# Timelines text-to-spreadsheet.ndf Script for processing http://Timelines.ws # www.BillHowell.ca 10Dec2011 # uses QNial programming language www.nial.com copyright of Nial Systems Limited and Queens University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada /home/bill/Howell - history timelines/Timelines text/Timelines 3300 BC - 1899 AD.txt start end Description references -3300 nend The beginning date of the Mayan calendar. (L.C.-W.P.p.2-3) -3300 nend Around this time the inhabitants of Sumer in present day Iraq adopted the practice of storing tokens in sealed clay jars. The tokens represented the counts of foodstuffs, livestock , and land. The stored tokens provided a more permanent record but required that jars be broken in order to examine the record. Then someone hit on the idea of making marks in the soft clay covers of the jars to represent the tokens inside. Archeological evidence shows that the marked jars led almost immediately to a system of marks on clay tablets. (I&I, Penzias, p.42) -3300 nend Archaic cylinder seals [of Sumeria] of this time were later collected by financier Pierpont Morgan. (SFC, 2/15/97, p.D1) -3300 nend In 1991 German hikers Erica and Helmut Simon found a well-preserved prehistoric corpse, dated to about this time. He was later named Oetzi (Frozen Fritz). He was found on Sep 19, 1991, in a glacier on the Hauslabjoch Pass, about 100 yards from Austria in northern Italy. It was kept at the Univ. of Innsbruck for study. In 1998 analysis indicated that the Ice Man had internal parasites and carried the woody fruit of a tree fungus as a remedy. Tattoos on the body were also found to be placed over areas of active arthritis. A flint arrow was also found in his back. In 2007 forensic researchers said he died either from hitting his head on a rock when he passed out or because his attacker hit him in the head. (SFC, 12/25/98, p.A4)(SFEC, 5/7/00, p.T4)(WSJ, 2/3/04, p.A1)(AP,8/29/07) -3300 -3200 In 1998 clay tablets were reported from this date from the tomb of an Egyptian king named Scorpion. The tablets had writing that recorded linen and oil deliveries as a tithe to the king. The tomb was in a cemetery at Gebel Tjauti in Suhag province, some 250 miles south of Cairo. Egyptologists John Coleman Darnell and wife Deborah discovered the tableau in 1995. (SFC, 12/15/98, p.C5)(SFC, 4/16/02, p.A4) -3300 -1000 The earliest known civilizations occupied the Aegean world. The Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations rose and fell over this period. (eawc, p.1) -3250 nend King Scorpion ruled Upper (southern) Egypt. Evidence of wine was found in his tomb and scientists believed it was produced in Jordan and transported by donkey and boat to Egypt. (AM, 5/01, p.54)(SFC, 10/27/05, p.A2) -3200 nend Semitic people come to the area around Byblos, Lebanon. It was then called Gebal and the people Giblites, who with flat axes cut timber from the mountains. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.174) c -3200 nend A white limestone vase was made depicting Sumerians offering gifts to the goddess Innin along with scenes of daily life in Uruk. It survived for thousands of years and came to be called the Sacred Vase of Warka. (SFC, 6/13/03, p.A12)(WSJ, 9/18/03, p.D6) -3200 nend Archeological evidence indicates that the Sumerians used wheeled transportation. (eawc, p.1) -3200 nend The Sumerians developed pictographic writing about this time. (SFEC, 11/14/99, p.A6) -3200 nend The National Museum of the American Indian in New York City has Valdivian female figurines from Ecuador that date back to 3200BC. (SFC, 12/4/94, p.T-3) -3200 -2500 Henges, enormous ditches enclosing circular constructs dating to this period, were enigmatic features of Neolithic and Bronze age Britain. In 2008 researchers dating cremated bones concluded that Stonehenge was initially established as a ?domain of ancestors,? and that burials were a major component in all its stages. (SFC,11/11/97, p.A12)(SFC, 5/30/08, p.A6) -3200 -2200 The Orkney Island village of Skara Brae was inhabited during this period. A huge storm in 1850 revealed its ruins. Inhabitants were settled farmers who ate sheep, cattle, grain and fish. (www.orkneyjar.com/history/skarabrae/)(SFEC, 3/23/97, p.T3) -3200 -2000 The Cycladic culture, a network of small, sometimes fortified farming and fishing settlements that traded with mainland Greece, Crete and Asia Minor, flourished during