1/23/02) 1265 nend May 9, Dante Alighieri, Italian poet (Divine Comedy), was born. (WUD, 1994 p.367)(MC, 5/9/02) 1265 nend Aug 4, King Henry III in the Battle at Evesham put down a revolt of English barons lead by Simon de Montfort. Montfort, the English earl of Leicester, died in the battle. (HN, 8/4/98)(MC, 8/4/02) 1265 nend The coastal settlement of Caesarea (Palestine) was razed to the ground. (Econ, 4/24/04, p.83) 1265 1308 Duns Scotus, the Franciscan "subtle doctor." He stated that God is absolutely free, and absolute freedom means being free of reason's necessity, as well as of all else. This was in opposition to Aquinas' statement that what is logically necessary must necessarily be so. (V.D.-H.K.p.123) 1265 1321 Dante Alighieri, author of the Divine Comedy. His original surname was Durante. He died on Sept. 14. (V.D.-H.K.p.124)(AHD, 1971, p.335) 1266 nend Feb 26, Charles d?Anjou, king of the two Sicilies, defeated Manfred (33), in the Battle of Benevento. Manfred, the bastard son of Emperor Frederik II, king of Sicily, was killed. (PCh, 1992, p.114)(SC, 2/26/02) 1266 nend St. Thomas Aquinas penned his "Summa Theologica," in which he attempted to reconcile theology with economic conditions. He argued that reason could operate within faith. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14)(WSJ, 6/22/99, p.A22) 1266 nend King Kaidu of Great Turkey, a nephew of the grand khan, rebelled against the grand Kahn and numerous battles were fought. Kaidu eventually withdrew to Samarkand. Kaidu is also said to have had a very strong and valiant daughter, Aigiarm, who declared not to marry until she met a man who could conquer her by force. (TMPV, pp. 317-323) 1267 nend Feb 9, Synod of Breslau ordered Jews of Silesia to wear special caps. (MC, 2/9/02) 1267 nend May 10, Vienna's Catholic church ordered all Jews to wear distinctive garb. (MC, 5/10/02) 1267 nend Jul 26, The Inquisition formed in Rome under Pope Clement IV. (MC, 7/26/02) 1267 nend Sep 1, Ramban (Nachmanides) arrived in Jerusalem to establish a Jewish community. (SC, 9/1/02) 1267 nend Nov 26, Gozzolini Silvester, Italian hermit and Saint, died. (MC, 11/26/01) 1267 nend Giotto (d.1337), Italian painter, was born about this time. (V.D.-H.K.p.128)(WSJ, 11/113/00,p.A24)(www.mediacult.com/art/giotto/chrono.html) 1267 1269 In Lithuania Shvarno served as Grand Duke. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1268 nend Jan 21, Pope Clement IV gave permission to Poland?s King Premislus II to take over Lithuania and establish Catholicism. (LHC, 1/18/03) 1268 nend Oct 19, Konradin von Hohenstaufen, duke of Zwaben, was beheaded. [see Oct 20] (MC, 10/19/01) 1268 nend Oct 20, Konradijn Hohenstaufen, son of Koenraad IV, was beheaded in Naples. [see Oct 19] (MC, 10/20/01) 1268 nend According to Marco Polo, Kublai Khan in this year sent a large force of infantry and cavalry to conquer the country named Ziamba, (Viet-Nam). His forces were under the leadership of general Sogatu. The king of Ziamba, Accambale, was advanced in years but resisted from his strongholds. The Tartars laid waste to the open country and then accepted to withdraw in return for a yearly tribute of elephants and sweet-scented wood. (TMPV, P.260) 1269 nend Apr, The Polo brothers arrived at Acre. (TMPV, P.10) 1269 nend Jun 19, King Louis IX of France decreed all Jews must wear a badge of shame. (MC, 6/19/02) 1269 nend The capital of Morocco was moved north to Fez after the Almohad dynasty fell. (SFEC, 7/25/99, p.T11) 1269 nend Nicolo Polo returned to Venice from Asia and his visit with Kublai Khan at Shang-tu, Coleridge?s Xanadu. He carried letters from the Khan asking that the pope provide 100 intelligent men, ?acquainted with the seven arts.? Pope Clement IV had recently died and Nicolo waited for a successor. (V.D.-H.K.p.170) 1269 nend The Prince Facfur ruled the province of Manji in a peaceful and prosperous manner. He maintained at his court a thousand beautiful women, in whose society he took delight. (TMPV, P.10) 1269 1281 In Lithuania Traidenis served as Grand Duke. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1269 1271 The Polo brothers waited two years in Venice for a new pope and then departed for Acre and then to Jerusalem with the young Marco Polo. The Polos continue their journey and reach Armenia. The legate of Jerusalem was elected Pope and assumed the name Gregory X. (TMPV, P.12) 1269 1354 Huang Kung-Wang, Chinese artist. He painted the 20-foot-long hand-scroll "Dwelling in the Fu-Ch'un Mountains." The work is part of the traveling exhibit from the National Palace Museum, Taipei in 1995. (WSJ, 12/29/95, p.A-11) 1270 nend Feb 16, In the Karusa Ice war in Estonia, Lithuanian forces defeated the Livonian Knights of the Cross. (LHC, 2/16/03) 1270 nend Aug 25, King Louis IX (56), King of France (1226-70), died on The Eighth Crusade, which was decimated by the Plague. (PCh, 1992, p.114)(V.D.-H.K.p.110)(MC, 8/25/02) 1270 nend Oct 30, The seventh crusade was ended by the treaty of Barbary. (HN, 10/30/98) 1270 nend Mongol hordes sacked Babylon and ended 1,500 years of rule over Eastern Jewry by the high Mesopotamian priest known as the Exxilarch. (WSJ, 6/30/03, p.A1) 1271 nend Aug, Jacob d?Ancona, an Italian-Jewish trader, arrived at the harbor of Zaitun in southeast China, 4-years before Marco Polo arrived. He wrote a manuscript that surfaced in 1997, translated by David Selbourne, a British scholar. Jacob described printing with movable wooden type, paper money, free daily newspapers, mass-circulation booklets, use of gunpowder, the practice of foot-binding, and tea-drinking. He also noted a lot of pornography and a liberated female sexuality. He described a foreign community with some 2,000 Jews and a great number of Muslims as well as Africans and Europeans and the oncoming threat of a Mongol invasion. The book was titled ?The City of Light? and covered Jacob?s travels from 1270-1273 through China, Syria, the Persian Gulf and India. (SFEC, 9/21/97, p.A23)(SFC, 10/1/97, p.A12) 1271 nend Sep 17, Wenceslas II, king of Bohemia & Poland (1278-1305), was born. (www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Wenceslas-II-of-Bohemia) 1271 nend Nov 16, Henry III (b.1207), king of England (1216-71), died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_III_of_England) 1271 nend Nicolo and Marco Polo obtained letters from the papal legate in Palestine, who was soon elected as Gregory X. The Khan?s request for 100 intelligent men could not be filled and the Polos departed Acre with two friars who soon turned back. The Polos continued on their own. (V.D.-H.K.p.171) 1271 nend The Polos were called back to Acre where the new Pope assigned two friars, Fra Nicolo da Vicenza and Fra Guielmo da Tripoli, to accompany them to visit the grand khan. They reached Armenia and heard that the soldan of Babylonia, named Bundokdari, had invaded Armenian territory. The friars feared for their lives and returned home. (TMPV, P.12) 1271 1274 The Polos spent three and a half years traveling to the residence of the grand khan at Cle-men-fu. The grand khan was pleased with Marco Polo and employed him for the next seventeen years as a personal representative of the khan in state matters. (TMPV, P.12) 1271 1368 ?The Yuan Dynasty? by James Cahill is the 2nd section of Wu Hung?s 1997 ?The Origins of Chinese Painting.? The period is marked by the emergence of the literati-amateur movement. (WSJ, 1/2/98, p.6) 1272 nend Feb 24, Jacob, an Italian-Jewish trader, departed in haste from Zaitun, China. [see 1271] (SFEC, 9/21/97, p.A23) 1272 nend Apr 17, Zita (Cita), Italian maid, saint, died at about age 59. (MC, 4/17/02) 1272 nend Nov 21, Edward I was proclaimed King of England. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_I_of_England) 1272 nend Kublai-khan sent an army to the countries of Vochang and Karazan. The King of Mien and Bangala, in India, opposed the advance of the Tartars and a major battle was fought, wherein the Tartars were victorious. (TMPV, P.192)(Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 1272 nend Forces of the King of Naples occupied Durrës and established the Kingdom of Arbëria, the first Albanian kingdom since the fall of Illyria. (www, Albania, 1998) 1273 nend Oct 1, Rudolf of Hapsburg was elected emperor in Germany. (HN, 10/1/98) 1273 nend Marco Polo crossed Afghan Turkistan. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1273 nend Kublai-khan assigned his general, Chin-san Bay-an, the ?Hundred-eyed,? to invade the province of Manji under Prince Facfur. Facfur fled under attack and his queen was sent to Kublai-khan, who supported her in dignity. (TMPV, P.211) 1273 1291 Rudolf I, King of Germany and emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. He founded the Hapsburg dynasty. (WUD, 1994, p.1251) 1274 nend Mar 7, Thomas Aquinas (48), Italian theologian, saint, died. (MC, 3/7/02) 1274 nend May 7, The Second Council of Lyons opened in France to regulate the election of the pope. (HN, 5/7/99) 1274 nend Jul 11, Robert the Bruce, King of Scotland (1306-1329), was born in Turnberry, Scotland. (HN, 7/11/01)(MC, 7/11/02) 1274 nend Upon Edward?s succession to the English throne, he demanded Llywelyn ap Gruffydd pay homage to him before he recognized him as Prince of Wales. (HNQ, 7/14/00) 1274 nend Thomas Aquinas was summoned before a council at Lyons to answer for his opinions. He was publicly chastised but not condemned. (V.D.-H.K.p.122) 1274 nend The first Mongol invasion of Japan. [see 1264] (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 1274 nend Lal Shahbaz Qalandar (b.1177), born as Seyyed Shah Hussain Marandi in Marand (near the city of Tabriz) in Azerbaijan (then part of Iran), died. He had migrated to Sindh and settled in Sehwan and was buried there. He is also known as Shaikh Hussain Marandi. He was a Sufi in the regions that lie in the Sindh province of Pakistan. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahbaz_Qalander) c 1274 nend Nadruva, Prussia, was the home of the pagan spiritual leader Krivis, who was dear to the Baltic people. (H of L, 1931, p.25)(TB-Com, 10/11/00)(Petras Dusburgietis. Prusijoszemes kronika. Vilnius, 1985, p. 87) 1274 1277 The Knights of the Cross overcame the Prussian towns of Nadruva and Skalva. (Petras Dusburgietis. Prusijos zemes kronika (Chronicle of thePrussian Lands). Vilnius, 1985, p. 189-196) 1275 nend May 23, King Edward I of England ordered a cessation to the persecution of French Jews. (MC, 5/23/02) 1275 nend In England there was an earthquake at Glastonbury. (Local Inscription, 2000) 1275 1292 Marco Polo left Italy for China. He lived there during the reign of Kubla Khan and learned about pasta, sherbet, and paper currency. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1275 1325 The Henderson Site in New Mexico, USA, was occupied by about a 100 people in a village with about 50 large rooms. The Indians occupying the site were in between the Plains hunters and the Pueblo farmers and showed evidence of both cultures. They grew corn and regularly ate dog. After the corn harvest they abandoned their village each year to hunt bison. The site is being excavated by a team from the Univ. of Mich. (MT, 12/94, p.2-3) 1276 nend Nov, Edward decided to force Llywelyn ap Gruffydd into submission in November of 1276. Edward was aided by Llywelyn?s brother Daffydd ap Gruffydd and Prince Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn of Powys?both of whom Llywelyn had expelled for plotting his assassination. (HNQ, 7/14/00) 1276 nend A 25-year drought began in the Four Corner region. (HN, 2/11/97)(AM, 9/01, p.44) 1276 1299 Tree growth rings revealed that another drought occurred in the southwest US. This period corresponded with the abandonment of Anasazi dwelling sites in Arizona. (Hem., 5/97, p.79) 1277 nend King Edward of England invaded Wales. Edward was aided by Llywelyn ap Gruffydd?s brother Daffydd ap Gruffydd and Prince Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn of Powys?both of whom Llywelyn had expelled for plotting his assassination. (HN, 2/17/99)(HNQ, 7/14/00) c 1277 nend Invaders from central Asia conquered China. (ATC, p.73) 1278 nend May 10, Jews of England were imprisoned on charges of coining. [see Nov 17] (MC, 5/10/02) 1278 nend Nov 17, In England 680 Jews were arrested for counterfeiting coins. 293 were hanged. [see May 10] (MC, 11/17/01) 1278 nend Work resumed on the Leaning Tower of Pisa, whose tilt had shifted from north to south. By 1995 it was 5.5 degrees off plumb. (SSFC, 10/19/03, p.C3) 1278 nend Nestorian Christians under the governor, Mar-sachis, appointed by the grand-khan for three years, built three Nestorian Churches in the city of Chan-ghian-fu, in the province of Manji. (TMPV, P.220) 1278 nend The co-principality of Andorra was created after long-running ownership disputes between the Bishops of Seu and the Counts of Foix. They agreed to recognize each other as co-princes of Andorra. (Hem., 3/97, p.74) 1278 nend In Wales Carreg Cennen, a castle on a hilltop above Trapp, fell to English hands. (SFEC, 5/10/98, p.T4) 1278 1477 In 2004 Tim Hyman covered this period in his book: "Sienese Painting: "The Art of a City-Republic." (Econ, 1/17/04, p.75) 1279 nend Mar 5, Lithuanians overcame Livonian forces at Aizkraukle. (LHC, 3/5/03) 1279 nend In Germany the castle across the Rhine from Assmannshausen was first mentioned. It was restored by architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel in the 19th century and named Rheinstein. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.T4) 1279 1368 The Yuan, or Mongol, dynasty in China (1279-1368) was established by the great Kublai Khan (reigned 1259-94), a grandson of Genghis. (www.gobiexpeditions.com) 1280 nend Nov 15, Albertus Magnus (87), German leader and bishop Regensburg, died. (MC, 11/15/01) 1280 nend Liu Guandao, court painter, depicted the Mongol ruler Kubilai Khan hunting on a sandy, windswept landscape. (SFEC, 10/6/96, DB p.37) 1280 nend Marco Polo visited the country of Ziamba (Viet-Nam). He noted that the king had 326 children, and that it was the custom for all young women to be proved by the king before being given in marriage. Marco noted the bounty of elephants, lignum-aloes, and black ebony. (TMPV, P.261) 1280 nend St. Julien-le-Pauvre was built in Paris. It became a barn during the French revolution and is now a Greek Orthodox church. (SFC, 9/1/96, T8) 1280 nend German merchants formed the Hanseatic League to facilitate trade. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1280 nend In Germany a spinning wheel invented in China was demonstrated in Speyer. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1280 nend About this time someone near Pisa, Italy, riveted 2 small magnifying lenses to form the 1st optical device that could be worn on the bridge of the nose. (WSJ, 4/6/06, p.A12)(www.antiquespectacles.com) 1280 nend In the Netherlands Muiden Castle, 10 miles east of Amsterdam, dates to this time. (SFEC, 1/31/99, p.T13) 1280 1354 Wu Chen, Chinese painter and master of calligraphy. He also mastered the play of void and presence at the heart of Chinese ink painting. (SFC, 10/14/96, p.B3) 1281 nend Aug 14, During the second Mongol attempt to conquer Japan, Kublai Khan's invading fleet disappeared in typhoon off of Japan. A Mongol army of 45,000 from Korea had joined an armada with 120,000 men from southern China landing at Hakozaki Bay. The typhoon destroyed their fleet leaving them to death or slavery. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(EWH, 4th ed., p.369)(MC, 8/14/02) 1281 nend Osman I came to power at the age of 23 and began a steady campaign against the Byzantines until his death in 1324. He managed to capture many Byzantine fortresses, most notably Bursa, consolidating Ottoman power in the region. Generally regarded as the founder of the Ottoman Turkish state, Osman I (also known as Osman Gazi) led ongoing campaigns against the Byzantines in the 13th and early 14th centuries AD. Part of the migration of Turkic tribes into Anatolia, Osman was the son of Ertugrul, who had established a principality in present-day Sögüt, Turkey. (HNQ, 2/19/01) 1281 1285 In Lithuania Daumantas served as Grand Duke. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1282 nend Mar 30, Furious inhabitants of Palermo attacked French occupation force in the "Sicilian Vespers." The Mafia appeared in Sicily to revolt against French rule after a drunken soldier attacked a young woman on her wedding day. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42)(MC, 3/30/02) 1282 nend Mar 31, The great massacre of the French in Sicily, "The Sicilian Vespers," came to an end. [see Aug 31,1303] (HN, 3/31/99) 1282 nend Apr 28, Villagers in Palermo led a revolt against French rule in Sicily. (HN, 4/28/98) 1282 nend Andronicus II Papaeologus became ruler over Byzantium. [see 330AD] (WSJ, 11/14/95, p. A-12) 1283 nend In Germany the Marksburg Castle was built by the Katzenelbogans to defend the silver and lead mines of Braubach. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.T5) 1284 nend Apr 25, Edward II, king of England (1307-1327), was born. (HN, 4/25/02) 1284 nend Jun 26, The Pied Piper lured away 130 children of Hamelin (Hameln, Germany). Robert Browning used this event for his poem "The Pied Piper of Hamelin" (1842). (MC, 6/26/02) 1284 nend In England the eldest son of Edward I became the Prince of Wales. (SFC, 7/23/97, p.A10) 1285 nend Mar 24, Lithuanian Grand Duke Daumantas (1281-1285) died. (LHC, 3/24/03) 1285 nend May 10, Philip IV (Fair) succeeded Philip III as King of Spain. (HN, 5/10/99) 1285 nend Oct 5, Philippe III, the Stout, King of France (1270-85), died. (MC, 10/5/01) 1285 nend Oct 12, 180 Jews refused baptism in Munich, Germany, and were set on fire. (MC, 10/12/01) 1286 nend Nov 22, Erik V Klipping (b.1249), king of Denmark, was murdered. (Internet) 1286 nend Emperor Rudolph I abrogated the political freedom of Jews and imposed on them special taxes. Rabbi Meir Ben Baruch (aka Maharam), head of the Jewish community in Rothenburg, tried to lead group of Jews to Palestine but was arrested and confined in an Alsatian fortress. He refused to be freed for ransom and died in prison. The Jews of Rothenburg were then re-expelled to a ghetto beyond the city walls. (NH, 9/96, p.24) 1286 nend Tartar Chief Nayan, kinsman of Kublai, attempted to gain independence from the grand-khan, and a war ensued. (TMPV, P.108) 1286 nend Arghun, son of Abaga - lord of the east, engaged and defeated the army of Kaidu under Kaidu?s brother, Barac, in the plain of the Arbor Secco by the river Ion. Abaga died shortly after and Arghun was force to fight his uncle, the Acomat Soldan, who claimed succession. Arghun was initially defeated and captured, but escaped with the help of the Tartar baron Boga. They gathered forces and slew the melik Soldan, who was in charge of Acomat?s army. Later Acomat was captured and slain. (TMPV, pp.325-334) 1287 nend Dec 14, The Zuider Zee seawall collapsed with the loss of 50,000 lives. (MC, 12/14/01) 1287 nend The forces of Kublai Khan overran Burma. The royal city of Bagan was abandoned under threat from Kublai Khan in the 13th century. The brick temple of Ananda Pahto is in Bagan. More than 4,400 pagodas and 3,000 other religious structures of bricks and stones were built in Bagan, Myanmar's former capital, during a 243-year period from the 11th to 13th centuries, the result of extraordinary Buddhist fervor. (SFEC, 10/22/00, p.T9)(DC, 10/10/98)(AP, 12/1/03) 1288 nend Feb 29, Scotland made it legal for women to propose to men. The Scottish Parliament passed a Leap Year Act whereby women could propose to men. The tradition had begun in 5th century Ireland. (SFEC, 6/8/97, Z1 p.6)(SFC, 2/29/00, p.A1) 1288 nend Apr 24, Jews of Yroyes France were accused of ritual murder. (MC, 4/24/02) 1288 nend Sep 29, Maud de Brabant (b.1224) died in Belgium. (www.peterwestern.f9.co.uk/maximilia/pafg60.htm) 1288 nend Kublai Khan was described by Marco Polo as being 85 years old and having reigned for 42 years. This would put his rule to begin in 1246. (TMPV, P.108) 1288 nend Marco Polo related that the Christian King of Abascia (or Abyssinia) in Middle India decided to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem but was dissuaded by his advisors. In his place he sent a bishop, who upon returning through Aden was picked up by the soldan of Aden and urged to become a Mohametan. The bishop refused and was forcefully circumcised. This later led to a war in which the Abyssinian king took the city of Aden and gave it up to pillage. (TMPV, P.255) 1288 nend In Sweden a charter recognized the sale of a stake in the Stora Kopparberg copper mine to Bishop Petrus of Vasteras for his parish. In the 1970's Stora sold its mining operations to focus on forest products and power. In 1998 it merged to become Stora Enso, a paper-packaging and timber firm. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42)(Econ, 12/18/04, p.105) 1289 nend Apr 29, Qala'un, the Sultan of Egypt, captured Tripoli. (HN, 4/29/98) 1289 nend Oct 4, Louis X, the Stubborn, king of France (1314-16), was born. (MC, 10/4/01) 1289 nend Eyeglasses were first recorded in Florence by a man named di Popozo. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R21) 1290 nend Jul 12, Jews were expelled from England by order of King Edward I. (MC, 7/12/02) 1290 nend Aug 16, Charles of Valois married Margaret of Anjou. (MC, 8/16/02) 1290 nend Oct 9, Last of 16,000 English Jews, expelled by King Edward I, left. The country was on the verge of bankruptcy. The debt to Jewish bankers was written off and all Jews were expelled from England. The Medicis and other northern Italian bankers were invited as a replacement. (SFEC, 6/22/97, BR p.3)(MC, 10/9/01) 1290 nend William of Ockham (d.1349), English Franciscan scholastic philosopher, was born. He became known for the maxim called Occam?s Razor (Ockham?s razor): "Entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem." (Entries should not be multiplied unnecessarily). A modern version of this principle of logic might be: "The simpler, the better." [see 1349] (V.D.-H.K.p.123)(WUD, 1994 p.996)(AP, 2/4/99) 1290 nend The Ottoman Empire began. (SSFC, 10/14/01, p.A3) c 1290 1361 Philippe de Vitry, French music theorist, composer and poet. (WUD, 1994, p.1598)(SFC, 2/15/99, p.E7) 1291 nend Feb 8, Afonso IV, King of Portugal (1325-57), was born. (MC, 2/8/02) 1291 nend Mar 5, Sa'ad al'Da'ulah, Jewish grand vizier of Persia, was assassinated. (MC, 3/5/02) 1291 nend May 10, Scottish nobles grudgingly recognized the authority of English king Edward I. (MC, 5/10/02) 1291 nend May 18, Acre, the last major stronghold of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, fell to the hands of Al-Ashraf Khalil and his forces from Egypt and Syria after a siege of 43 days. It had been in the hands of the Franks for 100 years. Egyptian Mamelukes (Mamluks) occupied Akko (Acre). The crusaders were driven out of Palestine. Khalil, al-Ashraf Salah ad-Din, the Mamluk King, conquered Akko and put an end to the Crusader?s rule in the Holy Land. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Acre_%281291%29)(Arch, 7/02,p.19) 1291 nend Aug 1, The Everlasting League formed and became the basis of Swiss Confederation. The people of the 3 small cantons (Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden) formed a co-operative pact called the Bundesbrief following the death of Habsburg Emp. Rudolf I. (Econ, 2/14/04, Survey p.6) 1291 nend The Catholic Franciscan order arrived in Bosnia. (SFC, 4/15/97, p.A10) 1291 nend A law made by the Doge ordered that all glass furnaces be moved from Venice to Murano. (www.henokiens.com/index_barovier_gb.php) 1291 1295 In Lithuania Butvydas served as Grand Duke. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1292 nend Dec 9, Sa'di, great Persian poet (Orchard, Rose Garden), died. (MC, 12/9/01) 1292 nend The Polos began their return journey to Europe. They accompanied a Mongol princess who was to marry Arghun Khan, ruler of Persia. The Polos arrived at the island of Java and then sailed for eighteen months in the Indian Seas to reach king Arghun. They learned that Arghun?s kingdom was being administered by Ki-akato, and that the Mongol princess should be delivered to Kasan, son of Arghun, then on the borders of Persia at the arbor secco. (V.D.-H.K.p.171)(TMPV, P.12) c 1292 nend A ?No Loitering? sign was engraved on rock at an ancient cemetery near Mill River, Mass., in the Phoenician language called Iberian Punic some 200 years before Columbus made his 1492 trip. (SFC, 10/17/98, p.E5) 1293 nend The Polos arrived in Persia and found that Arghun Khan had died. His son Mahmud Ghazan now ruled Persia and married the princess. The Polos soon reached Trebizond on the southern coast of the Black Sea and were welcomed by a band of robbers who stripped them of most of their riches. Years later (1298) Marco Polo published in Venice ?Il Milione,? The Travels of Marco Polo. (V.D.-H.K.p.171)(WSJ, 9/4/98, p.W12) 1294 nend Feb 12, Kublai Khan, the conqueror of Asia, died at the age of 80. (HN, 2/12/99) 1294 nend May 3, Jan I, duke of Brabant, Limburg, poet, died. (MC, 5/3/02) 1294 nend Jun 30, Jews were expelled from Bern, Switzerland. (MC, 6/30/02) 1294 nend Jul 5, Pietro di Murrone, a pious hermit, was elected as Pope Celestine V. He was so besieged by the political, social and religious challenges of the position that just five months later, on December 13, he became the first pope to resign, for which he was imprisoned by his successor, Boniface VIII. He died in the castle of Fumone, May 19, 1296. (SFEC, 10/22/00, p.A20)(www.newadvent.org/cathen/03479b.htm) 1294 nend When Arghun died by probable poisoning after six years of rule, he was succeeded by his uncle, Ki-akato, who was able to seize power because the son of Arghun, Kasan, was far away. After two years Ki-akato was poisoned and his uncle, Baidu, a Christian, seized power. Kasan then assembled an army and marched against Baidu. Kasan was victorious and gained control over the Eastern Tartars. (TMPV, pp. 334-336) 1294 nend The Polos received news of the death of Kublai, the grand khan. (TMPV, P.19) 1294 nend The Great Geysir was discovered in Iceland and gave rise to the community named Geysir. Geyser became the generic name for all water spouts. (SSFC, 7/17/05, p.D6) 1294 nend In Bologna two-thirds of the citizens were listed as guild members or their relatives. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1295 nend Marco Polo narrated his travels to master Rustigielo, a citizen of Pisa, from a prison in Genoa. (TMPV, P.4) 1295 nend Jacobellus Barovier, founder of a glass-making family, was born. His sons, Antonio and Bartolomeo in 1348 registered as "fioliare" (glassmakers) in Murano, across the lagoon from Venice, Italy. The Barovier firm merged with the Murano-based Toso firm in the 1930s. no_source 11 nend /24/07, p.73) no_source 1295 nend Vytenis began to rule over Lithuania. In response to German castle construction along the shores of the Nemunas River, Vytenis began constructing castles of wood in addition to those at: Junigeda, Bisena, Kolainis, Medvegalis, and Putenikis. He also reorganized the army and ruled to 1316. (H of L, 1931, p.32)(Ist. L.H., 1948, p. 41)(TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1295 nend Trieste became a Free Imperial City. (www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Rotunda/2209/Trieste.html) 1296 nend Apr 27, England?s King Edward I defeated the Scots at the Battle of Dunbar. He deposed King John and exiled him to France. (HN, 4/27/99) 1296 nend May 19, Pietro di Murrone, former Pope Celestine V, died in the castle of Fumone, where he was imprisoned by his successor, Boniface VIII. (SFEC, 10/22/00, p.A20)(www.newadvent.org/cathen/03479b.htm) 1296 nend Aug 10, John the Blind, King of Bohemia, Count of Luxembourg, was born. (MC, 8/10/02) 1296 nend King Edward I of England stole the 458-pound Stone at Scone from Scotland. It was returned to Scotland in 1996. (SFC, 11/16/96, p.A11) 1297 nend Jan 7, Francois Grimaldi (Francois the Crafty) of Genoa disguised himself as a monk and appeared at the fortress on the Rock of Monaco. Once inside he called his reinforcements and seized the place. (SFC, 1/8/97, p.C1)(Econ, 12/24/05, p.84) 1297 nend Sep 11, Scots under William Wallace ?Braveheart? defeated the English army at Stirling Bridge, Scotland. The 1995 epic film Braveheart dramatized the life of 13th-century Scot William Wallace. While many Scots and others praised the film for reviving the legend of the Scottish hero, just as many people criticized the film for its numerous historical inaccuracies. For instance, the Battle of Stirling Bridge is an excellent example of Wallace?s military genius and what led him to being knighted in the film and real life. However, in the film, the battle takes place on an open field. (Reportedly, when a local asked actor/director Mel Gibson why the battle was being filmed with such an obvious discrepancy, Gibson explained that the bridge got in the way. The local responded, "Aye. That?s what the English found!") In addition, one of the film?s most intriguing twists is pure Hollywood invention. A calendar puts the lie to the tale of Wallace?s affair with Princess Isabella, wife of Prince Edward II, and his fathering of her child. Isabella and Edward II married in 1307, two years after Wallace?s execution. Her son, Edward III, was born in the years that followed. (WSJ, 9/9/97, p.A1)(HN, 9/11/98)(HNQ, 3/19/01) 1297 nend Sep 11, Hugh de Cressingham, English treasurer, died in battle. (MC, 9/11/01) c 1297 nend In Hawaii a temple was built near the Kilauea Volcano that is believed to have been used for human sacrifice. The Waha?ula Heiau temple near Volcanoes National Park was one of the first temples built on the islands, supposedly by a foreigner, who brought brutal religious rituals to the islands. (SFC, 8/12/97, p.A3)(SFEC, 9/7/97, p.T8) 1297 nend The people of Riga rose against the Teutonic Knights. The local Bishop asked Vytenis to help and the Knights were pushed back. This opened a northern trade route for Vytenis for weapons and supplies. (Ist. L.H., 1948, p. 50) 1298 nend Mar 30, Duke Vytenis joined with Riga and its archbishop against the Livonian order. (LHC, 3/30/03) 1298 nend Jun 24, Rindfleish Persecutions: Jews of Ifhauben, Austria, were massacred. (MC, 6/24/02) 1298 nend Jul 2, An army under Albert of Austria defeated and killed Adolf of Nassua near Worms, Germany. (HN, 7/2/98) 1298 nend Jul 22, King Edward I combined bowmen and cavalry to defeat William Wallace's Scots at Falkirk. (HN, 7/22/98) 1298 nend Jul 23, Jews were massacred at Wurzburg, Germany. (MC, 7/23/02) 1298 nend Oct 19, Rindfleish: 140 Jews of Heilbron Germany were murdered. (MC, 10/19/01) 1298 nend Tamerlane plundered Delhi, India. (SFEC, 5/21/00, p.T8) 1298 nend The ?Travels of Marco Polo? was published. (WSJ, 9/4/98, p.W12) 1299 nend The Count of Holland gained control of the County of Zeeland, which had been under contention between Holland and Flanders. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeeland) 1300 nend Jan 1, A Jubilee Year, the symbolic moment for Dante's Divine Comedy. It marked the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Renaissance. Pope Boniface VIII had issued a Papal Bull that declared a Rome Holy Year, "Giubileo." The event was such a success that papal gendarmes had to execute several dozen people to bring the crowds under control. Pope Bonifacius VIII introduced Jubilee indulgences. (V.D.-H.K.p.123)(WSJ, 4/2/97, p.A12)(WSJ, 1/13/00, p.A1) c 1300 nend Women?s corsets were first developed about this time. See the discussion by Marilyn Yalom in her 1997 book: "History of the Breast." (SFEC, 2/9/97, z1 p.3) c 1300 nend The Panum Crater at Mono Lake, Ca., erupted about this time. (SFEC, 5/31/98, p.T4) c 1300 nend The Anasazi Indian culture of the American southwest, 15 to 20 thousand people, disappeared from the Four Corners region about this time. All the Anasazi were gone from Mesa Verde. They probably moved south and broke up into present-day Pueblo tribes. Anasazi means enemy ancestors in Navajo. (SFC, 5/19/96, T-1)(HN, 2/11/97)(AM, 9/01, p.44) c 1300 nend The 18-acre Hatalacva Pueblo in Arizona contains the rare Tuzigoot Phase Southern Sinagua pueblo of this time. (AM, adv. circular, p.2) c 1300 nend The Mississippian people, the largest pre-Columbian culture north of Mexico, built the earthen city of Cahokia about this time. The site, discovered in southwestern Illinois, probably served as a religious center and may have had a population of up to 80,000. The Mississippians arose around 800 AD and remained a powerful influence until about the time of the first European explorers. The loose-knit theocracy held sway over much of present-day Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, Ohio and, not surprisingly, Mississippi. They also had settlements extending sporadically into the upper Midwest and across the western plains. The largest of the earthen mounds at Cahokia, called Monks Mound, is 700 feet wide, 100 feet tall and 1000 feet long--representing a colossal public works program and a government stable enough to order the construction. (HNQ, 1/29/01) 1300 nend A drought pervaded the southwest of North America. (Sm, 3/06, p.74) 1300 nend Florence was established as the banker of Europe, and its coin, the florin, became the first international currency. Its citizens sought ... a splendor of art and architecture belonging to all the people that would make their city the envy of people everywhere... The Medici family was most prominent here. (V.D.-H.K.p.156) 1300 nend A Jewish merchant ransomed the body of Rabbi Meir, imprisoned in 1284, and buried him in Worms. (NH, 9/96, p.24) 1300 nend The Oude Kerk church in Amsterdam dates to this time. (SSFC, 1/7/01, p.T9) c 1300 nend In Tibet the Jonang Buddhist monastery was established. In 1997 Chinese authorities closed down the 700-year old monastery and sent the monks home after they refused to denounce the Dalai Lama. (SFC, 1/29/99, p.E9) 1300 nend s England recruited Flemish weavers with promises of "good beer, good food, good bed and good bedfellow." (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1300 nend Paris, with its population between 200,000 and 300,000, was at this time the largest city in the world. (HNQ, 4/18/02) c 1300 nend s In Scotland the Dunrobin Castle in the northern Highlands dates top the early 1300s. (SFEM, 1/31/99, p.6) 1300 1307 The Gladzor Gospels, Armenian illuminated manuscripts whose images are the work of five artists, T'oros Taronets being the only one whose name is known. These gospels are a defining document of the medieval Armenian church's doctrinal independence. (SF Chronicle, 5/12/1994, p. E-5) 1300 1358 Jean Buridan, Parisian theologian, attempted to resolve the problem with Aristotle?s law of motion with the idea of impetus, i.e. that a moving body does not need to be continuously pushed to stay in motion due to its impetus provided by a violent motion upon it. no_source 1300 1377 Guillaume de Machaut, French poet and composer. (WUD, 1994, p.629)(SFC, 2/15/99, p.E7) 1300 1400 Odoric of Pordenone spent 3 years in China in the 14th century. (NH, 10/98, p.69) 1300 1400 In China Kublai Khan made Beijing the imperial capital in the 14th century. (AMNHDT, 5/98) 1300 1400 In Cameroon the kingdom of Foumban began in the 14th century. (WSJ, 9/23/06, p.A1) 1300 1400 In Egypt the nose of the Sphinx was lost in the 14th century. (SFC, 5/26/98, p.A8) 1300 1400 In the 14th century "The Dunmow Flitch" prize was awarded in Dunmow, Essex, England, to any couple who could come after a year of marriage and truthfully swear that they never quarreled and did not regret the marriage and would do it over again. (SFC, 12/26/96, p.C16) 1300 1400 In Europe the Brethren of the Free Spirit (aka Beghards) flaunted both moral law and church doctrine because they believed that their exalted station as saved Christians raised them above the ranks of ordinary mortals. The heresy was termed Antinomianism. (WSJ, 1/28/98, p.A19) 1300 1400 The Kebra Negast, a 14th cent. Ethiopian text, claims that the Queen of Sheba came from Ethiopia to see Solomon and that he tricked her into sleeping with him and bearing him a son. (WSJ, 5/2/97, p.A6) 1300 1400 The "Chronicle of the Morea" is a 14th century history of southern Greece. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.58) 1300 1400 A family in Deruta, Italy, began producing majolica pottery. In 2008 the Grazia majolica factory was the 13th oldest family business in the world. (SFC, 3/5/08, p.G5) 1300 1400 In Portugal a spiritual retreat for monks was built in Redondo. It later became the Hotel Convento de Sao Paolo. (SFEC, 4/26/98, p.T6) 1300 1400 In Russia the Danilov Monastery was built 3 miles south of the Kremlin by Prince Daniel, founder of Moscow?s 14th century dynasty. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.36) 1300 1400 Vodka is believed to have originated in the 14th century in the grain-growing region that now embraces Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, and western Russia. It also has a long tradition in Scandinavia. The first written record of vodka in Poland dates from 1405 in the Sandomierz Court Registry. (WSJ, 2/10/06, p.A14)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodka) 1300 1400 In Romania the Sihastra Monastery was founded in the 14th century. (SFC, 12/7/98, p.A25) 1300 1400 Krusevac, Serbia, was the capital of an empire that included Yugoslavia, Albania and Greece. (SFEC, 4/25/99, p.A28) c 1300 1400 In the early 14th century the Gottscheers settled in the Carniola region of what later became Slovenia. The Germanic people were sent there to till the land and pay taxes to the Carinthian counts of Ortenburg and to serve as a forward guard for the Holy Roman Empire. (SFC, 6/16/99, p.A12) 1300 1600 Tombs with decorated pillars called phallic pillars by the locals are widespread among the Oromo of Somalia and Kenya, where they symbolize manhood and indicate interred men. (NH, 6/97, p.45) 1300 1700 In Thailand kilns at Intrakil date from the Lanna kingdom of this time. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.G) 1300 nend c1700 The period of the Renaissance. The 1998 book "The Scholar in His Study: Ownership and Experience in Renaissance Italy" by Dora Thornton covered this period. In 1970 Prof. Charles Trinkaus authored the 2-volume work "In Our Image and Likeness: Humanity and Divinity in Italian Humanist Thought." In 1985 Claude Palisca (d.2001) authored "Humanism in Italian Renaissance Musical Thought." (SFEC, 2/15/98, BR p.8)(SFC, 9/27/99, p.A26)(SFC, 1/23/01, p.C2) 1300 1850 Historical records and scientific data on oxygen isotope ratios of Viking teeth indicate a period of cooling temperatures called a Little Ice Age of Northern Europe. (LSA, Spring 1995, p.32) 1301 nend Feb 7, Edward of Caernarion (later Edward II) became the 1st prince of Wales. (MC, 2/7/02) 1301 nend Jul 4, Battle at Breukelen: Holland vs. Lichtenberg. (Maggio) 1302 nend Jan 27, Dante became a Florentine political exile. (MC, 1/27/02) 1302 nend Mar 11, Romeo and Juliet were married on this day, according to Shakespeare. (HN, 3/11/98)(MC, 3/11/02) 1302 nend May 18, The weaver Peter de Coningk led a massacre of the Flemish oligarchs at the French garrison (Brugse Metten). (HN, 5/18/99)(SC, 5/18/02) 1302 nend Jul 11, An army of French knights, led by the Count of Artois, was routed by Flemish pikemen. (HN, 7/11/98) 1303 nend May 20, France returned Gascony to England?s Edward I. (HN, 5/20/98)(PC, 1992 ed, p121) 1303 nend Aug 31, The War of Vespers in Sicily ended with an agreement between Charles of Valois, who invaded the country, and Frederick, the ruler of Sicily. (HN, 8/31/98) 1303 nend Sep 8, Anagni: French king Philip IV captured Pope Boniface VIII. (MC, 9/8/01) 1303 nend In Egypt the Pharos Lighthouse at Alexandria was toppled by an earthquake. (SFEC, 4/5/98, Par p.20) 1303 nend Enrico Scrovegni?s Padova (Padua) Chapel, begun in 1300, was completed. Giotto began painting a fresco cycle there with scenes from the Old and New Testaments. The decorations were completed in 1305. (SFC,11/18/97, p.E7)(http://tinyurl.com/ylnhxa) 1303 nend The Baltic Sea froze over. The event is described by Barbara Tuchman in her book "A Distant Mirror." (NOHY, 3/90, p.127) 1303 nend Filippo di Amedeo de Peruzzi, Florentine banker, died. He had established bank branches in Naples, Paris and London and underwrote business ventures across Europe. The family went bankrupt when Edward III of England defaulted on his debts after losing the Hundred Years War. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1304 nend Jul 20, Francisco Petrarch (d.1374), Italian poet and scholar, founder of Renaissance Humanism, was born in Arezzo. He was educated at Avignon and saw himself as a Florentine, Italian, and man of the world. He was a poet and autodidact who never stopped studying until his death. (V.D.-H.K.p.131)(HN, 7/20/98) 1304 nend The Hotel Pilgrim Haus was founded in Soest, Germany. (SFC, 4/14/06, p.D1) 1305 nend Aug 23, Scottish patriot William Wallace was hanged, drawn, beheaded, and quartered in London. (HN, 8/23/98)(SFEC, 4/11/99, Z1 p.8) 1305 nend The House of Taxis operated a courier messenger service for rich European clients. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1305 nend Giotto (1267-1337) finished a cycle of frescoes, telling the story of Jesus and Mary, inside Enrico Scrovegni?s new chapel in Padua. (SFC, 11/17/01, p.D4)(WSJ, 11/18/06, p.P16) 1306 nend Mar 25, Robert the Bruce (1274-1329) was crowned king of Scotland as the successor to King John. (HN, 7/11/01)(ON, 2/08, p.6) 1306 nend Jul 22, King Phillip the Fair ordered the expulsion of Jews from France. They returned to Montpellier in 1319, having been recalled by King Sancho, who protected them in 1320 against the fury of the Pastoureaux. no_source 1306 nend Aug 8, King Wenceslas of Poland was murdered. (HN, 8/8/98) 1306 nend Pierre Dubois, a counselor for the Duke of Burgundy, called for a European federation. (Econ, 1/3/04, p.39) 1306 nend English forces defeated Scottish forces under Robert Bruce at Methven near Perth. Bruce escaped to Rathlin Island. (ON, 2/08, p.6) 1306 1307 The Baltic Sea froze over again. The event is described by Barbara Tuchman in her book "A Distant Mirror." (NOHY, 3/90, p.127) 1307 nend May 10, Forces under Robert Bruce of Scotland defeated the English at Loudoun Hill. Over the next few years Bruce gained control over much of the Scottish countryside. (ON, 2/08, p.6) 1307 nend Jul 7, Edward I (b.1239), King (Longshanks) of England (1272-1307), died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_I_of_England) 1307 nend Oct 13, French king Philip IV convicted the Knights Templar of heresy. Members of the Knights of Templar were arrested throughout France, imprisoned and tortured by the order of the King Philip the Fair. (HN, 10/13/98)(MC, 10/13/01) 1307 nend Nov 18, William Tell shot an apple off his son's head. (MC, 11/18/01) 1307 nend Edward II ascended the English throne and had his former tutor, Piers Gaston, brought back to England and made him the Earl of Cornwall. (www.stonewallsociety.com/famouspeople/king.htm) 1307 nend Mansa Musa (d.1337), Mali?s greatest ruler, succeeded to the throne. He commissioned grand mosques. (ATC, p.119)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R4,6) 1307 nend Poland tried to gain back the Kulm territory but in their struggle with the Teutonic Knights they lost Pomerania and their access to the Baltic. (Ist. L.H., 1948, p. 69) 1308 nend Feb 25, Edward II was crowned King of England. (AP, 2/25/07) 1308 nend May 1, King Albert [of Austria] was murdered by his nephew John, because he refused his share of the Habsburg lands. (HN, 5/1/99) 1308 nend Nov 8, John Duns Scotus (42), Scottish-born theologian and philosopher, died in Germany. Scotus and his adherents came under attack by critics in the 16th century, giving rise to the term "dunce." (AP, 11/8/08)(www.catholic-forum.com/saints/saintj55.htm) 1308 nend Princess Isabella (12) married England?s King Edward II (23). In 2005 Alison Weir authored ?Isabella: She-Wolf of France, Queen of England. (Econ, 9/10/05, p.81) 1308 nend The "Parchment of Chinon" contained the decision by Pope Clement V to save the Templars and their order. The document was misplaced for centuries in the archives and found again by researchers in 2001. In 2007 it was published as part of the Vatican?s secret archive documents about the trial of the Knights Templar. (AP, 10/12/07) c 1308 1385 Wang Meng, Chinese artist, his work included "Temple at Mount Taibai." (WSJ, 1/2/98, p.6) 1308 1708 The Gonzagas ruled over Mantua, Italy. (WSJ, 10/10/02, p.D10) 1309 nend Apr 30, Kazimierz III de Great, King of Poland (1333-70), was born. (MC, 4/30/02) 1309 1377 Babylonian Captivity during which the popes left Rome and took up residence at Avignon under the wing of the king of France. (V.D.-H.K.p.106) 1310 nend May 12, Fifty-four Knights Templar were burned at the stake as heretics in France. They had been established during the Crusades to protect pilgrims traveling to the Holy Land, but came into increasing conflict with Rome until Pope Clement V officially dissolved them in 1312 at the Council of Vienna. (SC, Internet, 5/12/97) 1310 nend May 20, Shoes began to be made for both right and left feet. (MC, 5/20/02) 1310 nend English forces under Edward II crossed into Scotland to regain control of the territory. (ON, 2/08, p.6) 1310 nend In Korea a hanging silk scroll was painted with an image of Avalokiteshvara. (SFC, 10/14/03, p.D1) 1312 nend Jun 19, Piers Gaveston, earl of Cornwall, was beheaded. (MC, 6/19/02) 1312 nend Nov 13, Edward III, King of England (1327-77), was born. He later raped the countess of Salisbury. (WUD, 1994 p.454)(HN, 11/13/98)(MC, 11/13/01) 1312 nend The Knights Templar were suppressed by Pope Clement at the Council of Vienna. Pressured by King Philip of France, Pope Clement reversed his 1308 decision and suppressed the order. (AHD, 1971, p.724)(SC, Internet, 5/12/97)(AP, 10/12/07) 1312 nend Scots under Robert Bruce attacked Perth, held by the English, and gained control of the city and castle. (ON, 2/08, p.6) 1313 1375 Giovanni Boccaccio, Florentine writer born in Paris. He learned classical Latin and studied classical Greek under Leonzio Pilato, who had spent some time in Byzantium where Greek works were still available. He traveled with Petrarch around southern Europe looking for ancient books and discovered a number of Cicero's letters. Boccaccio wrote all of his major works in Italian, including IL Filostroto (the source of Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde) and the Decameron. (V.D.-H.K.p.133) 1313 1905 The four ancient Confucian texts, Ssu Shu, or "Four Books," were used as subject matter for official Chinese civil service exams in China. The volumes reputedly contain direct quotations from Confucius. (HNPD, 6/27/99) 1314 nend Mar 18, In France Jacques de Molay (b.1244), Grand Master of the Templars, was burned at the stake along with his aides. Surviving monks fled, with some absorbed by other orders. (AP, 10/12/07)(www.templarhistory.com/demolay.html) 1314 nend Apr 20, Clement V, [Bertrand Got], pope (1305-14) who moved papacy to Avignon, died. (MC, 4/20/02) 1314 nend Jun 24, King Robert I (Robert the Bruce) of Scotland with 6,000 men and 500 horses routed English King Edward II with his army of 20,000 at Bannockburn. Bruce secured Scotland?s independence from England and ruled until his death in 1329. A film "The Bruce" was made in 1995 on a $500,000 budget. (AP,6/24/97)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Bannockburn)(ON, 2/08, p.7) 1314 nend Nov 29, Philippe IV, the Handsome, King of France (1285-1314), died. (MC, 11/29/01) 1314 nend England banned football (soccer) for being too violent. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1315 nend Nov 15, Swiss soldiers ambushed and slaughtered invading Austrians in the Battle of Morgarten. The Bundesbrief prevailed over a Habsburg army. Voluntary agreements among the cantons led to the formation of the Willensnation, a nation created by acts of free will by a diverse people. (HN, 11/15/98)(Econ, 2/14/04, p.6) 1315 nend In France Parisian bakers were found guilty of mixing flour with animal droppings during the Great Famine. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1315 nend Louis X, Philip's brother and successor, allowed Jews back into France for financial considerations. Jews were often expelled because of pressure from the Church, economic or political considerations, only to be readmitted at a later date. (www.jewishhistory.org.il/history.php?startyear=1310&endyear=1319) 1315 nend Italian immigrants in France began the Western silk industry. (SFC, 3/11/00, p.B4) 1315 nend The Church of the Holy Virgin was built in Musutiste, Kosovo. In 1999 returning Albanians blew up the church in retaliation for the Serb destruction of their mosque. (SFC, 9/7/99, p.A12) 1315 1316 England experienced a great famine brought on by too much water. (K.I.-365D, p.154) 1316 nend Mar 2, Robert II the Steward, King of Scotland (1371-90), was born. (SC, 3/2/02) 1316 nend May 14, Charles IV (d.1378), later King of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor, was born in the House of Luxembourg. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_emperor_Charles_IV) 1316 nend Jun 4, Louis X (26), King of France (1314-16), died. (MC, 6/4/02) 1316 nend Nov 15, Jean I became king of France, and died 4 days later. (MC, 11/15/01) 1316 nend In Lithuania Grand Duke Vytenis died at Skirsnemune while destroying castles built by the Knights of the Cross. Gediminas, brother of Vytenis, took over rule. He wrote a letter to the Pope that requested an end to attacks by the German orders. The Pope responded in accord but the Germans continued their pressure. (H of L, 1931, p.33,34) 1316 1341 In Lithuania Grand Duke Gediminas pushed back the German orders and extended his territory to the east into Russia. He invited foreign crafts, trades people and engineers. Under his rule, Vilnius became the capital with 2 new castles and the southern and eastern border of Lithuania was extended to include Smolensk, Kiev and Minsk. His rule did not interfere with local languages, religious beliefs or rights. Gediminas wed one daughter to the Prince of Moscow, another to the son of the Polish King and a third to the Prince of Mozur. (Ist. L.H., 1948, p. 52) 1316 1390 Albert of Saxony (aka Albertuccio or little Al), German Scholastic philosopher and physicist. (NH, 5/97, p.59) 1317 nend Feb 3, Pope John XXII, under guidance from Gnesen Archbishop Borislav, offered Catholicism to Lithuania. (LHC, 2/3/03) 1317 nend Apr 20, Agnes van Montepulciano, Italian mystic, saint, died. (MC, 4/20/02) 1319 nend Apr 26, Jean II, the Good, king of France (1350-64), was born. (MC, 4/26/02) 1319 nend May 8, Haakon V, King of Norway (1299-1319), died. (MC, 5/8/02) 1319 nend Ani, capital of Armenia, was devastated by an earthquake. (Econ, 6/17/06, p.59) 1320 nend Oct 12, Michael IX Paleologi, emperor of Byzantine (1295-1320), died. (MC, 10/12/01) 1321 nend Sep 14, Dante Alighieri, author of the "Divine Comedy," died of malaria just hours after finishing writing "Paradiso." The poem was completed in Italian rather than Latin. It helped make Italian the dominant linguistic force in European literature for the next few centuries. In 2006 Barbara Reynolds authored ?Dante: The Poet, the Political Thinker, the Man.? (www.newadvent.org/cathen/04628a.htm)(WSJ, 3/26/99, p.W2)(Econ,12/2/06, p.84) 1322 nend Jun 24, Jews were expelled from France for a 3rd time. (MC, 6/24/02) 1322 nend Arabian writers recorded ideas about artificial insemination. (SFC, 3/21/98, p.E3) 1322 nend The Baltic froze over and a cold spell pervaded Europe. (K.I.-365D, p.154) 1323 nend Oct 16, Amadeus V the Great, count of Flanders and Savoy, died at 74. (MC, 10/16/01) 1324 nend Jan 8, Marco Polo, Venetian explorer, governor of Nanking, died. (MC, 1/8/02) 1324 nend Feb 10, The pope officially chastised the Knights of the Cross for ill treatment of Catholics and for pushing pagans away from Christianity. (LHC, 2/10/03) 1324 nend Feb 26, Dino Compagni, Italian silk seller, poet, chronicler, died. (SC, 2/26/02) 1324 nend Mar 5, David II Bruce, king of Scotland (1331-71), was born. (MC, 3/5/02) 1324 1325 Mansa Musa (Kankan Moussa), king of Mali, made the 3,500 mile pilgrimage to Mecca with gold valued at $115 million in 1999 prices. He traveled with a very large retinue that included 80 camels and 500 slaves. An Arab chronicler said he was surrounded by over 10,000 of his subjects. (ATC, p.119)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6)(SSFC, 4/11/04, p.D6) 1325 nend The Aztecs founded Tenochtitlan, later known as Mexico City, about this time. (www.utexas.edu/utpress/excerpts/expedmus.html) 1325 nend Ibn Battuta (20), a Muslim, left his home in Tangier to journey to Mecca. He traveled in Arabia, Asia, Africa, and Spain and recorded many exciting adventures. His travels lasted some 29 years were described in his book ?The Rihla.? In 1986 Ross E. Dunn authored ?The Adventures of Ibn Battuta? based on The Rihla. (ATC, p.13)(SSFC, 11/13/05, p.F3) 1325 1382 Nicholos of Oresme, Parisian theologian agreed with Jean Buridan concerning the problem of Aristotelian motion and its resolution: i.e. that a moving body does not need to be continuously pushed to stay in motion due to its impetus provided by a violent motion upon it. (V.D.-H.K.p.193) 1326 nend Mar 5, Louis I (the Great), King of Hungary (1342-1382) and Poland (1370-1382), was born. (HN, 3/5/98)(MC, 3/5/02) 1326 nend Osman I (1299-1326) captured Bursa in north-western Anatolia after a 10 year siege. Osman I (also known as Osman Gazi) is generally regarded as the founder of the Ottoman Turkish state. (WUD, 1994 p.1018)(Ot, 1993, p.5) 1326 nend Richard de Bas, a paper manufacturer, was founded in Ambert d?Auvergne, France. (SFC, 4/14/06, p.D1) 1327 nend Jan 7, Edward II of England was deposed. [see Jan 20, Feb 1] (HN, 1/7/99) 1327 nend Jan 20, Edward II of England was deposed by his eldest son, Edward III. [see Jan 7, Feb 1] (HN, 1/20/99) 1327 nend Jan 25, King Edward III inherited the British throne. [see Jan 7,20] (MC, 1/25/02) 1327 nend Feb 1, Edward III was crowned King of England. [see Jan 7,20] (HN, 2/1/99) 1327 nend Apr 6, Petrarch met Laura de Sade in a church at Avignon, and was inspired for the rest of his life. He wrote his finest poems about her beauty and loveliness... and about his later recognition that he had loved her wrongly, placing her person ahead of her spirit. This event has been taken to mark the beginning of the Renaissance (V.D.-H.K.p.131)(MC, 4/6/02) no_source 1327 nend Sep 21, Edward II of England, a homosexual, was murdered by order of his wife, Queen Isabella and Baron Robert Mortimer. (HN, 9/21/98)(www.stonewallsociety.com/famouspeople/king.htm) 1327 nend In Germany the Pfalzgrafenstein castle was built on the Rhine near the village of Bacharach. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.T5) 1328 nend Feb 1, Charles IV, the Handsome, King of France (1322-28), died. (MC, 2/1/02) 1328 nend May 26, William of Ockham was forced to flee from Avignon by Pope John XXII. (HN, 5/26/98) 1328 nend May 27, French king Philip VI Valois was crowned. (MC, 5/27/02) 1328 nend In Italy a monastery and church of St. Francis was built on the Isola Maggiore on Lake Trasimeno. In the 19th century it was converted into a castle by a Marquis for his wife Isabella. (SFEM, 10/12/97, p.48) 1328 nend Moscow became the seat of the Russian Orthodox metropolitanate. Peter the Metropolitan moved from the capital Vladimir to Moscow. (DVD, Criterion, 1998)(AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.37) 1328 nend Taqi ad-Din Ahmad ibn Taymiyyah (b.1263), a Sunni Islamic scholar born in Harran, located in what is now Turkey, died. He lived during the troubled times of the Mongol invasions. As a member of the school founded by Ibn Hanbal, he sought the return of Islam to its sources: the Qur'an and the Sunnah. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyyah)(Econ, 7/14/07, p.30) 1328 1384 John Wycliffe, English theologian and biblical translator. He was posthumously declared a heretic and his body was exhumed for burning in 1428. (WSJ, 4/4/01, p.A18) 1329 nend Jun 7, Robert Bruce (b.1274), King of Scotland (1306-1329), died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_I_of_Scotland) 1329 nend In Korea a foundry was used to print books with metal type. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1330 nend Mar 23, Riga surrendered to the Livonian Order. (LHC, 3/23/03) 1330 nend Jun 15, Edward the Black Prince, the eldest son of Edward III and Prince of Wales (1343-1376), was born. He was the first Duke created in England, the Duke of Cornwall. (HN, 6/15/99)(MC, 6/15/02) 1330 nend Aug 25, Anti-Pope Nicolaas V overthrew himself. (MC, 8/25/02) c 1330 nend In Japan retired Emp. Go-Fushimi authored a plea to the god of the Kamo shrine for help in gaining the thrown for his son, Prince Tokihito. Tokihito got to reign after a short delay when Go-Daigo refused to step down. Two years later Go-Daigo got the thrown back. (SFC,12/15/97, p.E3) 1331 nend Ibn Battuta, Arab traveler and scholar, visited Kilwa. He described Kilwa as "one of the most beautiful and well-constructed towns in the world." (ATC, p.143) 1331 nend Na Prous Boneta was burned at the stake as a female heretic one hundred years before Joan of Arc. (WSJ, 1/23/96, p.A-12) 1331 nend Bernard Gui, Inquisitor in Toulouse, died. He authored ?Practica Inquisitionis Heretice Pravitatis? (Conduct of the Inquisition into Heretical Wickedness), a manual for Inquisitors in which he listed heretics including Cathars, Waldensians, Beghards, Jews and witches. (WSJ, 1/18/08, p.W10)(www.languedoc-france.info/121207_guicathars.htm) 1332 nend Feb 13, Andronicus II Palaeologus, Byzantine emperor (1282-1328), monk, died. (MC, 2/13/02) 1332 nend May 27, Ibn Khaldun (d.1406), Arab historian, was born in Tunis. He was also a social scientist and political activist and developed theories on economics and politics. He authored the "Muqaddimah" (introduction to history), that gave an in-depth analysis of the cyclical nature of the rise, maturation and decline of political regimes and economies. (HN, 5/27/98)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R20) 1332 nend Aug 12, Battle of Dupplin Moor; Scottish dynastic battle. (SC, 8/12/02) 1332 nend Mansa Musa, King of Mali, died. His successors were not able to protect Mali?s vast territory and Berber nomads began attacking caravan routes in the desert and threatened to take Timbuktu. People from the southern rain forests attacked the southern boundary and to the west the Sohghai of the middle Niger River began to revolt. (ATC, p.120) 1332 1370 Descendants of earlier Ghorid rulers reasserted control over Afghanistan. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1333 nend Mar 2, Wladyslaw IV, the Short One, Great, duke, king of Poland, died. (SC, 3/2/02) 1333 nend Nov 4, In Florence, Italy, the Arno River flooded causing some 3,000 deaths. (Econ, 11/1/08, p.97) 1333 nend The Kamakura Shogunate of Japan fell. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 1333 nend The Black Death erupted in China. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R54) 1333 1573 The Ashikaga (or Muromachi) Period of Japan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 1334 nend Aug 30, Pedro, the Cruel, King of Castilia & Leon, was born. (MC, 8/30/01) 1334 nend Emperor Godaigo of Japan temporarily regained power. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 1334 nend Heinrich II of Hesse (Germany) commissioned an illuminated manuscript called The Willehalm Codex. (SSFC, 5/2/04, p.M2) 1335 nend In Macedonia the Orthodox church of St. Atanasie and the Holy Virgin in Lesok was begun. A monastery was added that played a role in Christian resistance to the Ottoman Empire. (SFC, 8/22/01, p.A10) 1336 nend Feb 25, The Knights of the Cross sieged the Pilenai Castle in Samogitia. The defenders burned all their goods and committed suicide. (LHC, 2/25/03) 1336 1405 Timur (aka Timur Lang or Timur Lenk or Tamerlane because of a lame leg) was a Tartar conqueror of a vast empire from southern Russia to Mongolia and southward to India, Persia, and Mesopotamia. After his death the empire fell apart. Prince Timur is a national hero of Uzbekistan. (V.D.-H.K.p.169)(WUD, 1994, p.1451)(WSJ, 7/3/97, p.A4) 1337 nend Jan 8, Giotto (b.c.1267), Italian artist, died. His frescoes showed a new realism and vitality. Art historians later held that the Renaissance dawned in Florence with Giotto's paintings. He cracked the formal stylization of Byzantine painting and reinvented the ancient art of creating depth on a flat surface. In 2000 art historians found evidence that Pietro Cavallini re-introduced depth in his paintings in Rome around 1190. (V.D.-H.K.p.128)(WSJ, 11/113/00,p.A24)(www.mediacult.com/art/giotto/chrono.html) 1337 nend Jan 21, Charles V, the Wise, king of France (1364-80), was born. (MC, 1/21/02) 1337 1453 The Hundred Years War was a series of wars between England and France in which England lost all possessions in France except Calais. (WUD, 1994, p.693) 1338 nend The founding of the Ashikaga Shogunate in Japan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215) 1340 nend Jun 24, The English fleet defeated the French fleet at Sluys, off the Flemish coast. (HN, 6/24/98) 1340 nend Nov 28, In the Battle of Salado, Spain, the last Moor invasion was driven back. (MC, 11/28/01) 1340 nend Nov 30, John, Duke de Berry, captain of Paris and art collector, was born. (MC, 11/30/01) 1340 nend Double-entry bookkeeping was invented in Italy about this time. [see 1458] (WSJ, 11/10/99, p.A20) 1340 nend A drought that lasted 1-2 centuries as measured from tree rings in the Sierra Nevada was centered on this time. It coincides with a Medieval warm period when Vikings navigated the waters surrounding Greenland. An earlier drought centered at 1126AD. (NH, 9/96, p.38) c 1340 1400 Geoffrey Chaucer, English poet. [see 1343] (WUD, 1994, p.250)(WSJ, 9/18/00, p.A36) 1341 nend Apr 8, Francesco Petrarch was crowned poet laureate on the Capitol in Rome. He had arranged two invitations to be crowned, one in Paris and the other in Rome (1340-1341). He chose Rome. (V.D.-H.K.p.131)(MC, 4/8/02) 1341 nend Jun 19, Juliana van Falconieri, Italian saint, Swedish tenor, died. (MC, 6/19/02) 1341 nend German Knights of the Cross negotiated acquisition of Tallinn from Denmark and took over all of Estonia. (Ist. L.H., 1948, p. 61) 1341 1345 In Lithuania Jaunutis served as Grand Duke. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1342 nend Sep 26, John I, ruler of Poland, died. (MC, 9/26/01) 1342 nend In China a tombstone in Yangchou marked the death of an Italian girl named Katerina. (SFEC, 9/21/97, p.A23) 1343 nend The Peruzzi Bank, Europe's biggest, collapsed following risky loans to English kings. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) c 1343 1400 Geoffrey Chaucer, English poet. [see 1340] (WUD, 1994, p.250)(WSJ, 9/18/00, p.A36) 1345 nend Mar 20, A conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter and Mars was thought to be the "cause of plague epidemic." (MC, 3/20/02) 1345 nend Jul 17, Jacob Van Artevelde, [Manner Man], Flemish broker, was lynched. (MC, 7/17/02) 1345 nend Oct 31, Ferdinand I, the wise one, king of Portugal (built navy), was born. (MC, 10/31/01) 1345 nend The Frisian victory over the Dutch on the beach at Warns was their last before the Dutch took over. (WSJ, 5/13/98, p.A20) 1345 nend The Kramerbrucke merchant bridge was built over the Gera River at Erfurt, Thuringia, Germ. (Hem., Nov.'95, p.114) 1345 nend A Florentine wool worker was hanged for holding a public meeting to organize colleagues. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1345 1377 In Lithuania Algirdas served as Grand Duke. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1346 nend Apr 16, King Stefanus IX of Serbia proclaimed himself czar of Greece. (MC, 4/16/02) 1346 nend May, Edward III of England called for a fleet of 1000 ships and an army of 10,000 knights and soldiers to assemble at Portsmouth for an attack on his distant cousin, Philip VI of France. (ON, 9/00, p.1) 1346 nend Jul 12, Edward III landed his army on the Normandy beaches unopposed. (ON, 9/00, p.1) 1346 nend Jul 18, Edward III divided his army into 3 groups and began a march on Paris. (ON, 9/00, p.2) 1346 nend Aug 16, Philip VI offered Edward III sovereignty over Aquitaine in return for peace. Edward rejected the offer and learned that Philip had raised an army of 36,000 that included 15,000 Genoese crossbowmen. Edward marched toward Flanders in order to meet with allies. (ON, 9/00, p.2) 1346 nend Aug 25, Edward III of England defeated Philip VI's army at the Battle of Crecy in France. The English overcame the French at the Battle of Crecy. The longbow proved instrumental in the victory as French knights on horseback outnumbered the British 3 to 1. At the end of the battle 1,542 French lords and knights were killed along with 20,000 soldiers. The English lost 2 knights and 80 men. [see Aug 26] (WSJ, 8/3/98, p.A12)(HN, 8/25/98) 1346 nend Aug 26, During the Hundred Years War, King Edward III's 9,000-man English army annihilated a French force of 27,000 under King Philip VI at the Battle of Crecy in Normandy. The battle is regarded as one of the most decisive in history. [see Aug 25] (PC, 1992, p.128)(WSJ, 11/4/04, p.D10) 1346 nend Sep 3, Edward III of England began the siege of Calais, along the coast of France. (HN, 9/3/98) 1346 nend Sep 28, Edward III and Philip VI signed a temporary truce. Their hostilities marked the beginning of the Hundred Years War, which only ended in 1453. (ON, 9/00, p.2) 1346 nend Oct 17, English forces defeated the Scots under David II during the Battle of Neville's Cross, Scotland. (HN, 10/17/98) 1346 nend Nov 26, Charles of Luxembourg was crowned German king. He succeeded his father John of Luxemburg as King of Bohemia and Count of Luxembourg. (PC, 1992 ed, p.128) 1347 nend May 20, Cola di Rienzo took the title of tribune in Rome. (HN, 5/20/98) 1347 nend Aug 3, Six burghers of the surrounded French city of Calais surrendered to Edward III of England in hopes of relieving the siege. (HN, 8/3/98) 1347 nend Aug 4, English troops conquered Ft. Calais. After an 11 month siege, French Calais fell to England's King Edward III. English rule lasted for more than two centuries. (WSJ, 11/6/95, p. A-1)(MC, 8/4/02) 1347 nend Oct, Sailors from Genoa arrived in Messina, Sicily. Plague had broken out earlier among the troops of the Kipchak Khan, who was besieging the Black Sea port of Kaffa. He catapulted dead bodies over the city walls. When Italian trading vessels in the harbor returned to Genoa, the carried the plague to Europe. The plague, an infectious fever caused by the bacillus Yersinia pestis, appears in several varieties: bubonic (which involves swelling of the lymph glands), pneumonic (which involves the lungs) and septicemia (which involves severe infection in the bloodstream). (SFEM, 10/12/97, p.31)(HNQ, 1/20/01)(SSFC, 3/6/05, p.B4) 1347 nend Nov 20, Roman tribune Cola di Rienzi defeated nobles. Stefano Colonna, Roman senator, died in battle (SPQR). (MC, 11/20/01) 1347 nend Dec 3, Pope Clemens VI declared Roman tribune, Cola di Rienzi, a heretic. (MC, 12/3/01) 1347 nend Charles IV (1316-1378) of the House of Luxembourg was crowned King of Bohemia. (WSJ, 10/19/05, p.D17) 1347 1350 The Black Death: A Genoese trading post in the Crimea was besieged by an army of Kipchaks from Hungary and Mongols from the East. The latter brought with them a new form of plague, Yersinia pestis. Infected dead bodies were catapulted into the Genoese town. One Genoese ship managed to escape and brought the disease to Messina, Sicily. The disease quickly became an epidemic. It moved over the next few years to northern Italy, North Africa, France, Spain, Austria, Hungary, Switzerland, Germany, the Low countries, England, Scandinavia and the Baltic. There were lesser outbreaks in many cities for the next twenty years. An estimated 25 million died in Europe and economic depression followed. In 2005 John Kelly authored ?The Great Mortality: An Intimate History of the Black Death, the Most Devastating Plague of All Time.? (NG, 5/88, p.678)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42)(SSFC, 3/6/05, p.B1)(SFC,10/13/11, p.A6) 1347 1354 John VI Cantacuzenus ruled over Byzantium. He then abdicated and became and monk and went on to deal with Rome over the unification of Christendom. [see 330 AD] (WSJ, 11/14/95, p. A-12) 1348 nend Feb 2, The Knights of the Cross defeated a Lithuanian army at Streva. (LHC, 2/2/03) 1348 nend Apr 6, Laura, the arch love of Petrarch died of the plague. Boccaccio retired from plague-stricken Florence, and in a country residence began to write the Decameron. (V.D.-H.K.p.131-132) 1348 nend Apr 7, Prague Univ., the 1st in central Europe, was started by Charles IV. (MC, 4/7/02) 1348 nend Apr 23, King Edward III of England established the Order of the Garter, the first English order of knighthood. (AP, 4/23/97)(HN, 4/23/99)(www.royal.gov.uk/output/page490.asp) 1348 nend Sep 21, Jews in Zurich Switzerland were accused of poisoning wells. (MC, 9/21/01) 1348 nend Nov 15, Rudolph of Oron claimed Jews confessed to poisoning wells. (MC, 11/15/01) 1348 nend The Black Plague struck the Mediterranean Basin. (SSFC, 11/13/05, p.F3) 1348 nend Accused of being a cause of the plague, the Jews in France were dragged from their houses and burned. Pogroms occurred throughout Europe. When the plague subsided, few Jews were left in Germany or the Low Countries. (NG, 5/88, p.681) 1348 nend Plague arrived at Montpellier, France, in the spring and killed an estimated two-thirds of the 50,000 inhabitants. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R22) 1348 nend The population of Siena, Italy, dropped from 97,000 to 45,000 in a few months due to the Black Plague. (SSFC, 3/6/05, p.B1) 1348 nend Ambrogio Lorenzetti (b.1290), Sienese painter, died. His work included the 3 murals titled ?War,? ?Peace? and ?Good Government,? in the Chamber of Peace of Siena?s town hall. (WSJ, 12/1/07, p.W14) 1349 nend Jan 9, In Basel, Switzerland, 700 Jews were burned alive in their houses. (MC, 1/9/02) 1349 nend Feb 13, Jews were expelled from Burgsdorf, Switzerland. (MC, 2/13/02) 1349 nend Feb 14, 2,000 Jews were burned at the stake in Strasbourg, Germany. (HN, 2/14/98) 1349 nend Feb 22, Jews were expelled from Zurich, Switzerland. (HN, 2/22/98) 1349 nend Mar 21, Some 3,000 Jews were killed in Black Death riots in Efurt, Germany. (MC, 3/21/02) 1349 nend Apr 30, Jewish community at Radolszell, Germany, was exterminated. (MC, 4/30/02) 1349 nend May 28, 60 Jews were murdered in Breslau, Silesia. (MC, 5/28/02) 1349 nend Aug 24, Some 6,000 Jews, blamed for the Bubonic Plague, were killed in Mainz. (MC, 8/24/02) 1349 nend Aug 24, Jews of Cologne Germany set themselves on fire to avoid baptism. (MC, 8/24/02) 1349 nend Sep 10, The Jews who survived a massacre in Constance, Germany, were burned to death. (MC, 9/10/01) 1349 nend Nov 1, Duke of Brabant ordered the execution of all Jews in Brussels. He accused them of poisoning the wells. (MC, 11/1/01) 1349 nend Nov 29, Jews of Augsburg, Germany, were massacred. (MC, 11/29/01) 1349 nend Dec 5, 500 Jews of Nuremberg were massacred during Black Death riots. (MC, 12/5/01) 1349 nend Nearly all the Jews of Worms were murdered on false accusations that they brought on the plague by poisoning the wells. (NH, 9/96, p.24) 1349 nend William of Ockham (b.1290), English Franciscan scholastic philosopher, died. He proclaimed that the only real things are singular entities like an apple or man, and that universals have no existence whatever; they are mere names. The divine and nature each has its own validity, but the one is vastly more important that the other, with the one determining salvation, and the other the mere comfort of the body during its life. [see 1290] (V.D.-H.K.p.123)(WUD, 1994 p.996)(AP, 2/4/99) 1349 1830 The eldest son of the king of France was referred to as the dauphine, as an honor to the Dauphine province after its cession to France. (WUD, 1994, p.369) 1350 nend Mar 27, Alfonso XI of Castile (38) died of the black death while besieging Gibraltar. (HN, 3/27/99)(PCh, 1992, p.130) 1350 nend Aug 22, Philips VI, of Valois, King of France (1328-50), died. (MC, 8/22/02) 1350 nend Aug 22, John II, also known as John the Good, succeeded Philip VI as king of France. (HN, 8/22/98) 1350 nend Sargis Pitsak, Armenian artist, produced illuminated manuscripts of the bible. Color picture "Souls Ascending the Heavenly Ladder to Christ," featured in: ( SF Chronicle, 5/12/1994, p. E-1) 1350 nend The Fremont Indians, who had lived in Utah?s Range Creek Canyon since about 200, disappeared from the archeological record. (WSJ, 1/31/06, p.B6)(Sm, 3/06, p.74) c 1350 nend At Powers Fort, Missouri, there was a Mississippian cultural-civic-ceremonial center consisting of a small village and four mounds. (AM, Vol. 48, No. 3) 1350 nend Maori ancestors arrived at New Zealand on seven legendary canoes from Hawaii, the mother-island of the east Polynesians. (NG, Aug., 1974, C. McCarry, p.196) 1350 nend Boccaccio met Petrarch in Florence. (V.D.-H.K.p.132) 1350 nend The leaning tower of Pisa was constructed. [see 1173] (SFC, 8/13/98, p.C5) 1350 nend In Northumberland, England, Langley Castle was built with 7-foot thick walls on a wooded estate. (WSJ, 2/27/98, p.B8) 1351 nend The east African Kingdom of Dongala became hemmed in by Muslim states such as Kordofan and Darfur and was forced to surrender to Egypt its territory north of the third cataract. Axum was harried by the Muslims of Funj and the people retreated into the mountains and developed into the isolated Christian kingdom of Ethiopia. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.170) 1351 nend In England the Statute of Treasons was passed under which anyone who violated the wife of the heir to the throne was guilty of high treason. (WSJ, 5/23/96, p.A-10) 1351 1767 The port city of Ayutthaya (Thailand) was one of the capitals of the kingdom of Siam until the Burmese invaded, sacked the city and left it in ruins. The capital was then moved to Bangkok. Prior to this Phananchoeng was the capital. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.G)(WSJ, 4/21/05, p.D7) 1352 nend May 5, Ruprecht, Roman catholic German king, was born. (MC, 5/5/02) 1352 nend Dec 18, Etienne Aubert was elected as Pope Innocentius VI. (MC, 12/18/01) 1352 nend The Black Death by this year had killed 25 million people in Europe alone. (NG, 5/88, p.678) 1352 nend Ibn Battuta decided to cross the Sahara Desert. The journey took two months to complete the 1,200 miles. (ATC, p.112) 1352 nend The gothic Cathedral of Our Lady was begun in Antwerp, Belgium. It was completed in the 16th century. (Hem., 7/95, p.27) 1353 nend King Fangum is believed to have established the Kingdom of Lan Xang (Million Elephants), the forerunner of the modern Laos state that was abolished during the communist revolution of 1975. (AP, 1/6/03) 1353 nend In Laos Luang Prabang was founded. It was the royal capital of the kingdom of Laos and a center of Laotian Buddhism and court arts. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.E) 1353 nend Ibn Battuta spent a few months in Mali and left a full description of his experiences. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.170) 1354 1720 Catalan conquerors ruled over Sardinia. (SFEC, 1/30/00, p.T5) 1355 nend May 7, 1,200 Jews of Toledo, Spain, were killed by Count Henry of Trastamara. (MC, 5/7/02) 1355 nend Nov 1, During the Hundred Years? War (1337-1457) an English invasion army under Black Prince Edward (25) landed at Calais. (DoW, 1999, p.213)(PC, 1992 ed, p.131) 1355 nend Dec 20, Stephen Urosh IV of Serbia died while marching to attack Constantinople. (HN, 12/20/98) 1355 nend Charles IV, King of Bohemia, was crowned King of the Holy Roman Empire. (WSJ, 10/19/05, p.D17) 1356 nend Sep 19, In a landmark battle of the Hundred Years' War, English Prince Edward defeated the French at Poitiers. Jean de Clermont, French marshal, died in battle. (HN, 9/19/98)(MC, 9/19/01) 1357 nend Apr 22, Johan I, King of Portugal (1383-1433), was born. (MC, 4/22/02) 1357 nend May 28, Afonso IV (66), King of Portugal (1325-57), died. (MC, 5/28/02) 1357 nend The 1999 novel "Timeline" by Michael Crichton catapults its characters to Medieval France and the 20th year of the Hundred Years War. (WSJ, 11/19/99, p.W6) 1358 nend Jun 10, French Boer leader Guillaume Cale was captured. (MC, 6/10/02) c 1359 nend c1460 Owain Glyndwr (Owen Glendower) of Wales, leader of a bloody revolt against Henry IV in 1400. The event was marked by a comet. (SFEC, 6/22/97, p.D2) 1360 nend Mar 15, French invasion army landed on English south coast and conquered Winchel. (MC, 3/15/02) 1360 nend Jul 25, Jews were expelled from Breslau, Silesia. (SC, 7/25/02) 1360 nend Oct 25, Louis, founder of house of Anjou, was born. (MC, 10/25/01) 1360 nend s The Flagellants of Thuringia engage in self mortification and refused to work. (www.ccel.org/s/schaff/encyc/encyc04/htm/0341=325.htm) 1360 1754 Hanseatic traders brought prosperity to Bergen, Norway. (SSFC, 6/5/05, p.F7) 1361 nend Feb 26, Wenceslas of Bohemia, Holy Roman Catholic German emperor (1378-1400), was born. (SC, 2/26/02) 1361 nend Mar 21, Grand duke Kestutis was captured by the Knights of the Cross. (LHC, 3/21/03) 1361 nend England enacted its first Corn Laws. They barred the export of corn in order to keep local grain supplies cheap. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R50) 1361 nend The Ottomans under Orhan crossed into Europe and captured Adrianople (Edirne), the 2nd major city of Byzantium. Murat I (Orhan) moved the Ottoman capital to Edirne in 1366. (Ot, 1993, p.5)(http://www.osmanli700.gen.tr/english/sultans.html) 1361 1363 Plague broke out again in Europe. (HN, 1/20/01) 1362 1363 A 202-pound stone with runic inscriptions, found in 1888 by Olaf and Edward Ohman, Swedish immigrant farmers in Kensington, Minn., seemed to describe how a party of Vikings had returned there after an exploratory survey, and found ten men left behind "red with blood and dead." Ever since the discovery, scholars have debated the stone?s authenticity. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.25)(HNQ, 6/4/01) 1364 nend May 20, Sir Henry Percy (d.1403), [Harry Hotspur], British soldier, politician, and rebel leader, was born. (WUD, 1994, p.1069)(MC, 5/20/02) 1364 nend King Charles V (1337-1381) began his rule of France. (HNQ, 7/14/01)(WUD, 1994 p.249) 1364 nend In Cracow, Poland, the Jagiellonian University was founded. [see 1400] (PG-Comm) 1365 nend The University of Vienna was founded by Duke Rudolph IV. (StuAus, April '95, p.2,17) 1365 nend A tax document lists the feudal property of Niccolo Acciaiuoli, head of a Florentine banking family. It included the castle of Agios Vasilios overlooking the road from Corinth to Argos in southern Greece. The territory had reverted to the Florentine family when the Franks defaulted on loans. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.55) 1365 nend Basel, Switzerland, was wrecked by an earthquake. (AP, 8/4/07) 1366 nend Oct 12, King Frederick III of Sicily forbade decorations on synagogues. (MC, 10/12/01) 1366 nend Wang Meng painted "Dwelling in the Qingbian Mountains." (SFC, 4/4/98, p.C1) 1366 nend Records indicate that cheese was weighed in Alkmaar [Netherlands] at this time. (SFEC, 6/7/98, p.T10) 1367 nend Jan 6, Richard II, son of Edward the Black Prince, was born in Bordeaux. He served as king of England from 1377-1399. (HN, 1/6/99)(MC, 1/6/02) 1367 nend Apr 3, Birth of Henry Bolingbroke, aka Henry of Lancaster and later Henry IV, King of England (1399-1413) in Lincolnshire. (MWH, 1994) 1367 nend Apr 3, John of Gaunt and Edward the Black Prince won the Battle of Najara, in Spain. (HN, 4/3/99) 1368 nend Feb 3, Charles VI, King of France (1380-1422), was born. (MC, 2/3/02) 1368 nend Feb 14-1368 Feb 15, Sigismund (d.1437), son of Charles IV, was born in Nuremberg, Germany. He served as Holy Roman Emperor from 1433-1437. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigismund%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor) 1368 nend Tamerlane lost control of China as the Mings took over local power. The Ming dynasty overthrew Mongol rule and slammed shut the Jade Gate to caravan traffic to Central Asia. (V.D.-H.K.p.172)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) c 1368 1600 For several centuries after 1368 the Mongols were confined to their original homeland in the steppes, their energies mostly absorbed by internal rivalries. (www.gobiexpeditions.com) 1368 1644 The period of the Ming Dynasty in China. Classical Chinese furniture refers to furniture made during the Ming and early Ching (1644-1912). During the Ming Dynasty the Great Wall of China was extended and renovated with watch towers and canons. (AAM, 3/96, p.9)(WSJ, 9/19/96,p.A18)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China) 1368 1644 The Ming Dynasty by Yang Xin is the 3rd section of Wu Hung?s 1997 "The Origins of Chinese Painting." The period is marked by the emergence of the literati-amateur movement. (WSJ, 1/2/98, p.6) 1368 1644 China extended its hegemony over the Ryukyu Islands legitimating 3 kings in exchange for submission to the Ming emperor. (NW, 9/10/01, p.48) 1369 nend Mar 23, Pedro the Cruel, King and tyrant of Castile and Leon, was murdered. Enrique, the illegitimate son of Alfonso XI of Castile, killed his half brother Pedro I in the Castilian civil war and became King Enrique I "the Bastard" of Castile. (SS, 3/23/02)(Reuters, 12/23/06) 1369 nend Hongwu, the first Ming emperor, established an imperial kiln at Jungdezhen in south-central China. It became a famous porcelain center. (SFEC, 10/6/96, DB p.37) 1369 nend The goldsmith firm of Torrini Firenze was founded in Florence, Italy. (SFC, 4/14/06, p.D1) 1369 1371 Plague broke out again in Europe. (HN, 1/20/01) 1369 1405 Timur (aka Timur Lang or Timur Lenk or Tamerlane, so-named because of a lame leg) ruled from Samarkand. (WUD, 1994, p.1451) 1369 1424 Muzio Sforza, father of Francesco, Italian condotierre (leader of a private band of mercenary soldiers). (WUD, 1994, p.1308) 1370 nend Apr 11, Frederick I the Warlike, elector of Saxony, was born. (HN, 4/11/98) 1370 nend Apr 22, The first stone of the Bastille was laid by order of King Charles V (1364-1380). The original design of the Bastille was merely a fortified gate, but it was later turned into a fortress by Charles VI. It began to be used as a prison in the 17th century. Following the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, it was demolished. (HNQ, 7/14/01) 1370 nend May 22, Jews were expelled (massacred) from Brussels, Belgium. (MC, 5/22/02) 1370 nend Nov 5, Kazimierz III ("The Great"), king of Poland (1333-70), died at 61. (MC, 11/5/01) 1370 nend Andrei Rublev, Russian icon painter, was born about this time. (DVD, Criterion, 1998) 1370 nend Spain?s Prince Sancho de Castile (7) died. Spaniards for a long time believed Prince his uncle poisoned him to become king. In 2006 studies of the boy's mummified body showed the boy died of natural causes. (Reuters, 12/23/06) 1370 1404 Timour-i-Lang (Tamerlane) ruled over Afghanistan. Afghan resistance was active. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1371 nend Feb 22, David II Bruce (46), king of Scotland (1331-1371), died. (MC, 2/22/02) 1371 nend May 28, John, the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, warrior, was born in Burgundy, France. (MC, 5/28/02) 1371 nend Dec 4, Reinald III (38), ("The Fat,") duke of Gelre (1343-61), died. (MC, 12/4/01) 1371 nend The queen of France sent the Queen of England several dolls dressed in the latest French fashion. The outfits were copied by English dressmakers and costumed dolls from France went wherever French ships sailed. They were called mannequins. (SFC, 6/28/97, p.E3) 1371 nend Ubaid Zakani, Persian writer, died. His work included ?Mush va Gorbeh? (Mouse and Cat), a match for Rabelais when it comes to mocking religion. (WSJ, 2/8/06, p.A16)(www.britannica.com/eb/article-13737) 1371 1435 Cheng Ho, eunuch admiral of the Ming dynasty, explored the Indian Ocean. no_source 1372 nend Sep 21, Frederik I van Hohenzollern, monarch of Brandenburg (1417-40), was born. (MC, 9/21/01) 1372 nend The 1st Ryukyuan emissaries reached Nanjing and presented tribute to the Ming emperor. (NW, 9/10/01, p.56) 1373 nend Jul 23, Birgitta of Sweden, Swedish saint, died. (MC, 7/23/02) 1373 nend Boccaccio began a course of public readings of the divine Comedy in the church of Santo Stefano in Florence. He accompanied the readings with commentaries, explaining to his largely illiterate audience of common people the meaning and relevance of what Dante had written. He encountered raging attacks of the learned against his program of bringing Dante to the attention and understanding of the common people. (V.D.-H.K.p.133) no_source 1374 1375 Plague broke out again in Europe. (HN, 1/20/01) 1373 1415 Jan Huss, Czech populist reformer. He challenged Church doctrine. (WSJ, 4/4/01, p.A18) 1374 nend Jul 18, Francesco Petrarch (69), Italian poet (Italia Mia), died. (SSFC, 7/25/04, p.E3) 1375 nend Dec 21, Giovanni Boccaccio, Italian poet (Vita di Dante), died at his home in Certaldo. (V.D.-H.K.p.133)(MC, 12/21/01) 1376 nend Apr 28, English parliament demanded the supervision on royal outlay. (MC, 4/28/02) 1376 nend Jun 8, Edward (b.1330), the "Black Prince" of Wales, son of King Edward III of England and Queen Philippa of Hainault, died at Westminster Palace, Middlesex. (www.britannia.com/bios/royals/blckprnc.html) 1376 nend Jul 22, The rats were piped out of Hamelin, Germany. (HFA, '96, p.34) 1377 nend Feb 3, There was a mass execution of population of Cesena, Italy. (MC, 2/3/02) 1377 nend Jun 21, Edward III (b.1312), King of England (1322-1377), died. Richard II, who was still a child, succeeded his father. In 1966 H.J. Hewitt authored "The Organization of War Under Edward III." In 1978 Richard Barber authored "Edward, Prince of Wales and Aquitaine." In 1980 Michael Prestwich authored "The Three Edwards: War and State in England 1272-1377." Lines of his 3rd and 4th sons, houses Lancaster and York engaged in the Wars of the Roses. In 2006 Ian Mortimer authored ?The Perfect King: The Life of Edward III, Father of the English Nation.? (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6)(ON, 9/00, p.2)(AM, 7/01, p.69)(HN,6/21/98)(Econ, 4/15/06, p.84) c 1377 1446 Filippo Brunelleschi, Italian architect. He designed the dome of the Florence Cathedral. (WUD, 1994, p.190)(WSJ, 6/6/96, p.A12) 1378 nend Mar 27, Gregory XI, [Pierre R the Beaufort], last French Pope (1370-78), died. (MC, 3/27/02) 1378 nend Aug 9, Cardinals declared pope Urbanus VI lawless (anti-Christian, devil). (MC, 8/9/02) 1378 nend Sep 20, The election of Robert of Geneva as anti-pope by discontented cardinals created a great schism in the Catholic church. (HN, 9/20/98) 1378 nend Nov 29, Charles IV (b.1316), King of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor, died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_emperor_Charles_IV) 1378 nend Dec 18, Charles V denounced the treachery of John IV of Brittany and confiscated his duchy. (HN, 12/18/98) 1378 nend Dec 31, Callistus III, [Alfonso the Borgia], Pope (1455-58), was born. (MC, 12/31/01) 1378 nend Wenceslaus IV (1361-1419), son of Charles IV, became King of Bohemia following the death of his father. He served as Holy Roman Emperor until 1400, when he was deposed in favor of Rupert III. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wenceslaus%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor) 1378 nend Wool workers in Florence revolted after being hit with production quotas. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R27) 1378 nend The last bishop on Greenland died. No replacement was sent. (AM, 7/00, p.66) 1378 1417 The Great Western Schism split the Roman Catholic Church and involved 2 anti-popes at its height. (CU, 6/87) 1379 1390 Khwaja Shams ud-Din Hafiz (b.c1310-1326), Persian poet, died. (SSFC, 10/23/05, p.E3)(www.thesongsofhafiz.com/) 1380 nend Feb 11, Gianfrancesco Poggio Bracciolini, Italian humanist, was born. (MC, 2/11/02) 1380 nend Jul 24, Giovanni da Capistrano, Italian monk, was born. He liberated Belgrade from the Turks and was later canonized a saint as San Juan de Capistrano. His name was applied to the southern California mission, best known for its annual convocation of swallows. (MC, 7/24/02) 1380 nend Sep 8, Bernardinus of Siena, Italian saint, was born. (MC, 9/8/01) 1380 nend Sep 8, Prince Dmitrii of Moscow defeated the Mongols at Kulikovo Field. This marked the beginning of the decline of Mongol control over Russian lands. (DVD, Criterion,1998)(http://fanaticus.org/dba/battles/Kulikovo/index.html) 1380 nend Nov 14, King Charles VI of France was crowned at age 12. (MC, 11/14/01) 1380 nend Nov 16, French King Charles VI declared no taxes forever. (MC, 11/16/01) 1380 nend In England Henry Of Lancaster at 13 married Mary de Bohun, daughter and co-heiress of Humphrey, the last Earl of Hereford. (MWH, 1994) 1380 nend In France the rule of King Charles V (1337-1381) ended. (HNQ, 7/14/01)(WUD, 1994 p.249) 1380 nend Iceland fell under Danish control. (HNQ, 4/28/00) c 1380 1471 Thomas a Kempis, German monk and author: "Would to God that we might spend a single day really well." "Verily, when the day of judgment comes, we shall not be asked what we have read, but what we have done." (AP, 1/28/98)(AP, 7/28/00) 1381 nend May 30, English peasant uprising began in Essex. (MC, 5/30/02) 1381 nend Jun 14, The Peasant?s Revolt, led by Wat Tyler, climaxed when rebels marched on Jordan, plundered, burned and captured the Tower of London and killed the Archbishop of Canterbury. The revolt was a response to a statute intended to hold down wages during a labor shortage. The peasant demands also included access to privately owned land. (HN, 6/14/98)(SFC, 6/20/99, p.A7) 1381 nend Jun 15, The English peasant revolt was crushed in London and Wat Tyler, the rebel leader, was beheaded. (HN, 6/15/98)(MC, 6/15/02) 1381 nend When the peasant?s revolt subsided England?s King Richard II (14) reneged on his promises to the peasants, rounded up the surviving ringleaders and had them executed. (Econ, 11/26/05, p.96) 1382 nend Mar 1, French Maillotin rose up against taxes. (SC, 3/1/02) 1382 nend Mar 15, Conservative "Popolo Grasso" regained power in Florence, Italy. (MC, 3/15/02) 1382 nend May 5, In the Battle of Beverhoutsveld, Belgium, the population beat a drunken army. (MC, 5/5/02) 1382 nend Sep 10, Louis I, the Great, King of Hungary and Poland, died. Mary (1372-1395), daughter of Louis I, became queen of Hungary. (PC, 1992 ed, p.135)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_of_Hungary) 1382 nend Nov 27, The French nobility, led by Olivier de Clisson, crushed the Flemish rebels at Flanders. (HN, 11/27/98) 1382 nend John Wycliffe?s heresy hearing was interrupted by an earthquake that toppled the tower of Canterbury Cathedral. (WSJ, 12/31/04, p.W6) 1382 nend The Bahri Mamluks, rulers of Egypt, were succeeded by the Burji dynasty, another group of Mamluks. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahri_dynasty) 1382 nend Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) arrived in Cairo following a turbulent political career in Tunis. He is best known for his Muqaddimah (known as Prolegomenon in English), which was discovered, evaluated and fully appreciated first by 19th century European scholarship. (SSFC, 7/24/11, p.F7)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun) 1383 nend Sep 4, Amadeus VIII, duke of Savoye, and the last antipope (Felix V (1439-48), was born. (MC, 9/4/01) c 1383 nend c1436 Masolino, Italian artist. He worked with Masaccio on "Saints Jerome and John the Baptist," part of an altarpiece for Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome. (WSJ, 9/27/01, p.A16) 1384 nend Jan 30, Vytautas handed over Samogitia to the Knights of the Cross and promised to serve as a vassal to the order following receipt of Trakai. (LHC, 1/30/03) 1384 nend Sep 2, Louis I, duke of Anjou and king of Naples (Battle of Poitiers), died. (MC, 9/2/01) 1384 nend Oct 16, The Polish princess Hedwig was crowned King Jadwiga (d.1399) at age 10. She was crowned as king to make it clear that she was a ruler, not a consort. (SFC, 6/9/97, p.A10)(SSFC, 10/2/11,p.N4)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jadwiga_of_Poland) 1384 nend Dec 31, John Wycliffe, English religious reformer and bible translator, died. (MC, 12/31/01) 1385 nend Jan 18, A Lithuanian delegation under Skirgaila arrived in Cracow to ask for the hand of Jadvyga on behalf of Jogaila. (LHC, 1/18/03) 1385 nend Apr 12, Willem van Oostervant wed Margaretha (10), Philip the Stout's daughter (Flanders). (MC, 4/12/02) 1385 nend Aug 14, Jogaila and his brothers signed a treaty with Poland at Krievos Castle. Here he agreed to convert to Christianity and to seek the conversion of all of Lithuania and that then Lithuania and Poland would unite. The treaty also included an agreement to free all captive Catholics and to help Poland regain all the land it had lost to the German Knights. Vytautas urged Jogaila to go to Poland and leave Lithuania to be ruled by himself. (H of L, 1931, p.48)(Ist. L.H., 1948, p. 68) 1385 nend Aug 14, Portuguese defeated Castilians at Aljubarrota and gained independence. John of Portugal defeated John of Castile. (PCh, 1992, p.136)(HN, 8/15/98)(MC, 8/14/02) 1385 nend The Albanian ruler of Durrës invited Ottoman forces to intervene against a rival. (www, Albania, 1998) 1385 nend In Italy Giovanni di Pietro Antinori branched from his family?s lucrative silk and wool business to join the Florentine wine makers guild. By 2008 the family business had vineyards in Hungary, Chile and California?s Napa Valley. (SFC, 4/14/06, p.D1)(WSJ, 4/5/08, p.A6) 1386 nend Feb 2, Jogaila was elected King of Poland. (LHC, 2/2/03) 1386 nend Feb 15, Duke Philip the Stout formed the Council of Flanders. (MC, 2/15/02) 1386 nend Feb 15, Christianity was introduced to Lithuania when Grand Duke Jogaila and Vytautas underwent a token Baptism at the cathedral in Cracow. Jogaila had married Queen Jadvyga (12) and was crowned King in Poland. Together they began to rule from Cracow over Lithuania and Poland. Jogaila submitted to restrictions that no major decisions could be made without the authorization of the Polish nobility. (Dr, 7/96, V1#1, p.5)(Ist. L.H., 1948, p. 69)(DrEE, 11/9/96, p.6) 1386 nend Mar 4, Jogaila was crowned King of Poland. (LHC, 3/4/03) 1386 nend The Duomo Cathedral was begun in Milan. The Milanese boast that it took 500 years to build. (SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T11) 1386 nend The Univ. of Heidelberg, the oldest in Germany, was founded. (SFEC, 9/26/99, p.T8) 1386 nend The counts of Habsburg tried to reach their goals by military force but were again defeated by Swiss forces at the battle of Sempach. no_source 1386 nend Sigismund (1368-1437), son of Charles IV, became King of Hungary by his marriage to Queen Mary of Hungary (1372-1395). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigismund%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor) 1386 nend The Earl of Suffolk, Michael de la Pole, was the first person to be impeached along modern lines of procedure. (WSJ, 1/25/99, p.A19) 1387 nend Feb 17, Jogaila founded the archdiocese of Vilnius and provided land for the Bishop?s headquarters. (LHC, 2/17/03) 1387 nend Feb 22, Jogaila issued a proclamation for all Lithuanians to accept Catholicism. (LHC, 2/22/03) 1387 nend Mar 22, Jogaila gave Vilnius the rights of Magdeburg. Vilnius became the 1st self-governed Lithuanian city. (LHC, 3/22/03) 1387 nend Jul 22, French Ackerman (c57), Ghent rebel, leader of Reisers, was murdered. (MC, 7/22/02) 1387 nend Aug 9, Henry V, British king famous for his victory at Agincourt, France, was born. [see Aug 29] (HN, 8/9/98) 1387 nend Aug 29, Henry V, king of England (1413-22) / France (1416-19), was born. [see Aug 9] (MC, 8/29/01) 1387 nend The Italian painter Fra Angelico (d.1455), Giovanni da Fiesole, was born about this time. His work included the "Annunciation." The 1997 book "Fra Angelico" by John T. Spike was hailed as the art book of the year. (WUD, 1994, p.57)(SFEC,12/797, Par p.6) 1387 nend Henry of Lancaster supported his uncle Thomas, Duke of Gloucester, in an attack on the government of Richard II. (MWH, 1994) 1387 1388 Henry of Lancaster was a participant in the "Merciless" Parliament. (MWH, 1994) 1387 1412 In Denmark Queen Margrete I ruled. (SFC, 11/8/00, p.B7) 1387 1455 Fra Angelico, Giovanni da Fiesole, Italian painter. His work included the "Annunciation." The 1997 book "Fra Angelico" by John T. Spike was hailed as the art book of the year. (WUD, 1994, p.57)(SFEC,12/797, Par p.6) 1387 1456 Janos Hunyadi, Hungarian soldier and national hero. He was the father of Matthias Corvinus. (WUD, 1994, p.693,1672) 1388 nend Mar 12, Pope Urban VI authorized Poznan?s Bishop Dobrogost to establish a Vilnius archdiocese. (LHC, 3/12/03) 1388 nend The counts of Habsburg tried to reach their goals by military force but were again defeated by Swiss forces at the battle of Naefels. no_source 1389 nend Jan 10, Jogaila authorized the Bishops of Vilnius to build churches and urged believers to donate 10% for their upkeep. (LHC, 1/10/03) 1389 nend Mar 31, Everhard Tserclaes, sheriff of Brussels, was murdered. (MC, 3/31/02) 1389 nend Jun 15, Ottoman Turks crushed Serbia in the Battle of Kosovo. The Serbs were defeated by the invading Turkish Ottoman army at the Battle of Kosovo Polje, the "Field of Blackbirds." In the battle, the Serb prince Lazar was captured by the Turks and beheaded. The Battle of Kosovo, in which the Serbs chose death rather than surrender, remains a permanent symbol in the Serbian national consciousness. Lazar's bones were placed in the monastery at Gracanica in Kosovo. Albanians joined a Serbian-led Balkan army that was defeated by Ottoman forces at the Battle of Kosova. [see Jun 28] (SFC, 12/29/96, BR p.7)(SFC, 3/3/98, p.A8)(WSJ, 5/5/98, p.A20)(HN,6/15/98)(HNQ, 3/25/99)(WSJ, 3/25/99, p.A17)(www, Albania, 1998) 1389 nend Jun 28, The Serbs were defeated in the Battle of Kosovo at the Field of the Blackbirds. Sultan Murad, the Ottoman leader was killed in the battlefield by the wounded son-in-law of King Lazar. Serbs say that Albanians aided the Turkish invaders. Historical evidence shows that both forces were multinational and that Serbs and Albanian fought on both sides. [see Jun 15] In 1999 Ismail Kadare, Albanian author, wrote "Elegy for Kosovo," in which he retells the story of the battle. Bosnian King Tvrtko and other Balkan princes along with Albanians fought under the command of Serbian Prince Lazar. (WSJ, 5/7/99, p.A1,18)(SFEC, 7/23/00, BR p.7) 1389 nend Serbs, defeated by the Ottoman Turks, moved from Kosovo to the Krajina region of Croatia. (WSJ, 4/22/99, A12) 1389 nend A French bishop advised the Pope that the Shroud of Turin, that had materialized in the village of Lirey a generation earlier, was a fraud. (WSJ, 4/10/98, p.W6) 1389 nend Henry of Lancaster rejoined King Richard II. (MWH, 1994) 1389 1464 Cosimo de Medici, Florentine merchant banker. The Medici family served as the world-wide tithe and tax collector for the Catholic Church. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1390 nend Jul 1, A French and Genovese armada sailed out against Barbary pirates. (MC, 7/1/02) c 1390 nend Jacques de Baerze made his statuette "Corpus Christi." It was key work in the transition from medieval art to realism. (WSJ, 4/9/99, p.W16) 1390 nend Henry of Lancaster (later Henry IV) departed England on a Crusade to Lithuania and then to Jerusalem. (MWH, 1994) 1390 nend Plague broke out again in Europe. (HN, 1/20/01) 1391 nend Mar 15, A Jew-hating monk in Seville, Spain, stirred up a mob to attack Jews. (MC, 3/15/02) 1391 nend Jun 4, A mob led by Ferrand Martinez surrounded and set fire to the Jewish quarter of Seville, Spain. The surviving Jews were sold into slavery. (MC, 6/4/02) 1391 nend Aug 5, Castilian sailors in Barcelona, Spain set fire to a Jewish ghetto, killing 100 people and setting off four days of violence against the Jews. (HN, 8/5/98) 1391 nend Aug 24, Jews of Palma Majorca, Spain, were massacred. (MC, 8/24/02) 1391 nend Oct 30, Eduard, [Dom Duarte], King of Portugal (1433-38) and author, was born. (MC, 10/30/01) 1391 nend China's Bureau of Imperial Supplies produced 2-foot by 3-foot sheets of toilet paper for use by the emperor. (WSJ, 9/10/03, p.B1) 1391 1425 Manuel II Palaeologus ruled the Byzantine empire. (Econ, 9/23/06, p.59) c 1392 nend Sir Jean Froissart authored "The Chronicles of England, France and Scotland." (ON, 4/00, p.6) 1392 nend The University at Erfurt on the Gera River was founded. Erfurt is the capital of the state of Thuringia and Martin Luther later studied there. (Hem., Nov.'95, p.114) 1392 nend The Chosun Dynasty was established. In 2005 Yi Ku (73), the son of Korea's last crown prince, died alone of a heart attack in Japan. He was the last member of the Chosun dynasty that ruled Korea from 1392 until 1910. (SFC, 5/9/01, p.C18)(AP, 7/24/05) 1392 1910 The Choson Dynasty ruled over Korea. [the article is about pojagi, Korean wrapping cloth] (Hem., Oct. '95, p.72)(WSJ, 8/13/96, p.A9) 1393 nend Henry of Lancaster returned to England as a hero. (MWH, 1994) 1394 nend Mar 4, Prince Henry the Navigator (d.1460), Portuguese explorer and sponsor of Portuguese voyages of discovery, was born. [see 1420] (HN, 3/4/98)(WSJ, 1/28/00, p.A18) 1394 nend Sep 17, In France King Charles VI decreed as an irrevocable law and statute that thenceforth no Jew should dwell in his domains. The decree was not immediately enforced, a respite being granted to the Jews in order that they might sell their property and pay their debts. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France) 1394 nend Nov 3, Jews were expelled from France by Charles VI. The order, signed on Yom Kippur, was enforced on November 3. Jews continued to live in Lyons and papal possessions such as Pugnon. [see Sep 17, 1394] (www.wzo.org.il/doingzionism/resources/view.asp?id=261) 1394 nend Mary de Bohun, wife of Henry of Lancaster, died. She and Henry had 4 sons and 2 daughters. (MWH, 1994) 1394 nend Tamerlane conquered all of Afghanistan. (WSJ, 11/16/01, p.W12) 1394 nend Seoul, Korea, was founded. The city celebrated its 600th anniversary in 1994. (MC, 11/29/01) 1395 nend Tamerlane burnt Astrakhan to the ground. Astrakhan is situated in the Volga Delta, a fertile area that formerly contained the capitals of Khazaria and the Golden Horde. Astrakhan itself was first mentioned by travelers in the early 13th century as Xacitarxan. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrakhan) 1395 nend In Russia the ikon of Our Lady of Vladimir was brought to Moscow and placed in the Kremlin?s Assumption Cathedral for protection against the Mongol invaders under Tamerlane. A monastery, know as Stretenskii, was built on the spot where the Muscovites met the delegation from Vladimir. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.38) 1395 1455 Pisanello, an artist who painted with scrupulous realism. (SFEC, 2/21/99, BR p.8) 1395 1456 Jacques Coeur, financial adviser to Charles VII of France. He ran a variety of businesses and sold luxury goods. He bankrolled Charles' war in 1449 with nearly a ton of gold. His gothic mansion at Bourges had the family motto etched in stone: "To valiant hearts nothing is impossible." (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1396 nend Apr 30, Crusaders and the Earl of Nevers departed from Dijon. (MC, 4/30/02) 1396 nend Jul 31, Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, Brabant, Limburg, count, was born. (MC, 7/31/02) 1396 nend Sep 25, A Christian crusade, led jointly by John the Fearless of Nevers and King Sigismund of Hungary, ended in disaster at the hands of Sultan Bajezid I's Ottoman army at Nicopolis. (HN, 9/25/98)(PCh, 1992, p.137) 1396 nend Sep 26, Sultan Bajezid I beheaded several hundred crusaders. (MC, 9/26/01) c 1396 nend The tabla, a 600-year-old invention, was evolved from Arabian drums to accompany a fusion of Islamic Qawali singing and Dhrupad music composed for Sanskrit couplets usually recited in temples. (SFC, 5/19/96,Mag, p.25) c 1396 nend The kirana style of Hindustani music began. (SFC, 6/18/96, p.A17) 1397 nend Jan 13, John of Gaunt married Katherine Rouet. (HN, 1/13/99) 1397 nend Jun 20, The Union of Kalmar united Denmark, Sweden, and Norway under one monarch. The alliance grew out of the dynastic ties of the Scandinavian countries of Denmark, Norway and Sweden in response to rising German influence in the Baltic. The union lasted from 1397 to 1523. (HN, 6/20/98)(HNQ, 7/22/00) 1397 nend Jan 26, Vytautas signed a treaty with the Knights of the Cross but Samogitia was not included. (LHC, 1/26/03) 1397 nend Aug 16, Albrecht II von Habsburg, king of Bohemia, Hungary and Germany, was born. (MC, 8/16/02) 1397 nend In England Henry of Lancaster was made Duke of Hereford and then banished from the realm for a presumed conspiracy to murder the Duke of Gloucester. (MWH, 1994) 1397 nend Spaten's roots date back to this time. The company name comes from Munich brewing family Spaeth, which bought a 225 year-old brewery in 1622 ran the firm for seven generations. (http://spatenusa.com/timeline.html) 1397 1475 Paolo Uccello, Italian painter. He painted battle scenes whose tilting spears put linear perspective to dazzling use. (WUD, 1994, p.1534)(WSJ, 6/6/96, p.A12) 1398 nend In South Korea a wooden structure at the top of the Namdaemun gate formed part of a wall that encircled the Seoul. The two-tiered wooden structure was renovated in the 1960s, when it was declared South Korea's top national treasure. In 2008 a fire destroyed the 610-year-old structure. (AP, 2/11/08) 1399 nend Aug 19, King Richard II of England surrendered to his cousin Henry Bolingbroke (Henry IV). Henry of Lancaster returned to England to claim his inherited lands. He marched with an army into Briston and captured Richard II and claimed the throne. [see Sep 29] (MC, 8/19/02)(PC, 1992, p.138) 1399 nend Sep 29, Richard II (1367-1400) of England signed his "Cession and Renunciation." His cousin, Henry of Lancaster, declared himself king under the name Henry IV. Richard had earlier introduced the lace handkerchief, triple-taxed the citizenry and stole the estates of his relatives. [see Sep 30, Oct 13] (HN, 9/29/98)(SFEC, 10/29/00, Z1 p.2) 1399 nend Sep 30, British Parliament accepted Richard II's "Cession and Renunciation." [see Sep 29] (HN, 9/30/98) 1399 nend Oct 13, Henry IV of England was crowned. (HN, 10/13/98) 1399 nend Oct, Richard II was imprisoned at Pontefract Castle, where he died 4 months later. [See Feb 14,1400] (MWH, 1994)(HN, 10/13/98) 1399 nend Dec 17, Tamerlane's Mongols destroyed the army of Mahmud Tughluk, Sultan of Delhi, at Panipat. (HN, 12/17/98) 1399 nend Guillame Dufay (d.1474), composer, was born. (WSJ, 1/2/02, p.A15) 1399 nend Chersonesos in the southern Crimean peninsula, the Byzantine world?s largest trading outpost, was sacked by the Mongols. (SFC,12/19/97, p.F6) c 1399 nend In Poland Queen Hedwig died in childbirth at age 25. (SFC, 6/9/97, p.A10) 1399 1413 The reign of Henry IV of England (1367-1413). He was the first king of the House of Lancaster. During his reign insurrections occurred under Owen Glendower (c1359-c1460) with followers in Wales and the Percy Family in Northumberland (1403). (WUD, 1994, p.1671) c 1400 nend Johann Gutenberg (Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg d.1468), was born in Mainz. He was the inventor of movable, metal type, a stamping mold for casting type, the alloy of lead, tin, and antimony for the cast letters, the printing press itself, and a printing ink with an oil base. The first books were printed around 1450 on rag paper. (V.D.-H.K.p.153-154)(SFC, 2/15/97, p.D1)(WSJ, 9/14/00, p.A24) 1400 nend Feb 14, Richard II (33), deposed king of England (1377-99), was murdered in Pontefract Castle in Yorkshire. (HN, 2/14/99)(MC, 2/14/02) 1400 nend Oct 25, Geoffrey Chaucer, author (Canterbury Tales), died in London. (AP, 10/25/97)(WSJ, 9/18/00, p.A36) c 1400 nend ?The Edifying Book of Erotic Chess,? in effect a manual of seduction, was published. (Econ, 7/10/04, p.76) c 1400 nend The first gold balls were made of stitched leather which was soaked and filled with feathers. (SFEC, 6/14/98, p.A12) c 1400 nend The Ahwahneechee, a Southern Sierra Miwok band, first began to inhabit Yosemite in California. (SFEC, 5/18/97, Z1 p.4) c 1400 nend In Washington state the 6 yard deep Electron Mudflow came down from Mount Rainier where the town of Orting was later established. (SFEC, 7/12/98, p.A22) 1400 nend From about this time Dubai became a major crossing point on int?l. trading routes in silk, pearls, spices and gold. (WSJ, 6/20/06, p.C12) 1400 nend Plague broke out again in Europe. (HN, 1/20/01) 1400 nend Mali (Africa) was under attack from all four sides and gradually weakened in power. (ATC, p.120) 1400 nend In Cracow, Poland, the Jagiellonian University was re-founded with funds and a permanent income by the royal couple. [see 1364] (WSJ, 7/13/00, p.A24)(PG-Comm) c 1400 nend The Toraja people came to Sulawesi (later part of Indonesia) by boat from a island to the southwest and settled on the banks of the Sa?dan River. (SFEC, 6/11/00, p.T8) c 1400 nend In Wales Owain Glyndwr (Owen Glendower c1359-c1460) led the warriors of Gwynned in a bloody revolt against Henry IV. The event was marked by a comet. (SFEC, 6/22/97, p.D2) c 1400 nend Stone buildings were erected at Zimbabwe in central Africa and continued to be enlarged until about 1830. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.169) 1400 nend s Kongo?s king, the Mani-Kongo, ruled six provinces and about two million people. The capital of the Kongo was Mbanza, built on a fertile plateau 100 miles east of the coast and 50 miles south of the Congo River in southwest Africa. (ATC, p.150) c 1400 1425 Yong Le, the 3rd Ming emperor, created a permanent imperial residence in Beijing. Work was done by some 200,000 laborers and in time became the 8,886-room complex called the "Forbidden City." (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R36) 1400 1450 http://www.donsweb.com/History/Timeline/12--1400-1450ad.htm no_source 1400 1464 Roger Van Der Weyden, Flemish painter. (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.1624) c 1400 1471 Sir Thomas Malory, English author. His work included "Le Morte Darthur." (WUD, 1994, p.868) c 1400 1474 Guillaume Dufay [Du Fay], Flemish composer. His work included the "Ecclesie militantis," which has four texts going simultaneously. (WUD, 1994, p.440)(WSJ, 7/29/97, p.A12) 1400 1500 The 15th cent Urbino Bible was produced. (WSJ, 7/12/96, p.A9) 1400 1500 In China a Shang Xi 15th cent. painting portrayed "The Xuande Emperor on an Outing." (WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20) 1400 1500 Europeans began producing ethereal sounds from wine glasses containing liquids. (SFEC,12/28/97, DB p.17) 1400 1500 In 2005 Tim Parks authored ?Medici Money: Banking, Metaphysics, and Art in Fifteenth Century Florence.? (Econ, 4/23/05, p.81) c 1400 1500 The 15th century German "Housebook" was produced. It taught the rules and etiquette of jousting, and contained remedies, cooking recipes, information on love and horoscopes. (SFEC, 1/10/99, p.T3) c 1400 1500 In Germany Cardinal Nikolaus Cusanus, philosopher, founded a religious and charitable institution complete with vineyard at Kues, across from Bernkastel on the Mosel River. (SFEC, 4/30/00, p.T8) 1400 1500 The Vietnamese from the north pushed the Chams south and opened the port of Hoi An to foreign traders. (SFEC, 4/26/98, p.T4) 1400 1500 Porcelain from this period was recovered from a sunken ship in the South China Sea in 1999. 10% of the 150,000 pieces were kept by the Vietnamese government and the rest was scheduled for auction on eBay. (WSJ, 6/22/00, p.W10) 1400 1500 The city of Bagerhat was founded in southern Bangladesh by Ulugh Khan-i-Jahan as a Muslim colony. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.B) 1400 1500 In the Philippines Vigan historic town on Luzon was established by Chinese traders by this time. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.F) 1400 1500 Giovanni Spinetti of Venice built the first small piano called the spinet. (SFEC, 4/20/97, Z1 p.5) 1400 1600 Researchers in 1997 announced that sometime in this period the Sauvignon Franc grape crossed with Sauvignon Blanc grape to produce the Cabernet Sauvignon grape. (SFC, 6/4/97, Z1 p.4) 1400 1600 Hoi An, Vietnam, flourished at the end of the 2nd Cham (Vijaya) Empire of this time. It attracted Japanese, then Portuguese, Dutch and Chinese merchants. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.H) 1400 1850 This was a frigid period in Europe and came to be called the Little Ice Age. (NG, 7/04, p.28) 1401 nend Jan 9, In Marienburg some 80 Lithuanian barons were baptized to Catholicism. (LHC, 1/9/03) 1401 nend Jan 18, In Lithuania Vytautas and the country?s dukes submitted documents to Poland that Vytautas would rule Lithuania as a vassal to Poland and return the country to Poland upon his death. (LHC, 1/18/03) 1401 nend Feb 19, William Sawtree, 1st English religious martyr, was burned in London. (MC, 2/19/02) 1401 nend Mar 13, The 1st Samogitian uprising supported by Vytautas took place against the German knights. (LHC, 3/13/03) 1401 nend Jul 9, Timur Lenk, Mongol monarch, destroyed Baghdad. (MC, 7/9/02) 1401 nend In England King Henry IV passed the medieval statute De Heretico Comburendo. (MWH, 1994) 1401 1428 Tomasso di Giovanni, Italian artist, also known as Masaccio. His only know documented work is the Pisa altarpiece of 1426. (WSJ, 9/27/01, p.A16) 1402 nend Mar 2, In Marienburg Svitrigaila crossed over to the Knights of the Cross and promised to uphold the Salyn treaty that was broken by Vytautas. (LHC, 3/1/03) 1402 nend Jul 20, In the Battle of Angora the Mongols, led by Tamerlane "the Terrible," defeated the Ottoman Turks and captured Sultan Bayezid I. The Turks eventually regained control of the city and it remained a part of the Ottoman Empire for the next five centuries. Around 2,000 BCE the site of the present day city was a Hittite village known as Ancyra. It was conquered in 333 BC by Macedonians led by Alexander the Great. Because of its central Anatolian Plateau location on the Ankara River, it became an important commercial center. Angora?s name was changed to Ankara in 1930. (HN, 7/20/98)(Ot, 1993, p.6)(HNQ, 4/15/02) 1402 nend Sep 3, Gian Galeazzo Visconti, duke and tyrant of Milan (1395-1402), died at 51. (MC, 9/3/01) 1402 nend The English Bedlam institution, a former monastery whose named derived from Bethlehem, began to house the poor and incurably mad. From 1728-1853 it was presided over by a family of doctors all descended from James Monro. On 2003 Jonathan Andrews and Andrew Scull published their 2-volume study: "Undertaker of the Mind" and "Customers and patrons of the mad-Trade," based on Monro?s Case Book. (WSJ, 1/29/03, p.D10) 1402 nend In Scotland the Duke of Rothesay, son of King Robert III and heir apparent, died under mysterious circumstances while in the custody of Robert Stewart, the 1st Duke of Albany. Stewart had built Duane Castle at the end of the 14th century. (SSFC, 11/23/03, p.C6) 1403 nend Feb 22, Charles VII, King of France (1422-1461), was born. (HN, 2/22/98)(MC, 2/22/02) 1403 nend Jul 21, Henry IV defeated the Percys in the Battle of Shrewsbury in England. Henry IV fought down an insurrection from Henry Percy, the Earl of Northumberland and Ralph Neville, the Earl of Westmorland, the same men who had helped him overthrow Richard II. Henry Percy (39), [Harry Hotspur] was killed in the battle. (WUD, 1994, p.1671)(MWH, 1994)(HN, 7/21/98) 1403 nend Gjergj Kastrioti (d.1468) was born. He became the Albanian leader known as Skanderbeg. (www, Albania, 1998)(HNQ, 10/5/98) 1403 1413 The Ottoman Empire fell into 11 years of civil war between the 4 sons of Beyazid. http://www.osmanli700.gen.tr/english/sultans.html no_source 1403 nend ?-1482 Giovanni di Paolo, painter. He painted "Expulsion from Paradise." (AAP, 1964) 1404 nend Feb 9, Constantine XI Dragases, last Byzantine Emperor, was born. (MC, 2/9/02) 1404 nend Feb 18, Leon Battista Alberti (d.1472), Italian humanist, architect (Della Pittura), was born in Genoa, the illegitimate son of a Florentine merchant. (WSJ, 11/30/00, p.A20)(MC, 2/18/02) 1404 nend Sep 27, William of Wykeham, chancellor and Bishop of Winchester, died. (MC, 9/27/01) 1404 nend In Wales Owain Glyndwr convened a parliament in Macchynlleth. (SFEC, 6/22/97, p.D2) 1404 1423 China controlled the price of tea and was able to increase its stock of horses from 20,000 to 1,600,000. (WSJ, 8/15/00, p.A24) 1405 nend Feb 14, Timur, aka Tamerlane (b.1336), crippled Mongol monarch, died in Kazakhstan. In 2004 Justin Marozzi authored ?Tamerlane: Sword of Islam, Conqueror of the World.? (V.D.-H.K.p.172)(http://au.encarta.msn.com)(Econ, 8/28/04, p.76) 1405 nend Andrei Rublev, Russian icon painter, painted the iconostasis of the Cathedral of the Gospel with Theophan the Greek; this was the 1st work executed in the classical Russian style, distinguished from the Byzantine by its great height and width and organization of multiple, varied icons along axes. (DVD, Criterion, 1998) 1405 nend Admiral Zheng He, a Muslim eunuch, led a Ming dynasty fleet with 28,000 men through Southeast Asia to India and on to Africa and the Middle East. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R51)(WSJ, 11/18/06, p.P11) 1406 nend Apr 4, Robert III, King of Scotland (1390-1406), died. (MC, 4/4/02) 1406 nend In Beijing the Palace of Heavenly Purity, later renamed the People?s Cultural Palace, was built. (SFC,12/22/97, p.E7) 1406 nend The Signoria of Florence decreed that the city?s 12 guilds had 10 years to fulfill their obligations to decorate an exterior niche of the Orsanmichele guild center. (WSJ, 12/22/05, p.D8) 1407 nend Oct 26, Mobs attacked the Jewish community of Cracow. (MC, 10/26/01) 1408 nend Feb 14, Vytautas gave self-rule status to Kaunas, which was 1st mentioned in the summer of 1361. (LHC, 2/14/03) 1408 nend Feb 19, Henry IV led a victory in the Battle of Brabham Moor that marked the end of domestic threats. The revolt of Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland, against King Henry IV, ended with his defeat and death at Bramham Moor. (MWH, 1994)(HN, 2/19/98) 1408 nend Sep 22, Johannes VII Palaeologus, Byzantine Emperor (1376-77, 90/1404-8), died. (MC, 9/22/01) 1408 nend A law was enacted making it illegal to translate any part of the scriptures into English. It was declared a capital offense to possess an English Bible. (WSJ, 12/22/94, A-20)(WSJ, 4/4/01, p.A18) 1408 nend A marriage at the Hvalsey Church in the East Settlement was the last record of the Norse in Greenland. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.25)(AM, 7/00, p.66) 1409 nend Jan 9, Rene' d'Anjou (d.1480) was born the son and 3rd child of Duke Louis II of Anjou and Yolande of Aragon at Angers in the Maine-and-Loire region of western France. King René, poet and wine lover, demonstrated how all our leaders ought to be. (http://www.guice.org/reneharr.html)(WSJ, 2/13/04, p.A12) 1410 nend May 18, Ruprecht, Roman Catholics German king, died. (SC, 5/18/02) 1410 nend Jul 15, Lithuanian-Polish forces defeated the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Tannenberg, Prussia, thereby halting the Knights? eastward expansion along the Baltic and hastening their decline. Vytautas and Jogaila with hired mercenaries from Belarus along with Tartars and Czechs defeated the Teutonic Knights between Grunvald (Zalgiriai) and Tannenberg southeast of Malburg. Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen and many of his nobles were killed. The war officially ended with the Treaty of Thorn in which the Knights gave up Zemaitija to Vytautas. (COE)(H of L, 1931, p.52)(DrEE, 11/9/96, p.6) 1410 nend Andrei Rublev, Russian icon painter, painted the icon ?The Old Testament Trinity,? which showed Abraham?s 3 angels. This is the only work known to be entirely his own. (DVD, Criterion, 1998) c 1410 nend The French "Book of the Chase" depicted hunting dogs and snares. (SFEM, 4/6/97, p.16) 1411 nend Feb 1, Lithuania, Poland and the Knights of the Cross signed the Torun Peace Treaty. Samogitia was returned to Lithuania. The Teutonic Knights had regrouped and gone to battle against Vytautas and Jogaila. Peace was signed at Torun and western Lithuania was returned, but not Klaipeda (Memel). (Ist. L.H., 1948, p. 71)(LHC, 1/31/03) 1411 1437 Sigismund became the Holy Roman Emperor. [see 1433] (WUD, 1994, p.1325) 1412 nend Jan 6, According to tradition, French heroine Joan of Arc was born Jeanette d'Arc, in the French village of Domrémy. When she was 12 years old, she began hearing what she believed were voices of saints, sending her messages from God. When she was 17, the voices told her to leave her village and save Orléans. Joan convinced the dauphin that she could lead French troops in resistance against their English invaders, and she was given a force of several hundred men to command, whom she led to victory at Orléans in 1429. Wearing her white enameled armor suit, she continued to fight against the English. Joan was captured by Burgundians and then burned at the stake by the English on May 30, 1431, for the offenses of witchcraft, heresy and wearing male clothing. The Roman Catholic Church recognized Joan of Arc as a saint in 1920. (CFA, '96,Vol 179, p.38)(AP, 1/6/98)(HNPD, 1/6/99) 1413 nend Mar 20, Henry IV (b.1367), King of England (1399-1413), died in the house of the Abbot of Westminster. He was succeeded by Henry V (b.1387). (AP,3/20/97)(www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/henry_iv_king.shtml) 1413 nend Iceland used dried fish for money. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1414 nend Feb 19, Thomas Arundel, archbishop of Canterbury, chancellor of England, died. (MC, 2/19/02) 1414 nend Nov 16, A council of bishops opened in Constance Germany under Emp. Sigismund. When the council of Constance opened, Christians owed obedience to three different popes: Gregory XII of the Roman party, Benedict XIII of the Avignon party, and John XXIII, who had been elected after the death of Alexander V. John XXIII and Benedict XIII were deposed by the council, and Gregory XII voluntarily resigned. Then Martin V was elected pope on 11 November 1417 and he was regarded as the legitimate pontiff by the church as a whole. (www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/CONSTANC.HTM)(WUD, 1994 p.313) 1415 nend Jun 13, Henry the Navigator, the prince of Portugal, embarked on an expedition to Africa. This marked the beginning of Portuguese dominance of West Africa. (HN, 6/13/98) 1415 nend Jul 4, Angelo Correr became Pope Gregory XII. (Maggio) 1415 nend Jul 6, Jan Huss, Bohemian (Czech) religious reformer, was burned as a heretic at the stake at Constance, Germany. He had spoken out against Church corruption. (NH, 9/96, p.23)(HN, 7/6/98) 1415 nend Aug 13, King Henry V of England took his army across the English Channel and laid siege on Port Harfleur. (ON, 6/08, p.9) 1415 nend Sep 21, Frederick III, German Emperor (1440-1493), was born in Innsbruck Austria. (MC, 9/21/01) 1415 nend Oct 25, An English army under Henry V defeated the French at Agincourt, France. The French had out numbered Henry?s troops, but Welsh longbows turned the tide of the battle. The French force was under the command of the constable Charles I d?Albret. Charles I d?Albret, son of Arnaud-Amanieu d?Albret, came from a line of nobles who were often celebrated warriors. His ancestors had fought in the First Crusade (1096-99) and his father had fought in the Hundred Years War himself--first for the English before joining the side of France. Charles? own exploits in the ongoing conflict came to an end at the Battle of Agincourt. The decisive victory for the outnumbered English saw the death of not only Charles, but a dozen other high-ranking nobles as well. But Charles? fate did not end the Albrets as his descendants went on to become kings of Navarre, and later, France. In 2005 Juliet Barker authored ?Agincourt: The King, the Campaign, and the Battle.? (MH, 12/96)(HN, 10/25/98)(Econ, 10/22/05, p.88)(ON, 6/08, p.10) 1415 nend Oct 25, Edward (b.1373), duke of York, died at the Battle of Agincourt. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_of_Norwich,_2nd_Duke_of_York) 1416 nend Feb 6, A Samogitian complaint against the Knights of the Cross was read at the Catholic Church Council at Constance. (LHC, 2/6/03) 1416 nend Apr 2, Ferdinand I (52) the Justified, king of Aragon and Sicily, died. (MC, 4/2/02) 1416 nend May 7, Monk Nicolaas Serrurier was arrested for heresy at Tournay. (MC, 5/7/02) 1416 nend May 30, Jerome of Prague was burned as a heretic by the Church. (HN, 5/30/98) 1416 nend Jun 15, St. Francesco de Paolo, was born. (HT, 6/15/00) 1416 nend Jun 15, Joannes Argyropoulos, Greek scholar, was born. (HT, 6/15/00) 1416 nend Nanni di Banco, guild member of the Masters of Stone and Wood, installed his ?Four Crowned Martyr Saints? at the Orsanmichele guild center in Florence. (WSJ, 12/22/05, p.D8) 1416 nend The Drepung Loseling Monastery was founded in Lhasa, Tibet, as a center for Buddhist teaching. It was the home for early Dalai Lamas and a place where multiphonic singing was nurtured. (SFC, 10/10/96, p.E1) 1416 1469 Piero de Medici, son of Cosimo de Medici. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1417 nend Feb 23, Pietro Barbo, later Pope Paul II (1464-1471), was born in Venice. (PTA, 1980, p.418) 1417 nend Nov 11, Martin V was elected pope and was regarded as the legitimate pontiff by the church as a whole. (www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/CONSTANC.HTM) 1418 nend Feb 25, At the Constance church synod the Orthodox Metropolitan of Kiev and Lithuania, Gregory Camblak, proposed a union between the Orthodox and Catholic church. (LHC, 2/25/03) 1418 nend In China a book was published about this time titled ?The Marvelous Visions of the Star Raft.? It documented some of the exploits of Admiral Zheng He, who roamed the oceans from 1405-1435. (Econ, 1/14/06, p.80) 1418 nend In 2006 Liu Gang, a Beijing lawyer and amateur map collector, unveiled a map that proclaimed to be a 1763 copy of an older Chinese map dating to 1418. The map showed the world in 2 hemispheres, but its authenticity was questioned. (SSFC, 1/22/06, p.A9)(Econ, 1/14/06, p.80) 1418 nend In Florence Brunelleschi and Ghiberti submitted plans for the dome of the Cathedral of St. Mary of the Flower. The cathedral had been under construction for 125 years and was designed to be capped by the largest dome since the golden age of ancient Rome. (ON, 9/00, p.6) 1418 nend The Gawhar Shad Mosque in Meshed, Iran was completed by the wife of Shah Rukh. (NG, Sept 1939, Baroness Ravensdale, p.353) 1418 nend The Church Council at Constance, Germany, begun in 1414, ended. (WUD, 1994 p.313) 1419 nend Jul 30, Anti-Catholic Hussites, followers of executed reformer Jan Hus, stormed the town hall in Prague and threw 3 Catholic consuls and 7 citizens out the window. This episode has been called "The Defenestration in Prague." The out-the-window gentlemen all landed safely in a manure pile. (NH, 9/96, p.23)(MC, 7/30/02) 1419 nend Aug 16, Wenceslas (b.1361), son of Charles IV and King of Germany, died. He served as King Wenceslas IV of Bohemia (1363) and King of the Romans (1376). (www.arts.gla.ac.uk/Slavonic/Czech_Hist5.html) 1419 nend Aug 16, Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor, became king of Bohemia following the death of Wenceslaus IV, but was ejected by the Hussites due to the execution of Jan Huss. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigismund%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor) 1419 nend Sep 10, John the Fearless (48), Burgundy and French warrior, was murdered at Montereau, France, by supporters of the dauphine. (HN, 9/10/98)(MC, 9/10/01) 1419 nend Dec 11, Heretic Nicolaas Serrurier was exiled from Florence. (MC, 12/11/01) 1419 nend The marble Fonte Gaia in Siena was sculpted by Jacopo della Quercia. (WSJ, 4/29/03, D5) 1419 nend An English army under Henry V captured the duchy of Normandy. (ON, 6/08, p.11) 1419 nend Prince Henry (d.1460), as governor of Portugal?s southernmost province, attracted shipbuilders, cartographers and other nautical experts. His patronage was instrumental in stimulating European exploration in the first half of the 15th century. (HN, 6/21/01) 1420 nend Mar 1, Pope Martinus I called for a crusade against the Hussieten (Bohemia). (SC, 3/1/02) 1420 nend May 21, King Charles VI of France signed the Treaty of Troyes. It recognized all the territorial gains of King Henry V, gave Henry the daughter of Charles, Catherine of Valois, in marriage, and acknowledged Henry as the legitimate heir to the French throne. (ON, 6/08, p.11) 1420 nend Jul 14, Jan Zizka (1360?-1424) led the Taborites in Battle at Vitkov Zizka's hill (Prague). The Taborites beat forces under Sigismund, the pro-Catholic King of Hungary and Bohemia. This was part of the Hussite Wars (1419-1436). (http://user.intop.net/~jhollis/janzizka.htm) 1420 nend Jul, The Hussites agreed on the Four Articles of Prague, which were promulgated in the Latin, Czech, and German languages. In summery they stated: 1) Freedom to preach the Word of God. 2) Celebration of the Lord's Supper in both kinds (bread and wine to priests and laity alike). 3) No profane power for the clergy. And 4) The same law for laity and priests. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hussite) 1420 nend Dec 1, Henry V, King of England and de facto ruler of France, entered Paris. no_source 1420 nend Siennese artist Giovanni di Paolo painted a tiny gold-ground triptych. (SFEC, 1/11/98, p.D7) 1420 nend The main character of Janacek?s opera "The Excursions of Mr. Broucek" was cast into a setting of religious wars from this time and forced to fight with the Hussite fanatics in Prague. (WSJ, 6/13/96, p.A12) c 1420 nend Francesco di Antonio, Florentine artist, painted "St. John the Baptist" and "St. Anthony Abbot." The panels later made their way to St. Philip?s in the Hills parish in Tucson, Ariz. (WSJ, 8/9/96, p.A8) 1420 nend Brewers in Bavaria about this time discovered a way to brew beer in the winter beginning the lager revolution. (Econ, 8/27/11, p.71) 1420 nend Prince Henry the Navigator (b.1394) gathered cartographers, navigators and shipbuilders in a fortress in Sagres, Portugal, to invent navigation technology to reach India, China and the Americas. He later sailed south of the Canary Islands to the great eastward curve of West Africa at Sierra Leone. The search for Prester John as an ally against the Muslims helped inspire his explorations. Henry began dispatching expeditions from the nearby port of Lagos. Although dubbed "Henry the Navigator" by English writers, he never embarked on the voyages of exploration he himself sponsored. Nevertheless, the prince helped advance European cartography and the accuracy of navigation tools as well as spurring maritime commerce. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14)(HN, 3/4/98)(WSJ, 1/28/00, p.A18)(HNQ, 6/21/01) 1420 nend Portuguese sailors and soldiers begin fighting the natives of the Canary Islands, 800 miles southwest of the southern tip of Portugal. (V.D.-H.K.p.173) 1420 nend Scotland's Duke of Albany died. The governorship of Scotland and Doune Castle passed to his son, Murdoch. (SSFC, 11/23/03, p.C6) 1420 1433 Time of the Hussite wars in Bohemia. (WUD, 1994, p.1671) 1420 1480 The Portuguese explored the west coast of Africa along the Gold Coast, so named because here could be found plenty of gold to buy pepper. (V.D.-H.K.p.173) 1420 1492 Piero della Francesca, painter, born in Borgo Sansepolcro, but trained in Florence. In Urbino under the patronage of Federico da Montefeltro, he produced some of his best works including the "Flagellation," the "Resurrection" and "St. Apollonia." His paintings incorporated the new aspect of perspective and earthly matters dominate over religious feeling. (V.D.-H.K.p.130)(AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.563) 1420 1500 The Paston Letters comprise 1,000 documents involving an English family over this period. The collection is held by the Univ. of Michigan and is being made electronically available under the Humanities Text Initiative (HTI) program that was begun in 1989. (MT, 6/96, p.8,9) 1421 nend Mar, Admiral Zheng He of the Ming dynasty embarked on a voyage that took him to the east coast of Africa. In 2002 an amateur historian proposed that he continued his voyage around the world. [see 1431] (SSFC, 3/17/02, p.A3) 1421 nend May 11, Jews were expelled from Styria, Austria. (MC, 5/11/02) 1421 nend May 23, Jews of Austria were imprisoned and expelled. (MC, 5/23/02) 1421 nend May 26, Mohammed I, Ottoman sultan (1413-21), died. (MC, 5/26/02) 1421 nend Nov 18-1421 Nov 19, In the St. Elizabeth flood the Southern sea flooded 72 villages killing some 10,000 in Netherlands. (www.rijksmuseum.nl/aria/aria_assets/SK-A-3147-B?lang=en) 1421 nend Dec 6, Henry VI, the youngest king of England, was born. He acceded the thrown at 269 days of age. (HN, 12/6/02)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England) 1421 nend In Florence the first recorded patent was granted for a barge with hoisting gear used to transport marble. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1421 nend In Vienna a medieval synagogue burned with its Jewish occupants. Its remains were found in 1996 in the Judenplaz during preparation work for the installation of a new statue for the Holocaust Memorial project. (WSJ, 11/7/96, p.A18) 1422 nend Mar 30, Ketsugan, a Zen teacher, performed exorcisms to free the Aizoji temple. (MC, 3/30/02) 1422 nend Aug 13, William Caxton (d.1491), 1st English printer, was born. (http://en.thinkexist.com/birthday/August_13/)(WSJ, 5/12/05, p.D8) 1422 nend Aug 31, Henry V (b.1387), King of England (1413-22) and France (1416-19), died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_V_of_England) 1422 nend Sep 6, Sultan Murat II ended a vain siege of Constantinople. (HN, 9/6/98) 1422 nend Oct 21, Charles VI, King of France (1380-1422), died at 54. (MC, 10/21/01) 1422 1482 Federico da Montefeltro, a distinguished warrior and scholar, commissioned 2 intarsia studiolas (1478-1483). A history of Federico and his studiola is in the 6/6/96 issue of "The Bulletin," the NY Met museum?s newsletter for members (WSJ, 6/6/96, p.A12) 1423 nend Mar 30, Lithuania and Poland reached an agreement at Kezmark with Emperor Sigismund, who agreed to recall Sigismund Kaributa from Poland. (LHC, 3/30/03) 1423 nend May 23, Benedict XIII, [Pedro the Luna], Spanish Pope (1394-1423), died. He had been elected by the Avignon cardinals during the Great Western Schism. (MC, 5/23/02)(PTA, 1980, p.402) 1423 nend Ghiberti?s sculpture of St. Matthew was installed at the Orsanmichele guild center in Florence. (WSJ, 12/22/05, p.D8) 1424 nend Oct 11, Jan Zizka (b.c1370), Czech army leader (Hussite), died of plague. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Zizka) 1424 nend Dec 6, Don Alfonso V of Aragon granted Barcelona the right to exclude Jews. (MC, 12/6/01) 1424 nend Masolino sculpted his Pieta. (WSJ, 1/20/02, p.D8) 1424 nend A Portuguese navigation chart showed a land called Antilia in the vicinity of the West Indies. (SFEC, 5/28/00, Z1 p.2) 1424 nend James I returned from exile and was crowned King of Scotland. He tried but failed to ban golf. He wanted his troops to practice more archery. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34)(SSFC, 11/23/03, p.C6) 1425 nend Feb 27, Moscow's Grand Duke Vasilii died and his brother-in-law, Vytautas, became guardian of his son, Vasilii, and daughter, Sophia. (LHC, 2/27/03) 1425 nend Jul 21, Manuel Palaeologus, Byzantine Emperor (1391-1425), writer, died. He ended his days after signing a humiliating peace with the Ottoman Turks. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_II_Palaeologus)(Econ, 9/23/06,p.59) 1425 nend Aug 25, Countess Jacoba of Bavaria escaped from jail. (chblue.com, 8/25/01) 1425 nend Robert Campin painted the altarpiece "The Merode Triptych." (WSJ, 1/14/00, p.W12) 1425 nend Dame Juliana Berner described fly fishing in her "Treatyse of Fysshynge Wyth an Angle." [see 1496] (SFEM, 11/7/99, p.6) 1426 nend Sep 18, Hubert [Huybrecht] van Eyck, painter, died. (MC, 9/18/01) 1426 nend Vietnam provided a defeated Chinese army with boats and horses to carry home its soldiers. (NG, May, 04, p.94) 1427 nend May 10, Jews were expelled from Berne, Switzerland. (MC, 5/10/02) 1427 nend Gentile De Fabriano (b.~1378), Italian painter, died about this time. His work included ?The Adoration of the Kings? (1423). (WSJ, 12/19/08, p.W9A)( http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06421a.htm) 1428 nend Feb 5, King Alfonso V ordered Sicily's Jews to convert to Catholicism. (MC, 2/5/02) 1428 nend Dec 22, Richard Neville Warwick, 2nd earl of Salisbury, was born. (MC, 12/22/01) 1428 nend John Wycliffe (1328-1384), English theologian and biblical translator, was posthumously declared a heretic and his body was exhumed for burning. (WSJ, 4/4/01, p.A18) 1428 1430 Andrei Rublev, Russian icon painter, took part in painting the frescoes of the Andronikov Monastery?s Church of the Savior. (DVD, Criterion, 1998) 1429 nend Jan 9, The conference at Luck began (Jan 9-29). Vytautas hosted a grand Congress at Luck ostensibly to unite the region against threats from the Turks to the south. Emperor Sigismund of Hungary agreed to the formation of the Kingdom of Lithuania and dispatched a crown from Hungary. (DrEE, 11/9/96, p.6)(LHC, 1/9/03) 1429 nend Jan 10, Order of Golden Fleece was established in Austria-Hungary & Spain. (MC, 1/10/02) 1429 nend Jan 23, At the Congress of Luck Emp. Sigismund of Luxembourg offered to crown Vytautas as King of Lithuania. (LHC, 1/23/03) 1429 nend Apr 29, Joan of Arc led French troops to victory over the English at Orleans during the Hundred Years? War. Legend has it that King Charles VII of France had a suit of armor made for Joan at a cost of 100 war horses. In 1996 a suit of armor was found and proposed to be Joan?s armor. (ATC, p.107)(SFC, 6/19/96, p.A10)(AP, 4/29/98)(HN, 4/29/98) 1429 nend May 7, English siege of Orleans was broken by Joan of Arc. (HN, 5/7/98) 1429 nend May 8, French troops under Joan of Arc rescued Orleans. (MC, 5/8/02) 1429 nend May 9, Joan of Arc defeated the besieging English at Orleans. (HN, 5/9/98) 1429 nend Jul 16, Joan of Arc led French army in the Battle of Orleans. [see May 9] (MC, 7/16/02) 1429 nend Jul 17, The dauphin, son of Charles VI, was crowned as king of France. (PCh, 1992, p.144)(MC, 7/17/02) 1429 nend Aug 26, Joan of Arc makes a triumphant entry into Paris. (HN, 8/26/99) 1429 nend Nov 6, Coronation of Henry VI, King of England. (HN, 11/6/98) 1429 nend Dec 21, Jacquemart de Blaharies, Tournay "heretic", was burned to death. (MC, 12/21/01) 1429 nend The beginning of coal mining in the Saarland (Germany) dates to this time. (Econ, 3/1/08, p.71) 1429 nend Two monks reportedly went fishing in Russia?s northern Solovetsky Islands and soon established a year-round settlement usually referred to as Solovki. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.83) 1429 nend The kingdom of Ryukyu was unified under the court at Shuri (later part of Naha, Okinawa). (NH, 9/01, p.56) 1430 nend Jan 29, Andrei Rublev, Russian icon painter, died and was buried in the Andronikov Monastery. In 1966 the Russian film ?Andrei Rublev? was made by Andrei Tarkovsky. (DVD, Criterion, 1998) 1430 nend May 5, Jews were expelled from Speyer, Germany. (MC, 5/5/02) 1430 nend May 23, Joan of Arc was captured by the Burgundians, who sold her to the English. (AP, 5/23/97)(HN, 5/23/98) 1430 nend Jul 14, Joan of Arc, taken prisoner by the Burgundians in May, was handed over to Pierre Cauchon, the bishop of Beauvais. (HN, 7/14/98) 1430 nend Oct 3, Jews were expelled from Eger, Bohemia. (MC, 10/3/01) 1430 nend Oct 27, Lithuanian Grand Duke Vytautas had been preparing for coronation but Polish forces interrupted the arrival of his crown to Trakus. He began to ride to Vilnius but fell from his horse and was returned to Trakus where he died at the age of 80. (H of L, 1931, p.58) 1430 1432 In Lithuania Svitrigaila served as Grand Duke. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1430 nend s Jan van Eyck painted 2 works titled "St. Francis Receiving the Stigmata." For a time he was considered the inventor of oil painting, but later lost that distinction. He is still regarded as the inventor of a type of landscape painting with figures in realistic scale that influenced the entire Northern school of painting. Only 9 signed and dated works survive. In 2001 painter David Hockney and physicist Charles Falco alleged that Eyck and other artists of this period began using optical devices to project pictures and produce detailed tracings. (WSJ, 5/7/98, p.A21)(SFC, 1/5/01, p.C9) 1430 nend Hans Memling (d.1494), painter of the Flemish school, was born in Seligenstadt, Germany. (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.894) 1430 nend ?-1498? Cosimo Tura, Italian painter. He painted "Renaissance Nobleman." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.1525) 1430 1516 Giovanni Bellini, Venetian painter son of Jacopo. He painted "Portrait of the Doge Loredano." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.136) 1431 nend Jan 1, Rodrigo Borgia Lanzol (d.1503), member of the Borgia family, was born in Xativa, Spain. His mother was the sister of Pope Calixtus III. He was elected Pope Alexander VI in 1492 and amassed a fortune by pocketing church funds. His reign helped inspire the Protestant reformation. He fathered numerous children including Lucrezia Borgia. Machiavelli based "The Prince" on him. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8)(PTA, 1980, 424) 1431 nend Feb 21, The interrogation of Joan of Arc (1412-1431) began France. (Sm, 2/06, p.38) 1431 nend Mar 3, Bishop Gabriele Condulmer (1383-1447) was elected as Pope Eugene IV (1431-1447). (WUD, 1994 p.491)(PTA, 1980, p.410)(SC, 3/3/02) 1431 nend May 30, Joan of Arc (19), condemned as a heretic [as a witch], was burned at the stake in Rouen, France. A silent movie of her life was made in 1927 by Carl Theodor Dreyer. (CFA, '96, p.46)WSJ, 1/23/96, p.A-12)(AP, 5/30/97)(HN, 5/30/98)1431 Dec 16, Henry VI of England was crowned King of France. (HN, 12/16/98) 1431 nend Andrea Mantegna (d.1506), Italian painter and engraver, was born. (WUD, 1994, p.1534)(WSJ, 6/6/96, p.A12)(SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T11) 1431 nend Admiral Cheng Ho of the Ming dynasty led a fleet of 52 ships with nearly 30,000 men to the east coast of Africa. Shortly thereafter the Mings halted all voyages and begin to foster an attitude of antiforeign conservatism. (V.D.-H.K.p.172) 1431 nend Thai armies invaded and plundered the Khmer civilization at Angkor Thom in Cambodia. The court moved south of the great lake Tonle Sap and later to Phnom Penh. (SFEC, 7/26/98, p.T6) 1431 nend Cosimo de Medici was arrested for seeking to elevate himself higher than others. With bribes he reduced his sentence from execution to banishment. His absence led to a financial crises in Florence and he was quickly invited back. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1431 1463 ? Francois Villon, French poet. The 1938 film "If I Were King" starred Ronald Colman and Basil Rathbone and was directed by Preston Sturges. It was about the French poet and revolutionary Francois Villon. (WUD, 1994, p.1593)(SFEC, 8/2/98, DB p.49) 1431 1476 In Romania Vlad Tepes, aka Vlad the Impaler, the son of Vlad Dracul (Vlad the Dragon), was a 15th century gruesome Wallachian nobleman. Dracula means son of the dragon. He punished disobedient subjects and ?unchaste? women by impaling them on sharpened logs, often dining amid the victims as they died. The family name changed to Kretzulesco and grew in stature with members upgraded to princes and princesses. (WSJ, 10/30/97, p.A20)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlad_the_Impaler) 1432 nend Jan 15, Afonso V "the African", king of Portugal (1438-1481), was born. (MC, 1/15/02) 1432 nend Zeeland became part of the Low Countries possession of Phillip the Good (1396-1467) of Burgundy. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeeland) 1432 1440 In Lithuania Zygimantas Kestutaitis served as Grand Duke. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1433 nend Apr 14, Liduina van Schiedam (53), Dutch mystic (Christ's Bride), saint, died. (MC, 4/14/02) 1433 nend May 31, Sigismund was crowned emperor of Rome. (HN, 5/31/98) 1434 nend Mar 1, Jacoba of Bavaria married Frank van Borselen. (SC, 3/1/02) 1434 nend May 30, The Battle of Lipany virtually ended the Hussite Wars. Prokopius leader of Taborites, died in battle. (http://tinyurl.com/ckgv5) 1434 nend Nov 24, The Thames River froze. (MC, 11/24/01) 1434 nend Jan van Eyck painted "the Arnolfini Marriage." It is now at the London National Gallery. (Cont, 12/97, p.60)(SFEC, 2/1/98, p.T8) 1434 nend The imperial kiln at Jungdezhen in south-central China produced 250,000 porcelain pieces. (SFEC, 10/6/96, DB p.37) 1434 nend Gil Eannes, Portuguese explorer, made the first successful rounding of Cape Bojador, off Western Sahara, in a lug-rigged boat. (www.enchantedlearning.com/explorers/page/e/eannes.shtml) 1435 nend Sep 21, Treaty of Atrecht. Philippe le Bon of Burgundy and French king Charles II signed a treaty at Arras. Phillipe broke with the English and recognized Charles as France?s only king. (MC, 9/21/01)(PCh, 1992, p.145) 1435 nend Oct 20, Andrea Della Robbia, sculptor, nephew of Luca, was born in Florence. (MC, 10/20/01) 1435 nend A Songhai prince, Sunni Ali, declared Gao?s independence [West Africa]. Aided by Songhai warriors, he successfully fought off Mali?s attempt to regain the city. (ATC, p.122) 1436 nend Jun 6, Regiomontanus (Johannes Muller), prepared astronomical tables, was born. (MC, 6/6/02) 1436 nend The 350-foot high dome of Santa Maria del Fiore, the cathedral of Florence, by Filippo Brunelleschi was completed. The cathedral was consecrated by the Pope following 140 years of construction. In 2000 Ross King authored "Brunelleschi?s Dome: How a Renaissance Genius Reinvented Architecture." (Hem., 10/97, p.130)(SSFC, 12/24/00, BR p.12) 1436 nend Emperor Sigismund (1368-1437) was accepted as king of Bohemia. (WUD, 1994, p.1672)(WUD, 1994, p.1325) 1436 nend Johannes Gutenburg of Germany invented the printing press with movable type. (SFC, 7/26/04, p.F4) 1437 nend Sep 18, Farmers revolted in Transylvania. (MC, 9/18/01) 1437 nend Dec 9, Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor, died. Major Czech factions had accepted Sigismund as king of Bohemia prior to his death. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigismund%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor) 1438 nend Oct 20, Jacopo di Piero della Quercia (64), Italian sculptor, died. (MC, 10/20/01) 1438 nend Jan van Eyck (1385-1440) painted his "Portrait of Cardinal Niccols Albergati." (SFC, 1/5/01, p.C9) 1438 nend Filippo Lippi created the painting "Woman with a Man at a Window." (WSJ, 12/14/01, p.W20) 1438 nend The Incas established an imperial state in the Andes (Peru) and Cusco was rebuilt. They went on to build over 25,000 miles of roads. (SFC, 3/19/02, p.A2)(NG, Feb, 04, p.72) 1438 nend The shipbuilding firm of Camuffo was founded in Portogruaro, Italy. (SFC, 4/14/06, p.D1) 1439 nend Jul 16, Kissing was banned in England in order to stop germs from spreading. (MC, 7/16/02) 1439 nend Oct 21, Traversari Ambrosius (53), Italian humanist and leader, died. (MC, 10/21/01) 1439 nend Oct 27, Albrecht II von Habsburg (42), king of Bohemia, Hungary and Germany, died. (MC, 10/27/01) 1439 1440 Donatello (1386-1466), Florentine artist, completed his bronze statue of David about this time. It was commissioned by Cosimo de Medici. (WSJ, 1/11/99,p.R53)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_%28Donatello%29) 1439 nend Byzantium formally submitted to Rome. [see 330AD] (WSJ, 11/14/95, p. A-12) 1439 1448 Felix V served as the last antipope. He was born as Amadeus VIII, duke of Savoye in 1383. (MC, 9/4/01) 1440 nend Jan 22, Ivan III (the Great), grand prince of Russia, czar from 1462-1505, was born. He conquered Lithuania. (HN, 1/22/99)(MC, 1/22/02) 1440 nend Feb 22, Ladislaus V Posthumus, King of Hungary and Bohemia, was born. (MC, 2/22/02) 1440 nend Jun 29, Florentine troops fought the Milanese in the Battle of Anghiari. After the battle of Anghieri, Andrea del Castagno (1421-1457), a Medici protege, painted effigies of the hanged rebels. no_source 1440 nend Oct 26, Gilles de Rais, French marshal, depraved killer of 140 children, was hanged over slow fire. A brilliant young French knight, he was believed to have cracked over the torture and death of his true love, Jeanne d'Arc, the Maid of Orleans (d.1431). (MC, 10/26/01) 1440 nend Dec 22, Bluebeard, pirate, was executed. (MC, 12/22/01) c 1440 nend The Book of Hours of Catherine of Cleves was made. (SFC, 2/15/97, p.D1) c 1440 nend Lief Eriksson drew a map of America about this time. The "Vinland Map" was introduced in 1965 by Yale University as being the 1st known map of America, drawn about 1440 by Norse explorer Lief Eriksson. (MC, 10/10/01) 1440 nend Eton, the top British public school, was established by Henry VI. (Hem, 4/96, p.68) 1440 1492 In Lithuania Casimir served as Grand Duke. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1440 1870 This period is covered in the 1997 book by Hugh Thomas: "The Slave Trade, The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1440-1870." (SFEC,11/16/97, BR p.4)(WSJ, 2/26/02, p.A22) 1441 nend Jun, Jan/Johannes van Eyck (b.1395), Flemish painter (Lamb Gods), died in Brugge. (www.wga.hu/tours/flemish/eyck/brothers.html) 1441 nend Portuguese kidnapped several noble-born Africans, who in turn offered African slaves to the captors as ransom. In 1998 John Reader published "Africa: A Biography of a Continent." (SFEC, 6/28/98, BR p.12) 1442 nend Apr 20, Edward IV, King of England (1461-83), was born. [see Apr 28] (MC, 4/20/02) 1442 nend Apr 28, Edward IV was born. He became king of England (1461-1470) and first king of the House of York (1471-1483). [see Apr 20] (HN, 4/28/02) 1442 nend Jun 12, Alfonso V of Aragon was crowned King of Naples. (HN, 6/12/98) 1442 nend The Pazzi Chapel in Florence was begun. Its design was suspected to be by Michelozzo di Bortalommeo, a follower of Brunelleschi. (SFC, 1/2/97, p.C3) 1442 nend Al-Maqrizi (b.1364), Egyptian historian, died. His work included a history of Cairo. Maqrizi had begun a large work called the Muqaffa, an encyclopedia of Egyptian biography in alphabetic order. Another Egyptian historian, al-Sakhawi, believed this would require eighty volumes to complete, but only sixteen were written. (SSFC, 7/24/11, p.F7)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Maqrizi) 1443 nend May 9, Niccolo d'Albergati, Italian cardinal, died. (MC, 5/9/02) 1443 nend Jun 5, Ferdinand, Portuguese saint, slave to Fez, died. (MC, 6/5/02) 1443 nend Dec 5, Giuliano della Rovere, later Pope Julius II (1443-1513), was born in Liguria. (www.newadvent.org/cathen/08562a.htm) 1443 nend After losing a battle near Nis, Skenderbeg with a group of Albanian warriors defected from the Ottoman army and return to Kruja. Albanian resistance to Turkish rule was organized under the leadership of Skander Beg in Kruja. He was able to keep Albania independent for more than 20 years. A baronial museum in his honor was later was designed by the daughter of Enver Hoxha. (CO, Grolier?s Amer. Acad. Enc./ Albania)(WSJ, 4/14/98, p.A21)(www,Albania, 1998) 1444 nend May 20, Bernardinus van Siena (63), Italian saint, died. (MC, 5/20/02) 1444 nend Aug 26, In the Battle of St. Jakob an der Birs, fought near Basel in Switzerland, a Swiss force of some 1,600 soldiers stopped some 30,000 French mercenaries on their way to relieve a siege of Zurich. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_St._Jakob_an_der_Birs) 1444 nend Nov 10, During the Hungarian-Turkish War (1444-1456) , Sultan Murad II beat the Crusaders in the Battle at Varna on the Black Sea. (DoW, 1999, p.217) 1444 nend Murad II, Ottoman ruler, abdicated and Mehmet II (13) briefly succeeded him until 1446. (Ot, 1993, p.7) 1444 nend The Albanian people organized a league of Albanian princes in this year under George Kastrioti, also known as Skanderbeg. As leader of this Christian league he effectively repulsed 13 Turkish invasions from 1444 to 1466, making him a hero in the Western world. (HNQ, 10/5/98)(www, Albania, 1998) 1444 nend Cossacks were first mentioned in Russian history. (SFC,10/28/97, p.A8) 1444 nend Slaves from Africa were first carried to Portugal. (WSJ, 12/1/97, p.A20) 1445 nend Giovanni di Paolo, Italian painter in Siena, painted "The Creation," and the Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise. In this painting Paolo depicted the universe as a set of nesting concentric spheres. (NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.244) 1445 nend The Council of Florence ended. It established the date for the Great Schism between the Eastern and Western (Orthodox and Catholic) churches as July, 1054. An official date was needed so that talks could begin on reunion. (WSJ, 7/16/97, p.A23) 1445 1510 Sandro Botticelli, Italian painter, was born in Florence as Alessandro di Mariano Filipepi. His work included "The Birth of Venus" "Madonna of the Eucharist" (c1472-1475) and "Portrait of a Man with a Medal." His work "Venus and Mars" is at the London National Gallery. He belongs to the era of the Quattro cento, when artists were still struggling to break free of the rigid outlines of the Middle Ages. His solution was the use of curved lines. Vasari later claimed that Botticelli was a follower of Savonarola, the religious zealot. (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.173)(WSJ, 2/5/97, p.A16)(SFEC, 2/1/98, p.T8) 1446 nend Apr 16, Filippo Brunelleschi (69), architect, sculptor and goldsmith, died and was buried in the Cathedral of St. Mary of the Flower in Florence. In the 1490s Antonio di Tuccio Manetti authored "The Life of Brunelleschi." In 1974 Isabelle Hyman authored "Brunelleschi in Perspective." (ON, 9/00, p.8)(MC, 4/16/02) 1446 nend Oct 9, The Korean alphabet, created under the aegis of King Sejong, was first published. (AP, 10/9/07) 1446 nend In Scotland Sir William St. Clair, a grand master in the Knights Templar, founded the Rosslyn Chapel. It was built in the shape of a cross in the Pentland Hills outside Edinburgh. It became famous as part of the Dan Brown?s 2003 thriller ?The Da Vinci Code.? (SFC, 5/25/06, p.E2) 1446 nend Mehmet II, Ottoman ruler, was deposed and Murad II was recalled to the throne. (Ot, 1993, p.7) 1446 1521 A Gothic choir with buttresses and pinnacles was added to the abbey Mont St. Michel off the coast of Normandy, France. It replaced one that had collapsed. (WSJ, 10/7/06, p.P18) 1446 1523 The Italian painter Perugino, born as Pietro di Cristoforo di Vannucci, was a student of Pierro della Francesca and Andrea Verrochio. He won a papal commission for frescoes on the sidewalls of the Sistine Chapel along with Botticelli and Ghirlandaio. His work included the late weird allegory "The Combat Between Love and Chastity." (WSJ, 1/6/98, p.16) 1446 1524 Il Perugino (Pietro Vannucci), painter, worked in Umbria and died of the plague. His work includes: "The Baptism," "Mary in Glory," "Adoration of the Magi," Martyrdom of St. Sebastian," " Madonna and Child," and "The Virgin in Glory." (WUD, 1994, p.1076)(SFEM, 10/12/97, p.49) 1447 nend The winged altarpiece of Stephensdom in Vienna, Austria was completed. (Hem., Dec. '95, p.67) 1448 nend Oct 31, Johannes VIII Palaeologus (b.1390), Emperor of Byzantium, died. (www.freeglossary.com/John_VIII_Palaeologus) 1448 nend In China hyperinflation hit and paper money lost 97% of its value. China soon abandoned paper money. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1448 nend The Portuguese established the first European trading post in Africa. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1449 nend Jan 1, Lorenzo de Medici [The Magnificent] of Florence was born. (MC, 1/1/02) 1449 nend Albanians, under Skenderbeg, routed the Ottoman forces under Sultan Murat II. (www, Albania, 1998) 1449 nend Ashikaga Yoshimasa (14) inherited the office of Shogun, the chief military and civic leader of feudal Japanese society. His leadership focused on the arts and depleted the national treasury which led to social and political anarchy. (ON, 7/01, p.3) 1449 nend Rodrigo Borgia Lanzol (b.1431), father of Cesare and Lucretia, arrived in Rome from Spain and Italianized his name from Borja to Borgia. His rise in the church was helped a great deal when his uncle became Pope Calixtus III. (HN, 8/10/98)(PTA, p.424)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R4)(MC, 8/11/02) 1449 nend The giant Scottish bombard known as Mons Meg was built. It was retired from active service in 1680, after splitting her barrel while firing a ceremonial shot. She can still be seen in Edinburgh castle. (HNQ, 6/20/02) 1450 nend May 8, Jack Cade's Rebellion-Kentishmen revolted against King Henry VI. (HN, 5/8/98) 1450 nend Jul 12, Jack Cade was slain in a revolt against British King Henry VI. (MC, 7/12/02) 1450 nend Oct 5, Jews were expelled from Lower Bavaria by order of Ludwig IX. (MC, 10/5/01) 1450 nend Oct 23, Juan de Capistrano (70), Italian saint, died. (MC, 10/23/01) 1450 nend Johannes Gutenberg began printing a bible with movable type in Mainz. He perfected interchangeable type that could be cast in large quantities and invented a new type of press. (NG, March 1990, p. 117)(WSJ, 10/31/96, p.A21)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1450 nend Johannes Gutenberg was able to convince financier Johann Fust to loan him 800 guild-ers, a considerable sum. Gutenberg's experiments with printing were financed in large part by Fust, who later won a suit against Gutenberg to recoup his investment. Fust invested another 800 guilders in 1452, securing a partnership in Gutenberg's business. By 1455, impatient for results or perhaps simply due to estrangement from Gutenberg, Fust sued and won a settle-ment of just over 2,000 guilders: the sum of the two loans plus interest. Fust also gained control of Gutenberg's movable type and some of his printing equipment. Gutenberg was able to con-tinue some printing and eventually was granted a pension by the archbishop of Mainz in 1465. (HNQ, 1/12/01) c 1450 nend In the mid 1400s Berbers took over the trade and learning centers of Timbuktu and Walata. (ATC, p.120) 1450 nend In Mexico City an Aztec cornerstone ceremony took place about this time intended to dedicate a new layer of building. In 2005 archeologists found a child found at the Templo Mayor ruins who was apparently killed as part of a ceremony dedicated to the war god Huitzilopochtli. (AP, 7/23/05) c 1450 nend The Portuguese brought slaves to the uninhabited Cape Verde Island. (SFC, 8/5/98, p.A8) c 1450 nend Legend has it that in the mid-15th century Vietnam, King Le Loi defeated Chinese in-vaders with a magic sword given to him by the gods. After the victory, the king was said to be boating on the lake when a giant golden turtle rose to the surface and grabbed the sword in its mouth before plunging deep into the water to return it to its divine owners. The lake was later renamed "Ho Hoan Kiem," which means "Lake of the Returned Sword." (AP, 11/3/03) c 1450 nend The chiefs of Zimbabwe's gold producing provinces declared independence from Great Zimbabwe. A northern group led by King Mwene Mutapa conquered neighboring kingdoms and a new empire called Monomutapa was formed. (ATC, p.148) 1450 1455 Dieric Bouts painted "The Annunciation." The Getty Museum later acquired it for $7 mil-lion, but its authenticity was controversial. (WSJ, 4/9/99, p.W16) 1450 1460 The German Master E.S. made his drawing "Girl With a Ring." (WSJ, 12/8/99, p.A20) 1450 1500 Bartolomeu Dias, Portuguese explorer. He discovered the Cape of Good Hope. (WUD, 1994, p.399) c 1450 1500 Nyatsimba, Mwene Matapa or Monomotapa (Lord of the Plundered People or Ravager of the Lands), Chief of the Zimbabwe Empire. He conquered the middle Zambezi Valley and built stone citadels at Great Zimbabwe. He was known to have a corps of over 100 female bodyguards. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) c 1450 1516 Hieronymus Bosch, painter was born. Hieronymous van Aken was born in the small Dutch Brabant city of 's-Hertogenbosch in Flanders. (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.172)(WSJ, 8/25/98, p.A12)(WSJ, 10/11/01, p.A19) 1450 1532 The period of the Inca Empire. Inca mummies were later found on Mt. Ampato in 1995 and 1997. In 1998 archeologist found 6 frozen mummies sacrificed to Inca gods near the crater of the 19,100 foot El Misti volcano, 465 miles southeast of Lima, Peru. (SFEM, 4/13/97, p.16)(SFC,12/13/97, p.A14)(SFC, 10/3/98, p.C1) 1450 1650 The Venetians occupied the capital city Crete, Iraklion. The forests of Crete provided the Venetians with cedars and firs for their fleets. (SFEC, 8/17/97, p.T10) 1450 1890 The period of the Little Ice Age. Temperatures over this period were a few degrees lower than during the 1900s. (SFC, 11/29/02, p.J6) 1451 nend Feb 3, Murad II, Ottoman sultan (1421-51), died of apoplexy. Mehmet II (19) became Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He ruled until 1481. (ON, 10/00, p.10)(Ot, 1993, p.7)(MC, 2/3/02) 1451 nend Mar 9, Amerigo Vespucci (d.1512), Italian navigator, was born in Florence. (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15384b.htm) 1451 nend Apr 22, Isabella I of Castile, Queen of Spain (1479-1504), patron of Christopher Colum-bus, was born in Madrigal, Spain. (HN, 4/22/98)(AP, 4/22/01)(MC, 4/22/02) 1451 nend Jun 28, An eclipse occurred that allegedly prevented the outbreak of war between the Mohawk and the Seneca Indians. (SCTS, p.6) 1451 nend Sep 21, Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa ordered the Jews of Holland to wear a badge. (MC, 9/21/01) 1451 nend An Afghan named Buhlul invaded Delhi, and seized the throne. He founded the Lodi dy-nasty. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1451 nend In France Jacques Coeur was charged with poisoning Agnes Sorel, mistress to King Charles VII. Sorel had died in childbirth. Charles confiscated Coeur's property and put him in jail. Coeur escaped and fled to Rome. He died several years later fighting the Turks. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1451 nend The Vatican Library was founded. (WSJ, 3/2/00, p.W10) 1451 1506 Christopher Columbus, was born in Genoa. He was probably the child of Spanish-Jewish parents exiled by the Inquisition. (V.D.-H.K.p.174) 1451 nend March 9, The birthday of Amerigo Vespucci (d.1512). He was the Italian navigator after whom America was named. He explored the New World coastline after Columbus. (CFA, '96,Vol 179, p.42)(AHD, p.1425) 1452 nend Mar 10, Ferdinand II, the Catholic King of Aragon (1479-1516) and Sicily (1468-1516), was born. He bankrolled Columbus and expelled Jews. (WUD, 1994 p.524)(MC, 3/10/02) 1452 nend Apr 15, Leonardo da Vinci (d.1519), Italian painter, sculptor, scientist and visionary, was born in Vinci near Florence. He apprenticed to the painters Verrocchio and Antonio Pollaiuolo and was accepted to the Florentine painters' guild at twenty. Only seventeen surviving paintings can be attributed to him. These include: "The Last Supper" in Milan, the "Mona Lisa" and "The Virgin and Child with St. Anne" in the Louvre. He tried to express his immense knowledge of the world by simply looking at things. The secret he said was "saper vedere," to know how to see. His final "Visions of the End of the World" was a sketchbook in which he tried to depict his sense of the forces of nature, which in his imagination he conceived of as possessing a unity that no one had ever seen before. His use of a smoky atmosphere (sfumato) helped create an impression of lifelikeness. (V.D.-H.K.p.137)(WSJ, 2/5/97, p.A16)(HN, 4/15/98) 1452 nend Jul 27, Ludovico Sforza (Ludovico il Moro, "The Moor," d.1508), Italian duke of Milan (1494-1500), was born. He was the second son of Francesco Sforza, and was famed as patron of Leonardo da Vinci and other artists. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludovico_Sforza) 1452 nend Sep 21, Girolamo Savonarola (d.1498), was born in Ferrara. He became a Dominican monk, reformer, dictator of Florence (1494-98) and martyr. He was best known for his bonfires of the vanities in which corrupt books and images were set alight. (Hem.,4/97,p.53)(WUD, 1994, p.1272,1672)(WSJ, 7/10/98, p.W11)(MC,9/21/01) 1452 nend Oct 2, King Richard III, of England (1483-85), was born. (MC, 10/2/01) 1452 nend The first pawn lender was founded in Perugia (Italy) by Franciscan monks to combat usury. (Econ, 5/27/06, p.73) 1452 nend Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II began construction of a new fortress called Rumeli Hisar on the Constantinople side of the Bosporus. He engaged Urban, a Hungarian engineer, to build a large canon and put him in charge of the canon foundries at Adrianople. (SFC, 9/1/96, BR p.8)(ON, 10/00, p.10) 1452 1510 Liu Jin, a court eunuch of the Ming dynasty in China. He abused his office to amass a great fortune and was executed for treason. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1453 nend Apr 6, Ottoman forces under Mehmet II opened fire on Constantinople. (ON, 10/00, p.11) 1453 nend Apr 22-1453 Apr 23, The Ottomans hauled 76 warships out of the water and dragged them on wood rails to bypass the Greek blockade of the Constantinople harbor. (ON, 10/00, p.12)(Ot, 1993, p.13) 1453 nend May 29, Constantinople fell to Muhammad II, ending the Byzantine Empire. The fall of the eastern Roman Empire, Byzantium, to the Ottoman Turks was led by Mehmed II. Emperor Constantine XI Dragases (49), the 95th ruler to sit on the throne of Constantine, was killed. The city of Constantinople fell from Christian rule and was renamed Istanbul. The Hagia Sophia was turned into a mosque. Spice prices soared in Europe. Nicolo Barbaro wrote his "Diary of the Siege of Constantinople." Manuel Chrysophes, court musician to Constantine XI, wrote a thren-ody for the fall of Constantinople. In 2005 Roger Crowley authored ?1453 The Holy War for Constantinople and the Clash of Islam and the West.? (NH, 9/96, p.22)(Sky, 4/97, p.53)(SFC, 7/27/98, p.A8)(WSJ, 1/11/99,p.R49)(ON, 10/00, p.12)(Ot, 1993, p.6)(WSJ, 1/2/02, p.A15)(SSFC,8/14/05, p.F4) 1453 nend May 29, French banker Jacques Coeurs had his possessions confiscated. (SC, 5/29/02) 1453 nend Jul 4, 41 Jewish martyrs were burned at stake at Breslau, Poland. (Maggio) 1453 nend Jul 17, France defeated England at the 1st Battle at Castillon, France, ending the 100 Years' War. [see Oct 19] (HN, 7/17/98) 1453 nend Oct 19, In the 2nd Battle at Castillon: France beat England, ending the hundred year war. [see Jul 17] (MC, 10/19/01) 1453 nend Piero della Francesca (1415/1420-1492) began work on the "Legenda della Vera Croce" (The Legend of the True Cross) at the church of San Francesco in Arezzo. He was commis-sioned by the Bacci family of Arezzo to complete the work begun by Bicci de Lorenzo. (WSJ, 6/02/97, p.A20)(WSJ, 2/2/08, p.W14) 1453 nend In England Henry VI, of the house of Lancaster, suffered a nervous breakdown and Richard, the Duke of York, was named protector. (AM, 7/01, p.69) 1453 nend In Rome Agrippa?s Aqua Virgo was resuscitated as the Acqua Vergine Antica. (SFEC, 7/2/00, p.T4) 1454 nend Feb 17, At a grand feast, Philip the Good of Burgundy took the "vow of the pheasant," by which he swore to fight the Turks. (HN, 2/17/99) 1454 nend Mar 6, Casimir proclaimed the attachment of Prussia to Polish rule. This began a 13-year war over Prussia (1454-1466). (LHC,3/6/03) 1454 nend Apr 9, The city states of Venice, Milan and Florence signed a peace agreement at Lodi, Italy. (HN, 4/9/99) 1454 nend Aug 22, Jews were expelled from Brunn Moravia by order of King Ladislaus. (MC, 8/22/02) 1455 nend Feb 23, Johannes Gutenberg (Johan Gensfleisch, c1400-1468) printed his 1st book, the Bible. Gutenberg printed Latin Bibles of which 11 were still extant in 1987. [see 1450] (SFC, 2/15/97, p.D1)(MC, 2/23/02) 1455 nend Mar 18, Fra Angelico, Italian monk and Renaissance painter born around 1387 as Guido di Pietro, died. Fra Angelico gained a reputation as a painter under that name before joining the Dominicans in the 1420s. However, much of the influence found in his work is thought to come from Dominican teachings. He stayed at Dominican monasteries in Florence for most of his life doing a variety of religious painting until being called to Rome in 1445 by Pope Eugene IV, where he completed several chapel frescoes. Returning to Florence in the early 1450s, he died on a return visit to Rome in 1455 and is entombed at the church of Santa Maria della Minerva. In 1984 Fra Angelico was beatified by Pope John Paul II. (HNQ,3/6/01)(http://gallery.euroweb.hu/bio/a/angelico/biograph.html)(WSJ,11/9/05, p.D16) 1455 nend Apr 8, Alfonso de Borgia was elected as Pope Callistus III. (MC, 4/8/02) 1455 nend May 3, Jews fled Spain. (MC, 5/3/02) 1455 nend May 22, King Henry VI was taken prisoner by the Yorkists at the Battle of St. Albans, the 1st battle in the 30-year War of the Roses. The army of the Duke of York met the army of Queen Margaret at the Battle of St. Alban?s. The 2nd Duke of Somerset was killed as Yorkists briefly took possession of King Henry VI. (MH, 12/96)(HN, 5/22/99)(MC, 5/22/02) 1455 nend Aug 2, Johan Cicero, elector of Brandenburg (1486-99), was born. (MC, 8/2/02) 1455 nend Dec 1, Lorenzo Ghiberti (77), Italian sculptor, died. (MC, 12/1/01) 1455 nend The young Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II mobilized his army to march on Belgrade--and from there, possibly move on to the European heartland. (HN, 6/15/98) 1455 nend Some Portuguese had come to The Gambia following the expeditions promoted by Prince Henry. They had introduced groundnuts, tie main cash crop of today, cotton, and some tropical fruits from Brazil. Their number, however, was never large and they were soon ab-sorbed by intermarriage. (www.africanculture.dk/gambia/history.htm) 1455 1485 The War of the Roses. During the war Margaret of Anjou, wife of the feeble-minded King Henry VI, was head of the House of Lancaster whose heraldic badge was a red rose. She struggled against the House of York, whose badge was a white rose, for the control of the gov-ernment. (MH, 12/96) 1456 nend Mar 1, Wladyslaw Jagiello, king of Bohemia (1471-1516), Hungary (1490-1516), was born. (SC, 3/1/02) 1456 nend Jul 7, Joan of Arc was acquitted, even though she had already been burnt at the stake on May 30, 1431. (MC, 7/7/02) 1456 nend Jul 14, Hungarians defeated the Ottomans at the Battle of Belgrade, in present-day Yugoslavia. The 1456 Siege of Belgrade decided the fate of Christendom. (HN, 7/14/98) 1456 nend Jul 22, At the Battle at Nandorfehervar (Belgrade), the Hungarian army under prince Ja-nos Hunyadi beat sultan Murad II. The siege of Belgrade had fallen into stalemate when a spontaneous fight broke out between a rabble of Crusaders, led by the Benedictine monk John of Capistrano, and the city's Ottoman besiegers. The melee soon escalated into a major battle, during which the Hungarian commander, Janos Hunyadi, led a sudden assault that overran the Turkish camp, ultimately compelling the wounded Sultan Mehmet II to lift the siege and retreat. (MC, 7/22/02)(PC, 1992, p.150)(HNPD, 7/23/98) 1456 nend Aug 11, Janos Hunyadi (69), Hungarian Prince and general strategist died of plague at about age 49. (PC, 1992, p.150)(MC, 8/11/02) 1456 nend Nov 25, Jacques Coeur, French merchant and banker, died in battle. (MC, 11/25/01) 1456 nend Dec 5, Earthquake struck Naples and 35,000 died. (MC, 12/5/01) 1456 nend Pope Calixtus III appointed his nephew Rodrigo Borgia Lanzol, later Pope Alexander VI, a cardinal. (PTA, 1980, p.424) 1456 nend A comet in the sky caused the Pope to issue a catchall edict to his followers to pray for deliverance from "The Devil, the Turk, and the Comet." (SFC, 3/28/97, p.A12) 1456 1496 Ercole de' Roberti, Italian artist. He was the predecessor to Dosso Dossi at the Ferrara court. (SFC, 4/27/99, p.C1) c 1456 1856 Gypsies living in the principalities that today makeup Romania lived as slaves. [as stated in a work by Isabel Fonseca titled: "Bury Me Standing: The Gypsies and Their Journey." (WSJ, 10/19/95, A-18) 1457 nend Jan 28, Henry Tudor (later Henry VII), 1st Tudor king of England (1485-1509), was born in Pembroke Castle, Wales. (www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/henry_vii_king.shtml) 1457 nend Nov 23, Ladislaus V (17), posthumous king of Hungary and Bohemia, died. (MC, 11/23/01) 1457 nend Aug 14, Gutenberg's financier Johann Fust and calligrapher Peter Schoffer published the 2nd printed book. This is the oldest known exactly dated printed book. (HN, 8/14/00)(MC, 8/14/02) 1457 nend Koshamain, an Ainu chieftain on the island of Hokkaido, led a rebellion against Japa-nese encroachment, but it was put down by Nobuhiro Takeda. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 1457 nend Pattani, later southern Thailand, was declared an Islamic kingdom. (AP, 9/23/05) 1457 nend King James II of Scotland (James of the Fiery Face) banned "Futeball" on the grounds that it threatened national defense by drawing young men away from archery practice. He banned "Golfe" for the same reason. "Nocht usit and utterlie cryit doun." (SFC, 8/10/96, p.E4)(Hem., 1/97, p.47) 1458 nend Jan 24, Matthias Corvinus (1440-1490), the son of John Hunyadi, was elected king of Hungary. Under his rule Hungary was the most important state in central Europe. For his fight-ing force he ordered every 20 houses to provide one horse soldier. "Husz" is 20 in Hungarian and so the light cavalryman became know as a Hussar. His illuminated breviary is held by the Vatican library. (WUD, 1994, p.1672)(Sky, 9/97, p.26)(HN, 1/24/99) 1458 nend Mar 2, Hussite George van Podiebrad was chosen king of Bohemia. (SC, 3/2/02) 1458 nend Jun 27, Alfonso V of Aragon died. Ferdinand I succeeded to the throne of Naples, but Pope Calixtus III declared the line of Aragon extinct and the kingdom a fief of the church. (Wikipedia) 1458 nend Filippino Lippi, painter, was born. His father was the Carmelite friar Fra Filippo and his mother was a nun. His work includes the drawing "Kneeling Male Saint," and the color painting "Male Saint Holding the Body of the Dead Christ." One of his students was Raffaellino del Garbo. (WSJ, 12/3/97, p.A20) 1458 nend Benedetto Cotrugli published the first known work on double-entry bookkeeping. It was invented in Italy around 1340. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R55)(WSJ, 11/10/99, p.A20) 1459 nend Mar 2, Adrian VI [Adriaan F Boeyens], Netherlands, Pope (1522-23), was born. (SC, 3/2/02) 1459 nend Mar 3, Ausias March, Catalan poet, died. (SC, 3/3/02) 1459 nend May 2, Pierozzi Antoninus, Italian archbishop of Florence, saint, died. (MC, 5/2/02) 1459 nend May 12, Sun City, India, was founded by Rao Jodhpur. (MC, 5/12/02) 1459 nend Oct, The Lancastrians defeated the Yorkists at Ludford. (AM, 7/01, p.69) 1459 nend The Serbs fell under Turkish rule and all of Serbia became the property of the sultan and all Serbs became bond-slaves to the land. Serbian national identity survived with the resto-ration in 1557 of the Serbian patriarchate at Pec. (HNQ, 3/25/99) 1459 1519 Maximilian I. Holy Roman Emperor from 1493-1519. (WUD, 1994, p.886) 1459 1525 Jakob Fugger II, German banker. He minted his own money and maintained banks in every European capital. He held a contract for managing the Pope's money and collected cash for the remission of sins. He bankrolled the election of Charles V. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1459 1912 The Ottoman Empire ruled over the Kosova region of Serbia. (SFC, 3/3/98, p.A8) 1460 nend Apr 4, University of Basle, Switzerland, formed. (MC, 4/4/02) 1460 nend Apr 8, Ponce de Leon was born in Spain. He searched for fountain of youth and found Florida. (MC, 4/8/02) 1460 nend May 9, In the Netherlands the courtyard Episcopal palace at Atrecht had witch burnings. (MC, 5/9/02) 1460 nend Jun, English Yorkist earls returned and met Henry VI?s Lancastrian army at Northamp-ton. Henry was captured and taken to London to serve as a figurehead. (AM, 7/01, p.69) 1460 nend Jul 10, Wars of Roses: Richard of York defeated King Henry VI at Northampton. (MC, 7/10/02) 1460 nend Sep, The Duke of York returned to England from Ireland. The nobility would not allow his usurption of the crown but agreed to pass it to him on Henry?s demise. (AM, 7/01, p.69) 1460 nend Nov 13, Prince Henry the Navigator (b.1394), Portuguese prince and patron of explor-ers, died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_the_Navigator) 1460 nend Dec 30, The English Duke of York, Richard Plantagenet, was killed by Lancastrians at the Battle of Wakefield. Queen Margaret hung his head over the gate of the city. (MH, 12/96)(HN, 12/30/98)(Econ, 12/18/10, p.111) 1460 nend The Ottomans conquered southern Greece. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.56) 1460 nend s Benozzo Gozzoli, a pupil of Fra Angelico, painted a portrait of Christ titled "The Holy Face." (SFEC, 8/8/99, p.D7) 1460 nend Rogier van der Weyden painted his "Portrait of a Lady." (WSJ, 12/14/01, p.W20) 1460 nend In 2009 academic Julian Luxford found a note written in Latin by a medieval monk about this time that read when translated into English: "Around this time, according to popular opinion, a certain outlaw named Robin Hood, with his accomplices, infested Sherwood and other law-abiding areas of England with continuous robberies." (AP, 3/14/09) 1460 1464 Rogier van der Weyden painted "The Lamentation Over the Body of the Dead Christ." (SFEC, 12/26/99, p.C17) 1460 1470 Machu Pichu was built under the Inca King Pachacuti in the Peruvian Andes. It was oc-cupied for about 50 years before 180 Spanish conquistadors wiped out a 40,000-man Inca army. In 2003 a nearby complex of structures called Llactapata (high city) was discovered. (SFC, 11/8/03, p.A2) 1460 nend ?-1526? Pedro Alvarez Cabral, Portuguese navigator, discovered and claimed Brazil for Portugal on April 22, 1500. (AHD, p.185)(HFA, '96, p.28) 1460 1550 Jack Eddy, solar physicist, examined tree ring data in the 1970s and found a dearth of solar activity during this period. (NG, 7/04, p.28) 1461 nend Feb 2-3, The English houses of York and Lancaster battled at Mortimer?s Cross, the Battle of the Three Suns. In the War of the Roses Edward of York defeated the Welsh Lancas-trians in the 2nd battle of St Alban's. (MH, 12/96)(AM, 7/01, p.69)(MC, 2/2/02) 1461 nend Feb 17, The Houses of York and Lancaster battled again at St. Alban?s. Queen Marga-ret defeated the Earl of Warwick and freed Henry VI. (MH, 12/96)(AM, 7/01, p.69) 1461 nend Mar 4, Henry VI was deposed and the Duke of York was proclaimed King as Edward IV and continued as King of England until 3 October 1470. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_IV_of_England) 1461 nend Mar 29, Edward IV secured his claim to the English thrown in defeating Henry VI?s Lan-castrians at the battle of Towdon (Towton). Some 50,000 fought and an estimated 28,000 were killed as the War of the Roses continued. (AM, 7/01, p.69)(AM, 7/01,p.68)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Towton) 1461 nend Jun 28, Edward IV was crowned king of England. (www.richardiiiworcs.co.uk/months/june.html) 1461 nend Aug 10, Alfonso ed Espina, bishop of Osma, urged an Inquisition in Spain. (MC, 8/10/02) 1461 nend The Pope's godson discovered a source of alum, used in dyes. This led to a booming business for the Catholic Church. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1462 nend Jun 27, Louis XII, King of France (1498-1515), was born. (HN, 6/27/02) 1462 1464 Piero della Francesca, Italian artist, painted ?The Resurrection? about this time. (WSJ, 12/17/05, p.P14) 1462 1524 Vasco da Gama, Portuguese explorer. (V.D.-H.K.p.174) 1463 nend Jan 5, French poet Francois Villon was banished from Paris. (MC, 1/5/02) 1463 nend Oct 29, Alessandro Achillini, Italian physician and philosopher, was born. (MC, 10/29/01) 1463 nend The Venetians regained southern Greece for a short period. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.56) 1463 nend The Ottomans conquered Bosnia. (www.bartleby.com/67/314.html) 1463 1494 Pico della Mirandola, born in the duchy of Ferrara and died in Florence. He studied Aris-totelian philosophy at Padua, and canon law at Bologna. He learned Hebrew, Aramaic and Ara-bic before he was twenty. He became acquainted with the Hebrew Kabbala and was the first to use cabalistic doctrine to support Christian theology. (V.D.-H.K.p.138) 1464 nend May 15, The English Houses of York and Lancaster battled at Hexham. Among the Lan-castrians the 3rd Duke of Somerset was killed. (MH, 12/96) 1464 nend Jun 18, Roger Van Der Weyden (b.1400), Flemish painter, died. He had mastered the new technique of oil painting and served as the official painter to the city of Brussels. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogier_van_der_Weyden)(Econ, 10/3/09,p.107) 1464 nend Jun 19, French King Louis XI formed a postal service. (MC, 6/19/02) 1464 nend Aug 1, Piero de Medici (1416-1469) succeeded his father, Cosimo, as ruler of Florence. He was nicknamed Il Gottoso (the Gouty One) and squandered the family fortune. (HN, 8/1/98)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1464 nend Mino da Fiesole sculpted the altar for Rome?s Santa Maria Maggiore. (WSJ, 10/22/96, p.A20) 1464 nend Desiderio da Settignano (b.~1439), Renaissance sculptor, died in Florence. (WSJ, 9/11/07, p.D6) 1464 nend Under the guidance of Sunni Ali, the Songhai began to conquer their neighbors and ex-pand their kingdom. Goa became the capital of the Songhai empire. When Sunni Ali died rule was passed to his son, a non-Muslim. (ATC, p.121) 1464 1471 Pope Paul II, Pietro Barbo, succeeded Pius II. He was responsible for a Papal Bull that established a 25-year interval between Holy Years. (PTA, 1980, p.418)(SFC, 12/24/99, p.A15) 1465 nend Feb 11, Elizabeth of York, consort of King Henry VII, was born in London. (MC, 2/11/02) 1465 nend The Nevill Feast at Cawood Castle in Yorkshire, England. 2,500 people were enter-tained. The guests ate over several days, 113 oxen, sic wild bulls, 1,000 sheep, 2,000 each of geese, pigs, and chickens, 12 porpoises, and 4,000 cold venison pasties. Such a feast would show how many fighting men a family could muster. (N.G., Nov. 1985, M. Girouard, p.74) 1465 nend King Henry VI was captured and imprisoned in the Tower of London. (MH, 12/96) 1465 1487 In China during the Chenghua reign blended enamels over a blue underglaze decoration reached a classic stage of development. Lady Wan, consort of the emperor, was intimately as-sociated with porcelains and their design. (SFEC, 10/6/96, DB p.37) 1466 nend Mar 8, Francesco Sforza (b.1401), Italian condottiere, duke of Milan, died. He was the founder of the Sforza dynasty in Milan, Italy, and the brother of Alessandro, with whom he often fought. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Sforza) 1466 nend Oct 19, The peace of Torun ended the 13-year War of the Cities (1454-1466), between the Teutonic knights and their own disaffected subjects in Prussia. The Peace of Thorn (Torún) ended the war between the Teutonic knights (a German military and religious order) and their subjects in Prussia, led by King Casimir IV (1427-1492) of Poland. Poland was given Pomerelia and West Prussia, and the knights retained East Prussia, with a new capital at Königsberg (Ka-liningrad). The knights, formerly strictly a German order, were forced to accept Poles as mem-bers and their grand master became a vassal of the Polish king. (HN,10/19/98)(http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/T/TeutonKn.html) 1466 nend Oct 26, Desiderius Erasmus (d.1536), scholar and author (In Praise of Folly), was born in Rotterdam. He was of illegitimate birth, but became a priest and a monk. He excelled in phi-lology, the study of ancient languages, namely Latin and Greek and worked on a new transla-tion of the New Testament. The more he studied it, the more he came to doubt the accuracy of the Vulgate, St. Jerome's translation into Latin, dating from around 400. "In Praise of Folly" is his most famous work... In it Erasmus had the freedom to discourse, in the ironic style of Lucian (the Greek author whose works he translated), concerning all the foolishness and misguided pompousness of the world. (V.D.-H.K.p.159-160)(MC, 10/26/01) 1466 nend Nov 30, Andrea Doria, Genoese statesman and admiral, was born. (MC, 11/30/01) 1466 1520 Montezuma II, Aztec emperor. He amassed great wealth through taxation in Mexico and Central America. He used his wealth to build his capital at Tenochtitlan. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1466 nend ?-1530 Quentin Massys, Flemish painter. He painted "The Moneylender and His Wife." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.882) 1466 1772 Danzig (Gdansk) was occupied by German religious-knights. (Voruta #27-28, Jul 1996, p.10) 1467 nend May, In Japan the 11-year Onin War began in Kyoto. In 1967 H. Paul Valery authored "The Onin War." (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215)(ON, 7/01, p.5) 1467 nend Jun 15, Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, died. (HT, 6/15/00) 1468 nend Feb 3, Johannes Gutenberg (Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg b.c1400), German inventor of movable type, died. (SFC, 2/15/97, p.D1)(WSJ, 9/14/00, p.A24) 1468 nend Feb 29, Pope Paul III was born. (SFC, 2/29/00, p.A1) 1468 nend Dec 3, Lorenzo the Magnificent and his brother Giuliano succeeded their father, Piero de Medici, as rulers of Florence, Italy. (HN, 12/3/98) 1468 nend Juan Reixach created his panel of St. Vincent Ferrer in the Hispano-Flemish style. (WSJ, 3/2/05, p.D9) 1468 nend Skanderbeg of Albania died and the Turks absorbed Albania into the Ottoman Empire. Over the next five centuries most Albanians converted to Islam. (CO, Grolier?s / Albania)(www, Albania, 1998) c 1468 nend The area around Bosnia was occupied by the Turks in the late 15th cent. (SFC, 4/15/97, p.A10) 1469 nend Apr 15, The guru Nanak (d.1539), 1st guru of Sikhs, was born to Hindu parents in La-hore. Nanak assimilated tenets of pantheistic Hinduism and monotheistic Islam and founded Sikhism in the Punjab. He refused to accept the caste system and the supremacy of the Brah-manical priests and forbade magic, idolatry and pilgrimages. Brahma is the Hindu god of crea-tion. Turbaned followers would sport the main of the lion, Singha or Sikh. The sacred Sikh book, Granth Sahib, was compiled by the 5th guru, Arjun, in 1605. (WUD, 1994, p.1326)(Hem., 3/97, p.28)(SFEM, 9/19/99, p.74)(SFC,9/22/99, p.E1)(WSJ, 10/12/01, p.W17)(MC, 4/15/02) 1469 nend May 3, Nicolo Machiavelli (d.1527), political advisor and author, was born. He was a his-torian and author of "The Prince." He saw in Cesare Borgia, the bastard son of Pope Alexander VI, the prospect of an Italy free of foreign control. "Men are more apt to be mistaken in their generalizations than in their particular observations." (V.D.