this period. It is best known for the elegant figurines: mostly naked, elongated figures with arms folded under their chests. It was eclipsed by Crete and Mycenaean Greece. (AP, 12/31/06) -3200 -1600 The Indus Valley civilization grew up along the banks of the Indus River in what is now Pakistan. The cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Dara showed the development of multi-level houses and city-wide plumbing. A natural disaster that altered the course of the Indus River appears to have brought about the collapse of this civilization. (eawc, p.1) -3100 nend Menes, the legendary first pharaoh of Egypt, ruled upper Egypt from Nekhen before he conquered lower Egypt and moved his capital to Memphis. (NG, May 1985, p.586) c -3100 nend The upper and lower kingdoms were united to form the 1st Dynasty of Egypt. The fertile Nile Valley and prevailing environmental conditions led to the formation of villages along the river?Upper Egypt in the south and Lower Egypt in the north. These villages grew into 'kingdoms' centered around Naqadah (later Hierakonopolis) in the south and Behdet (later Buto) in the delta. According to tradition, the upper and lower kingdoms were united into one centralized government by King Menes around 3100BC. However, modern scholars are unsure whether King Menes was actually several kings, including Narmer and Aha. Menes' reign lasted a substantial 62 years before being killed by a hippopotamus (again according to tradition). The 1st dynasty lasted until about 2890BC. (HNQ, 11/2/00) c -3100 nend In the protodynastic period of Egypt "Scorpion" ruled and was followed by Narmer. In 2002 Jan Assmann authored "The Mind of Egypt: History and Meaning in the Time of the Pharaohs. (R4,1998)(SSFC, 4/28/02, p.M4) -3100 nend Cuneiform writing emerged in Mesopotamia. The wedge-shaped characters were used to record the first epics in world history, including "Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta," and the first stories about "Gilgamesh." (eawc, p.1) -3100 nend Writing was related to Sumerian language. (V.D.-H.K.p.10) -3100 nend The first known incarnation of Stonehenge, the ancient stone monument in the south of England, is thought to have been built by native Neolithic peoples around this time. Archaeological interpretation of the site is primarily based on a series of modern excavations carried out since 1919. The studies have concluded that there were three different building periods representing markedly different materials and methods. Stonehenge I was primarily an earthen structure built by native Neolithic peoples using deer antlers as picks. Two entry stones were also placed to the northeast of the circle, one of which (the "Slaughter Stone") survives in the latest monument. (HNQ, 3/3/01) -3100 -2770 The Archaic Period of Egypt. Narmer united Egypt and hieroglyphic writing developed. (eawc, p.1) -3100 -2700 In Egypt the limestone "Stele of the Serpent King" has a bas-relief of a falcon in profile above a nearly abstract curving stroke of a snake. It is now in the French Louvre. (WSJ, 1/29/98, p.A16) -3063 nend In 2010 Swiss archaeologists in Zurich said they have unearthed a 5,000-year-old door that may be one of the oldest ever found in Europe. Using tree rings to determine its age, they believed the door could have been made in the year 3,063 BC, around the time that construction on Britain's world famous Stonehenge monument began. (AP, 10/20/10) c -3050 -2890 In Egypt Hor-Aha ruled and was followed by Djer, Djet, Den, Anedjib, Semerkhet, and Qa'a. These rulers comprised the 1st dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/egyptdynasties.html) -3022 nend In Peru the pyramids of Aspero on the Pacific coast dated to about this time. (AM, 7/05, p.20) c -3000 nend Evidence of human habitation in the Yosemite Valley of California. (SFEC, 5/18/97, Z1 p.4) -3000 nend In California radiocarbon tests indicated human habitation at the SF bay side foot of San Bruno Mountain back to this time. (SFEC,12/29/97, p.A13) c -3000 nend Bison Hunter villages around Middle Lake in Modoc Ct., Ca., were carbon-dated to this time. (SFEC, 5/10/98, p.T9) -3000 nend An earthen mound at what later was known as Watson Brake, La. in the US was dated to this time. (SFC, 9/19/97, p.A3) c -3000 nend Maize and other crops were introduced in the lowlands of what is now northern Belize. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.A) -3000 nend The use of coca in Bolivian culture can be traced back to at least this time. It is commonly called hoja sagrada, or sacred loaf. (SFC, 6/29/00, p.A12) -3000 nend In Britain timber temples were constructed about this time prior to stone circles. Remains of one was found in 1997 at Stanton Drew in Somerset that measured 443 feet on the outer diameter. (SFC,11/11/97, p.A17) -3000 nend In 2009 archeologists identified a site named "Bluehenge," dating to about this time, about a mile (2km) away from Stonehenge. It was named after the color of the 27 Welsh stones that were laid to make up a path. The stones were gone but the path of holes remained. (AP, 10/3/09) -3000 nend Chur, the capital of the Swiss canton of Graubunden, dates back to this time. (Wired, Dec. '95, p.76) -3000 nend The fishing village of Daixi at the eastern end of the Qutang Gorge in China is the site of a Neolithic culture from this time. (NH, 7/96, p.58) -3000 nend Ships transported timber from Byblos to Egypt. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.156) c -3000 nend Thoth developed the Egyptian calendar whose year begins with the autumn equinox. The year was divided into 12 months of 30 days with 5 or 6 days added at the end but not counted as a part of any month. (K.I.-365D) -3000 nend The Egyptians used reed brushes on papyrus to write hieroglyphics. (SFC, 7/26/04, p.F4)(K.I.-365D.p.31) c -3000 nend Ayurveda, a holistic Indian science, had its beginnings. It later taught that the balancing of the mind, spirit and body is the secret of health, vitality, longevity and beauty. (SFC, 4/25/00, p.C6) c -3000 nend Hatha Yoga, a combination of mind and body exercises, began in India about this time. (SSFC, 4/18/04, p.D16) -3000 nend The earliest 6-sided dice date to about this time from a site in northern Iraq. (WSJ, 10/27/06, p.W5) c -3000 nend In the area of present Lithuania at the end of the 3rd millennium a new wave of nomadic cattle-raisers moved in from the south and south-west and brought with them a corded pottery culture. (DrEE, 10/12/96, p.2) c -3000 nend In Macedonia the town of Ohrid was established on Lake Ohrid, the 2nd deepest lake in the world. (SFC, 8/9/99, p.A8) c -3000 nend A Neolithic temple at Mnajdra, Malta, dates to this time. (AM, 7/01, p.15) c -3000 nend The goddess as a cultural figure began losing power about this time as the process of reading and writing developed. In 1998 Dr. Leonard Shlain published "The Alphabet Versus the Goddess: The Conflict Between Word and Image." (SFC, 1/19/99, p.B1) c -3000 nend On the Orkney mainland the 12 Stones of Stennes were built about this time. (SFEC, 3/23/97, p.T3) c -3000 nend Gold and silver began to be refined via cupellation, a process that produces 300 parts lead for every part silver. (NH, 7/96, p.50) c -3000 nend Bituminous surface deposits were exploited in the Near East as early as this time. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.56) -3000 nend It is suspected by Earth scientists that the sun shone particularly brightly about this time. This episode is called the Altithermal, and may have contributed to the rise of the early civilizations. Another similar high heat episode occurs around 1000 CE. (NOHY, 3/90, p.127) c -3000 nend Scientists say that the weather changed about this time and that the first El Nino Pacific Ocean temperature flip occurred. Analysis of Peruvian coastal middens of this period indicated a diet change from tropical mollusks to cold water mollusks. The idea was first proposed in 1983 and evidence was added from Japan and Greenland. Skeptics claim that the change was due to mollusks harvested from now vanished warm water lagoons. (SFC, 9/13/96, p.E2) -30000 nend Urartu existed in eastern Anatolia starting about his time until it was defeated and destroyed by the Medes. (http://www.atmg.org/ArmenianFAQ.html#q6) c -3000 nend The Osceola mudflow from Mt. Rainier, Wa., struck. It was estimated to have been 60 times as massive as the 1985 mudflow in Columbia that killed 23,000 people. (SFEC, 11/10/96, p.A16) -3000 -2800 The Burckle Crater, an undersea crater, formed during this period by a very large scale comet or meteorite impact event. It is located to the east of Madagascar and west of Western Australia in the southern Indian ocean and is estimated to be about 30 km (18 mi) in diameter. In 2006 the Holocene Impact Working Group believed that it was created when a comet impacted in the ocean, and that enormous megatsunamis created the dune formations which later allowed the crater to be pin-pointed. As not only the Bible, but other ancient writings from various cultures make reference to a 'great flood', it is hypothesized that these legends are associated with this event. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burckle_Crater) -3000 -2500 On Malta the Tarxien phase is marked by the collapse of the temple culture. (AM, Jul/Aug '97 p.44) -3000 -2000 Bronze might have been invented in ancient Afghanistan around this time. True urban centers rose in two main sites in Afghanistan--Mundigak, and Deh Morasi Ghundai. Mundigak (near modern day Kandahar) had an economic base of wheat, barley, sheep and goats. Also, evidence indicates that Mudigak could have been a provincial capital of the Indus valley civilization. Ancient Afghanistan was a crossroads between Mesopotamia, and other Civilizations. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) -3000 -2000 Early Minoan civilization, centering around Crete, named after the legendary Cretan king. Early, middle, and late are periods divided by Sir Arthur Evans. Pottery was decorated with incised or pricked patterns filled in with white powdered gypsum to make a pattern on a black background up to this time. Early Minoan I began to make colored decoration. Ornament was restricted to simple geometrical patterns. The pottery was made without a wheel. In this period short, triangular daggers in copper are found. In Early Minoan II Pottery designs are more free and graceful, simple curves appear. The potter's wheel was introduced. Rude and primitive idols in marble, alabaster, and steatite are found, but the use of flint and obsidian was not wholly abandoned. Early Minoan III begins to show seals with a kind of hieroglyphic signs upon them, apparently imitated from Egyptian seals. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.15) -3000 -2000 In Scotland the Clava cairns, a mile from Culloden, are 3 sizable stone burial chambers encircled by stone monoliths. (SFEC,12/797, p.T4) -3000 -2000 Ebla, Syria, was a commercial capital of this era. In 1975 tens of thousands of cuneiform tablets were found that supported Ebla's role. (WSJ, 9/30/99, p.A26) -3000 -1700 In China?s Late Neolithic, Longshan period, a walled settlement existed at what was later called the Puchengdian Ruins of Henan province. (Arch, 1/05, p.12) -3000 -1500 The city of Harappa flourished as part of the Indus Valley civilization in Pakistan. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.A) -3000 1200 C The Bronze Age. (MT, 3/96, p.5) -2980 nend Egypt?s tomb of King Den, dated to about this time, was later found to show evidence of mummification. (AM, 9/01, p.13) -2890 -2686 This is the period of Egypt?s 2nd Dynasty. Hotepsekhemwy ruled and was followed by Raneb, Nynetjer, Weneg, Seth-Peribsen and Khasekhemwy. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) c -2850 nend In China Emperor Fushi decreed that people would be identified with a formal family name as well as a familiar first name. (SFEC, 5/18/97, Z1 p.6) -2800 nend The Bronze Age began. (WH, 1994, p.12) c -2800 nend In Britain Stonehenge Phase I saw the construction of the henge's bank and ditch. A pair of upright stones formed a ceremonial entrance with a larger stone opposite. 56 small pits encircled the whole area. (HT, 3/97, p.22) -2800 nend In Cyprus the town of Palaepaphos, 11 miles inland from modern Paphos, was founded about this time. It later became the site of a temple of Aphrodite, the ancient goddess of beauty who, according to mythology, was born in the sea off Paphos. (AP, 3/21/06) -2772 nend In Egypt the 365 day calendar was introduced. (eawc, p.1) -2750 nend Gilgamesh, a Sumerian King, ruled the city of Uruk (Babylonia) about this time, which had grown to a population of over 50,000. Gilgamesh was the subject of many epics, including the Sumerian "Gilgamesh and Enkidu in the Nether World" and the Babylonian "Epic of Gilgamesh." In 1844 Westerners discovered an epic poem based on Gilgamesh on stone fragments in Mosul, Iraq. In 1853 clay tablets inscribed with the tale were found in Nineveh, the former capital of Assyria. 