-H.K.p.109)(AP, 11/15/98)(HN, 5/3/99) 1469 nend May 19, Giovanni della Robbia, Italian sculptor, was born. (MC, 5/19/02) 1469 nend May 31, Manuel I, king of Portugal (1495-1521), was born. (HN, 5/31/98) 1469 nend Oct 17, Crown prince Fernando of Aragon married princess Isabella of Castile. (MC, 10/17/01) 1469 nend Dec 3, Piero de' Medici (53), ruler of Florence, died. (MC, 12/3/01) 1469 nend Fra Filippo Lippi, a Carmelite friar and painter and father of Filippino Lippi, died. Sandro Botticelli was one of his students. (WSJ, 12/3/97, p.A20) 1469 1472 The islands of Sao Tome and Principe were discovered by Portuguese navigators and settled by 1500. (AP, 7/18/03) 1469 nend Apr 15, The guru Nanak (d.1539), 1st guru of Sikhs, was born to Hindu parents in La-hore. Nanak assimilated tenets of pantheistic Hinduism and monotheistic Islam and founded Sikhism in the Punjab. He refused to accept the caste system and the supremacy of the Brah-manical priests and forbade magic, idolatry and pilgrimages. Brahma is the Hindu god of crea-tion. Turbaned followers would sport the main of the lion, Singha or Sikh. The sacred Sikh book, Granth Sahib, was compiled by the 5th guru, Arjun, in 1605. (WUD, 1994, p.1326)(Hem., 3/97, p.28)(SFEM, 9/19/99, p.74)(SFC,9/22/99, p.E1)(WSJ, 10/12/01, p.W17) 1470 nend Mar 2, In England at Lose Coat Field, canon under Edward IV turned a group of Lin-colnshire rebels into a panicked mob. (MH, 12/96) 1470 nend Jun 30, Charles VIII, King of France (1483-98), invaded Italy, was born. One of his feet had 6 toes which prompted his wearing broad, square tip shoes. (HN, 6/30/98)(SFC, 3/13/99, p.E6) 1470 nend Oct 9, Henry VI of England was restored to the throne. (HN, 10/9/98) 1470 nend Nov 1, Edward V, King of England, was born. [see Nov 3] (HN, 11/1/98) 1470 nend Nov 3, Edward V, King of England (Apr 9-Jun 25 1483), was born. [see Nov 1] (MC, 11/3/01) 1470 nend The earliest documented work by Botticelli was made. "Fortitude" was an allegory por-traying a woman who embodies the virtue of inner strength. (SFC, 6/20/97, p.A9) 1470 nend The first book printed in France was an ornate ninth-century transcript produced for the grandson of Charlemagne. It is held by the Bibliotheque Nationale de France. (WSJ, 9/26/95, p.A-20) 1470 nend In Portugal Princess Juana popularized the farthingale, a wide-hipped skit stiffened by whale bone. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R40) c 1470 nend The Quechua-speaking Incas came to dominate what is now Bolivia a mere 75 years before the Spaniards arrived. (NH, 11/96, p.37) 1470 1650 The period of the second of four waves of rising prices over the last 800 years as de-scribed by David Hackett Fisher in his 1996 book: "The Great Wave: Price Revolutions and the Rhythm of History." (WSJ, 12/19/96, p.A16) 1471 nend Mar 22, George van Podiebrad, king of Bohemia (1458-71), died. (MC, 3/22/02) 1471 nend Mar, Edward IV returned to England. (MH, 12/96) 1471 nend Apr 11, King Edward IV of England captured London from Henry VI in the War of the Roses. (MC, 4/11/02) 1471 nend Apr 14, On Easter Sunday Edward IV led an army of mercenaries and Yorkists at the Battle of Barnet and defeated the Lancastrians under the Earl of Warwick. Richard Neville Warwick (42), 2nd earl of Salisbury, was killed in battle. Margaret of Anjou returned from France. With her son, the Prince of Wales, she planned to join with Jasper Tudor, a Welsh ally, and attack Edward west of London. (MH, 12/96)(HN, 4/14/00) 1471 nend May 4, The Yorkists defeated the Lancastrians in the Battle of Tewkesbury between the English House of Lancaster and House of York. King Edward IV routed the forces of ex-queen Margaret. The Lancastrian forces were led by Edmund Beaufort, 4th Duke of Somerset. Ed-ward, the 17-year-old prince of Wales, was killed at the battle of Tewkesbury. (MH, 12/96)(HN,5/4/99)(www.britainexpress.com/History/battles/tewkesbury.htm) 1471 nend May 6, The 4th Duke of Somerset and other Lancastrian nobles were beheaded at the Tewkesbury marketplace after trial presided over by the Duke of Gloucester, Constable of Eng-land. (MH, 12/96) 1471 nend May 21, Henry VI, king of England (1422-61, 70-71) and France (1431-71), was killed in the tower of London and Edward IV took the throne. (HN, 5/21/98) 1471 nend Jul 15, Eskender (d.1494), Emperor of Ethiopia, was born. Eskender was killed at age 22 fighting the Maya, a vanished ethnic group known for using poisoned arrows. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eskender) 1471 nend Jul 25, Thomas A. Kempis (91), [Thomas Hammerken von Kempen], German writer, monk, died. His popular "Imitation of Christ" went through 99 editions by the end of the century. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34)(Internet) 1471 nend Jul 26, Pope Paul II died. (PTA, 1980, p.418) 1471 nend Aug 7, Francesco Della Rovere succeeded Paul II as Pope Sixtus IV. (PTA, 1980, p.420) 1471 nend In Pec, Kosovo, the Qarshise Mosque was built. It was destroyed by Serbs in 1999. (SFC, 9/7/99, p.A12) 1471 1474 A particular Spanish, copper-based coin called a blanca was issued. (NH, 10/96, p.24) 1471 1528 Albrecht Durer, German artist. He is particularly known for his woodcuts for book illustra-tions. (SFEC, 2/9/97, DB p.6)(WSJ, 11/7/00, p.A24) 1472 nend Mar 28, Fra Bartolommeo (d.1517), Florentine Renaissance painter, was born. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fra_Bartolommeo) 1472 nend Apr 15, Leon Battista Alberti (b.1404), Italian humanist, architect (Philodoxis), died. He wrote the 1st Italian grammar, the 1st theory of painting as an art, and the treatise "On the Art of Building." In 1970 Joan Gadol authored a biography. In 2000 Anthony Grafton authored the bi-ography "Leon Battista Alberti." (WSJ, 11/30/00, p.A20)(MC, 4/15/02) 1472 nend Hans Memling painted ?The Virgin and Child With St. Anthony Abbot and Donor.? (SFC, 10/18/05, p.D2) 1472 nend In Siena the Monte dei Paschi began taking deposits and making loans to the poor at better rates than the moneylenders. As of 2009 this was the oldest existing bank. Clerical groups had already established "monti di pieta" (mounds of money for charity). In Siena the original capital came from taxes. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R48)(Econ, 11/3/07, p.101)(Econ, 1/10/09, p.74) 1472 nend The Orkney Islands were part of Norway until this year. (SFEC, 3/23/97, p.T3) 1472 1553 Lucas Cranach the Elder, German painter and graphic artist. He painted "Cardinal Albrecht as St. Jerome." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.339) 1473 nend Feb 19, The astronomer Copernicus (1473-1543) was born in Torun, Poland. He prom-ulgated the theory that the earth and the planets move around the sun. (WUB, 1994, p. 322)(HN, 2/19/98)(AP, 2/19/98) 1473 nend Lorenzo de Medici, Italian banker and poet, wrote: "It is hard to live in Florence if you do not control the state." (WSJ, 1/19/04, p.A12) 1473 nend The game of golf was played in Scotland at the Old course at St. Andrews. (SFC, 6/25/95, p.T-7) 1473 1474 The book "Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye" was translated and printed from the French by William Caxton. A copy sold in 1998 for $1.2 million. (SFC, 7/9/98, p.A12) 1474 nend Mar 21, Angela Merici, Italian monastery founder, saint, was born. (MC, 3/21/02) 1474 nend May 9, Peter van Hagenbach, Elzasser knight, land guardian, was beheaded. (MC, 5/9/02) 1474 nend Sep 8, Ludovico Ariosto, Italy, poet (Orlando Furioso), was born. (MC, 9/8/01) 1474 nend Nov 27, Guillaume Dufay (b.1399), French-Flemish composer, died. His work included "Ecclesiae militantis," a 5-part motet on Pope Eugenius IV?s short-lived supremacy over the Eastern Orthodox Church. (WSJ, 1/2/02, p.A15)(MC, 11/27/01) 1474 nend Dec 12, Isabella crowned herself queen of Castilia & Aragon. (MC, 12/12/01) 1474 nend Bartolome de Las Casas (d.1566), ?Apostle to the Indians,? was born in Seville, Spain. (http://tinyurl.com/brzzu) c 1474 nend Ercole de' Roberti, Italian artist, painted "St. Jerome in the Wilderness." (SFC, 4/27/99, p.C1) 1474 nend By this year Venice passed a patent statute that included many of the elements of mod-ern patent laws. no_source c 1474 1478 Leonardo da Vinci created his portrait "Ginevra de Benci." (WSJ, 12/14/01, p.W20) 1474 1515 Mariotto Albertinelli, painter. He painted "The Visitation." (AAP, 1964) 1474 1556 Bartolome de Las Casas, a Dominican priest, made a copy of the original log of Colum-bus? voyage from a copy given to Columbus before his 2nd voyage. It is the only surviving copy. (NH, 10/96, p.23) 1475 nend Mar 6, Michelangelo Buonarroti (d.1564), painter, sculptor and architect, was born. His early mentor was Bertoldo di Giovanni, a pupil of Donatello. His work included "The Creation of Adam" and the "Pieta Rondanini." He at one time proposed to sculpt the 5,000 foot Monte Sagro in Carrara into the statue of a giant. (WUB, 1994, p. 904)(WSJ, 2/29/96, p.A-14)(AAP, 1964)(SFEC, 7/13/97,p.T11)(SFEC,10/19/97, p.T4)(HN, 3/6/98) 1475 nend Cesare Borgia, illegitimate son of Rodrigo Borgia Lanzol, later Pope Alexander VI (1492-1503), was born. He was made a church cardinal before his 20th birthday. (SFC, 3/16/02, p.A3) c 1475 nend Andrea del Verrochio created his sculpture "Sleeping Youth." (WSJ, 1/29/02, p.A18) c 1475 nend Dieric Bouts, Flemish painter, created his painting "Virgin and Child." (SFEC, 12/19/99, DB p.42) 1475 nend Pope Sixtus IV celebrated the Holy Year by building the Sistine Chapel and the Sixtus Bridge over the Tiber River. (SFC, 12/24/99, p.A15) 1475 1476 Petrus Christus (b. c1415), Netherlandish painter, died in Brugge. (www.artrenewal.org/asp/database/art.asp?aid=2806) 1475 nend In China?s Yunnan province the old Jihong Bridge over the Lancang River was rein-forced with 18 iron chains over the 280-foot chasm. (SFEC, 10/6/96, T5) 1475 nend British fishermen lost access to fishing grounds off Iceland due to a war in Europe. The cod catch did not go down and it is presumed that they had discovered the cod-rich waters off Newfoundland, whose discovery was later attributed to John Cabot. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.23) 1475 nend The Olavinlinna castle was founded by the governor of Viipuri on the border between Sweden-Finland and Russia. (SFEC, 4/11/99, p.T4) 1475 1495 An 11-piece set of tapestries were created with scenes from the Trojan War. They in-cluded "The Death of Troilus, Achilles and Paris." They were later housed at the Museo Cat-edralicio, Zamora, Spain. (WSJ, 4/11/02, p.AD7) 1475 1509 Italian architects invited by Ivan III built the Kremlin Cathedrals of the Assumption and the Archangel. (DVD, Criterion, 1998) 1476 nend Aug 4, Jacob van Armagnac-Pardiac, French duke of Nemours, was beheaded. (MC, 8/4/02) 1476 nend Aug 13, Christopher Columbus swam ashore to Portugal from a burning ship. He believed that Cathay, i.e. China, lay about 3,900 miles west of the Canary Islands. (V.D.-H.K.p.174) 1476 nend Dec 24, Some 400 Burgundy soldiers froze to death during the siege of Nancy. (MC, 12/24/01) 1476 nend Dec 26, Galeazzo Maria Sforza (Il Sforza del Destino), duke of Milan, was murdered. (MC, 12/26/01) 1476 nend The Swiss overcame Burgundy?s Charles the Bold at the Battle of Murten. (SSFC, 5/26/02, p.C5) 1476 nend /1477 The first edition of Chaucer?s Canterbury Tales (1387-1400) was printed by William Caxton. A copy of the red, leather-bound edition sold at auction in 1998 for $7.5 million. In 1905 the Caxton Club in Chicago published the leaf book ?William Caxton? by E. Gordon Duff. Each book contained one of 148 leaves from a Caxton 1st edition of the Canterbury Tales. (SFC, 7/9/98, p.A12)(WSJ, 5/12/05, p.D8) 1476 1507 Cesare Borgia, Italian cardinal, military leader and politician. (WUD, 1994, p.171) 1477 nend Jan 5, Swiss troops defeated the forces under Charles the Bold of Burgundy at the Battle of Nancy. (HN, 1/5/99) 1477 nend Nov 18, William Claxton published the first dated book printed in England. "Dictes & Sayengis of the Phylosophers," by Earl Rivers. It was a translation from the French. [see 1473/1474] (HN, 11/18/99) 1477 nend Future Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, a member of the Habsburg family of Austria, married Mary of Burgundy, heiress of all the Netherlands. Maximilian had given Mary a diamond engagement ring, a practice that soon spread. In 1996 Andrew Wheatcroft wrote a history of the Habsburgs: "The Habsburgs." (WSJ, 1/19/96, p.A-12)(SFEM, 6/28/98, p.6)(SFC, 5/28/08, p.G2) 1477 nend The Seventeen Provinces, a personal union of states in the Low Countries in the 16th century, became the property of the Habsburgs. They roughly covered the current Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, a good part of the North of France (Artois, Nord) and a small part of Germany. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeeland) 1477 nend Joao II (John II) served as king of Portugal for a short time when his father retired to a monastery. He succeeded his father as king in 1481. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_II_of_Portugal) 1477 1576 Titian (Titziano Vecellio), Italian painter. He painted "Venus and Adonis and Allegory" with subjects Alfonso d?Este and Laura Diante. (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.1488) 1478 nend Feb 7, Sir Thomas Moore (d.1535), English humanist, statesman and writer, was born in London. He was best friend of Erasmus, and called by Erasmus: "a man for all seasons." He studied law and rose to the post of lord chancellor after the fall of Cardinal Wolsey. More would not accept Henry VIII's divorce from Catherine of Aragon nor his subsequent marriage to Anne Boleyn. The king had charges of treason filed and More was beheaded on July 6, 1535. He was canonized in 1935. The 1966 film "A man for All Seasons" was based on his life. He is famous for "Utopia." (V.D.-H.K.p.160)(CU, 6/87)(WUD, 1994, p.931)(HN, 2/7/99) 1478 nend Feb 18, George, the Duke of Clarence, who had opposed his brother Edward IV, was murdered in the Tower of London. George underwent forced drowning in a wine barrel ("A butt of Malmsey"). (HN, 2/18/99)(MC, 2/18/02) 1478 nend Apr 26, Pazzi conspirators attacked Lorenzo de'Medici but killed Giuliano de'Medici (~24), Medeheerser of Florence. (HN, 4/26/98)(MC, 4/26/02) 1478 nend Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510) painted "La Primavera" about this time. (WSJ, 4/14/07, p.P11) c 1478 nend Giorgione (d.1510), Italian painter, was born. (T&L, 10/80, p. 58)(WSJ, 12/4/97, p.A20) 1478 nend Ten years after the death of Skanderbeg, his citadel at Kruje was finally taken by the Ottoman Turks and Albania fell into obscurity during several centuries of Turkish rule. (HNQ, 10/5/98)(www, Albania, 1998) 1478 nend In Japan the Onin War ended after rival warlords died of natural causes. Shogun Yoshimasa disinherited his brother and abdicated in favor of his son. (ON, 7/01, p.5) 1478 nend The Swiss began annexing the southern approaches to the strategic and lucrative St. Gothard Pass over the Alps. (SFEC, 6/14/98, p.T4) 1478 1483 The Gubbio Studiola was constructed in the shop of the Florentine woodworker Giuliano da Maiana. The wood inlay art of intarsia was used whereby the carving was done by knife rather than with saws. It was purchased by the NY Metropolitan in 1939. (WSJ, 6/6/96, p.A12) 1478 1529 Baldassare Castiglione, Italian diplomat and author. He wrote the "Book of the Courtier," in which the term sprezzatura was coined. It described the art of making the difficult seem effortless. (WUD, 1994, p.230)(WSJ, 8/22/97, p.A12) 1478 nend ?-1533? Jan Gossaert (Mabuse), Flemish painter. He painted "St Luke Drawing the Virgin Mary." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.858) 1479 nend Mar 26, Vasili III, great prince of Moscow (1505-33), son of Ivan III, was born. (SS, 3/26/02) 1479 nend Sep 4, After four years of war, Spain agreed to allow a Portuguese monopoly of trade along Africa's west coast and Portugal acknowledged Spain's rights in the Canary Islands. (HN, 9/4/98) 1479 nend Nov 6, Johanna, the Insane, Queen of Castilia (1504-20), was born. (MC, 11/6/01) 1479 nend Shkodra fell to the Ottoman Turks. Subsequently, many Albanians fled to southern Italy, Greece, Egypt, and elsewhere; many remaining were forced to convert to Islam. (www, Albania, 1998) 1479 nend Gentile Bellini (1429-1507), Italian artist, was selected by the Venetian Republic to work at the court of the Ottoman sultan, Mehmed II, in Istanbul. (WSJ, 12/20/05, p.D8) 1479 nend In Bosnia the Turks erected a mosque in the center of Banja Luka. It was leveled by the Serbs in 1993. (WSJ, 8/26/98, p.A1) 1479 nend Venice signed a peace treaty with Ottoman Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror (1432-1481) ending 16 years of war. (WSJ, 3/16/06, p.D8)(www.fsmitha.com/h3/h13zt.htm) 1479 nend Jorge Manrique (b.1440), Spanish military hero and poet, died. (SSFC, 9/3/06, p.M3)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorge_Manrique) 1480 nend Feb 13, Hieronymus Alexander, [Girolamo Aleandro], Italian diplomat, cardinal, was born. (MC, 2/13/02) 1480 nend Apr 18, Lucretia Borgia (d.1519), murderess, was born. Lucrezia Borgia, Duchess of Ferrara, was the daughter of Pope Alexander VI, and the sister and political pawn of Cesare Borgia. She was also considered a patroness of the arts. (HN, 4/18/98)(WUD, 1994, p.171) 1480 nend Giovanni Bellini painted "St. Francis in the Desert." (WSJ, 1/14/00, p.W12) 1480 nend Sandro Botticelli painted "The Birth of Venus." (WSJ, 2/5/97, p.A16) 1480 nend Bartolomeo Saachi de Platina had a cookbook printed titled: "De honesta voluptate et valetudine." In 1997 it was valued at $37,000. (SFC, 2/19/96, zz-1 p.2) 1480 nend The Spanish Inquisition was introduced by Ferdinand and Isabella to enable the crown to control the inquiries into whether or not converted Jews were really secret "Judaizers" who kept their original faith. "The Spanish Inquisition," a history of the Inquisition was written by Henry Kamen and a new edition was published in 1998. (WSJ, 4/16/98, p.A1) 1480 nend In Hamburg a pioneering labor market appeared for hiring day workers. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1480 1520 In France the fortress at Bonaguil in the Quercy province was built by a baron as a bulwark against his vassals. (SFEC, 7/11/99, p.T4) 1480 1521 Ferdinand Magellan, Portuguese navigator. He was assigned the task of finding a route to the Spice Islands. (V.D.-H.K.p.177) 1480 1533 A huge Inca cemetery was active in Lima at this time. It was uncovered in 2002 with some 2,200 mummies. (SFC, 4/18/02, p.A4) 1480 1538 Albrecht Altdorfer, German painter. He painted "Martyrdom of St. Florian." He also painted a depiction of Alexander?s 333BC defeat of Darius at Issus. (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.43)(WSJ, 5/15/98, p.W11) 1480 1557 Lorenzo Lotto, Italian painter, celebrated as a realist and a man of religious fervor. (WSJ, 1/15/98, p.A17) 1481 nend Mar 2, Franz von Sickingen, German knight, was born. (SC, 3/2/02) 1481 nend Aug 29, Joao II (John II) became king of Portugal. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_II_of_Portugal) 1481 nend Aug 30, Two Latvian monarchs were executed for conspiracy to murder Polish king Kazimierz IV. (MC, 8/30/01) 1481 nend Sandro Botticelli painted "The Annunciation." (SFC, 10/7/03, p.D8) 1481 nend Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II died at age 60. Kritovoulos authored "History of Mehmet the Conqueror" in the 15th century. (ON, 10/00, p.12) 1481 1512 Beyazid II followed Mehmed II in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii) 1481 1530 In Spain the first burnings of 8 people occurred as a result of the Inquisition trials. Over this period some 2000 people were burned. (WSJ, 4/16/98, p.A20) 1482 nend Sep 1, Krim-Tataren plundered Kiev. (MC, 9/1/02) 1482 nend The border town of Berwick-upon-Tweed ended up in English hands after changing hands 13 times in wars between England and the Scots. (WSJ, 7/8/08, p.A14) 1482 nend A Milanese Duke commissioned Leonardo da Vinci to make an equine statue that would have been the largest in the world. A clay cast was made over 16 years but the appropriated bronze was used for cannons and the clay cast was destroyed when the Duke?s castle fell to French invaders. (Hem., 12/96, p.19) 1482 nend Luca della Robbia (b.1400), Italian artist, died. Luca developed the art of enameled relief sculpture. Andrea della Robbia (1435-1525), his nephew and student, continued the work. (SFC, 11/23/05, p.G2) 1482 nend In Ghana Elmina Castle was built by Portuguese traders. It later became a slave holding castle. (SFEC, 11/22/98, p.T10) 1482 nend Captain Diogo Cao sailed south along the African coast and became the first Portuguese sailor to reach the equator. He4 landed at the mouth of the Zaire (Congo) River. He left four servants and took four Africans hostage back to his king, John, in Portugal. This was the first European encounter with the vast kingdom of the Kongo. (ATC, p.149)(ON, 11/07, p.1) 1482 nend The Ginkaku Temple, also known as the Silver Pavilion was built in Kyoto, Japan. The Shogun who built it died before its completion and it remains without silver. (Hem., 2/96, p.58) 1483 nend Feb 14, Zahir al-Din Mohammed Babur Shah, prince, founder Mughal dynasty in India (1526-30), was born. (MC, 2/14/02) 1483 nend Apr 6, Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio, d.1520), Dutch painter (Sistine Madonna), was born to an unremarkable painter in the Duchy of Urbino. He went on to paint famous works in the Vatican. After an apprenticeship in Perugia, he went to Florence, having heard of the work da Vinci and Michelangelo were doing. His last 12 years were spent on numerous commissions in Rome. He died on his 37th birthday, his funeral mass being celebrated in the Vatican. . (HN, 4/6/98)(HNQ, 11/17/00) 1483 nend Apr 9, Edward IV (b.1442), King of England (1461-70, 71-83) died. His young sons, Edward and Richard, were left in the protection of their uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester. He housed them in the Tower of London where they were probably murdered on his orders. (www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/edward_iv_king.shtml) 1483 nend Jun 25, Edward V, king of England (Apr 9-Jun 25, 1483), was murdered. (MC, 6/25/02) 1483 nend Jun 26, Richard III, Duke of Gloucester, usurped himself to the English throne. (HN, 6/26/98)(MC, 6/26/02) 1483 nend Jul 6, England's King Richard III was crowned. (AP, 7/6/97) 1483 nend Aug 9, Pope Sixtus IV celebrated the first mass in the Sistine Chapel, which was named in his honor. (HN, 8/9/98) 1483 nend Oct 17, The Reverend Dr. Tomas de Torquemada, OP, was appointed inquisitor-general of Spain. (MC, 10/17/01) 1483 nend Nov 2, Henry Stafford (b.1454), earl of Buckingham and constable of England, was beheaded at Salisbury for his rebellion against King Richard III (1452-1485). (DoW, 1999, p.71) 1483 nend Nov 10, Martin Luther, leader of the Protestant Reformation, was born in Eisleben, Germany. He was a monk in the Catholic Church until 1517, when he founded the Lutheran Church. He died in 1546. (V.D.-H.K.p.163)(Voruta #27-28, Jul 1996, p.10)(SFC, 7/21/97,p.A11)(AP, 11/10/97) 1483 nend Dec 24, Leaders of the English rebels swore fealty to Henry Tudor in the Cathedral of Rennes in Brittany. (ON, 12/06, p.1) 1483 nend Felice della Rovere (d.1536), illegitimate daughter of Pope Julius II (r.1503-1513), was born about this time. Her mother was a member of the Normanni, an illustrious Roman family long in decline. In 2005 Caroline P. Murphy authored ?The Pope?s Daughter: The Extraordinary Life of Felice della Rovere.? (www.jsonline.com/enter/books/reviews/jul05/339335.asp) 1483 nend When King Vladislav restored Catholic dominion, a dissident band of Hussites threw the Catholic mayor [Prague?] out of the window. (NH, 9/96, p.24) 1483 1505 Trithemius, author and monk, served as the abbot of a Benedictine monastery. His work included "De Laude Scriptorium" (In Praise of Scribes). (SSFC, 2/22/04, p.M6) 1484 nend Mar 4, Casimir (Kazimierz), the son of Lithuania's Grand Duke Casimir, died in Grodno at age 25. In 1602 he was declared a saint and protector of Lithuania. St. Casimir was born Oct 3,1458, in Cracow. (LHC, 3/4/03) 1484 nend Aug 12, Pope Sixtus IV died. His rule was marked by nepotism and he was involved in a conspiracy to overthrow the Medici in Florence. (PTA, 1980, p.420) 1484 nend Aug 29, Cardinal Cibo was crowned as Pope Innocent VIII. (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08562a.htm) 1484 nend Dec 5, Pope Innocent VIII issued a bull deploring the spread of witchcraft and heresy in Germany. He ordered that all cats belonging to witches scheduled to be burned, be also burned. Kraemer and Sprenger, two Dominican friars, had induced Pope Innocent VIII to issue a bull authorizing them to extirpate witchcraft in Germany. [see 1486] (SFEC, 1/5/97, Z1 p.2)(HN, 12/5/98)(HNQ, 10/31/99) 1484 nend Bartolomeo di Giovanni Corradini, Italian painter who joined the Dominican order as Fra Carnevale, died. (Econ, 12/11/04, p.82) 1484 1768 The Nepalese city-states of Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur, were each ruled by its own Malla king after the Malla dynasty divided up the Kathmandu Valley. (SSFC, 9/21/03, p.C8) 1485 nend Aug 1, Henry (VII) Tudor's army set sail from Harfleur to Wales. (ON, 12/06, p.1) 1485 nend Aug 7, Henry (VII) Tudor's army landed in Milford Haven, South-Wales. (ON, 12/06, p.1) 1485 nend Aug 22, Henry Tudor defeated Richard III (32) at Bosworth. England's King Richard III (1483-1485), the last of the Plantagenet kings, was killed in the Battle of Bosworth. This victory established the Tudor dynasty in England and ended the War of the Roses. 12 miles west of Leicester, the forces of Richard III met the forces under Henry Tudor (later to become Henry VII). Henry Tudor had returned from French exile on August 7 at Milford Haven and assembled forces including two Yorkist defectors, Thomas Stanley and his brother Sir William. These allies, plus the defection of Henry Percy, the 4th earl of Northumberland helped decide the outcome of the battle. Richard, whose forces had taken position on Ambien Hill, died fighting in an attempt to get at Henry Tudor himself. (AP, 8/22/97)(HN, 6/26/98)(HN, 8/22/98)(HNQ, 8/22/00) 1485 nend Sep 3, Henry Tudor entered London following his Aug 22 victory at Bosworth. (ON, 12/06, p.4) 1485 nend Oct 30, Henry Tudor (1457-1509) of England was crowned as Henry VII. This followed his defeat of King Richard III at Bosworth Field on Aug 22. (HN, 10/30/98)(DoW, 1999, p.66) 1485 nend Dec 16, Katherine of Argon, first wife of Henry VIII, was born. (HN, 12/16/98) 1485 nend Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510) painted "Venus and Mars" about this time. (WSJ, 6/16/07, p.P16) 1485 nend William Caxton, the first printer in Britain, published "Le Morte Darthur" by Sir Thomas Mallory (c1400-1471). (WUD, 1994, p.868)(SFC, 2/15/97, p.D1) 1485 nend The medical encyclopedia "Gart der Gesundheit" described the female mandrake, thought to stop bleeding, and to scream when pulled by its roots. (WSJ, 7/7/98, p.A14) 1485 nend Yeoman Warders, all men, began patrolling the parapets and passages of the Tower of London. They became known colloquially as Beefeaters because of the rations of meat they were given during medieval times. In 2007 the 1st woman joined their ranks. (AP, 1/3/07) 1485 nend Diogo Cao, Portuguese explorer, sailed south beyond Cape Palmas, beyond Cape St. Catherine, until he reached Cape Cross (Namibia) at 22? south latitude. His expedition returned to Portugal in 1486. (V.D.-H.K.p.124)(ATC, p.149)(ON, 11/07, p.1) 1485 1545 Jean Clouet, French painter. He painted "Francis I, King of France." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.280) 1485 1547 Hernando Cortes, Spanish conqueror of Mexico. He is credited with naming California after an island in "Sergas de Esplandian," a popular romance in the early 1500s. (HFA, '96, p.65) 1485 1603 The Tudor family ruled over England. (WUD, 1994, p.1523) 1486 nend Jan 18, King Henry VII (1457-1509) married Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV. This ended the Wars of the Roses. (HN, 1/18/99)(ON, 12/06, p.4) 1486 nend Feb 12, In Toledo, Spain, some 750 lapsed Christians were paraded through the streets of Toledo from the Church of San Pedro Martir to the cathedral in order to be reconciled to the Christian faith. In the Auto Da Fe at Toledo the Jews were forced to recant, fined 1/5 of their property and permanently forbidden to wear decent clothes or hold office. (SSFC, 11/13/05, p.M3)(www.jewishhistory.org.il/1480.htm) 1486 nend Mar 4, Jogaila was crowned king of Poland. (LC, 1998, p.12) 1486 nend May 1, Christopher Columbus convinced Queen Isabella to fund expedition to the West Indies. (HN, 5/1/98) 1486 nend Jul 14, Andrea del Sarto (d.1531), aka Vanucchi or di Francesco, Italian Renaissance artist (Recollets), was born. He represented what Vasari called the terza maniera, the third or modern manner of painting. (WUD, 1994, p.55)(WSJ, 10/29/96, p.A21)(MC, 7/14/02) 1486 nend Sep 14, Heinrich Agrippa von Nettesheim (d.1535), German occultist, alchemist, royal astrologer, was born in Cologne. (www.britannica.com) 1486 nend Pico Mirandola challenged the scholars of all of Europe that he would defend a list of nine hundred thesis drawn from various Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and Arabic authors. His list came to the attention of the Vatican, which found thirteen of the theses heretical. Pico was stunned and issued an immediate recantation but was imprisoned for a short time anyway. Later in Florence he wrote "On the Dignity of Man," where he implied that man is the spiritual center of the universe, or that perhaps he is one focus and God the other. (V.D.-H.K.p.139) 1486 nend Heinrich Kraemer and Johann Sprenger, Dominican friars, published Malleus melefircarum (The Witches? Hammer), which became the authoritative encyclopedia of demonology throughout Christendom. The authority of their work, which was a synthesis of folk beliefs that had until then been manifested in local outbursts of witch finding, lasted through the European witch craze of the next three centuries. [see 1486, Dec 5] (HNQ, 10/31/99) 1486 nend King Joao II of Portugal chose Bartolomeu Dias (~1450-1500 to attempt to find a route to India around Africa. Diaz departed with 3 ships in the fall of 1487. (ON, 11/07, p.2)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolomeu_Dias) 1487 nend Jun 16, Battle at Stoke: Henry VII beat John de la Pole & Lord Lovell. (MC, 6/16/02) 1487 nend Aug, Bartolomeu Dias, Portuguese explorer, set out from Lisbon in August, and sailed south to the Cape Verde Islands and past Cape Cross. Storms forced him out to sea and when the winds moderated he continued east but found nothing. He turned north and then sighted land. (V.D.-H.K.p.173) 1487 nend Sep 10, Julius III, Italian counter-Reformation Pope (1550-1555), was born. He was also a poet and promoted the Jesuits. (WUD, 1994, p.773)(HN, 9/10/98)(MC, 9/10/01) 1487 nend Hans Memling (c.1440-1494), Flemish painter, painted the diptych ?Virgin and Child? and ?Maarten van Nieuwenhove? (1463-1500), who was his patron. (SFC, 10/18/05, p.D2)(SFC, 12/23/06, p.E12) 1487 nend Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger, Dominican inquisitors, authored ?Malleus Maleficarum? (The Hammer of Witches), which spoke of supernatural horrors that witches performed and provided advice on identifying them. In 2006 Christopher Mackay provided a critical translation in English. (WSJ, 1/19/08, p.W8) 1487 nend Lorenzo the Magnificent ordered a giraffe from Africa and a cardinal?s hat for his 13-year-old son from Pope Innocent VIII. In return for the hat Lorenzo promised the hand of his eldest daughter for the Pope?s illegitimate son along with a nice loan. The giraffe was procured from Sultan Qaitbay, the Ottoman ruler of Egypt. Pope Innocent promised to get Queen Anne of France to hand over Djem, the exiled brother of Qaitbay, for use as a pawn. Lorenzo promised to give the giraffe to Anne. In 2006 the story was covered by Marina Belozerskaya in her book ?The Medici Giraffe.? (WSJ, 8/19/06, p.P9) 1488 nend Feb 3, Bartolomeu Dias, Portuguese explorer, sighted the coast of Africa sailing north and made landing at Mossel Bay (South Africa) and realized that they had rounded the continent. He saw the southern tip on his return journey in May and named it Cabo Tormentoso (Cape of Storms). He continued north to the Great Fish River near present day Port Elizabeth, and then returned home in December. King Jaoa changed the cape?s name to Cape of Good Hope to encourage future explorers. (V.D.-H.K.p.173)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolomeu_Dias)(ON,11/07, p.2) 1488 nend Jun 11, James III, king of Scotland, died in the battle of Sauchieburn, Scotland. (SC, 6/11/02)(PC, 1992, p.157) 1488 nend Oct 7, Andrea del Verrocchio, sculptor, painter, goldsmith, died at 52. (MC, 10/7/01) 1489 nend Feb 14, Henry VII and Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I ally to assist the Bretons in the Treaty of Dordrecht. (http://tudors.crispen.org/chronology/index.html) 1489 nend Apr 6, Hans Waldmann, Swiss military, mayor (Zurich), was beheaded. (MC, 4/6/02) 1489 nend Jul 2, Thomas Cranmer, first Protestant archbishop of Canterbury (1533-1556), was born. (HN, 7/2/01) 1489 nend A sculpture St. George and the Dragon, created by Bernt Notke, was unveiled in Stockholm, Sweden. He composed the dragon entirely of elk horns. (SSFC, 8/19/07, p.G4) 1489 1490 The plague ravaged the Netherlands. (WSJ, 10/12/98, p.A17) 1490 nend Mar 23, 1st dated edition of Maimonides "Mishna Torah" was published. (SS, 3/23/02) 1490 nend Apr 6, Matthias Corvinus (b.1443), king of Hungary and Croatia (1458-1590), died. He has assembled one of Europe?s finest libraries, 2nd in size only to that in the Vatican. When Hungary later fell to the Turks the library was lost. In 2008 Marcus Tanner authored ?The Raven King: Matthias Corvinus and the Fate of His Lost Library.? (Econ, 7/19/08,p.93)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias_Corvinus_of_Hungary) 1490 nend Francois Rabelais (d.1553), French physician, satirist and humorist, was born. [see 1494] (WUD, 1994, p.1183)(V.D.-H.K.p.143)(SSFC, 2/10/02, p.G5) 1490 nend In Venice the Aldine Press opened and went on to publish the first pocket editions of poetry and Greek classics. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1490 nend A version of the legal handbook "Statham?s Abridgement" was printed. A copy later became part of the collection of the SF law library and was stolen by a city bookbinder. The text is classed as part of the "incunabula," or books printed in the first 50 years after the introduction of movable type by Gutenberg in 1450. (SFC, 5/15/97, p.A26) 1490 nend Anne of Brittany married by proxy the recently widowed Maximilian of Hapsburg who had inherited Burgundy and Flanders from his first wife. Brittany was under siege by France and Maximilian failed to send troops in its defense. Anne had her marriage annulled and married the French Dauphin who had been engaged to marry Margaret of Austria, the daughter of Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy. Anne?s portrait was later painted by Jan Mostaert (WSJ, 7/30/97, p.A13) 1490 nend Christopher Columbus was permitted to make his proposal to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain. He asked to be made a noble with eternal title in the family, and to receive 10% commission on all transactions from his found domain. He was initially turned down and left for France and England, but was then called back and his requests were met. (V.D.-H.K.p.175) 1490 nend Linz became the capital of the province of Upper Austria. (StuAus, April '95, p.39) 1490 nend Ashikaga Yoshimasa (55), former Shogun of Japan (1449-1478), died. (ON, 7/01, p.5) 1490 nend The Portuguese king sent teachers and missionaries to Mani-Kongo in southwest Africa. Mani-Kongo converted to Christianity and later his son became king with the Christian name of Affonso I. (ATC, p.152) 1490 1491 Chinese, Japanese, and Korean astronomers reported a bright comet for 48 nights during the mid-winter weeks of these 2 years. An Italian astronomer again saw its sunlit debris in 1825 and it became known as the Quadrantid meteor shower. It was later cataloged as 2003EH_1. In 2003 it was related to a star explosion over 500 million earlier. (SFC, 12/31/03, p.A2) c 1490 nend s Muslims of the Songhai Empire in West Africa supported Askia Muhammad, who overthrew Sunni Ali?s son, and declared Islam the state religion. Songhai grew and expanded to become the greatest trade empire of West Africa. (ATC, p.121) c 1490 nend s Civil wars weakened Monomutapa in East Africa and by the 1500s the empire was split in two. (ATC, p.148) c 1490 nend s The Medici went bankrupt. (Wired, 8/96, p.118) 1490 1495 Tullio Lombardi created his sculpture "Adam." (WSJ, 5/18/00, p.A24) 1490 1500 Hieronymus Bosch, Dutch artist, painted "Christ Mocked (The Crowning With Thorns)." (WSJ, 6/19/00, p.A42) 1490 1700 This period was covered in 2003 by Diarmaid MacCulloch in the book "Reformation: Europe's House Divided 1490-1700." (Econ, 12/13/03, p.82) 1491 nend Jun 28, Henry VIII, King of England (1509-1547) and founder of the Church of England, was born at Greenwich. He later divorced four times. An inventory of his wealth in 1547 estimated his wealth at £300,000 and his military equipment at another £300,000. (CFA, '96, p.48)(AP, 6/28/99)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1491 nend Nov 15, 6 Jews and 5 Conversos (Jews who pretend to be Catholic converts) were accused of killing Christians in La Guardia, Spain. (MC, 11/15/01) 1491 nend Dec 24, Ignatius Loyola (d.1556), Spanish soldier and ecclesiastic, was born. He founded the Society of Jesus, i.e. the Jesuits, wrote Spiritual Exercises, and introduced a new flexibility that enabled a worldwide ministry. (CFA, '96, p.60)(CU, 6/87) 1491 nend Perkin Warbeck appeared in Ireland and claimed to be the missing Duke of York, thought by many to have been murdered by Richard III. After winning support in France and Scotland, Warbeck's fortunes turned and he was captured and executed in 1497. (HNQ, 4/17/02) 1491 nend William Caxton (b.1422), 1st English printer (Histories of Troy), died. (http://tinyurl.com/cj5dn)(WSJ, 5/12/05, p.D8) 1491 nend Pietro Roccabonella, doctor of medicine and lecturer at the Univ. of Padua, died. (SFEC, 2/15/98, BR p.8) 1492 nend Jan 2, Boabdil, the leader of the last Arab stronghold in Spain surrendered to Spanish forces loyal to King Ferdinand II and Queen Isabella I. Sultan Muhammad XI surrendered, ending Muslin rule in Spain. The combined Catholic forces of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile drove out the last of the Berbers from Spain. The Moors were expelled. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella took the town of Grenada, the last Moslem kingdom in Spain. The event became marked by an annual festival that began around 1516. (ATC, p.73,100)(AP, 1/2/98)(SFEC, 3/22/98, p.T11)(HN, 1/2/99)(WSJ,1/2/02, p.A6)(SSFC, 1/27/02, p.C20) 1492 nend Jan 23, "Pentateuch," a Jewish holy book, was first printed. (MC, 1/23/02) 1492 nend Mar 30, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella signed a decree expelling all Jews from Spain. Jews numbered about 80,000 and it was estimated that about half chose to convert. [see Mar 31] (HN, 3/30/98)(WSJ, 4/16/98, p.A20) 1492 nend Mar 31, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain issued an edict expelling Jews from Spanish soil, except those willing to convert to Christianity. In 2002 Claudia Roden authored "The Ornament of the World," a collection of stories of Sephardic Jews in Spain from 750 to 1492. [see Mar 30] (AP, 3/30/97)(WSJ, 4/26/02, p.W12) 1492 nend Apr 8, Lorenzo I de' Medici ("il Magnifico"), ruler of Florence (1469-92), died. (MC, 4/8/02) 1492 nend Apr 17, A contract was signed by Christopher Columbus and a representative of Spain's King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, giving Columbus a commission to seek a westward ocean passage to find the Indies [to Asia]. (AP, 4/17/97)(HN, 4/17/98) 1492 nend Apr 30, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella granted Christopher Columbus specific privileges and prerogatives regarding the discovery and conquest of islands and a continent in the (western) ocean. (DAH, 1946, p.1) 1492 nend May 15, Cheese and Bread rebellion: German mercenaries killed 232 Alkmaarse. (MC, 5/15/02) 1492 nend Jun 16, Jan Coppenhole, Flemish rebel leader, was beheaded. (MC, 6/16/02) 1492 nend Aug 2, Jews were expelled from Spain by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. [see Mar 31] (MC, 8/2/02) 1492 nend Aug 3, Christopher Columbus, set sail from the port of Palos, in southern Spain and headed for Cipangu, i.e. Japan. The voyage took him to the present-day Americas. His squadron consisted of three small ships, the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Nina. The 2nd ship was owned by Cristóbal Quintero, and was named Pinta. The 3rd ship was owned by Juan Niño, and was named the Santa Clara, but became known by its nickname, the Nina. (http://tinyurl.com/774v3)(SFEM, 11/15/98, p.23)(SFEC, 8/8/99, Z1 p.8) 1492 nend Aug 11, Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia Lanzol (61), father of Cesare and Lucretia, became Pope Alexander VI (d.1503). He siphoned off untold riches from Church funds. Borgia arrived in Rome from Spain in 1449 and Italianized his name from Borja to Borgia. His rise in the church was helped a great deal when his uncle became Pope Calixtus III. (HN, 8/10/98)(PTA, p.424)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R4)(MC, 8/11/02) 1492 nend Sep 6, Columbus' fleet sailed from Gomera, Canary islands. (http://tinyurl.com/774v3) 1492 nend Sep 25, Crew members aboard one of Christopher Columbus' ships, the Pinta, shouted that they could see land, but it turned out to be a false sighting. (AP, 9/25/99) 1492 nend Oct 7, Columbus changed course to the southwest. As a result he missed Florida. (http://tinyurl.com/774v3) 1492 nend Oct 11, Rodrigo de Triana, a sailor on the Pinta, sighted land (the Bahamas) on the horizon. (http://tinyurl.com/774v3) 1492 nend Oct 12, (Old Style calendar; Oct. 21 New Style), Christopher Columbus sited land, an island of the Bahamas which he named San Salvador, but which was called Guanahani by the local Taino people. Seeking to establish profitable Asian trade routes by sailing west, Columbus seriously underestimated the size of the Earth--never dreaming that two great continents blocked his path to the east. Even after four voyages to America, Columbus believed until the end of his life in 1506 that he had discovered an isolated corner of Asia. (NH, 10/96, p.22)(AP, 10/12/97)(HNPD,10/12/98)(http://tinyurl.com/774v3) 1492 nend Oct 16, Columbus' fleet anchored at "Fernandina" (Long Island, Bahamas). (http://tinyurl.com/774v3) 1492 nend Oct 17, Columbus sighted the isle of San Salvador (Watling Island, Bahamas). (http://tinyurl.com/774v3) 1492 nend Oct 19, Columbus sighted "Isabela" (Fortune Island, Bahamas). (http://tinyurl.com/774v3) 1492 nend Oct 21, Columbus landed on San Salvador Island (Bahamas-Watling Island). (http://tinyurl.com/774v3) 1492 nend Oct 26, Columbus' fleet anchored on Ragged Island Range, Bahamas. (MC, 10/26/01) 1492 nend Oct 26, Lead pencils were 1st used. (MC, 10/26/01) 1492 nend Oct 28, Christopher Columbus discovered Cuba and claimed it for Spain. (http://tinyurl.com/dfzzk) 1492 nend Nov 5, Christopher Columbus learned of maize (corn) from the Indians of Cuba. (MC, 11/5/01) 1492 nend Nov 7, A meteorite landed in Ensisheim, Germany. Emperor Maximilian visited Ensisheim 15 days after the fall and ordered that the Ensisheim meteorite be preserved in the local church. A piece of the stone was put up for auction in 2007. (www.meteorite.fr/en/basics/history.htm)(Econ, 10/27/07, p.96) 1492 nend Nov 15, Christopher Columbus noted the 1st recorded reference to tobacco. (MC, 11/15/01) 1492 nend Nov 21, Pinta under Martin Pinzon separated from Columbus' fleet. (MC, 11/21/01) 1492 nend Dec 5, Columbus discovered Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic). (http://tinyurl.com/dfzzk) 1492 nend Dec 24-1492 Dec 25, The Santa Maria under Columbus ran aground on a reef off Espanola on Christmas eve, and sank the next day. With the remains of the Santa Maria, Columbus built a fort and called it La Navidad. (http://tinyurl.com/dfzzk) 1492 nend Dec 31, 100,000 Jews were expelled from Sicily. (MC, 12/31/01) c 1492 nend Andrea Montegna, Italian painter, created his "Descent Into Limbo," a depiction of Christ descending into limbo to liberate the souls of the righteous. In 2003 the work sold for $28 million. (SFC, 1/24/03, p.D2) c 1492 nend Research in 2003 indicated that the Kuikuro people in the Amazon basin had a "complex and sophisticated" civilization with a population of many thousands prior to 1492. (AP, 9/19/03) 1492 nend Leonardo da Vinci drew a flying machine. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1492 nend Piero della Francesca (b.1415/1420), Italian artist, died. His work included ?The Virgin and child with Saints, angels and Federigo da Montefeltro? (1472-1474). (WSJ, 2/2/08, p.W14) 1492 nend Jews began arriving in Morocco after their expulsion from Spain. (SFEC, 7/25/99, p.T11) c 1492 nend In Portugal about this time King Manuel I, bedazzled by the Moorish tiles at the Alhambra in Spain, brought home enough to decorate his palace in Sintra. (SFEC, 4/26/98, p.T6) 1492 nend Sephardic Jews were welcomed by the Ottoman Empire after their expulsion from Spain. (SFEC, 3/28/99, p.T4) 1492 1870 Some 11 million African people were brought to the New World as slaves during this period. (SFEC,11/16/97, BR p.4) 1493 nend Jan 2, Columbus departed La Navidad, Hispaniola, and sailed eastward along the coast. (www1.minn.net/~keithp/v1.htm) 1493 nend Jan 4, Ivan III, Grand Duke of Moscow, announced the 1st war with Lithuania. In fact the war had begun in 1487. (LHC, 1/4/03) 1493 nend Jan 6, Columbus encountered the Pinta along the north coast of Hispaniola. (www1.minn.net/~keithp/v1.htm) 1493 nend Jan 9, Christopher Columbus 1st sighted manatees. (MC, 1/9/02) 1493 nend Jan 12, This was the last day for all Jews to leave Sicily. (MC, 1/12/02) 1493 nend Jan 16, Columbus aboard the Nina departed Hispaniola along with the Pinta to return to Spain. (www1.minn.net/~keithp/v1.htm) 1493 nend Mar 15, Christopher Columbus returned to Spain, concluding his first voyage to the Western Hemisphere. (AP, 3/15/97)(HN, 3/15/98) 1493 nend Apr 15, Columbus met with King Ferdinand and Isabella in Barcelona. (MC, 4/15/02) 1493 nend May 1, Phillippus Paracelsus (d.1541), physician and alchemist, was born in Switzerland. He was christened as Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim. (HN, 5/1/98)(NH, 6/00, p.30,34)(MC, 5/1/02) 1493 nend May 3-1493 May 4, Pope Alexander VI issued 3 papal bulls that divided the discoveries of Columbus between Spain and Portugal. By the Bulls of May 3 and 4 he drew an imaginary line one hundred leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. The May 4 Bull, ?Inter Caetera,? was amended in Sep. granting Spain the right to hold lands to the ?western regions and to India.? (DAH, 1946, p.2)(www.kwabs.com/bull_of_1493.html) 1493 nend Aug 19, Maximilian succeeded his father Frederick III as Holy Roman Emperor. Frederick III of Innsbruck (77), German Emperor (1440-1493), died. (HN, 8/19/98)(MC, 8/19/02) 1493 nend Sep 25, Christopher Columbus set sail from Cadiz, Spain, with a flotilla of 17 ships on his 2nd voyage to the Western Hemisphere. He was accompanied by 13 clerics; Alvarez Chanca, a physician who left valuable accounts of the voyage; Juan Ponce de Leon; Juan de la Cosa, a cartographer; and Columbus?s younger brother Bartholomew. (AP, 9/25/97)(AM, 7/97, p.58) 1493 nend Oct 13, Christopher Columbus left the Canary Islands with 16 ships and over 1000 men on his 2nd voyage to the New World. (http://tinyurl.com/dfzzk)(http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v2.htm) 1493 nend Nov 3, Christopher Columbus discovered the Caribbee Isles (Dominica) during his second expedition. He and his crew of 1,500 built the town of La Isabela on the northern coast of the Dominican Republic. It was abandoned within 5 years due in part to poor relations with the Taino Indians. This area was part of the chiefdom of Higuey. (AM, 7/97, p.54,60)(http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v2.htm) 1493 nend Nov 4, Christopher Columbus discovered Guadeloupe during his second expedition. (HN, 11/4/98) 1493 nend Nov 10, Christopher Columbus discovered Antigua during his second expedition. (HN, 11/10/98) 1493 nend Nov 11, Columbus discovered Saba, North Leeward Islands (Netherland Antilles). (WUD, 1994 p.1257)(MC, 11/11/01) 1493 nend Nov 12, Christopher Columbus discovered the island of Redonda during his second expedition. It was about 34 miles WSW of Antigua. (www.redonda.org/redonda.html#1869) 1493 nend Nov 19, Christopher Columbus discovered Puerto Rico on his 2nd voyage. Juan Ponce de Leon was a member of Columbus? crew. (HT, 4/97, p.28)(MC, 11/19/01) 1493 nend Nov 22, Christopher Columbus arrived at Hispaniola. (AM, 7/97, p.54,60)(http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v2.htm) 1493 nend Nov 28, Christopher Columbus arrived La Navidad, Hispaniola. He found the fort burned and his men from the 1st voyage dead. According to the account of Guacanagari, the local chief who had befriended Columbus on the first voyage, the men at Navidad had fallen to arguing among themselves over women and gold. (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v2.htm) 1493 nend Dec 8, Christopher Columbus and his crew of 1,500 built the town of La Isabela on the northern coast of the Dominican Republic. It was abandoned within 5 years due in part to poor relations with the Taino Indians. This area was part of the chiefdom of Higuey. (AM, 7/97, p.54,60)(http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v2.htm) 1493 nend The 600-page "World Chronicle" by physician Hartmann Schedel (1440-1513) was first published in Nuremburg. One copy is held at the Library of the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna, Austria. Anton Koberger, a Nuremberg publisher, published 2,500 copies of the "Nuremberg Chronicle" by Hartmann Schedel. It included woodcuts by Michael Wohlgemuth and Wilhelm Pleyenwurff. (StuAus, April '95, p.49)(SFC, 3/1/02,p.D18)(www.newadvent.org/cathen/13525a.htm) 1493 nend Columbus landed a small herd of swine on the island of Cuba. (ON, 4/01, p.4) 1493 nend Columbus named Montserrat after the monastery near Barcelona. He did not bother to land on the island. (NH, Jul, p.20) 1493 nend Columbus sailed into St. Croix?s Salt River Bay. (NG, Jan, 1968, C. Mitchell, p. 73) 1493 nend Columbus discovered a group of islands, now called the Virgin Islands, that he christened Las Once Mil Virgenes, in memory of St. Ursula and her 11,000 martyr virgins who were slaughtered by the Huns at Cologne in the 5th century. (SFEC, 2/15/98, p.T8) 1493 nend Pavia?s pawn bank was founded. It was later absorbed by Italy?s Banca Regionale Europea. (Econ, 5/27/06, p.73) 1493 nend In Russia after a major fire in Moscow, Ivan III forbade the construction of wooden buildings in the old city. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.33) 1493 1519 Maximilian I (1459-1519), Holy Roman Emperor over this period. (WUD, 1994, p.886) 1494 nend Jan 6, The 1st Roman Catholic Mass in the New World marked the official establishment of La Isabela. (AM, 7/97, p.58) 1494 nend Jan 25, Ferdinand I (b.1423), cruel king of Naples, died. He was also called Don Ferrante and was the natural son of Alfonso V of Aragon. (MC, 1/25/02)(Wikipedia) 1494 nend Jan, In the Dominican Republic there was a failed rebellion against Columbus. The revolt was organized by Bernal de Pisa, the royal accountant, who was unhappy with the poor return of gold. Pisa was jailed and several others were hanged. (AM, 7/97, p.57,59) 1494 nend Feb 2, Columbus began the practice using Indians as slaves. (HN, 2/2/01) 1494 nend Feb 20, Johan Friis, chancellor (Denmark, helped formed Lutheranism), was born. (MC, 2/20/02) 1494 nend Apr 20, John Agricola, [Schneider], German theologian, prime minister, was born. (MC, 4/20/02) 1494 nend Apr 24, Columbus departed Isabela, Hispaniola, with 3 ships in an effort to reach China, which he believed was nearby. (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v2.htm) 1494 nend Apr 30, Christopher Columbus arrived at Cuba on his 2nd voyage to the Americas. (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v2.htm) 1494 nend May 5, During his second voyage to the Western Hemisphere, Christopher Columbus first sighted Jamaica and commented on the daily rains. Columbus landed on the island of Jamaica, which he names Santa Gloria. (NOHY, 3/90, p.183)(AP, 5/5/97)(HN, 5/5/98) 1494 nend May 13, Columbus found the natives on Jamaica hostile and left for Cuba. (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v2.htm) 1494 nend May 25, Jacopo Pontormo (d.1557), Italian painter (Sepulture of Christ), was born. He represented what Vasari called the terza maniera, the third or modern manner of painting. (WUD, 1994, p.1118)(WSJ, 10/29/96, p.A21)(SC, 5/25/02) 1494 nend Jun 7, Spain and Portugal divided the new lands they had discovered between themselves. King Joao II signed the Treaty of Tordesillas in which he conceded to Spain a monopoly on Columbus? western route in exchange for a Portuguese monopoly on the eastern route. (HN, 6/7/98)(ON, 11/07, p.2)(www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1028.html) 1494 nend Aug 11, Hans Memling (b.1435), German-born master of Flemish painting, died in Brugge. (www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/memling/) 1494 nend Aug 20, Columbus returned to Hispaniola. He had confirmed that Jamaica was an island and failed to find a mainland. (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v2.htm) 1494 nend Sep 12, Francois I of Valois-Angoulome, king of France (1515-47), was born. (MC, 9/12/01) 1494 nend Nov 5, Hans Sachs, cobbler, poet, composer, was born in Nuremberg. He was also the prototype for Wagner's "Die Meistersinger." (MC, 11/5/01) 1494 nend Nov 6, Suleiman I (d.1566), the Great, Ottoman sultan (1520-66), was born. Suleiman the Magnificent, ruler of the Ottoman Empire, was reported to have a harem of 2,000 women. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8)(MC, 11/6/01) 1494 nend Nov 8, Uprising against Piero de' Medici in Florence, Italy. (MC, 11/8/01) 1494 nend Lodovico il Moro, the duke of Milan, commissioned Leonardo da Vinci to paint "The Last Supper" (Cenacolo). (WSJ, 6/2/99, p.A24) 1494 nend Luca Pacioli, considered the father of accounting, published a book on bookkeeping. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R55) c 1494 nend Father Ramon Pane wrote an account of the Taino religion at the request of Christopher Columbus. (AM, 7/97, p.61) 1494 nend Carol Verardi in Basel published an illustrated report of the first expedition to the new world by Christopher Columbus. (HNPD, 10/12/98) 1494 nend The earliest report of Scots making whiskey was made. [see 1495] (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1494 nend Piero Medici, son of Lorenzo and head of the Medici family, fled Florence in the face of a French invasion. Savonarola took the opportunity to lead Florence in restoring a representative government. (WSJ, 7/10/98, p.W11)(Econ, 4/23/05, p.82) 1494 nend In Italy humanist philosopher Giovanni Pico della Mirandola and writer Angelo Ambrogini, better known as Poliziano, both died. In 2007 their bodies were exhumed from Florence's St. Mark's Basilica. The men were thought to be lovers. Both Pico and Poliziano tutored Lorenzo de Medici's son Giovanni, who as Pope Leo X helped make Rome a cultural center of Renaissance Europe. (AP, 7/27/07) 1494 1547 In France the time of King Francois I. The stench along the Seine drove him from the Hotel des Tournelles. Cesspools and the guild that emptied them, the Maitres Fy-Fy, developed at this time. (Hem., 3/97, p.132) 1494 1553 Francois Rabelais, French satirist: "If you wish to avoid seeing a fool you must first break your mirror." [see 1490, 1553] (AP, 2/23/98) 1494 1576 Hans Sachs, German Meistersinger. He authored stories, songs, poems and dramatic works. He later became the central figure in Wagner?s Meistersinger. (WUD, 1994 p.1258)(WSJ, 10/2/01, p.A17) 1495 nend Jan 28, Pope Alexander VI gave his son Cesare Borgia as hostage to Charles VIII of France. (MC, 1/28/02) 1495 nend Feb 5, The 1st Lithuanian Russian war ended with the signing of a peace treaty in Moscow. (LHC, 2/5/03) 1495 nend Mar 8, Juan de Dios, Portuguese-Spanish saint, founder (Brothers of Mercy), was born. (MC, 3/8/02) 1495 nend Jun 1, The first written record of Scotch Whiskey appeared in the Exchequer Rolls of Scotland. Friar John Cor was the distiller. The later J&B brand stood for Justerini and Brooks. [see 1494] (DTnet, 6/1/97)(SFEC,12/28/97, Z1 p.2) 1495 nend Oct 25, Portugal?s King Joao II died without leaving male issue. He was succeeded by his brother-in-law Manuel I. (www.nndb.com/people/561/000095276/) 1495 nend Nov 27, Scottish king James IV received Perkin Warbeck (21), a pretender to the English throne. James gave Warbeck, a Walloon, Lady Catherine Gordon in marriage. (MC, 11/27/01)(PCh, 1992, p.160) 1495 nend Leonardo da Vinci sketched a design of a parachute. (SFEC, 9/8/96, zone 1 p.6) 1495 nend The Taino Indians on Hispaniola staged an organized attack on the Spaniards, but it was easily crushed. (AM, 7/97, p.59) 1495 nend In Korea King Yonsan-gun succeeded King Songjong. His reign was noted for his unscrupulous suppression of the literati. In 2005 the South Korean film industry produced ?The King and the Clown.? It was based on the 15th century monarch and a troupe of entertainers invited to his court. no_source c 1495 nend The 500-year-old body of a young Inca girl was found frozen near the summit of Mt. Ampato, Peru, by American archeologist Johan Reinhard in 1995. The girl was killed by a crushing blow to the head probably in a ritual sacrifice. (SFC, 5/22/96, p.A8) 1495 1498 Leonardo da Vinci worked on "The Last Supper" in Milan under commission for Duke Ludovico Sforza. The 15 by 28 foot work was undergoing a 20 year restoration in 1998 by Dr. Pinin Brambilla Barcilon. (SFEC, 4/12/98, Par p.4) 1496 nend Mar 5, English king Henry VII hired John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto) to explore. (MC, 3/5/02) 1496 nend Mar 9, Jews were expelled from Carinthia, Austria. (MC, 3/9/02) 1496 nend Mar 10, Christopher Columbus concluded his 2nd visit to the Western Hemisphere as he left Isabela, with 2 ships for Spain. He returned to Spain to ask for more support for his colony on Hispaniola. (AM, 7/97, p.59)(http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v2.htm) 1496 nend Mar 12, Jews were expelled from Syria. (HN, 3/12/98) 1496 nend cApr, Bartolome Columbus moved the colony to a new settlement on the south coast, named Isabela La Nueva. It was established on the east bank of the Ozama River. Columbus established Santo Domingo in what is now the Dominican Republic. (SFC, 5/17/96, p.A-14)(AM, 7/97, p.59)(SFEC, 2/14/99, p.T10) 1496 nend Dec 5, Jews were expelled from Portugal by order of King Manuel I. (MC, 12/5/01) 1496 nend Juan de Flandes painted ?Christ Calming the Storm,? a commission by Spain?s Queen Isabel. (WSJ, 12/16/04, p.D8) 1496 nend The "Treatyse of Fyshynge wyth an Angle" by Dame Juliana Berner was published. It was the first book on fishing ever written. [see 1425] (WSJ, 7/29/96, p.A11) 1496 nend La Laguna was founded on the island of Tenerife by Alonso Fernandez de Lugo, who conquered the Canary Islands for Spain. It served as Tenerife?s 1st. capital. (SSFC, 4/16/06, p.F7) 1496 nend Banca del Monte was founded in Milan. It was later absorbed by Italy?s Banca Regionale Europea. (Econ, 5/27/06, p.73) 1496 nend A Polish edict, pushed by Krakow?s gentile bakers, banned Jews from selling bagels within the city limits. (www.nextbook.org/cultural/feature.html?id=1075) 1496 1497 Michelangelo sculpted "Bacchus," considered his first masterpiece. (WSJ, 2/29/96, p.A-14) 1496 1498 Albrecht Durer made his woodcut "The Four Avenging Angels" from the Apocalypse. (LSA, fall/96, p.23) c 1496 1544 Clement Marot, early vernacular French writer. no_source 1497 nend Jan 6, Jews were expelled from Graz, Syria. [see Mar 12, 1496] (MC, 1/6/02) 1497 nend Feb 7, Followers of the priest Girolamo Savonarola collected and publicly burned thousands of objects in Florence, Italy, on the Shrove Tuesday festival. Tom Wolfe's 1997 novel, ?The Bonfire of the Vanities,? makes reference to the original event, but is not a retelling of the story. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonfire_of_the_Vanities) 1497 nend Feb 16, Philip Melanchthon, German Protestant reformer (Augsburgse Confessie), was born. (MC, 2/16/02) 1497 nend Mar 9, Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), Polish astronomer, made the 1st recorded astronomical observation. (WUD, 1994 p.322)(MC, 3/9/02) 1497 nend May 2, John Cabot departed for North America. [see Jun 24] (MC, 5/2/02) 1497 nend May 10, Italian navigator Amerigo Vespucci left for his 1st voyage to New World. (MC, 5/10/02) 1497 nend May 13, Pope Alexander VI excommunicated Girolamo Savonarola for heresy. In Florence the Dominican monk Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) had led the Feb 7 burning of musical instruments, books and priceless works of art. He preached against corruption in the Church and civil government. (Hem., 4/97, p.53)(WUD, 1994,p.1672)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolamo_Savonarola) 1497 nend Jun 24, Italian explorer John Cabot (1450-1498?), (aka Giovanni Caboto), on a voyage for England, landed in North America on what is now Newfoundland or the northern Cape Breton Island in Canada. He claimed the new land for King Henry VII. He documented the abundance of fish off the Grand Banks from Cape Cod to Labrador. (NH, 5/96, p.59)(WUD, 1994, p.206)(AP, 6/24/97)(HN, 6/24/98) 1497 nend Jul 8, Vasco da Gama, Portuguese explorer, departed on a trip to India. He sailed from Lisbon enroute to Calicut, India. His journey took him around South Africa and opened the Far East to European trade and colonial expansion. (V.D.-H.K.p.143)(WUD, 1994,p.1672)(www.indhistory.com/vasco-da-gama.html) 1497 nend Jul 22, Francesco Botticini (c52), Italian painter, died. (MC, 7/22/02) 1497 nend Jul 26, "Edward IV's son" Perkin Warbeck's army landed in Cork. (MC, 7/26/02) 1497 nend Aug 6, John Cabot returned to England after his first successful journey to the Labrador coast. (HN, 8/6/98) 1497 nend Aug 10, John Cabot told King Henry VII of his trip to "Asia." (MC, 8/10/02) 1497 nend Sep 7, Sailor Perkin Warbeck became [briefly] England?s King Richard I. Warbeck had invaded Cornwall after failing to find support in Ireland. He was soon forced to surrender and was imprisoned in the Tower of London. (MC, 9/7/01)(PCh, 1992, p.161) 1497 nend Sep, Henry VII defeated the Cornishmen at Blackheath. An insurrection in Cornwall had developed over taxes to support English defenses against Scottish invasion forces. (PCh, 1992, p.161) 1497 nend Nov 18, Vasco da Gama reached the Cape of Good Hope. (MC, 11/18/01) 1497 nend Nov 22, Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope. (MC, 11/22/01) 1497 nend Hans Holbein the Younger (d.1543), painter, was born in Augsburg, Bavaria. (WSJ, 12/30/06, p.P10)(www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/holbein/) 1497 nend Sandro Botticelli painted "The Calumny." It showed King Midas with donkey ears. (SFC, 10/7/03, p.D8) 1497 nend Portuguese Jews were forced to convert to Christianity and were known as "New Christians," though many continued to practice their original faith in secret. (WSJ, 6/8/98, p.A21) 1497 nend In Scotland the Declaration of Education Act required children to go to school. (SFEC, 12/27/98, Z1 p.8) 1498 nend Mar 2, Vasco da Gama's fleet visited Mozambique Island. (SC, 3/2/02) 1498 nend Apr 7, A crowd stormed Savonarola's convent of San Marco in Florence, Italy. (MC, 4/7/02) 1498 nend Apr 7, Vasco da Gama, Portuguese explorer, arrived at Mombasa, Kenya, where the Arabs repelled him. He sailed on to Malindi and came to terms with the local sultan, who supplied a pilot that knew the route to Calicut (Kozhikode), the most important commercial port in Southwest India at the time. (Econ, 9/30/06, p.58)(www.kenyalogy.com/eng/info/histo4.html) 1498 nend Apr 8, Charles VIII (27), King of France (1483-98), died while preparing a new expedition to invade Italy. He was succeeded by his Valois cousin the Duc d?Orleans (36), who reigned until 1515 as Louis XII. (PC, 1992 ed, p.161) 1498 nend May 20, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama arrived at Calicut (Kozhikkode) in Kerala, India. (www.indhistory.com/vasco-da-gama.html) 1498 nend May 23, The body of Girolamo Savonarola (45), moral scourge of Florence (1494-98), was burned along with 2 Dominican companions. An enraged crowd burned the previously hanged body of Savonarola at the same spot where he had ordered cultural works burned the year before. In 2006 Lauro Martines authored ?Fire in the City,? an account of Savonarola?s life. (WUD, 1994,p.1672)(www.historyguide.org/intellect/savonarola.html)(WSJ, 5/19/06, p.W6) 1498 nend May 30, Columbus departed Spain with 6 ships for his 3rd trip to America. He took 30 women along on his third trip to the New World. (V.D.-H.K.p.143)(http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v3.htm) 1498 nend May, John Cabot began his 2nd transatlantic voyage. Richard Ameryk (1445-1503), a wealthy Welsh merchant, was the chief investor in Cabot's second transatlantic voyage. Five ships set sail for Newfoundland, but en route one ship was forced to return after being damaged in a storm. The rest were never heard from again. A theory, not widely held, suggests the Americas are named after his surname. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cabot)(Econ, 9/22/07, p.23) 1498 nend May, Vasco da Gama reached Calicut, the chief Indian trading port , at 11? north latitude. He was not welcomed by the Muslim traders who saw him as a Christian and competitor. He returned to Lisbon swearing revenge. (V.D.-H.K.p.174) 1498 nend Jun 21, Jews were expelled from Nuremberg, Bavaria, by Emperor Maximillian. (MC, 6/21/02) 1498 nend Jun 26, Toothbrush was invented. In China the first toothbrushes with hog bristles began to show up. Hog bristle brushes remained the best until the invention of nylon. (SFC, 6/6/98, p.E3)(MC, 6/26/02) 1498 nend Jul 31, During his third voyage to the Western Hemisphere, Christopher Columbus arrived at an island he named Trinidad because of its 3 hills. (AP, 7/31/98)(http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v3.htm) 1498 nend Aug 4-1498 Aug 12, Christopher Columbus explored the Gulf of Paria (Venezuela) between Trinidad and South America. (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v3.htm) 1498 nend Aug 14, Columbus landed at the mouth of the Orinoco River in Venezuela. (MC, 8/14/02) 1498 nend Aug 16, Christopher Columbus reached the island of Margarita (Venezuela). (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v3.htm) 1498 nend Aug 17, French King Louis XII made Cesare Borgia (1475-1507) the Duke of Valentinois. Borgia resigned his position as cardinal, which had been bestowed on him at age 18 by his father, Pope Alexander VI. (Econ, 8/16/08, p.16)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesare_Borgia) 1498 nend Sep 16, Tomas de Torquemada, notorious for his role in the Spanish Inquisition, died in Avila, Spain. (AP, 9/16/06) 1498 nend Albrecht Durer made his woodcut titled "The Bath House." (WSJ, 10/29/99, p.W1) 1498 nend Emperor Maximilian I relocated his court from Innsbruck to Vienna and brought along the court musicians. He also decided to include boy singers which gave rise to The Vienna Boys School and Choir. In 1918 the Austrian government took control of the court musicians, but not the boys choir, which became a private institution. The boys choir began to give public concerts in 1926. In 2007 the choir accepted its first African-born member, Jens Ibsen (12) of Daly City, Ca. (SFC, 12/8/07, p.A8) 1498 nend The Shore Porters? Society was founded as a semi-public body controlled by the town of Aberdeen, Scotland. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.104) 1498 nend Niccolo Machiavelli began working as a diplomat for the city-state of Florence. His employment ended in 1512 when he was dismissed by Giuliano de Medici. (ON, 11/04, p.3) 1498 nend Columbus sailed by Grenada and named the island Concepcion. (www.geographia.com/grenada/gdhis01.htm) 1498 nend The first pawnshop reportedly opened in Nuremberg, Germany. (SFEC, 2/22/98, Z1 p.8) 1499 nend Mar 31, Pius IV (Gianangelo de' Medici), Italian lawyer, pope (1559-65), was born. (MC, 3/31/02) 1499 nend Aug 25, Battle at Sapienza: An Ottoman fleet beat Venetians. (chblue.com, 8/25/01) 1499 nend Sep 10, The French marched on Milan. (Hem., 12/96, p.19) 1499 nend Nov 12, Perkin Warbeck, Flemish sailor, was hanged for conspiring to escape from the tower of London with the imprisoned earl of Warwick. [see Nov 23] (PCh, 1992, p.162) 1499 nend Nov 23, Perkin Warbeck, Flemish sailor, was hanged. [see Nov 12] (MC, 11/23/01)(AP, 11/23/02) 1499 nend Nov 28, Edward Plantagenet, 18th Count of Warwick, was beheaded. (MC, 11/28/01) 1499 nend Michelangelo completed his "Pieta" for the Vatican. The marble was from Carrara. (www.abcgallery.com/)(WSJ, 8/1/05, p.D10) 1499 nend The Spanish play "Celestine" was published. (WSJ, 11/19/98, p.A21) 1499 nend Anne of Brittany initiated the white wedding gown. (SFEM, 6/28/98, p.7) 1500 nend Jan 26, Spanish explorer Vicente Yanez Pinzon reached the northeastern coast of Brazil during a voyage under his command. Pinzon had commanded the Nina during Christopher Columbus's first expedition to the New World. (MC, 1/26/02) 1500 nend Feb 24, Charles V, king of Spain (1516-1556), was born in Ghent, Belgium. He was the last Holy Roman Emperor to be crowned by the Pope. (HN, 2/24/99)(SFEC, 11/21/99, p.T10)(MC, 2/24/02) 1500 nend Mar 9, Pedro Cabral (~1460-1520), Portuguese navigator, departed to India. He left Lisbon with 13 ships headed for India and was blown off course. (WUD, 1994 p.206)(SFC, 4/20/00,p.A14)(www.newadvent.org/cathen/03128a.htm) 1500 nend Apr 8, Battle at Novara: King Louis XII beat duke Ludovico Sforza (Il Sforza del Destino). (MC, 4/8/02) 1500 nend Apr 10, France captured duke Ludovico Sforza ("Il Sforza del Destino") of Milan. (MC, 4/10/02) 1500 nend Apr 11, Michael T. Marullus, Greeks poet, drowned. (MC, 4/11/02) 1500 nend Apr 22, Pedro Alvares Cabral (c1460-c1526), Portuguese explorer, discovered Brazil and claimed it for Portugal. He anchored for 10 days in a bay he called "Porto Seguro" and continued on to India. [see Apr 23] (WUD,1994, p.206)(AHD, p.185)(TL-MB, 1988, p.8)(HN, 4/22/98)(SFC,4/20/00, p.A14) 1500 nend Apr 23, Pedro Cabal landed at Terra da Vera Cruz and claimed Brazil for Portugal. The native population was later estimated to have been from 1 to 11 million people. [see Apr 22] (AP, 4/23/98)(SFC, 7/6/98, p.A10)(www.newadvent.org/cathen/03128a.htm) 1500 nend May 29, Bartholomeu Diaz de Narvaez (Novaez), Portuguese sea explorer, drowned. (SC, 5/29/02) 1500 nend Aug 10, Diego Diaz discovered Madagascar. (MC, 8/10/02) 1500 nend Oct, Governor De Bobadilla of Santo Domingo captured Christopher Columbus and returned him in shackles to Spain. Columbus, during his third sojourn to the new world, engaged in a dispute with the ambassador plenipotentiary to Santo Domingo, Hispaniola (later shared by Haiti and the Dominican Republic). Columbus was later released and forgiven by the Queen. (V.D.-H.K.p.143)(SFEC, 3/15/98, Z1p.8)(http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v2.htm) 1500 nend Nov 1, Benvunuto Cellini (d.1571), Italian goldsmith and sculptor, was born. His 1545 autobiography greatly influenced the Renaissance. (HN, 11/1/00)(WSJ, 2/14/00, p.A20) 1500 nend Pietro Torrigiani created his sculpture "Virgin and Child." (WSJ, 1/29/02, p.A18) 1500 nend Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) of Nuremburg painted a self-portrait later described as the most gorgeous portrait ever painted. (WSJ, 3/15/08, p.W16) 1500 nend Giovanni Bellini painted "The Pieta" and "Portrait of a Young Man." (SFEC, 12/26/99, p.C17) 1500 nend Herri met de Bles, Flemish oil painter, created "Landscape With Burning City." (WSJ, 9/8/00, p.W8) 1500 nend Sandro Botticelli, Italian painter, painted his "Mystic Nativity," but he was out of key with public taste. His reputation was only restored in the 19th century. He also did the circular painting "Adoration of the Christ Child." (TL-MB, 1988, p.8)(WSJ, 12/30/97, p.A8) 1500 nend Desiderius Erasmus, Dutch humanist scholar, published his "Adagia." (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1500 nend During the first half century of printing 1450-1500, the majority of printed books were renderings of Greek and Latin works, previously available only in manuscripts... From this point on, published works in the national languages... were in the majority. (V.D.-H.K.p.143) 1500 nend Antwerp Cathedral was completed after 148 years of construction. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1500 nend Pope Alexander VI proclaimed a Year of Jubilee with a call for a crusade against the Turks. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1500 nend Aldus Manutius, Italian printer, founded the Venice Academy for the study of Greek classics and he invented Italic type. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1500 nend Valencia University was founded. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1500 nend The Diet of Augsburg established a Council of Regency to administer the Holy Roman Empire. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1500 nend King Louis XII of France captured Milan in the Italian Wars. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1500 nend Haast's eagle, which lived in the mountains of New Zealand, became extinct about this time, most likely due to habitat destruction and the extinction of its prey species at the hands of early Polynesian settlers. Researchers in 2009 determined that the 40 pound bird was a predator and not a mere scavenger as many had thought. (AP, 9/11/09) 1500 nend The Vatican established a permanent nunciature (diplomatic service) in Venice. (Econ, 7/21/07, p.59) 1500 nend Nueva Cadiz was established on Isla de Cubagua off the coast of Venezuela after Columbus discovered rich pearl oyster beds nearby. (SSFC, 2/19/06, p.F8) 1500 nend Geologists in 2009 said an earthquake of magnitude 6.5-7, dated to about this time, tore a deep gash into a 35-mile fault sergment along the Wasatch front of Utah state. (SFC, 9/25/09, p.A8) 1500 nend The population of the world at about 400 million was distributed as follows: China, Japan, and Korea 130 million Europe and Russia 100 million India subcontinent 70 million Southeast Asia and Indonesia 40 million Central and western Asia 25 million Africa 20 million The Americas 15 million (V.D.-H.K.p.168) c 1500 nend In northern Argentina 3 Inca children were sacrificed. In 1999 a team of archeologists discovered their frozen mummies on Mount Llullaillaco. (SFC, 4/7/99, p.A11) c 1500 nend At the end of the 15th century Azerbaijan became the power base of a native dynasty, the Safavids. They established an empire that dominated Iran in the 16th and 17th centuries.. (CO, Grolier?s Amer. Acad. Enc./ Azerbaijan) c 1500 nend Lake Cauhilla in southern California, the predecessor to the Salton Sea, measured 50 by 100 miles and began evaporating. (SFC, 11/30/98, p.A22) 1500 nend s The Aztecs played ollamalitzli. The game placed a rubber ball through a stone ring and the loser was often beheaded. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1500 nend s The Navajo began settling on Hopi land. They have farmed in the southwest since this time. (SFC, 7/15/96, p.A1)(SFC, 1/3/97, p.A26) 1500 nend s Europe began to restrict the practice of medicine to qualified doctors. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1500 nend s Holland and Saxony began to protect the rights of inventors to their creations. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1500 nend s Juan de Bermudez of Spain first reported on the island of Bermuda. (SFC, 5/2/98, p.E4) 1500 nend s The popularity of surströmming, a Swedish fermented herring with a noxious stench, surged in the early 1500s and again in the early 1700s. (WSJ, 8/13/02, p.A1) 1500 nend s Monomutapa (Zimbabwe) was split in two with the northern half remaining Monomutapa, and a southern half under the rival dynasty of Changamire. (ATC, p.148) 1500 nend s Portugal settled the island of Sao Tome, 250 miles off the coast of Kongo. Most of the settlers were criminals deported from Portugal. Sugar began to be grown on Sao Tome and slaves were purchased from King Affonso. The Portuguese and Africans did not see slavery the same way. To the Portuguese the slaves were beasts of burden and worked so hard that many died. They then bought more. (ATC, p.152) 1500 nend s Most people got married in June because they took their yearly bath in May and were still smelling pretty good by June. However, they were starting to smell, so brides carried a bouquet of flowers to hide the body odor. Baths equaled a big tub filled with hot water. The man of the house had the privilege of the nice clean water, then all the other sons and men, then the women and finally the children. Last of all the babies. By then the water was so dirty you could actually loose someone in it. Hence the saying, "Don?t throw the baby out with the bath water". Houses had thatched roofs. Thick straw, piled high, with no wood underneath. It was the only place for animals to get warm, so all the pets... dogs, cats and other small animals, mice, rats, bugs lived in the roof. When it rained it became slippery and sometimes the animals would slip and fall off the roof. Hence the saying, "It?s raining cats and dogs," There was nothing to stop things from falling into the house. This posed a real problem in the bedroom where bugs and other droppings could really mess up your nice clean bed. So, they found if they made beds with big posts and hung a sheet over the top, it addressed that problem. Hence those beautiful big 4 poster beds with canopies. The floor was dirt. Only the wealthy had something other than dirt. Hence the saying "dirt poor". The wealthy had slate floors which would get slippery in the winter when wet. So they spread thresh on the floor to help keep their footing. As the winter wore on they kept adding more thresh until when you opened the door it would all start slipping outside. A piece of wood was placed at the entry way, hence a "thresh hold". They cooked in the kitchen with a big kettle that always hung over the fire. Every day they lit the fire and added things to the pot. They mostly ate vegetables and didn?t get much meat. They would eat the stew for dinner leaving leftovers in the pot to get cold overnight and then start over the next day. Sometimes the stew had food in it that had been in there for a month. Hence the rhyme: peas porridge hot, peas porridge cold, peas porridge in the pot nine days old." Sometimes they could obtain pork and would feel really special when that happened. When company came over, they would bring out some bacon and hang it to show it off. It was a sign of wealth and that a man "could really bring home the bacon." They would cut off a little to share with guests and would all sit around and "chew the fat." Those with money had plates made of pewter. Food with a high acid content caused some of the lead to leach onto the food. This happened most often with tomatoes, so they stopped eating tomatoes... for 400 years. Most people didn?t have pewter plates, but had trenchers - a piece of wood with the middle scooped out like a bowl. Trencher were never washed and a lot of times worms got into the wood. After eating off wormy trenchers, they would get "trench mouth." Bread was divided according to status. Workers got the burnt bottom of the loaf, the family got the middle, and guests got the top, or the "upper crust". Lead cups were used to drink ale or whiskey. The combination would sometimes knock them out for a couple of days. Someone walking along the road would take them for dead and prepare them for burial. They were laid out on the kitchen table for a couple of days and the family would gather around and eat and drink and wait and see if they would wake up. Hence the custom of holding a "wake". England is old and small and they started running out of places to bury people. So, they would dig up coffins and would take their bones to a house and re-use the grave. In reopening these coffins, one out of 25 coffins were found to have scratch marks on the inside and they realized they had been burying people alive. So they thought they would tie a string on their wrist and lead it through the coffin and up through the ground and tie it to a bell. Someone would have to sit out in the graveyard all night to listen for the bell. Hence on the "graveyard shift" they would know that someone was "saved by the bell" or he was a "dead ringer". (e-mail, Riddiough, 5/14/99) 1500 1600 Hsi Yu Chi was a 16th century Chinese novel based on the account of a 7th century monk, Tripitaka, who traveled to India for 16 years for Buddhist scriptures. (SFC, 12/7/96, p.D1) 1500 1600 The Boke of Hawkynge and Huntynge and Fysshynge was produced. A copy sold for $88,000 in 2000. (SFC, 6/2/00, p.A21) c 1500 1600 George Pencz, 16th century German artist. His work included "Holy Trinity, Seat of Mercy." (SFC, 9/29/01, p.B1) 1500 1600 Weimar became the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Weimar. (SSFC, 8/1/04, p.D10) 1500 1600 Yi Am, 16th cent. Korean artist. The artist?s work included: "Puppies, Birds and Blossoms." (WSJ, 8/10/98, p.A12) c 1500 1600 The 16th century French text "The Rules of Civility" was published. (SFC, 7/4/02, p.D1) 1500 1600 The first Russian book printed was the 15th century "Apostle." (SFC, 12/27/96, p.C16) 1500 1600 The Kalmyk people, descendants from the Golden Horde of Genghis Khan, settled in the lowlands between the Volga and Don rivers with their livestock. (SFC, 9/24/97, p.A12) c 1500 1600 In Honduras the Lenca Indian chieftain Lempira withdrew to the high mountains to lead resistance against the Spaniards. According to legend he plunged to his death from a rocky outcrop near the summit of the highest peak. The Indians developed the Quezungal method of farming, where crops were planted under trees that kept hillsides from eroding. (SFC, 11/18/98, p.A14) c 1500 1600 Giulio Cesare Aranzi, Italian anatomist, name the hippocampus formation of the brain because of its resemblance to Hippocampus, the seahorse. (NH, 9/97, p.56) c 1500 1600 Scotsman Rob Roy was forced to become a highland fugitive. (SFC, 8/19/96, p.D7) c 1500 1600 The Predjama Castle was built at the mouth of a huge cave at Postojna, Slovenia. It was later used by the highway robber Erasmus Luegger. (SSFC, 8/18/02, p.C7) c 1500 1600 A Muslim pilgrim stole coffee beans from Yemen and raised them in India. Yemen was the first great coffee exporter and in order to protect its trade had decreed that no living plant could leave the country. (WSJ, 6/4/99, p.W9) 1500 1650 Period of late Renaissance. (V.D.-H.K.p.143) c 1500 1800 In Nepal the Malla dynasty created an architectural frenzy in Patan between the 16th and 18th centuries. (WSJ, 1/22/98, p.A17) 1500 1800 Ottoman Turk rule extended over Libya. (SSFC, 6/27/04, p.D12) c 1500 nend s-1800s Millions of Africans were torn from their homelands, herded into ships and sold in the New World for more than 300 years. Perhaps the cruelest part of the Atlantic slave trade was the weeks-long sea crossing, or the so-called Middle Passage--that leg of the Triangular Trade that brought the human cargo from West Africa to New World ports. Rather than provide healthful conditions on the sea crossing, slave traders sought to maximize profits with "tight packing"--cramming so many slaves onto the lower decks that those that survived would compensate for the certain losses. The British slave ship Brookes' deck plan shows the ship carrying 454 slaves with 6'x 1'4" of space allowed for each adult male, 5'10" x 11" for each woman and 5' x 1'2" for each boy. This clinical representation of human suffering during the Middle Passage was widely circulated by abolitionist groups. (HNPD, 12/14/98) 1500 1820 The proto-capitalist epoch. The world GDP grew by .07% per year. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R54) 1501 nend Mar 1, Lithuania and Livonia established a 10-year union for protection against Russia. (LHC, 3/1/03) 1501 nend Mar 20, Jean Carondelet (72), lawyer, chancellor of Burgundy (1480-96), died. (MC, 3/20/02) 1501 nend May 20, Portuguese explorer Joao da Nova Castelia (1460-1509) discovered the Ascension Islands on Ascension Day. (www.eoearth.org/article/Ascension_scrub_and_grasslands) 1501 nend Jul 27, Copernicus was formally installed as canon of Frauenberg Cathedral. (MC, 7/27/02) 1501 nend Sep 24, Gerolamo Cardano, mathematician, was born. He authored "Games of Chance," the first systematic computation of probabilities. (HN, 9/24/00) 1501 nend Oct 15, English crown prince Arthur married Catharina of Aragon. [see Nov 14] (MC, 10/15/01) 1501 nend Nov 14, Arthur Tudor married Katherine of Aragon. [see Oct 15] (HN, 11/14/98) 1501 nend Michelangelo was commissioned by Florence, his native home, to carve the colossal statue "David." The work had been by Agostino di Duccio around 1465. Michelangelo finished it in 1504. It was placed at the front of the Palazzo Signoria. In 1873 it was cleaned and moved indoors. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8)(WSJ, 4/29/03, D5) 1501 nend Books printed before 1501 are called incunabula or incunables, after the Latin word for cradle. The 15th century was the cradle of printing. (WSJ, 9/14/00, p.A24) 1501 nend France and Spain occupied Naples, and French troops entered Rome. Louis XII was declared King of Naples by the Pope. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1501 nend Cesare Borgia captured Romagna (north-central Italy) and appointed Remirro de Orco, his cruelest lieutenant, to pacify the region. After the job was done Borgia had Orco cut in two to gain the gratitude of the people. (WSJ, 6/22/98, p.A20) 1501 nend Maximilian I, German emperor, recognized the French conquests of northern Italy in the Peace of Trent. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1501 nend A worn Roman torso was unearthed in Rome. It later acquired the nickname "Pasquino" and served as a station for posting complaints and opinions that came to be known as Pasquinades. (WSJ, 12/31/01, p.A6) 1501 nend The Turks took Durazzo from Venice. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1501 nend Ivan III, Czar of Russia, invaded Lithuania. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1501 nend Gaspar de Corte-Real, Portuguese navigator, made the first authenticated European landing on the northern continent of the Western Hemisphere since c1000AD. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1501 nend Amerigo Vespucci, Florentine navigator, explored the coast of Brazil on his second voyage to the New World. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1501 nend The Anglo-Portuguese Syndicate completed the first of five voyages to Newfoundland. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1502 nend Jan 1, Portuguese navigator Pedro Cabral and Amerigo Vespucci sailed the into the harbor of Rio de Janeiro. Portuguese explorers sailed into Guanabra Bay and mistook it for the mouth of a river which they named Rio de Janeiro. (Hem., Dec. '95, p.129)(MC, 1/1/02) 1502 nend Feb 12, Vasco da Gama, Portuguese explorer, departed on a second trip to India with 20 well-armed ships. (www.indhistory.com/vasco-da-gama.html) 1502 nend Feb 12, Isabella issued a royal order giving all remaining Moors in the realms of Castile the choice between baptism and expulsion. (www.cyberistan.org/islamic/beyond1492.html) 1502 nend Apr 2, Arthur, English crown prince, husband of Catharina of Aragon, died. (MC, 4/2/02) 1502 nend May 9, Christopher Columbus left Cadiz, Spain, on his fourth and final trip to the Western Hemisphere. He explored Central America, and discovered St. Lucia, the Isthmus of Panama, Honduras, and Costa Rica. Columbus left 52 Jewish families in Costa Rica. [see May 11] (TL-MB, 1988, p.8)(AP, 5/9/97)(WSJ, 6/15/00, p.A1) 1502 nend May 11, Columbus embarked on his 4th voyage with 150 men in 4 caravels. Among those in the fleet were Columbus's brother Bartholomew, and Columbus' younger son Fernando, then just 13 years old. They reached the coast of Honduras after 8 months and passed south to Panama (1503). The ships included the Capitana, which served as the flagship, and the Vizcaina. In 2006 Klaus Brinkbaumer authored ?The Voyage of the Vizcaina.? (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49)(http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v4.htm)(WSJ,5/26/06, p.W5) 1502 nend Jun 6, Jofo III, King of Portugal (1521-57), was born. (MC, 6/6/02) 1502 nend Jun 7, Pope Gregory XIII was born. He introduced the Gregorian calendar in 1582. [see 1552] (HN, 6/7/98)(SFEC, 2/20/00, Par p.7) 1502 nend Jun 29, Christopher Columbus arrived at Santo Domingo, Hispaniola, on his 4th voyage to the new world. He requested harbor and advised Gov. Nicolas de Ovando of an approaching hurricane. Ovando denied the request and dispatched a treasure fleet to Spain. 20 ships sank in the storm, 9 returned to port and one made it to Spain. (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v4.htm) 1502 nend Jul, Columbus reached the coast of Honduras during his 4th voyage and passed south to Panama. (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v4.htm) 1502 nend Sep 18, Christopher Columbus landed at Costa Rica during his 4th and last voyage. Columbus left 52 Jewish families in Costa Rica. (MC, 9/18/01)(WSJ, 6/15/00, p.A1) 1502 nend Dec 31, Cesare Borgia (son of Pope Alexander VI) occupied Urbino. (MC, 12/31/01) 1502 nend Donato Bramante began the Tempietto of S. Pietro in Montorio, Rome. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1502 nend Vittore Carpaccio began the fresco cycle "Scenes from the Lives of SS George and Jerome." Full of light and detail, it is typical of the Venetian manner. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1502 nend Lucas Cranch, German painter, began his career in Vienna. In 1521 he painted the famous portrait of Martin Luther. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1502 nend Leonardo da Vinci drew plans for a 720-foot stone span across the Golden Horn at the mouth of the Bosporus. In 2001 Vebjorn Sand, Norwegian artist, completed a 330-foot, laminated timber bridge linking Norway and Sweden at Aas, 16 miles south of Oslo based on the da Vinci plans. (SSFC, 12/9/01, p.C2) 1502 nend Vasco da Gama founded the Portuguese colony at Cochin, China. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1502 nend Ahuizotl, ruler of the Aztecs, died and was cremated on a funeral pyre about this time at the foot of the Templo Mayor pyramid. In 2007 Mexican archeologists found underground chambers in Mexico City they believed to contain his remains. (AP, 8/4/07)(AP, 6/17/10) 1502 nend Moctezuma Xocoyotl (Montezuma II), an Aztec prince, inherited the Aztec throne becoming the 9th ruler of the Aztecs. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8)(ON, 10/00, p.1)(Econ, 9/26/09, p.99) 1502 nend In Germany Peter Henlein of Nuremberg used iron parts and coiled springs to build a portable timepiece. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1502 nend In Germany Wittenberg University was founded. (Voruta #27-28, Jul 1996, p.10)(TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1502 nend Shah Ismail founded the Safavid Dynasty in Persia. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1502 nend Amerigo Vespucci declared that South America is a separate continent after his second voyage. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1502 nend A hurricane nearly destroyed La Nueva Isabela and it was abandoned. The city was rebuilt on the other side of the river as Santo Domingo by the new governor, Nicholas de Ovando. (AM, 7/97, p.59) 1502 nend Vasco da Gama returned to Calicut, India. He bombarded the town, burned a ship full of Arab men, women, and children because its captain had offended him, and demanded that the Muslims turn over the trade to the Portuguese. Within a generation his demands were met. (V.D.-H.K.p.174) 1502 nend Portuguese traders took peanuts from Brazil and Peru to Africa. (SFEC, 1/10/99, Z1 p.8) 1502 nend Jaoa de Nova, Portuguese explorer, discovered St. Helena Island. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1502 nend Spain legalized slave shipments to the Americas. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1502 1533 Atahualpa, emperor of the Incas. He had a fortune in gold and silver and tried to purchase his freedom from Pizarro for a chamber filled with gold. Pizarro took 124 tons of gold in ransom and then re-arrested Atahualpa for treason to the Spanish crown and had him decapitated. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1503 nend Jan 9, Christopher Columbus returned to the mouth of Rio Belen (western Panama), where he built a garrison. (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v4.htm) 1503 nend Feb 11, Elizabeth of York (b.1466), consort of King Henry VII, died on 38th birthday. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_of_York) 1503 nend Mar 10, Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor (1558-1564), was born. He was King of Bohemia and Hungary from 1526-1564. (HN, 3/10/01)(WUD, 1994 p.523) 1503 nend Mar 28, The 2nd Lithuanian war with Russia (1500-1503) ended with a treaty. Lithuania lost a fourth of its territory. (LHC, 3/28/03) 1503 nend Apr 6, Christopher Columbus fended off an Indian attack at his garrison at Rio Belen (Panama). (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v4.htm) 1503 nend Apr 16, Christopher Columbus abandoned the garrison at Rio Belen (Panama) and sailed for home (Hispaniola) with 3 ships. On the way he was shipwrecked in Jamaica. (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v4.htm) 1503 nend May 10, Columbus stumbled across the Cayman Islands and dubbed them Las Tortugas after the numerous sea turtles. (SFEC, 2/16/97, p.T8)(HN, 5/10/98) 1503 nend Jun 25, Christopher Columbus beached his sinking ships in St. Anne?s Bay, Jamaica, and spent a year shipwrecked and marooned there before returning to Spain. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8)(http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v4.htm) 1503 nend Aug 18, Pope Alexander VI (1492-1503), born in Spain as Rodrigo di Borgia (1431), died. He had recently authorized the building of a prison in the cellars of Castel Sant?Angelo in Rome. (PTA, p.424)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI)(SSFC,7/22/07, p.G2) 1503 nend Nov 28, Giuliano della Rovere (1443-1513) was crowned as Pope Julius II. (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08562a.htm) 1503 nend Oct 30, Queen Isabella of Spain banned violence against Indians. (MC, 10/30/01) 1503 nend Nov 17, Il Bronzino, Florentine painter (Eleanor de Toledo & her Son), was born. (MC, 11/17/01) 1503 nend Dec 14, Nostradamus [Michel de Nostredame], prophet, was born in St. Remy, Provence, France. He predicted correctly French king Henri II's manner of death. Nostradamus was the author of a book of prophecies that many still believe foretold the future. He was also physician, an astrologer and a clairvoyant. He wrote in rhyming quatrains, accurately predicting the Great London Fire in 1666, Spain?s Civil War, and a Hitler that would lead Germany into war. He even correctly predicted his own death on July 2, 1566. (HN, 12/14/99)(MC, 12/14/01) 1503 nend Lucas Cranach (1472-1553) the Elder, German artist ( Saxony), completed his painting ?The Crucifixion.? (www.britannica.com/eb/article-9026747/Lucas-Cranach-the-Elder) 1503 nend Parmigianino (d.1540), Italian painter and master draftsman, was born. His paintings included "Madonna of the Long Neck." (WSJ, 2/12/00, p.A25) 1503 nend Leonardo Da Vinci began painting the "Mona Lisa." The husband of Lisa del Giocondo commissioned Leonardo da Vinci to paint the "Mona Lisa," The model was Lisa Gheradini whose relatives had emigrated to Ireland in the 12th century and translated their surname to Fitzgerald, an ancestral name of later US president John F. Kennedy. Lisa Gherardini (b.1479) was originally identified as the subject of the world's most famous painting by Leonardo's first biographer, the 16th-century Italian writer Giorgio Vasari. In 2001 Donald Sassoon authored "Becoming Mona Lisa: The Making of a Global Icon." (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_del_Giocondo)(SFC, 4/26/97,p.E4)(SFC, 3/21/98, p.E3)(WSJ, 12/7/01, p.W16)(AP, 9/13/04) 1503 nend Leonardo da Vinci was commissioned to decorate a hall in the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence. For some 18 months he worked on a mural for the 1440 Battle of Anghiari but abandoned the work in 1506. The mural was later lost when Georgio Vasari was hired to remodel the hall. (WSJ, 11/9/07, p.W4) 1503 nend Thomas a Kempis published his "Imitation of Christ" in an English translation and it had great religious influence. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1503 nend Canterbury Cathedral was finished after 433 years of construction. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1503 nend Henry VII?s chapel, the final stage of English gothic art, was begun in Westminster Abbey. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1503 nend The pocket handkerchief came into general use in polite European society. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1503 nend The missionary Bartolome de Las Casa described the brutal destruction of a Taino Indian city, La Aleta (later in the Dominican Republic). Captain-Gen?l. Juan de Esquival led a Spanish force that massacred 600-700 Higuey Tainos for rebelling after one of their chiefs was disemboweled by a Spanish attack dog. In 1997 archeologists found evidence of a city at the site called La Aleta. (SFC, 3/29/97, p.A10)(AM, 7/97, p.60) 1503 nend The French in Italy were defeated by the Spaniards in the battles of Cerignola and Garigliano, and Spanish forces entered Naples. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1503 nend A War of Succession broke out between Albert IV of Bavaria and Rupert of the Palatinate (a state of the Holy Roman Empire). (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1503 nend Jean Poyet, French Renaissance artist, died. His work included "Vespers: Massacre of the Innocents and Flight Into Egypt." (WSJ, 2/22/00, p.A20) 1503 nend Seville, Spain, was awarded rights to all trade with the recently discovered New World. (SSFC, 8/15/10, p.M4) 1503 nend Zanzibar became a Portuguese colony. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1504 nend Jan 17, Pius V, Pope from 1566-1572, was born. (HN, 1/17/99) 1504 nend Feb 29, An eclipse occurred and helped Christopher Columbus subdue his rebellious Indian carriers. (SCTS, p.29) 1504 nend Apr 1, English guilds went under state control. (MC, 4/1/02) 1504 nend Apr 18, Fra Filippo Lippi (~52), painter, died. (MC, 4/18/02) 1504 nend Apr 23, King Maximilian I routed troops to Bavaria. (MC, 4/23/02) 1504 nend May 5, Anton of Burgundy (~82), the Great Bastard, knight, died. (MC, 5/5/02) 1504 nend Jun 29, Diego Mendez, one of Columbus's captains, returned to Jamaica with a small caravel and rescued the Columbus expedition. Mendez had managed to take a canoe from Jamaica to Hispaniola where he chartered the rescue ship. (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v4.htm) 1504 nend Aug 6, Matthew "Nosey" Parker, archbishop of Canterbury, was born. (MC, 8/6/02) 1504 nend Nov 7, Columbus returned to Spain following his 4th voyage after suffering a shipwreck at Jamaica. Columbus brought back cocoa beans and chocolate drinks soon became a favorite in the Spanish court. In 2005 Martin Dugard authored ?The Last Voyage of Columbus.? (EWH, 1968, p.390)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49)(SSFC, 6/26/05, p.C1) 1504 nend Nov 26, Isabella I (53), Catholic Queen of Castille and Aragon (1474-1504), patron of Columbus died. (MC, 11/26/01) 1504 nend Raphael painted "The Marriage of the Virgin." It exemplified the major principles of High Renaissance art. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1504 nend Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) drew his "Adam and Eve." (SFEC, 2/9/97, DB p.6) 1504 nend The Signoria of Florence commissioned Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo to paint the walls of the Grand Council Chamber in the Palazzo Vecchio. (OG) 1504 nend In Florence Leonardo da Vinci and Machiavelli became involved in a scheme to divert the Arno River and thereby cut the water supply to Pisa and force its surrender. Colombino, the project foreman, failed to follow da Vinci?s design, and the project was a spectacular failure. This is covered in the 1998 book "Fortune Is a River" by Roger D. Masters. (WSJ, 6/22/98, p.A20) 1504 nend Louis XII of France ceded Naples to Ferdinand II of Aragon in the Treaty of Lyon. Naples remained under Spanish control for the next 200 years. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1504 nend Babur, founder of the Mughal dynasty in India, captured Kabul in Afghanistan and maintained control to 1519. Babur?s mother descended from Genghis Khan and his father from Timur (Tamerlane). (TL-MB, 1988, p.8)(www.afghan, 5/25/98)(WSJ, 10/24/00, p.A12) 1504 nend Venetian ambassadors proposed to Turkey the construction of a Suez Canal. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1504 nend Henry Tudor, king of England, had coins minted with an accurate self likeness. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1505 nend Feb 4, Joan of Valois (40), Queen of France, saint, died. (MC, 2/4/02) 1505 nend Feb 26, In Brest Polish Chancellor J. Laski invited the Lithuanian government to reconfirm and expand the 1501 Union of Melnik, but the offer was rejected. (LHC, 2/26/03) 1505 nend Apr 20, Jews were expelled from Orange, Burgundy, by Philibert of Luxembourg. (MC, 4/20/02) 1505 nend Jul 24, On their way to India, a group of Portuguese explorers sacked the city-state of Kilwa, East Africa, and killed the king for failing to pay tribute. (HN, 7/24/98) 1505 nend Oct 27, The Grand Duke of Moscow, Ivan III (also known as "Ivan the Great"), died; he was succeeded by his son, Vasily III (Basil III). Vasily's son, Ivan IV, later became the first czar of Russia, "Ivan the Terrible." (TL-MB, 1988, p.9)(AP, 10/27/05) 1505 nend Dec 18, John IX van Horne, prince-bishop of Lieges, Belgium, was executed. (MC, 12/18/01) 1505 nend Giovanni Bellini painted "The Virgin and Child with Saints," the most perfect realization of the "holy conversation" theme in all of Western painting. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1505 nend Hieronymus Bosch began his triptych "The Garden of Earthly Delights" and marked the last fling of the Gothic Middle Ages. He also painted "The Temptation of St. Anthony." (TL-MB, 1988, p.9)(SFC, 8/27/98, p.E3) 1505 nend Giorgione painted "The Concert." (WSJ, 7/16/02, p.D6) 1505 nend Pope Julius summoned Michelangelo to Rome to design the pope?s tomb. The contract was revised 5 times and only 3 of 40 large figures were executed. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9)(OG) 1505 nend Leonardo da Vinci painted ?The Battle of Anghiari? on a wall in Florence?s Palazzo Vecchio. It commemorated a victory of Florentine forces over the ruling Medici. In 1563 the Medici, having regained power, hired Giorgio Vasari to cover up Leonardo?s work with a painting celebrating one of their own martial successes. It was later thought that Vasari hid the original behind his new work. (WSJ, 4/10/08, p.D7) 1505 nend Raphael painted his ?Madonna of the Goldfinch? about this time for the wedding of a friend, Lorenzo Nasi. The painting was shredded in 1548 when Nasi?s palace collapsed. The work was pieced together and modern restoration, which began in 1999, was completed in 2008. (SFC, 10/31/08, p.E7) 1505 nend Wimpfeling published the first history of Germany, "Epitome Rerum Germanicarum." (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1505 nend Maximilian I began a reformation of the Holy Roman Empire. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1505 nend Christ?s College, Cambridge, England, was founded. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1505 nend Magellan began to serve Portugal when he enlisted in the fleet of Francisco de Almeida. He continued in Portuguese service on many expeditions, being wounded in a campaign against the Moroccan stronghold of Azamor in 1513. The wound caused him to limp for the rest of his life. Magellan petitioned King Manuel of Portugal for an increase in his pension as a titular rise in rank, but the king refused and sent him back to Morocco. Upon his second petition in 1516, Magellan was told he might offer his services elsewhere. (HNQ, 10/9/00) 1505 nend A well armed Portuguese fleet attacks Kilwa and then Mombasa. The Portuguese then attempt to monopolize the trade in the east African ports but were unable to maintain control. By the late 1500s, Swahili groups regained control of several ports from the Portuguese.. (ATC, p.144) 1505 nend Portuguese explorers discovered Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and established factories on the east coast of Africa. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1505 nend Christopher Columbus died in poverty in Spain. Columbus was the author of "Books of Prophecies," later translated by Delno C. West. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9)(WSJ, 10/8/99, p.W15) 1505 1585 Thomas Tallis, English organist and vocal composer, especially of church music. (WUD, 1994, p.1450) 1506 nend Jan 22, The Swiss Guard mercenaries, summoned by Pope Julius II to protect the pope and the Vatican, arrived in Rome. (USAT, 5/6/98, p.6A)(AP, 1/22/06) 1506 nend Apr 7, Francis Xavier, saint, Jesuit missionary to India, Malaya, and Japan, was born. (MC, 4/7/02) 1506 nend May 19, Columbus selected his son Diego as sole heir. (MC, 5/19/02) 1506 nend May 20, Christopher Columbus (55) died in poverty in Spain, still believing he discovered the coast of Asia. Columbus died in the Spanish city of Valladolid, and was initially interred in a monastery there. Three years later, his remains were moved to a monastery on La Cartuja. In 1537, Maria de Rojas y Toledo, widow of Columbus' son Diego, was allowed to send the bones of her husband and his father to the cathedral in Santo Domingo for burial. There they lay until 1795, when Spain ceded the island of Hispaniola to France and decided Columbus' remains should not fall into foreigners' hands. A set of remains that the Spaniards thought were Columbus' were then dug up from behind the main altar in the newly built cathedral and shipped to a cathedral in Havana, where they remained until the Spanish-American War broke out in 1898 and Spain brought them to Seville. But in 1877, workers digging inside the Santo Domingo cathedral unearthed a leaden box containing 13 large bone fragments and 28 small ones. It was inscribed "Illustrious and distinguished male, don Cristobal Colon." The Dominicans said these were the real remains of Columbus and that the Spaniards must have taken the wrong remains in 1795. (AP, 5/20/97)(HN, 5/20/99)(AP, 10/13/02)(SFC, 1/18/05, p.A8) 1506 nend Albrecht Durer painted his "Portrait of a Young Woman." (SFEC, 12/26/99, p.C17) 1506 nend Giorgione painted ?The Three Philosophers? about this time. (WSJ, 8/3/06, p.D5) 1506 nend The Laocoon sculpture was unearthed in Rome. It served as a peg for Goethe?s aesthetic theories. It later inspired Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, 18th century German dramatist and critic, to write one of the greatest essays ever written on a work of ancient art. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9)(WSJ, 9/7/99, p.A23) 1506 nend Pope Julius II placed the 1st stone for the new St. Peter?s Basilica. Bramante began to rebuild St. Peter?s Cathedral in Rome, which had been neglected since the 14th century when the popes resided at Avignon. Pope Urban VIII consecrated it in 1626. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9)(SSFC, 2/18/07, p.A2) 1506 nend The University of Frankfurt-on-the-Oder was founded. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1506 nend Jacob Fugger, Augsburg merchant, imported spices to Europe from the East Indies. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1506 nend The Spaniards in the West Indies began raising sugar cane. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1506 nend Machiavelli, Italian diplomat, established the Florentine militia, the first Italian national troops. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1506 nend Andrea Mantegna (b.1431), Italian painter and engraver, died. His paintings included a dead Christ, ?Christo Morto,? whose bare feet seem to stick out of the picture. He also painted "Virgin and Child in Glory." (WSJ, 6/6/96, p.A12)(SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T11)(WSJ, 11/10/07, p.W14) 1506 nend King Chungjong (r.1506-1544) began his rule in Korea. He restored Confucian rule with the support of officials who had deposed King Yongsan-gun. (www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/history/early_choson_period.htm) 1506 nend Copernicus, Polish-born astronomer, was appointed canon of church properties in the Prussian diocese of Ermland. (ON, 2/11, p.5) 1506 nend Riots in Lisbon, Portugal, led to the slaughter of 2,000-4,000 converted Jews. This became the setting for a 1998 novel by Richard Zimler, "The Last Kabbalist of Lisbon." (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) (WSJ, 6/8/98, p.A21) 1506 nend Philip I of Castile died and was succeeded by a Council of Regency because of the insanity of his widow. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1506 nend Mozambique, Africa, was colonized by the Portuguese. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1506 1510 Leonardo da Vinci divided his time between Florence and Milan, where he serve Charles d?Amboise, the region?s French governor. It was in this period that he compiled his illustrated observations that came to be known as the 72-page Codex Leicester. It consists of 18 loose, double-sided sheets, written in mirror script and illustrated with about 360 sketches. The work was first planned as a treatise on the motion of water. (SFC, 10/29/96, p.F3)(WSJ, 10/31/96, p.A21)(NH, 11/96, p.14,96) 1507 nend Jan 15, Johann Oporinus [Herbster], Swiss book publisher (Koran), was born. (MC, 1/15/02) 1507 nend Feb 23, Gentile Bellini, Venetian artist, died. (www.boglewood.com/cornaro/xgentilebellini.html) 1507 nend Mar 12, Cesare Borgia (31), cardinal, soldier, politician, died while fighting alongside his brother, the king of Navarre, in Spain. (HN, 3/12/99)(MC, 3/12/02) 1507 nend Apr 25, Martin Waldseemuller, a German geographer working at a small college in Eastern France, labeled the New World "America," for the first time in his book "Cosmographiae Introductio," and gave Amerigo Vespucci (d.1512) credit for discovering it. Letters of 1504-1505 had circulated in Florence claimed that Vespucci had discovered the new World. Vespucci was in fact only a passenger or low officer on one of the ships captioned by others. Vespucci was later believed to have been the brother of Simonetta Vespucci, the model for Venus in the Botticelli painting. In 2000 the US Library of Congress planned to acquire the original map for $14 million from the Prince Johannes Waldburg-wolfegg. A $10 million purchase was completed in 2003. In 2009 Toby Lester authored ?The Fourth Part of the World: The Race to the Ends of the World, and the Epic Story of the Map That Gave America Its Name.? (SFEC, 8/23/98, p.T10)(SFC, 10/27/00, p.C14)(WSJ, 7/25/03,p.W19)(AP, 4/25/07)(SSFC, 12/27/09, Books p.E5) 1507 nend Oct 1, Italian architect Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola was born. (AP, 10/1/07) 1507 nend Giorgione painted his ?Sunset Landscape? about this time. (WSJ, 8/3/06, p.D5) 1507 nend Margaret of Austria was appointed Regent by the States-General (parliament) of the Netherlands until the Archduke Charles came of age. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1507 nend The Diet of Constance recognized the unity of the Holy Roman Empire and founded the Imperial Chamber, the empire?s supreme judicial court. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1507 nend Genoa was annexed by the French. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1507 nend Martin Luther was ordained. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1507 nend Pope Julius II announced an indulgence for the re-building of St. Peter?s. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1507 nend Johannes Ruysch produced the first printed map of America, as declared by the selling map dealer, R.B. Arkway, Inc. It is dotted with Asian place names. In 1995 it was for sale for $135,000. (WSJ, 11/24/95, p.B-8) 1507 1650 The shores of Oman were dominated by Portuguese adventurers who were responsible for the forts of Mirani and Jalali. The native Bedouins spoke the Harsusi language. (NG, 5/95, p.121-123) 1508 nend Feb 4, Proclamation of Trent. (HN, 2/4/99) 1508 nend Feb 6, King Maximilian I (1459-1519) assumed the title of Emperor (1493-1519) without being crowned. (TL-MB, p.9)(WUD, 1994, p.886)(MC, 2/6/02) 1508 nend Aug 12, Ponce de Leon arrived and conquered the island of Boriquen (Puerto Rico). Spain had appointed him to colonize Puerto Rico. He explored Puerto Rico and Spanish ships under his command began to capture Bahamanian Tainos to work as slaves on Hispaniola. His settlement at Caparra, 2 miles south of San Juan Bay, was plagued by Taino Indians and cannibalistic Carib Indians. (NH, 10/96, p.23)(SC,8/12/02)(http://welcome.topuertorico.org/glossary/index.shtml#936) 1508 nend Nov 30, Andrea Palladio (d.1580), [Andrea di Piero della Gondola], Italian Renaissance architect, was born in Padua. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.14)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Palladio) 1508 nend Giorgione painted "The Tempesta," a landscape of a stormy setting with a town in the background, a soldier lower left and a woman nursing to the right. It is at the Academia Gallery in Venice. (T&L, 10/80, p. 58)(WSJ, 12/4/97, p.A20) 1508 nend Pope Julius II transferred Michelangelo to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling in Rome. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9)(OG) 1508 nend Raphael at age 26 entered the service of Pope Julius II and was entrusted with the decoration of the new papal apartments. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1508 nend The League of Cambrai was formed against Venice by Ferdinand of Aragon, Emp. Maximilian, Louis XII of France, and Pope Julius II as part of an ongoing dispute over sovereignty in Italy. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1508 nend Alfonso d?Albuquerque, Portuguese navigator, conquered Muscat in Oman. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.53) 1508 nend Sebastian de Ocampo, Spanish navigator, explored Cuba. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1508 nend In England Althorp was bought by John Spencer, the ancestor of the 9th Earl Spencer, Princess Diana?s brother. The estate in Great Brington was selected as the grave site for Princess Diana in 1997. (SFC, 4/3/98, p.B2) 1509 nend Jan 25, Giovanni Morone, Italian theologist, diplomat, cardinal, "heretic," was born. (MC, 1/25/02) 1509 nend Apr 21, Henry VII (b.1457), 1st Tudor king of England (1485-1509), died. In 2011 Allen Lane authored ?Winter King: The Dawn of Tudor England.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England)(Econ, 9/24/11,p.107) 1509 nend Apr 22, Henry Tudor became King Henry VIII of England following the death of his father, Henry VII. He soon married Catherine of Aragon, his brother?s widow and the aunt of Charles V (the Holy Roman Emperor), and fathered Mary, future Queen of England. (V.D.-H.K.p.161)(AP, 4/22/08) 1509 nend Apr 27, Pope Julius II excommunicated the republic of Venice. The pope lifted the ban in February 1510. (AP, 4/27/07) 1509 nend May 14, In the Battle of Agnadello, the French defeat the Venetians in Northern Italy. (HN, 5/14/98) 1509 nend May 20, Catharina Sforza (45), "La Sforza del Destino", Italian duchess of Forli, died. (MC, 5/20/02) 1509 nend Jun 11, England's King Henry VIII married Catherine of Aragon. (AP, 6/11/97)(HN, 6/11/98) 1509 nend Jun 11, In Italy troops of Florence took Pisa. (AP, 6/11/03) 1509 nend Jun 24, Henry VIII was crowned king of England. (AP, 6/24/97)(HN, 6/24/98) 1509 nend Jul 10, John Calvin, founder of Calvinism, the basis for modern Protestantism, was born. (HN, 7/10/98) 1509 nend Andrea Calmo (d.1571, Venetian playwright, was born about this time. He became a pioneer in comedia dell?arte. no_source 1509 nend Fra Bartolomeo, Italian artist, painted "The Holy Family with the Infant St. John." It was purchased by the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA) for close to $4 million. His work "The Holy Family with the Infant St. John," was purchased by the John Paul Getty Museum in Malibu for $22.5 mil. (WUD, 1994, p.123)(SFC, 5/13/96, p.D-5)(WSJ, 10/29/96, p.A21)(SFEC,1/11/98, p.D7) 1509 nend Sebastian Brant?s "Ship of Fools," a satire first published in 1494, appeared in an English version by Alexander Barclay. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1509 nend Erasmus lectured at Cambridge and dedicated his "In Praise of Folly," a witty satire on church corruption and scholastic philosophy, to Thomas More. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1509 nend Johann Pfefferkorn, a converted Jew, led a persecution of the Jews in Germany under Maximilian I. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1509 nend Brasenose College, Oxford, and St. John?s College, Cambridge, were founded. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1509 nend The Egyptian and Gujarat fleets were routed by the Portuguese at the Battle of Diu, which left the latter in control of the Indian seas and the spice trade. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1509 nend In Portugal the Madre de Deus convent was established by Queen Leonor. The tile-bedecked church, Igreja de Madre de Deus, was built almost 50 years later. (Econ, 6/12/10, p.96) 1509 nend Spanish armies invaded North Africa in a crusade against the Muslim rulers of Tripoli, Oran, and Bougie. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1509 nend Spanish conquistadores founded a colony at Darien on the Isthmus of Panama. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1509 nend The Venetian defeat at Agnadello led to the annexation of Faenza, Rimini, and Ravenna by Pope Julius II, and Otranto and Brindisi by Ferdinand of Aragon. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1509 nend Peter Henlein, Nuremberg inventor, invented the watch, nicknamed the Nuremberg egg. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1509 1520 The Spanish colonized the area of Nueva Granada (modern Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Venezuela). (http://homepage20.seed.net.tw/web@3/flags/wfh/pg-am-4.htm) 1509 1564 John Calvin, French theologian. He started the Protestant Reformation in France in 1532. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14)(SFC, 7/21/97, p.A11) 1510 nend Jan 22, Jews were expelled from Colmar, Germany. (MC, 1/22/02) 1510 nend May 25, Georges d'Amboise (49), French cardinal, viceroy in North Italy, died. (SC, 5/25/02) 1510 nend Jun 9, Nicolaas van Nieuwland, corrupt 1st bishop of Harlem, was born. (MC, 6/9/02) 1510 nend Jul 19, In Berlin 38 Jews were burned at the stake. (MC, 7/19/02) 1510 nend Oct 28, Francisco Borgia was born. He was the grandson of debauched Pope Alexander VI, and became a theologian and saint. (MC, 10/28/01) 1510 nend Bernard Pallissy (d.1590), French ceramicist, painter and writer, was born. (www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artMakerDetails?maker=867&page=1) 1510 nend Giovanni Bellini painted ?Virgin With the Blessing Child.? (WSJ, 8/3/06, p.D5) 1510 nend Raphael painted "The Triumph of Galatea," a fresco on the wall of the Farnesina, the villa of Agnostino Chigi. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) c 1510 nend Alexander Barcley wrote his long poetic essay on the "Miseries of Courtiers." It described the psychology of feasting. (MT, 6/96, p.9) 1510 nend In Spain Garci Ordonez de Montalvo authored "Serges de Esplandian" (The Adventures of Esplandian), a novel that described an island filled with gold named California and ruled by Queen Califia. (SFEC, 4/18/99, BR p.1)(SFC, 2/25/00, p.C14) 1510 nend Juan de la Cosa, cartographer, made an early map of the New World. (SFEC, 2/14/99, p.T11) 1510 nend Everyman, the first English morality play, was performed. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1510 nend John Colet, English churchman and humanist, founded St. Paul?s School in London. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1510 nend Erasmus became Prof. of Greek at Cambridge Univ. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1510 nend Martin Luther became professor of theology at the Univ. of Wittenberg. (V.D.-H.K.p.163) 1510 nend Sunflowers from America were introduced by the Spaniards into Europe. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1510 nend The Florentine banker Bartolomeo di Marchionni lent the King of Spain money for the crown?s first shipment of Africans to Santo Domingo. (SFEC,11/16/97, BR p.4) 1510 nend Slave trade began with a consignment of African slaves to work on Portuguese sugar plantations in Brazil. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1510 nend In China Liu Jin, a eunuch of the Ming dynasty, was executed for abusing his authority. He had grown wealthy from graft. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R4) 1510 nend War broke out between Denmark and the Hanseatic League. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1510 nend Goa, India, was captured by the Portuguese. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1510 nend The wheel-lock firearm was introduced in Nurnberg, Germany. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1510 nend Leonardo da Vinci designed the horizontal water wheel that was the forerunner of the modern water turbine. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1510 nend Giorgione (b.~1478), Italian painter, died of the plague. He was a top student of Bellini and excelled in the paragone: a competition between painting an poetry, where painters sought to rival poets in conveying beauty. Titian finished Giorgione?s ?Sleeping Venus.? (T&L, 10/80, p. 58)(WSJ, 12/4/97, p.A20)(Econ, 7/29/06, p.77) 1510 1515 Don Pedro Fajardo y Chacon, commissioned a set of wood friezes for his Velez Blanco castle in Almeria. The friezes were based on engravings by Jacopo da Strasbourg and Zoan Andrea Vavasorri that depicted the triumphs of Caesar and events in the mythical life of Hercules, the "Labors of Hercules." (WSJ, 1/6/00, p.A20)(WSJ, 5/18/00, p.A24) 1510 1550 Spain took in gold shipments from the New World at 3,000 pounds a year. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1510 1572 Frances Clouet, French painter. His work included the dandified "Charles IX of France." (SFEC, 12/1/96, BR p.4) 1511 nend Jul 30, Giorgio Vasari (d.1574), Italy, painter, architect and art historian (Vasari's Lives), was born. He wrote "Lives of the Artists." (WUD, 1994, p.1582)(MC, 7/30/02) 1511 nend Sep 1, Council of Pisa opened. Louis XII of France called the council to oppose the Holy League of Pope Julius II. (PTA, 1980, p.432)(MC, 9/1/02) 1511 nend Nov 22, Erasmus Reinhold, German mathematician (calculated planetary table), was born. (MC, 11/22/01) 1511 nend Fra Bartolomeo painted "The Mystic Marriage of St. Catherine." He emphasizing his mastery in the display of draperies. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1511 nend Raphael completed the frescoes in the Stanza della Segnatura in the Vatican for Pope Julius II. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1511 nend There were Jews in Thessaloniki, Greece involved in the printing. (WSJ, 4/29/97, p.A20) 1511 nend Sebastian Virdung, German musician, published the earliest manual for playing musical instruments. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1511 nend Pope Julius joined the Holy League with Aragon and Venice against the French. Papal forces captured Modena and Mirandola from the French. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1511 nend In Mecca, Arabia, there was an attempt to ban coffee. (Econ, 12/20/03, p.90) 1511 nend Portuguese sailors first reached the unsettled Mascarene Islands (Mauritius, Reunion and Rodrigues). They discovered the dodo bird and killed many for sport. (NH, 11/96, p.24)(SSFC, 12/9/01, p.C9) 1511 nend Vasily III became the new patriarch of Moscow. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1511 nend Malacca (Melaka), the center of East Indian spice trade, was captured by the Portuguese. When the Dutch gained influence in Indonesia and Jakarta they took over Melaka and built the fortress A Famosa. (TL-MB, p.10)(SFEC, 8/3/97, p.T8) 1511 nend Portuguese traders reached the Banda Islands, including Run, and broke the Venetian monopoly over nutmeg. Over the next century the Dutch muscled in an almost cornered the nutmeg market. The history of the nutmeg trade was documented in 1999 by Giles Milton in his: "Nathaniel's Nutmeg." (WSJ, 5/21/99, p.W7) 1511 nend King Ferdinand of Spain said: "Get gold, humanely if possible, but at all hazards ? get gold." (WSJ, 11/9/00, p.A24) 1511 nend Diego de Velazquez, Spanish commander, occupied Cuba. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 nend Feb 22, Amerigo Vespucci (b.1451), Italian explorer, died in Seville, Spain. (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15384b.htm) 1512 nend Mar 5, Gerardus Mercator (d.1594), Flemish philosopher and cartographer, was born in Rupelmonde, Flanders (later Belgium). (www.navis.gr/men/mercator.htm) 1512 nend Apr 10, James V, king of Scotland (1513-42), was born. (PCh, 1992, p.167)(MC, 4/10/02) 1512 nend Apr 11, The forces of the Holy League were heavily defeated by the French at the Battle of Ravenna. France under Gaston de Foix beat the Spanish Army. Gaston de Foix, French pretender to Navarre throne, died in battle. (HN, 4/11/99)(MC, 4/11/02) 1512 nend Aug 31, Giuliano de Medici became the new governor of Florence. (ON, 11/04, p.3) 1512 nend Nov 1, Michelangelo's paintings on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel were completed and first exhibited to the public. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10)(AP, 11/1/97)(HN, 11/1/98) 1512 nend Nov 7, Giuliano de Medici fired Niccolo Machiavelli from civil service in Florence. (ON, 11/04, p.4) 1512 nend Nov 16, Jemme Herjuwsma, Fries rebel, was beheaded. (MC, 11/16/01) 1512 nend Nov 17, Kempo Roeper, Frisian rebel, was quartered. (MC, 11/17/01) 1512 nend Dec 27, The laws of Burgos gave New World natives legal protection against abuse and authorized Negro slavery. (HN, 12/27/98) 1512 nend Raphael completed the Sistine Madonna, a visual expression of Renaissance humanism. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 nend Masque was used for the first time to describe a poetic drama. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 nend The English began using double-deck warships. They displaced 1,000 tons and were armed with 70 guns. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 nend Newfoundland cod banks were exploited by fisherman from England, France, Portugal and Holland, who sent the dried catch back to Europe. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 nend Copernicus, Polish-born astronomer, wrote his manuscript ?The Little Commentary,? in which he suggested that the earth?s apparent immobility was due to a ?false appearance? and a sun-centered cosmos would resolve many astronomical inconsistencies. (ON, 2/11, p.5) 1512 nend French armies defeated the forces of the Holy League at the Battle of Ravenna. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 nend Henry VIII claimed the throne of France and sent troops unsuccessfully into Spain. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 nend Shi?ism became the state religion of Persia. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 nend Portuguese explorers discovered the Celebes and found nutmeg trees in the Moluccas. This began an 84-year monopoly of the nutmeg and mace trades. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 nend The Portuguese took over control of East Timor. (SFC, 3/3/98, p.A6) 1512 nend Spain imported black slaves to Hispaniola to replace moribund Indian laborers. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 nend The Spaniards conquered Navarre and annexed it to Castile. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10)(Econ, 6/26/04, Survey p.13) 1512 nend Selim I deposed his father Bayazid II and became Sultan of Turkey. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 nend Ponce de Leon stepped ashore on the Turks and Caicos Islands. (SFEC, 2/14/99, p.T4) 1512 nend Julius II convened the Lateran Council to try for the first time to reform abuses within the Church of Rome. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 1520 Selim I followed Beyazid II in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii) 1513 nend Feb 20, Pope Julius II died. He was laid in rest in a huge tomb sculptured by Michelangelo. (HN, 2/20/99) 1513 nend Mar 6, Niccolo Machiavelli was released from jail in Florence. He complained in verse that it was difficult to write poetry there because people kept beating him up. (ON, 11/04, p.4) 1513 nend Mar 11, Giovanni de' Medici became Pope Leo X. The Medici Pope Leo X led the Catholic Church until 1521. (OG)(MC, 3/12/02) 1513 nend Mar 27, Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de Leon sighted Florida. (AP, 3/27/97)(HN, 3/27/98) 1513 nend Apr 2, Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de Leon landed in Florida. Juan Ponce de Leon, Spanish explorer, discovered Florida and planted orange and lemon trees there. [see March 27, 1512 entry] He also discovered the Dry Tortugas, 10 small keys southwest of Key West. The Spanish governor of Puerto Rico, Juan Ponce de Leon, discovered Florida and named it Pascua Florida, "feast of the flowers." His discovery was made during his search for the legendary Fountain of Youth. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10)(NH, 4/97, p.317)(AP, 4/2/97)(SFEC, 1/2/00, Z1p.2)(HNQ, 3/9/00) 1513 nend Apr 8, Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de Leon and his expedition began exploring the Florida coastline. (AP, 4/8/07) 1513 nend Jun 6, Battle at Novara: Habsburgers vs. Valois. (MC, 6/6/02) 1513 nend Aug 16, Henry VIII of England and Emperor Maximilian defeated the French at Guinegatte, France, in the Battle of the Spurs. (HN, 8/16/98) 1513 nend Sep 9, James IV (40), King of Scotland (1488-1513), was defeated and killed by English at the Battle of Flodden Field. The Scottish navy was sold to France. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10)(HN, 9/9/98)(MC, 9/9/01) 1513 nend Sept 25, Vasco Nunez de Balboa, Spanish explorer, crossed the Isthmus of Panama and claimed the Pacific Ocean for Spain. He was named governor of Panama and the Pacific by King Ferdinand. In 2004 Hugh Thomas authored ?Rivers of Gold: The Rise of the Spanish Empire from Columbus to Magellan.? (HFA, '96, p.38)(TL-MB, 1988, p.10)(SFEC, 9/21/97, p.C7)(WSJ,6/2/04, p.D12) 1513 nend Sep 29, Spanish explorer Vasco Nunez de Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean. (HN, 9/29/98) 1513 nend Michelangelo began to work on his Moses, the awesome central figure of the statues surrounding the tomb of Julius II. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1513 nend Niccolo Machiavelli wrote "The Prince" in which he gave reasons for the rise and fall of states. He dedicated it to Lorenzo de Medici, the successor to Giuliano. It was not published until 1532. In it he justified the ruthless subjection of religion and morality to politics. A 1998 translation by Prof. Angelo M. Codevilla included 428 footnotes and attempted to maintain the peculiar language of Machiavelli. (WSJ, 2/18/98, p.A20)(WSJ, 2/27/98, p.A15)(ON, 11/04, p.5) 1513 nend Chartres Cathedral, near Paris, was completed after almost 400 years of work. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1513 nend The Palazzo Farnese, a large and magnificent palace in Rome, was designed by Antonio de Sangallo the younger and Michelangelo. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1513 nend Calusa Indians in catamaran canoes attacked Spanish ships under Ponce de Leon in the southwest Florida and both sides suffered casualties. (AM, 11/04, p.49) 1513 nend Henry VIII and Maximilian defeated the French forces in Italy and Louis XII gave up Milan. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1513 nend Christian II became King of Denmark and Norway. He later asserted his right to the Swedish throne by force of arms. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1513 nend Jorge Alvarez, Portuguese commander, reached Canton, China. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1513 nend Portugal captured Goa, India. (SSFC, 3/19/06, p.F7) 1513 nend Magellan, who served for the Portuguese on many expeditions, was wounded in a campaign against the Moroccan stronghold of Azamor. The wound caused him to limp for the rest of his life. (HNQ, 10/9/00) 1513 nend The Swiss completed the acquisition of the southern province of Ticino. (SFEC, 6/14/98, p.T4) 1513 nend A manuscript map was drawn by Piri Reis (1470-1554) a Turkish captain who later became the Chief Admiral of the Ottoman Navy. It was presented to Ottoman Sultan Selim I in Egypt in 1517. no_source 1513 1514 Dosso Dossi painted his portrait of "Saint George." (WSJ, 1/20/98, p.A20) 1514 nend Apr 26, Copernicus made his first observations of Saturn. Nicholas Copernicus later proposed that the sun is stationary and that the earth and the planets move in circular orbits around it. (HN, 4/26/98)(BHT, Hawking, p.4) 1514 nend Aug 23, Selim I (the Grim), Ottoman Sultan, routed a Persian army in the Battle of Chaldiran. (TL-MB, p.10)(PCh, 1992, p.168) 1514 nend Sep 15, Selim I entered Tabriz, Persia, and massacred much of the population. (PCh, 1992, p.168) 1514 nend Sep, Thomas Wolsey (1473-1530) was appointed archbishop of York. (TL-MB, p.10) 1514 nend Dec 4, Richard Hunne, English "heretic", allegedly committed suicide. (MC, 12/4/01) 1514 nend Dec 31, Andreas Vesalius (d.1564), anatomist, author of "De Humani Corporis Fabrica," was born in Brussels, Belgium (NH, 10/96, p.34)(TL-MB, 1988, p.15)(MC, 12/31/01) 1514 nend Giovanni Bellini painted ?Feast of the Gods.? The painting depicts Ovid?s tale of how Vesta, goddess of virginity is approached while sleeping by Priapus, god of fertility, who begins to twitch up her tunic. At that moment a donkey sneezes and awakens Vesta, who quickly awakes and runs away. It is now on exhibit at the National Gallery of Art in Wa., DC. (T&L, 10/1980, p.66)(WSJ, 8/3/06, p.D5) 1514 nend Diego Columbus, son of Christopher, built the first seat of government in the Americas in Santo Domingo. (SFEC, 2/14/99, p.T10) 1514 nend Hampton Court Palace was begun for Wolsey. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1514 nend Pope Leo X issued a papal bull against slavery. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1514 nend England and France declared a truce in their warfare. Mary Tudor, sister of Henry VIII, married Louis XII. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1514 nend At the Battle of Orsha, Lithuanian forces defeated those of Moscow. (SFC, 9/9/96, p.A12) 1514 nend Vasily III, ruler of Moscow, captured Smolensk from Poland. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1514 nend George Dozsa, soldier of fortune, instigated a peasant?s revolt in Hungary. He was later captured and grilled alive. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1514 nend Spanish soldiers conquered the natives of Cuba. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1514 nend 1,500 Spanish settlers went to Panama. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1515 nend Jan 1, King Louis XII (b.1462) of France, died. He was succeeded by Francis I (1494-1547). (Econ, 12/12/09, p.93)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_I_of_France) 1515 nend Feb 4, Michael Radvila the Black was born in Nesvizh. He later became palatine of Vilnius, chancellor of Lithuania, and supporter of Reformation. (LHC, 2/4/03) 1515 nend Mar 28, Theresa of Avila (d.1582), Teresa de Jesus (St. Theresa), Spanish Carmelite nun, mystic writer, saint, was born. She initiated reforms in the Order. She co-founded with John of the Cross (1542-1591) the Order of Discalced (barefoot) Carmelites. "Untilled ground, however rich, will bring forth thistles and thorns; so also the mind of man." "To wish to act like angels while we are still in this world is nothing but folly." (CU, 6/87)(WUD, 1994, p.769)(AP, 12/8/97)(AP, 7/5/98)(MC, 3/28/02) 1515 nend Jul 21, St. Philippus Nerius, [Philippo Neri], Italian merchant, priest, was born. (MC, 7/21/02) 1515 nend Jul 22, Emperor Maximillian and Vladislav of Bohemia forged an alliance between the Habsburg [Austria] and Jagiello [Polish-Lithuanian] dynasties in Vienna. (HN, 7/22/98) 1515 nend Jul 26, Santiago, Cuba, was founded. (SFC, 7/22/00, p.A17) 1515 nend Sep 13, King Francis of France defeated the Swiss army under Cardinal Matthias Schiner at Marignano, northern Italy. Switzerland was last involved in a war. French armies defeated the Swiss and Venetians at the Battle of Marignano and Milan fell to the French. Francis I conquered Lombardy in northern Italy. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11)(SFC, 6/7/96, p.A12)(HN, 9/13/98) 1515 nend Sep 22, Anne of Cleeves, fourth wife of Henry the VIII, was born in Cleeves, Germany. (HN, 9/22/00) 1515 nend Oct 4, Lucas Cranach (d.1586), the Younger, German painter, was born. (WUD, 1994, p.339)(MC, 10/4/01) 1515 nend Nov 15, Thomas Wolsey (1473-1530), archbishop of York, was made a cardinal. (http://www.britainunlimited.com/Biogs/Wolsey.htm) 1515 nend Dec 2, Gonzalo de Cordoba, Spanish general, strategist, viceroy of Naples, died. (MC, 12/2/01) 1515 nend Dec 24, Thomas Cardinal Wolsey was appointed English Lord Chancellor. (MC, 12/24/01) 1515 nend Giovanni Bellini (b.~1430-1516), Italian artist, painted his masterpiece ?Lady With a Mirror. (Econ, 7/29/06, p.77) 1515 nend Hans Holbein the Younger arrived in Basel, the European center of book publishing. The city in 1997 owned 340 prints by Holbein. (WSJ, 6/24/97, p.A20) 1515 nend Alexander Barclay began composing his "Eclogues," the earliest pastoral poems in English. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1515 nend John Skelton?s "Magnyficense" became one of the best known morality plays. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1515 nend Raphael succeeded Bramante as chief architect of St. Peter?s in Rome. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1515 nend Matthias Grunewald completed the enormous altarpiece for the Antonites of Isenheim. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1515 nend By this year the Taino Indians of what is now the Dominican Republic were practically annihilated in clashes with the Spanish. (SFC, 3/29/97, p.A10) 1515 nend Petrus Apianus, German mathematician and instrument maker, attempted to explain the universe by crafting an artistic dial that tracked the movement of the stars. (SFC, 7/19/02, p.E3) 1515 nend Juan Diaz de Solis, Spanish navigator, reached the Rio de la Plata in South America and discovered Argentina. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1515 nend Bartolome de Las Casas, Dominican priest, returned to Spain from Hispaniola to plead on behalf of the ill-treated native Indians. (NH, 10/96, p.29) 1515 nend Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de Leon first described the Gulf Stream. In 1770 Benjamin Franklin drew a map of the Gulf Stream and in 1786 described it in detail in Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. In 2008 Stan Ulanski authored ?The Gulf Stream: Tiny Plankton, Giant Bluefin, and the Amazing Story of the Powerful River in the Atlantic.? (WSJ, 10/4/08, p.W9) 1515 nend Afonso d?Albuquerque, Viceroy of the Portuguese Indies, captured Hormuz (Ormuz) and forced all other traders to round the Cape of Good Hope. This established Portugal?s supremacy in trade with the Far East. Hormuz is the strait between Iran and Trucial Oman. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11)(WUD, 1994, p.684) 1515 nend The first nationalized French factories were set up in the manufacture of tapestries and arms. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1515 nend Spanish conquistadores founded Havana, Cuba. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1515 nend Bartolome de Las Casas (1474-1566), Dominican priest and the first Spanish priest to be ordained in the New World, returned to Spain from Hispaniola to plead on behalf of the ill-treated native Indians. He became known as the ?Apostle to the Indians.? Helen Rand Parish (1912-2005) later authored a number of seminal works on Las Casas. (NH, 10/96, p.29)(TL-MB, p.11)(SSFC, 5/15/05,p.A19)(http://tinyurl.com/brzzu) 1515 nend Diego (b.~1450), the younger brother of Christopher Columbus, died. He had accompanied Columbus on his second voyage (1493). Diego was released from chains in Spain in 1500, became a priest and returned to the West Indies in 1509. (AH, 2/03, p.7)(www.newadvent.org/cathen/04140a.htm) 1515 1516 Dosso Dossi, court painter in Ferrara, painted "Melissa" (aka Circe). (WSJ, 1/20/98, p.A20) 1515 1519 Coffee from Arabia appeared in Europe. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1515 1520 In Portugal the Belem Tower was built in Lisbon and served as a beacon to sailors. It originally stood well in the water but now the Tagus laps only its base. (SFEC, 2/1/98, p.T7) 1516 nend Feb 18, Mary Tudor, later Queen Mary I of England (1553-1558) and popularly known as "Bloody Mary," was born in Greenwich Palace. (HN, 2/18/98)(AP, 2/18/98) 1516 nend Feb 23, The Hapsburg Charles I succeeded Ferdinand in Spain. (HN, 2/23/99) 1516 nend Mar 17, Giuliano de' Medici (37), monarch of Florence, died. (MC, 3/17/02) 1516 nend Mar 26, Konrad von Gesner, naturalist (Bibliotheca Universalis), was born in Zurich, Switzerland. (SS, 3/26/02) 1516 nend Apr 10, Jews were compelled to live in a specific area of Venice. (MC, 4/10/02) 1516 nend Aug 24, At the Battle of Marj Dabik, north of Aleppo, the Turks beat Syria. Suliman I (Selim the Grim), the Ottoman Sultan, routed the Mamelukes (Egypt) with the support of artillery capturing Aleppo and Damascus. This opened the way to 400 years of Ottoman Turkish rule over most of the Arab world. (PC, 1992, p.169)(Econ, 11/14/09, p.101) 1516 nend Mateo Realdo Colombo (d.1559), Italian anatomist and discoverer of the pulmonary circulation, was born at Cremona. He studied medicine at Padua with Vesalius, became his assistant, and in 1544 succeeded him as lecturer in surgery and anatomy. The best authority for Colombo's work in anatomy is his "De Re Anatomicâ" (Venice, 1559; Paris, 1562). The most complete life is that by Tollin in Pflügers Archiv: XXI-XXII. In English there is a good sketch by Fisher, Annals of Anatomy and Surgery (Brooklyn, 1880). In 1997 Federico Andahazi authored "The Anatomist," a novel that was based on Colombo?s research on the clitoris. (CE, online)(SFEC, 10/29/00, BR p.5) 1516 nend Hans Holbein in Basel painted a wooden shingle as a sort of advertisement for the schoolmaster Oswald Geishüsler. It marked the beginning of "profane" painting in the West. (WSJ, 6/24/97, p.A20) 1516 nend Titian began "The Assumption of the Virgin," a monumental altarpiece in the Church of the Frari, Venice. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1516 nend Giovanni Bellini (b.~1430), Italian artist, died in Venice. Giorgione and Titian had graduated from his workshop. (Econ, 7/29/06, p.77)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Bellini) 1516 nend The first published account of the discovery of North America appeared in "De Rebus Oceanicus et Novo Orbe" by the Italian historian Peter Martyr. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1516 nend Erasmus published his version of the New Testament. He began by copying manuscripts found in monasteries and given to him by his friend Thomas More. His Latin translation and commentary and an improved Greek text differed in many places from the Vulgate of St. Jerome, and was immediately recognized as the most accurate translation so far. (V.D.-H.K.p.159) 1516 nend Thomas More published his "Utopia," the "golden little book" that invented a literary-world immune from the evils of Europe, where all citizens were equal and believed in a good and just God. "Your sheep, which are usually so tame and cheaply fed, begin now... to be so greedy and so wild that they devour human beings themselves and devastate and depopulate fields, houses, and towns." From More?s Utopia. The key thought in the work is that poverty, injustice and inequality will never be eliminated from the world until private property is abolished. (V.D.-H.K.p.160)(NG, 5.1988, pp. 574)(WSJ, 10/22/98, p.A20) 1516 nend The German Quedlinburg Manuscript of this date and other church treasures were stolen from a cave where they were being stored in 1945 by Lt. Joe Tom Meador of Whitewright, Texas. The items were then sold by his brother and sister. In 1996 a criminal trial focused on the issue. (WSJ, 12/11/96, p.A20) 1516 nend Music printed from engraved plates was used for the first time in Italy. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1516 nend Archduke Charles, later Emp. Charles V, succeeded his grandfather, King Ferdinand II of Spain, and founded the Hapsburg dynasty. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1516 nend The Treaty of Noyon brought peace between France and Spain. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1516 nend In Bavaria, Germany, the Reinheitsgebot (purity law) was enacted. It required that beer be made from malt, hops, yeast, water and nothing else. (WSJ, 5/27/98, p.A1)(SFC, 7/15/04, p.A2)(Econ, 10/9/10, p.76) 1516 nend Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and Seville Univ., Spain, were founded. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1516 nend Juan Diaz de Solis, Spanish explorer, was killed on the coast of Argentina. He was eaten by natives. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11)(SFEM, 11/15/98, p.26) 1517 nend Jan 20, Ottoman sultan Selim I captured Cairo. The center of power transferred then to Istanbul. The Ottoman Empire retained the Mamluks as an Egyptian ruling class. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate) 1517 nend Mar 26, The famous Flemish composer Heinrich Issac, whose music fused Flemish, Italian and Germanic styles, died. (HN, 3/26/99) 1517 nend Apr 13, Tuman Bey, the last Mameluke sultan of Egypt, was hanged as Osman?s army occupied Cairo. (MC, 4/13/02) 1517 nend Jun 11, Sir Thomas Pert reached Hudson Bay. (SC, 6/11/02) 1517 nend Jul 1, The 1st burning of Protestants at stake in Netherlands. (MC, 7/1/02) 1517 nend Oct 6, Fra Bartolommeo (b.1472), Florentine Renaissance painter, died. He was a Dominican monk nicknamed Baccio della Porta. His work included a portrait of Savonarola. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fra_Bartolommeo)(SFC, 5/13/96, p.D-5) 1517 nend Oct 31, Martin Luther nailed his Ninety-five Thesis to the door of the Wittenberg Palace All Saints? Church. He grew to believe in faith alone as man?s link to the justice of God, and therefore denied the need for the vast infrastructure of the Church. This event signaled the beginning of the Protestant Reformation in Germany and Protestantism in general, shattering the external structure of the medieval church and at the same time reviving the religious consciousness of Europe.. Martin Luther (1483-1546) was born in Eisleben, Germany. He was a monk in the Catholic Church until 1517, when he founded the Lutheran Church. (V.D.-H.K.p.163)(CU, 6/87)(SFC, 7/21/97, p.A11)(AP, 10/31/97)(AP,10/31/97) (HN, 10/31/98) 1517 nend Oct, Ferdinand Magellan arrived in Spain and began the first voyage to successfully circumnavigate the world a little less than two years later. He eventually died in the Philippines in 1521. The expedition was completed by others in 1522. (HNQ, 10/9/00) 1517 nend Seville Cathedral was completed after 115 years of work. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1517 nend Archduke Charles left the Netherlands for Spain and entered Valladolid in triumph. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1517 nend Archduke Charles granted a monopoly in the African slave trade to Florentine merchants. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1517 nend Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba, Spanish explorer, sailed from Cuba and discovered the Mayan civilization in the Yucatan, southeast Mexico. (TL-MB, p.11)(SSFC, 5/6/01, p.T6) 1517 nend Bartolomeo de las Casas, the first Spanish priest to be ordained in the New World, pleaded the case of oppressed and enslaved American Indians. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1517 nend An Aztec chronicler described a comet as a "flaming ear of corn." (NG, 12/97, p.97) 1517 nend The Mamelukes in Egypt lost power. (WUD, 1994, p.869) 1517 nend In Germany the Salzbergwerk Berchtesgaden salt mine began operations. (SSFC, 8/6/06, p.G5) 1517 nend Portuguese sailors named Ilha Formosa (beautiful island), later known as Taiwan. (SFC, 12/11/99, p.B6) 1518 nend Apr 18, Bona Sforza (1494-1558) was crowned Queen of Poland and Grand Duchess of Lithuania in Wawel Cathedral, Krakow. The Italian niece of Bianca Maria Sforza, who in 1493 married Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, became the 3rd consort of Lithuania?s Grand Duke Sigismund the Old (1467-1548). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bona_Sforza) 1518 nend Sep 29, Jacopo Tintoretto (d.1588), Italian artist, was born. (Econ, 2/10/07, p.90)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tintoretto) 1518 nend Oct 12, A pontifical ambassador interrogated Rev. Dr. Martin Luther. Luther was summoned to the Diet of Augsburg where he refused to recant. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11)(MC, 10/12/01) 1518 nend Raphael painted a portrait of Leo X which showed spectacles with concave lenses for short-sightedness. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1518 nend Raphael began painting the nude model ?La Fornarina? (the Little Baker Girl). It was completed about 1519. (www.abcgallery.com/R/raphael/raphael58.html) 1518 nend Titian painted "Offering to Venus." (NH, 6/01, p.47) 1518 nend Gil Vicente, founder of Portuguese drama, wrote "The Ship of Purgatory." (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1518 nend Ulrich Zwingli, a Swiss clergyman, supported Martin Luther?s Reformation. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1518 nend Forks were used at a banquet in Venice (for the first time?). (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1518 nend Portugal and the Kingdom of Kotte, Ceylon, signed a peace treaty. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1518 nend Cardinal Wolsey arranged the Peace of London between England, France, the Pope, Maximilian I and Spain. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1518 nend Algiers and Tunis, Barbary states in North Africa, were founded. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1518 nend Henry VIII authorized a college of physicians and it was founded by Oxford physician Thomas Linacre. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1518 nend Porcelain from Asia was imported to Europe (for the first time?) from Asia. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1518 nend Anthony Blatner, German goldsmith, built the first fire-engine in Augsburg, Germany. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1518 nend Vasco Nunez de Balboa, Spanish explorer, was wrongly charged with treason and beheaded. (SFEC, 9/21/97, p.C7) 1518 nend Juan de Grijalva, Spanish explorer, named the area comprising of Mexico, Central America north of Panama, the Spanish West Indies, and south-west North America New Spain. He was also the first European to smoke tobacco, introduced to him by a native chief. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1518 nend Lorens de Gominot obtained a license to import 4,000 African slaves into the New World colonies. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1519 nend Jan 12, Maximilian I of Hapsburg (59), Holy Roman Emperor and German Kaiser, died. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11)(AP, 1/12/98)(PC, 1992, p.170) 1519 nend Feb 15, Pedro Menendez de Aviles, explorer (found St. Augustine, Florida), was born. (MC, 2/15/02) 1519 nend Feb 16, Gaspard de Coligny, Huguenot leader, French admiral, was born. (MC, 2/16/02) 1519 nend Mar 13, The Spaniards under Cortez landed at Vera Cruz. Cortez landed in Mexico with 10 stallions, 5 mares and a foal. Smallpox was carried to America in the party of Hernando Cortes. (SFC, 9/2/96, p.A3)(HN, 3/13/98)(SFC, 10/19/01, p.A17)(SSFC, 5/6/01,p.T6) 1519 nend Apr 13, Catherine de Medicis (d.1589), the daughter of Lorenzo de Medici, was born in Florence. She married at age 14 and became queen in 1547 as Henry II of France acceded to the throne. She was the mother of Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III. (www.hyperhistory.com/online_n2/people_n2/women_n2/c_medici.html) 1519 nend Apr 24, Envoys of Montezuma II attended the first Easter mass in Central America. (HN, 4/24/98) 1519 nend Apr, Montezuma received a message that white strangers had reappeared and attacked a Mayan coastal village south of the Aztec border. Hundreds of Mayans were killed and the strangers sailed north. (ON, 10/00, p.2) 1519 nend May 2, Artist Leonardo da Vinci (67) died at Cloux, France. In 1994 A. Richard Turner wrote "Inventing Leonardo," a history of Leonardo legends. In 2004 Bulent Atalay authored ?Math and the Mona Lisa: The Art and Science of Leonardo da Vinci.? In 2004 Charles Nicholl authored ?Leonard da Vinci: The Flights of the Mind.? http://library.thinkquest.org/13681/data/davin2.shtml?tqskip=1 (AP, 5/2/97)(NH, 5/97, p.58)(Econ, 5/15/04, p.80)(Econ, 12/11/04, p.81) 1519 nend Jun 24, Lucretia Borgia (39), daughter of Pope Alexander VI, died. In 2004 Sarah Bradford authored ?Lucrezia Borgia: Life, Love and Death in Renaissance Italy.? (HN, 4/18/98)(WUD, 1994, p.171)(SSFC, 12/19/04, p.E2) 1519 nend Jul 6, Charles of Spain was elected Holy Roman emperor in Barcelona. The Catholic heir to the Hapsburg dynasty, Charles V, was elected Holy Roman Emperor, combining the crowns of Spain, Burgundy (with the Netherlands), Austria and Germany. He was the grandson of Ferdnand and Isabella of Spain. (V.D.-H.K.p.162)(NH, 9/96, p.18)(HN, 7/6/98) 1519 nend Jul 16, There was a public debate between Martin Luther and theologian John Eck. (MC, 7/16/02) 1519 nend Aug 11, Johann Tetzel (~79), Dominican monk, died. (MC, 8/11/02) 1519 nend Aug 15, Panama City was founded. (MC, 8/15/02) 1519 nend Aug, Montezuma learned that Cortez was marching toward Tenochtitlan with an army of 300 soldiers and 2000 non-Aztec Indians. Cortez was accompanied by Malinche, his Indian mistress and interpreter. (ON, 10/00, p.2) 1519 nend Sep 5, In the 2nd Battle of Tehuacingo, Mexico, Hernan Cortes faced the Tlascala Aztecs. (MC, 9/5/01) 1519 nend Sep 20, Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan set out from Spain with 270 men and 5 ships on a voyage to find a western passage to the Spice Islands in Indonesia. Magellan was killed en route, but one of his ships eventually circumnavigated the world. He was first European explorer to reach the Pacific Ocean from the Atlantic by sailing through the dangerous straits below South America that now bear his name. [see Sep 20, 1520] (V.D.-H.K.p.182)(DD-EVTT, p.41)(AP, 9/20/97)(HN, 9/20/98) 1519 nend Sep 21, Hans Backofen (Backoffen), German sculptor, died at about 49. (MC, 9/21/01) 1519 nend Nov 7, University of Leuven condemned the teachings of Rev. Martin Luther. (MC, 11/7/01) 1519 nend Nov 8, The Aztec and their leader, Moctezuma, welcomed Hernando Cortez and his 650 explorers to their capital at Tenochtitlan. Spanish adventurer Hernando Cortez and his force of about 300 Spanish soldiers, 18 horses and thousands of Mexico's native inhabitants who had grown resentful of Aztec rule marched unmolested into Tenochtitlán, the capital city of the Aztec empire. The Aztec ruler Montezuma, believing that Cortez could be the white-skinned deity Quetzalcoatl, whose return had been foretold for centuries, greeted the arrival of these strange visitors with courtesy--at least until it became clear that the Spaniards were all too human and bent on conquest. Cortez and his men, dazzled by the Aztec riches and horrified by the human sacrifice central to their religion, began to systematically plunder Tenochtitlán and tear down the bloody temples. Montezuma's warriors attacked the Spaniards but with the aid of Indian allies, Spanish reinforcements, superior weapons and disease, Cortez defeated an empire of approximately 25 million people by August 13, 1521. (ATC, p.16)(SFC, 9/2/96, p.A3) (HNPD, 11/8/98) 1519 nend Dec, Magellan reached the Bay of the Rio de Janeiro. (V.D.-H.K.p.182)(DD-EVTT, p.41) 1519 nend Corregio began painting the ceiling frescoes in the dining room of the abbess of St. Paul?s Convent in Parma. (SFEC, 9/15/96, p.T6) 1519 nend Gil Vicente, Portuguese dramatist, wrote a second farce, "The Ship of Heaven." (TL-MB, 1988, 1988, p.11) 1519 nend St. George?s Chapel, Windsor, England, was completed after 46 years of work. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1519 nend The Chateau of Chombard was begun in France, and would take 30 years to finish. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1519 nend The Italian influenced medieval church at the Moscow Monastery of Peter the Metropolitan was constructed. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.38) 1519 nend Nanak (1469-1539) founded Sikhism, a combination of Hinduism and Buddhism. Sikhs revere 10 gurus. "Be in the world, but not worldly." (TL-MB, 1988, p.11)(WSJ, 10/12/01, p.W17) 1519 nend Ulrich Zwingli initiated the Swiss Reformation with his preaching in Zurich. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1519 nend Martin Luther disputed with Johann Eck in the Leipzig Disputation and questioned the infallibility of the Pope. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1519 nend Bohemians minted silver Joachimsthalers, "thalers" for short. This was the basis for the word "dollar." (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1519 nend A mass-production technique for casting brass objects was used in Italy. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1519 nend Prussia experienced a monetary crises. (ON, 2/11, p.6) 1519 nend Domenico de Pineda, Spanish navigator, explored the Gulf of Mexico. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1519 nend Francisco de Montejo, a captain under Cortez, set about subjugating the Maya in Mexico. (SSFC, 5/6/01, p.T6) 1519 nend In Mexico Cortes discovered a plot by some Cholulans to assassinate him and ordered some 6,000 Cholulan men executed. (SFEC, 11/8/98, p.T10) 1519 nend Spanish soldiers in Mexico learned that the shipwrecked sailor Gonzalo Guerrero had drifted there in 1511. Guerrero married a Maya woman and raised the first mestizo children. (Econ, 11/10/07, p.102)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonzalo_Guerrero) 1519 1579 Sir Thomas Gresham, merchant prince. He was a British banker and money-changer and served as the financial agent for Elizabeth I. He ran a news service in the Netherlands to keep informed of finances there and built the Royal Exchange of London modeled on the Antwerp commodities exchange. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1520 nend Apr 6, Raphael (b.1483), [Sanzio], Italian painter (Sistine Madonna), died on his 37th birthday. His work included "The Veiled Lady" and a set of cartoons that were woven into 10 tapestries titled "The Acts of the Apostles" (1544-1557). (WSJ, 4/11/02, p.D7)(www.abcgallery.com/R/raphael/raphaelbio.html) 1520 nend May 20, Hernando Cortes defeated Spanish troops sent to punish him in Mexico. (HN, 5/20/98) 1520 nend Jun 15, Pope Leo the Tenth threatened to excommunicate Martin Luther if he did not recant his religious beliefs. Pope Leo X excommunicated Martin Luther by the bull Exsurge. (AP, 6/15/00)(HT, 6/15/00) 1520 nend Jun 24, Montezuma, under orders by Cortez to calm his people, was showered with "stones, darts, arrows and sticks" from a jeering crowd. (ON, 10/00, p.5) 1520 nend Jun 30, Montezuma II was murdered as Spanish conquistadors fled the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan during the night. Montezuma died from wounds inflicted by his people. Conquistadors under Cortez plundered gold from Aztecs. (HN, 6/30/01)(ON, 10/00, p.5)(MC, 6/30/02) 1520 nend Jul 10, The explorer Cortes was driven from Tenochtitlan, Mexico, by Aztec leader Cuauhtemoc, and retreated to Tlaxcala. (HN, 7/10/98) 1520 nend Jul 14, Hernando Cortes fought the Aztecs at the Battle of Otumba, Mexico. (MC, 7/14/02) 1520 nend Sep 20, Magellan set sail from Spain with five ships and 265 men, on a voyage to find a western passage to the Spice Islands of Indonesia. (MC, 11/28/01) 1520 nend Sep 21, Suleiman I (the Magnificent), son of Selim, became the Ottoman sultan in Constantinople. He ruled to 1566. [see Sep 30] (TL-MB, 1988, p.12)(HN, 9/21/98)(Ot, 1993, xvii) 1520 nend Sep 22, Selim I, Sultan of Turkey (1512-20), died at 53. (MC, 9/22/01) 1520 nend Sep 30, Suleiman I succeeded his father Selim I as sultan of Turkey. [see Sep 21] (MC, 9/30/01) 1520 nend Oct 7, The 1st public burning of books took place in Louvain, Netherlands. (MC, 10/7/01) 1520 nend Oct 15, King Henry VIII of England ordered bowling lanes at Whitehall. (MC, 10/15/01) 1520 nend Oct 21, Ferdinand Magellan arrived at Tierra Del Fuego (Argentina-Chile). (MC, 10/21/01) 1520 nend Oct 23, King Carlos I (1500-1558) was crowned as German emperor Charles V (1520-1558), a Holy Roman Emperor. no_source 1520 nend Nov 4, Danish-Norwegian king Christian II was crowned king of Sweden. (MC, 11/4/01) 1520 nend Nov 9, Swedish King Christian II executed 600 nobles. (MC, 11/9/01) 1520 nend Nov 28, Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan reached the Pacific Ocean after passing through the South American strait, the straits of Magellan, and entered the ?Sea of the South.? (V.D.-H.K.p.177)(AP, 11/28/97) 1520 nend Dec 10, Martin Luther publicly burned the papal edict demanding that he recant, or face excommunication. (AP, 12/10/97) 1520 nend Dec 18, Magellan struck out into the open sea to the northwest (V.D.-H.K.p.177) 1520 nend A 9-piece tapestry set was created for the Holy Roman Empire coronation of Belgium-born Charles V, King of Spain, titled "Los Honores." The set was restored by Belgium in 2000 for the 500th anniversary of Charles? birth. (WSJ, 4/11/02, p.AD7) 1520 nend The funereal monuments of the Medici Chapel were commissioned by Pope Clement VII. They were done primarily by Michelangelo (1475-1564) from 1520 to 1534, being completed by his students after his departure. The four figures?dawn, day, dusk and night?are considered among the sculptor?s most accomplished work. He left Florence in 1534, hoping to return, but spent his last years in Rome. (HNQ, 11/15/00) 1520 nend Joachim Patenier painted one of the earliest industrial pictures showing a blast-furnace. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1520 nend Jacopo Pontormo made his red chalk body sketches. (SFC, 2/15/97, p.D6) 1520 nend The book "Prester John of the Indies" was written. It was translated in 1810. Later Robert Silverberg wrote: "The Realm of Prester John" and John Buchanon wrote "Prester John." In 1952 the French work "Le Pretre Jean" was written. (SFEC, 12/15/96, p.C5) 1520 nend In Germany Jacob Fugger ?The Rich? established a Roman Catholic housing settlement for the poor in Augsburg in the name of Augsburg?s local St. Ulrich. In return for cheap rent residents agreed to pray for the Fuggers? souls. (WSJ, 12/26/08, p.A10) 1520 nend The Jews of Rothenburg, Bavaria, were banished entirely and forevermore. (NH, 9/96, p.24) 1520 nend The Anabaptists, Protestants who baptized believers only and not infants, grew as a movement in Switzerland, Germany and the Netherlands. Some emigrated to America and established themselves as the Amish of Lancaster, Pa. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12)(SFC, 7/2/98, p.A7) 1520 nend King Francis founded the Royal Library of France at Fontainebleu. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1520 nend Chocolate was brought from Mexico to Spain for the first time. [see 1502] (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1520 nend Many small stars congregated... like to two clouds. (Now known as the Large Magellanic Cloud) Thus one of Ferdinand Magellan?s crew, on the first voyage around the earth, described the southern Pacific sky on a clear night in this year. (NG, 5/88, p.619) 1520 nend King Christian II of Denmark and Norway defeated a Swedish army at Lake Asunden and was crowned King of Sweden. He then renounced his offer of amnesty and massacred most of the Swedish leaders. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1520 nend Emperor Charles V and Henry VIII met at Dover and agreed to an Anglo-French commercial treaty. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1520 nend Magellan sailed around the tip of South America and renamed the South Sea as the Pacific Ocean. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1520 nend Scipione del Ferro, Italian mathematician, solved cubic equations for the first time. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1520 nend A smallpox epidemic raged in Vera Cruz, Mexico. The 16th century smallpox epidemic in Mexico and Central America killed about half of the Aztecs. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12)(SFEC, 1/30/00, Z1 p.2) 1520 1530 The ?Shahnameh? (Persian Book of Kings), completed in 1010AD by Persian poet Firdawsi (Ferdowsi) was commissioned to be illustrated for Shah Tahmasp by more than a dozen artists. 258 miniatures were made with 750 folios of Farsi text. In 1568 it was given to the Ottoman Sultan. In 1981 Stuart Cary Welch and martin Dickinson published ?The Houghton Shahnameh,? a 2-volume study. (www.mazdapublisher.com/BookDetails.aspx?BookID=186)(WSJ, 10/13/94,p. A18,)(Econ, 4/9/11, p.95) 1520 1579 Bayazid Roshan, an Afghan intellectual, lived. He revolted against the power of the Moghul government. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1520 nend /24-1579/80 Giovanni Battista Moroni was a Renaissance portraitist. He worked in Trent and Bergamo and then returned to his hometown of Albino. (WSJ, 2/22/00, p.A38) 1520 1598 William Cecil. He later became the Lord Treasurer and chief adviser for Queen Elizabeth I, for which he was made Lord Burghley. He built the Burghley House. (WSJ, 8/24/99, p.A16) 1521 nend Jan 3, Pope Leo X excommunicated Martin Luther from the Roman Catholic Church. (NH, 9/96, p.18)(AP, 1/3/98) 1521 nend March 6, Magellan made landfall at the island of Guam in the Marianas. (HN, 3/6/98) (V.D.-H.K.p.177-178) 1521 nend March 9, Magellan sailed west, southwest towards the Philippines. (V.D.-H.K.p.177-178) 1521 nend Mar 15, Ferdinand Magellan discovered the Philippine Islands, where he was killed by natives the following month. [see Apr 26] (PCh, 1992, p.172)(MC, 3/17/02)(AP, 3/16/97) 1521 nend Apr 7, Inquisitor-general Adrian Boeyens banned Lutheran books. (MC, 4/7/02) 1521 nend Apr 7, Ferdinand Magellan landed on Cebu Island, Philippines. Italian chronicler Antonio Pigafetta reported a thriving port with large supplies of rice and gold. In 2003 the island was a booming commercial center with a population of 4 million. (WSJ, 10/15/03, p.B2A) 1521 nend Apr 16, Martin Luther arrived at Diet of Worms. (MC, 4/16/02) 1521 nend Apr 17, Under the protection of Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony, Martin Luther first appeared before Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and the Imperial Diet to face charges stemming from his religious writings. The Roman Catholic Church had already excommunicated him on Jan 3, 1521. He was later declared an outlaw by Charles V. (NH, 9/96, p.18)(HN, 4/17/98)(AP, 4/17/07) 1521 nend Apr 18, Martin Luther confronted the emperor Charles V in the Diet of Worms and refused to retract his views which led to his excommunication. Cardinal Alexander questioned the Rev Martin Luther. (HN, 4/18/99)(MC, 4/18/02) 1521 nend Apr 21, Martin Luther was called before an Imperial Diet in Worms. He was already accused of heresy and excommunicated by the Pope. Here he was absolved of all charges. (V.D.-H.K.p.163) 1521 nend Apr 22, French king Francois I declared war on Spain. (MC, 4/22/02) 1521 nend Apr 22, Juan de Padilla, Spanish nobleman, communero-rebel, was beheaded. (MC, 4/22/02) 1521 nend Apr 23, The Comuneros were crushed by royalist troops in Spain. (HN, 4/23/99) 1521 nend Apr 26, Magellan was killed in a fight with natives on Mactan Island. Magellan named the Mariana Islands Islas de los Ladrones (Islands of Thieves), and was killed by natives on Cebu. Juan Sebastian Elcano, Magellan?s second in command, returned to Spain with 18 men and one ship, the Vittorio, laden with spices. His coat of arms was augmented in reward with the inscription Primus circumdisti me: "You were the first to encircle me." Some 50,000 Chamorro people populated the islands. [see Apr 27] (V.D.-H.K.p.177-178)(SFEC,11/10/96,Z1p.2)(TL-MB, p.12)(SFEC,3/7/99,Z1 p.4) 1521 nend April 27, Ferdinand Magellan (50), Portuguese explorer, was killed by natives in the Philippines. [see Apr 26] (AP, 4/27/99) 1521 nend May 8, Peter Canisius, [Pieter de Hondt/Kanijs], Jesuit, saint, was born. (MC, 5/8/02) 1521 nend May 8, Emperor Charles V and the Diet issued the Edict of Worms. It banned Luther?s work and enjoined his detention, but was not able to be enforced. (NH, 9/96, p.20) 1521 nend May 20, Ignatius Loyola was seriously wounded by a cannon ball. (MC, 5/20/02) 1521 nend May 26, Martin Luther was banned by the Edict of Worms of because of his religious beliefs and writings. (AP, 5/26/97) 1521 nend May 28, Willem van Croij (~62), duke of Soria, died. (MC, 5/28/02) 1521 nend Aug 13, Spanish conqueror Hernando Cortez conquered the Mexican city of Tenochtitlan (Mexico City) after an 85-day battle. Cuauhtemoc fought against Cortes in Tlatelolco when Moctezuma surrendered. Cortez had an Indian mistress named La Malinche. (NG, 6/1988, p.763)(AP, 8/13/97)(TL-MB, p.12)(WSJ, 8/13/97,p.A12)(WSJ, 4/24/98, p.A15) 1521 nend Aug 27, Josquin Des Prez, composer, died. (MC, 8/27/02) 1521 nend Aug 31, Spanish conqueror Cortez (1485-1547), having captured the city of Tenochtitlan, Mexico, set it on fire. Nearly 100,000 people died in the siege and some 100,000 more died afterwards of smallpox. In 2008 Buddy levy authored ?Conquistador: Hernan Cortes, King Montezuma, and the Last Stand of the Aztecs.? (HN, 8/31/98)(WSJ, 7/10/08, p.A13) 1521 nend Sep 28, Turkish sultan Suleiman I's troops occupied Belgrade. (MC, 9/28/01) 1521 nend Oct 11, Pope Leo X titled King Henry VIII of England "Defender of the Faith" in recognition of his writings in support of the Catholic Church. Henry had penned a defense of the seven Catholic Sacraments in response to Martin Luther?s Protestant reform movement. By 1534, Henry had broken completely with the Catholic Church, and the Pope?s authority in England was abolished. (TL-MB, p.12)(HNQ, 8/12/00)(MC, 10/11/01) 1521 nend Oct 24, Robert Fayrfax, composer, died at 57. (MC, 10/24/01) 1521 nend Oct 25, Emperor Charles V banned wooden buildings in Amsterdam. (MC, 10/25/01) 1521 nend Nov 19, Battle at Milan: Emperor Charles V's Spanish, German, and papal troops beat France and occupied Milan. An eight year war between France and the Holy Roman Emp., Charles V, began after the French supported rebels in Spain. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12)(MC, 11/19/01) 1521 nend Nov 20, Arabs attributed a shortage of water in Jerusalem to Jews making wine. (MC, 11/20/01) 1521 nend Lorenzo Lotto, Italian artist, painted the "Christ Bidding Farewell to His Mother." (WSJ, 1/15/98, p.A17) 1521 nend Suleiman I, the Ottoman Sultan, conquered Belgrade and invaded Hungary. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1521 nend The Chateau de Chenonceaux in the Loire Valley of France was built for the royal tax collector, Thomas Bohier. It took eight years to construct. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1521 nend The manufacture of silk cloth was introduced to France. It had been made in Sicily since the 1100s. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1521 nend In Puerto Rico the Caparra colony founded by Spanish conquistadores relocated to a barrier island at the entrance of San Juan Bay. (HT, 4/97, p.28)(TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1521 nend The first running of the bulls was held at Pamplona, Spain. [see 1591] (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1521 nend Francisco de Gordillo, Spanish explorer, sailed up the American Atlantic coast to South Carolina. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1521 nend Ponce de Leon returned to Key Marco in southwest Florida, where he was again repulsed by the Calusa Indians and died from an arrow wound. (AM, 11/04, p.49) 1521 nend Clipperton Island was originally discovered by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521, but was later named after John Clipperton, an English pirate who led a mutiny against William Dampier in 1704. Mexico occupied the island in 1897 and established a military outpost there. In 1930, the Vatican gave the rights to the King of Italy, Viktor Emanuel II, who declared one year later that Clipperton was a part of France. In 1944 US President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered the navy to occupy the island in one of the most secret US operations of WW II. After the war it was abandoned, and has since only been visited by the French Navy and an occasional scientific or amateur radio expedition. In 1989 Jimmy M. Skaggs authored "Clipperton: A History of the Island the World Forgot." (NH, 12/96, p.70)(www.qsl.net/clipperton2000/history.html) 1522 nend Feb 7, Treaty of Brussels: Habsburgers split into Spanish and Austrian Branches. (MC, 2/7/02) 1522 nend Mar 9-16, Marten Luther preached his Invocavit. (MC, 3/9/02) 1522 nend Apr 29, Emperor Charles V named Frans van Holly inquisitor-gen of Netherlands. (MC, 4/29/02) 1522 nend May 25, Emperor Karel I returned to Spain. (SC, 5/25/02) 1522 nend Aug 27, Giovanni A. Amadei (75), Amadeo, Italian sculptor, architect, died. (MC, 8/27/02) 1522 nend Sep 6, Juan Sebastian Elcano (Del Cano), Magellan?s second in command, returned to Spain with 18 men and one ship, the Vittorio, laden with spices. His coat of arms was augmented in reward with the inscription: Primus circumdisti me: "You were the first to encircle me."18 survivors of the original Magellan expedition completed the circumnavigation of the globe under Sebastian del Cano. Plumes of the bird of paradise from New Guinea were first brought back to Europe. One of the five ships that set out in Ferdinand Magellan's trip around the world made it back to Spain. Only 15 of the original 265 men that set out survived. Magellan was killed by natives in the Philippines. (V.D.-H.K.p.177-178)(SFEC, 11/10/96, zone 1 p.2)(TL-MB, 1988,p.12)(NH, 9/96, p.8)(HN, 9/6/98) 1522 nend Sep 8, Spanish navigator Juan de Elcano returned to Spain. He completed the 1st circumnavigation of globe, expedition begun under Ferdinand Magellan. [see Sep 6] (MC, 9/8/01) 1522 nend Oct 15, Emperor Charles named Hernan Cortes governor of Mexico. (MC, 10/15/01) 1522 nend Dosso Dossi painted "Allegory of Music." (WSJ, 1/20/98, p.A20) 1522 nend Martin Luther completed his translation of the New Testament into German and returned to Wittenberg. His supporter, Ulrich Zwingli, condemned Lenten fasting and celibacy. Luther also published his Christmas Postils as preaching models for other pastors. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12)(WSJ, 12/21/01, p.W15) 1522 nend A Bible was printed in Alcala, Spain, in Hebrew, Greek, Latin and Aramaic. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1522 nend Adrian VI was elected Pope. He was the last non-Italian pope until John Paul II. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1522 nend In 2007 The book "Beyond Capricorn" said a 16th century maritime map in a Los Angeles library vault, which accurately marks geographical sites along Australia's east coast in Portuguese, proves that Portuguese seafarer Christopher de Mendonca lead a fleet of four ships into Botany Bay in this year. (Reuters, 3/21/07) 1522 nend England declared war on France and Scotland. Holy Roman Emp. Charles V visited Henry VIII and signed the Treaty of Windsor. Both monarchs agreed to invade France. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1522 nend Suleiman I captured Rhodes from the Knights Hospitallers of St. John. The knights surrendered after a 6-month siege. In 1530 the knights were resettled on Malta by Charles V. (WSJ, 7/21/08, p.A11) 1522 nend Albrecht Durer, German artist and engraver, designed a flying machine for use in war. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1522 nend Guatemala was conquered by Spanish armies. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1522 nend A massive slave rebellion, the first of dozens, was crushed in Hispaniola. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1522 nend Martin Cortes (d.1569), son of Hernando Cortes, was born in Mexico to an Amerindian woman named Malinche. Cortes also named a 3rd son Martin, who was born in Spain. Both brothers were arrested in 1566 for purportedly fomenting a rebellion against the Spanish crown. (SSFC, 7/11/04, p.M3) 1522 nend The Portuguese crown began administering Sao Tome. (AP, 7/18/03) 1522 nend Pascual de Andagoya, Spanish explorer, became the first European to set foot in Peru. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1522 nend Gustavus Vasa became administrator of Sweden and pledged to free his country from Danish control. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1522 1524 Titian painted "Bacchanal of the Andrians" during this period. (WSJ, 8/3/06, p.D5) 1523 nend Jun 6, [Gustav] Gustavus Vasa was elected Gustavus I of Sweden. (HFA, '96, p.32)(TL-MB, 1988, p.12)(HN, 6/6/98) 1523 nend Jul 1, Hendrik Voes, Flemish priest, church reformer, was burned at stake along with John of Esschen, Flemish priest, church reformer. (MC, 7/1/02) 1523 nend Oct 27, English troops occupied Montalidier, France. (MC, 10/27/01) 1523 nend Nov 30, Amsterdam banned the assembly of heretics. (MC, 11/30/01) 1523 nend Titian painted "Bacchus and Ariadne," a heroic mythological composition for Alfonso d?Este, Duke of Ferrara. It is now at the London National Gallery. (TL-MB, p.12)(SFEC, 2/1/98, p.T8) 1523 nend Hans Holbein completed the first of several portraits of Erasmus in Basel. He also began the design of 51 plates on the "Dance of Death," which reflected ideas of the Reformation. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12)(WSJ, 6/24/97, p.A20) 1523 nend Hans Judenkonig published in Vienna the first manual of lute playing. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1523 nend Anthony Fitzherbert published the "Book of Husbandry," the first English manual of agriculture. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1523 nend Pope Adrian VI died and was succeeded by Pope Clement VII, nephew of Lorenzo de? Medici. Adrian VI was the last non-Italian Pope until 1978 when Cardinal Wojtyla, Archbishop of Cracow, became Pope Paul II. Clement was pope until 1534. (WUD, 1994, p.1691)(TL-MB, 1988, p.12)(WUD, 1994, p.276) 1523 nend Sugar was grown in Cuba for the first time. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1523 nend The first turkeys were introduced to Spain and Europe from America by the conquistadors. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12)(SFEC, 11/24/96, p.A3) 1523 nend Christian II was deposed in Denmark after a civil war and was exiled. His uncle became King Frederick I of Denmark and Norway. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1523 nend The first marine insurance policies were issued in Florence. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1523 nend The Ottoman Emperor Suleiman the Magnificent successfully overcame the Knights Hospitaller, Order of St. John, from their position on the island of Rhodes in the Aegean Sea. The Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, offered the Knights the Isle of Malta. In exchange for a perpetual lease the Knights undertook to send the emperor a falcon (made famous in the mystery novel, The Maltese Falcon, and the movie of the same name) once every year as a token of their fealty. They remained there until the time of Napoleon, and became known as the Knights of Malta. (WSJ, 12/30/94, A-6, Review of The Knights of Malta by H.J.A.Sire) 1523 nend Portuguese settlers were expelled from China. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1523 nend Sweden became independent and dropped out of the Kalmar Union, formed in 1397 with Denmark and Norway. (www.emersonkent.com/historic_documents/kalmar_union.htm) 1523 1524 Dosso Dossi painted "Jupiter, Mercury and Virtue." (WSJ, 1/20/98, p.A20) 1524 nend Mar 19, Giovanni de Verrazano of France sighted land around area of Carolinas. (MC, 3/19/02) 1524 nend Apr 17, Giovanni da Verrazano, Florentine navigator, reached present-day New York Harbor. He explored from Cape Fear to Newfoundland and discovered New York Bay and the Hudson River. He was later eaten by natives. (TL-MB, p.12)(HN, 4/17/98)(SFEM, 11/15/98, p.26)(AP, 4/17/08) 1524 nend Apr 19, Pope Clemens VII fired the Netherlands inquisitor-general French Van de Holly. (MC, 4/19/02) 1524 nend cApr, The Peasant?s War, in which Protestants fought against Catholics and demanded an end to feudal services and oppression by the landed gentry, broke out in Germany. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1524 nend Jul 26, James I became king of Scotland at age 12. (MC, 7/26/02) 1524 nend Aug 19, Emperor Charles V's troops besieged Marseille. (MC, 8/19/02) 1524 nend Nov 14, Pizarro began his 1st great expedition, near Colombia. (MC, 11/14/01) 1524 nend Dec 11, Henry Van Zutphen, Dutch Protestant martyr, was burned at stake. (MC, 12/11/01) 1524 nend Dec 24, Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama (~55), who had discovered a sea route around Africa to India, died in Cochin, India. He had served as Viceroy in India. Gama served under the patronage of Dom Manoel and at one time burned alive 380 men, women and children. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12)(AP, 12/24/97)(MC, 12/24/01)(SSFC, 3/10/02, p.M3) 1524 nend Albrecht Durer drafted a dozen drawings of the same face on a grid. Each grid was transformed as if it were printed on a rubber graph which was then bent and twisted to distort the normal proportions. Computerized morphing only came c1990. (MT, 10/94, p.9) 1524 nend Peter Bennewitz, German prof. of mathematics, produced the first textbook on theoretical geography: "Cosmographia." (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1524 nend Jan Wynken de Worde printed Robert Wakefield?s "Oration" using Italic type for the first time in English typography. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1524 nend Martin Luther and Johann Walther produced jointly a German hymnal: "Geistliche Lieder." (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1524 nend Aden became a tributary of Portugal. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1524 nend Hans Holbein the Elder (b. c1460), German-born artist, died in Eisenheim. (www.abcgallery.com/H/holbein/fholbeinbio.html) 1524 nend Pedro de Alvarado, a lieutenant of Cortez, marched into the Guatemalan highlands. He played the local Indian tribes against one another and won a major battle fought at a river in western Guatemala against warriors of the Quiche tribe led by Tecun Uman. (NG, 6/1988, p.790) 1524 nend Chevalier Bayard, commander of French forces in Lombardy, was killed and the French were driven out. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1524 nend Hernandez de Cordoba founded Granada, Nicaragua. The city, also known as La Gran Sultana (The Grand Sultan), is the oldest city in Central America. (SSFC, 4/10/05, p.F4) 1524 nend Denmark confirmed Swedish independence under Gustavus Vasa in the Treaty of Malmo. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1524 nend Shah Ismail, ruler of Persia, died. (www.britannica.com/eb/article-230075) 1524 nend Ulrich Zwingli abolished the Catholic mass in Zurich. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1524 1585 Pierre de Ronsard, established the use of the vernacular in French verse. (V.D.-H.K.p.143) 1524 1608 Giambologna, a sculptor from Florence. (WSJ, 2/1/96, p.A-16) 1525 nend Feb 24, In the first of the Franco-Habsburg Wars, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V captured the French king Francis I at the battle of Pavia, in Italy. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Pavia) 1525 nend Mar 20, The Paris parliament began the pursuit of Protestants (Papists proudly participated). (MC, 3/20/02) 1525 nend Apr 8, Albert von Brandenburg, the leader of the Teutonic Order, assumed the title "Duke of Prussia" and passed the first laws of the Protestant church, making Prussia a Protestant state. (HN, 4/8/99) 1525 nend May 7, The German peasants' revolt was crushed by the ruling class and church. (HN, 5/7/99) 1525 nend May 10, Church reformer John Pistorius was caught in the Hague. (MC, 5/10/02) 1525 nend May 14, A German army under Philip of Hesse surrounded and slaughtered 5,000 ending a peasant revolt led by Thomas Muntzer. (MC, 5/15/02)(PCh, 1992, p.173) 1525 nend May 17, Battle at Zabern: duke of Lutherans beat rebels. (MC, 5/17/02) 1525 nend May 27, Thomas Muntzer (28), German vicar, Boer leader, head of the German peasant revolt was beheaded. Some 150,000 peasants died in the uprising. (PCh, 1992, p.173)(MC, 5/27/02) 1525 nend Jul 19, The Catholic princes of Germany formed the Dessau League to fight against the Reformation. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13)(HN, 7/19/98) 1525 nend Aug 21, Estavao Gomes returned to Portugal after failing to f