5 Sumerian versions were later acknowledged. George Smith completed his translation of the Epic in 1874. In 2004 Stephen Mitchell published ?Gilgamesh: A New English Translation.? Derek Hines authored ?Gilgamesh.? (eawc, p.1)(SFC, 12/14/04, p.E4)(ON, 11/07, p.4,6)(Arch, 5/05, p.16) c -2750 nend Queen Paubi lived in the city of Ur in Mesopotamia. (WSJ, 3/15/00, p.A24) c -2750 nend In the Orkney Islands a chambered tomb, Maes Howe, near the Stones of Stennes was constructed. It also exhibits a collection of stone carved Viking runes. The tomb was vandalized and rebuilt in 9th century Norse times. (SFEC, 3/23/97, p.T3)(SFEM, 10/10/99, p.24) -2737 nend Chinese emperor Shen Neng prescribed marijuana tea to treat gout, rheumatism, malaria and poor memory. (WSJ, 2/8/05, p.D7) -2700 nend The Chinese developed India ink, mixing soot from pine smoke and lamp oil with gelatin of donkey skin and musk. (SFC, 7/26/04, p.F4) -2700 nend Domesticated maize in Mexico goes back to this time. (SFEC, 4/18/99, Z1 p.2) -2700 -2200 In southern Russia a group of Novotitarovskaya steppe nomads roamed the Caucasus. (Arch, 9/00, p.12) -2700 -700 The Harappan civilization flourished in the Indus and Ganges valleys. (Reuters, 3/15/06) -2698 nend The beginning of the Chinese calendar. Feb 19,1996 begins the Year of the Rat and the year 4694. (enRoute, 2/96, p.24)(SFEC, 2/2/97, DB. p.7) -2686 -2181 This is the period of Egypt?s 3rd Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2686 -2668 Sanakhte, the older brother of Djoser, founded Egypt?s 3rd Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2686 -2181 Chairs in the early dynasties of Egypt stood on what looked like animals' legs. Low reliefs of Egypt?s Old Kingdom, now in the French Louvre, enumerate an ideal meal to be taken to a tomb. (SFC, 5/11/96, p.E-4)(WSJ, 1/29/98, p.A16) -2668 -2649 Djoser (Dzoser, Zoser) was the 2nd ruler of Egypt?s 3rd Dynasty. The first step pyramid was designed for Dzoser by Imhotep. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2650 -2180 Egyptian wall paintings included information on beer production. In 2004 Japan?s Kirin Brewery produced a beer dubbed ?The Old Kingdom Beer.? (WSJ, 10/14/04, p.A1) -2649 -2643 Sekhemkhet was the 3rd ruler of Egypt?s 3rd Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2643 -2637 Khaba was the 4th ruler of Egypt?s 3rd Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2637 -2613 Huni was the 5th ruler of Egypt?s 3rd Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2627 nend Parts of Caral, a city in the Supe Valley of Peru, was built about this time. The 170-acre site, 14 miles from the coast, was discovered in 1905 but not dated till 2001. The city had pyramids up to 70 feet tall and its population was believed to have reached about 3,000. (SFC, 4/27/01, p.A3)(SFC, 6/15/01, p.D6)(AM, 7/05, p.19,25) -2620 -2500 A polychrome stele of Egyptian Princess Nefertiabet depicts her dining in a one-shoulder leopard-skin gown. It is now in the French Louvre. (WSJ, 1/29/98, p.A16) -2620 -2500 An Egyptian painted limestone statue of a "Seated Scribe" dates to this period. It is now in the French Louvre. (WSJ, 1/29/98, p.A16) -2613 -2589 Snefru (Snofru), son of Huni, was the 1st king of Egypt?s 4th Dynasty. Snefru?s scribes left a description of 40 ships bearing timber arriving to Egypt from Byblos. On Mar 9,1925, the Egyptian Ministry of Public Works announced the discovery of the 5,000-year-old tomb of King Sneferu. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.156)(HN,3/9/98)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2601 nend In Egypt Nik?ure, the son of a pharaoh, died and left what was later recognized as the oldest Last Will and Testament. "Being of sound mind and body?" He left his wealth to his wife, 3 children and to another woman. (SFEC, 8/6/00, Z1 p.2) c -2600 nend Tombs of the priest Kai were built about this time in Egypt. In 1999 they were found in a cemetery west of Cheop's pyramid. (SFC, 5/27/99, p.A18) -2600 -2500 British archeologists reported in 2007 that houses found at Durrington Walls near Stonehenge, the world's largest known henge (an enclosure with a bank on the outside and a ditch inside), were radiocarbon dated to this time. (AFP, 1/30/07) -2600 -1900 The Indus Valley Civilization flourished with Harappa as one of its great cities. Undeciphered Indus Valley script on inscribed seals and molded tablets have been found there. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.C) -2589 -2566 Khufu (Cheops), son of Snefru and Queen Hetepheres, ruled as the 2nd king of Egypt?s 4th dynasty. Khufu built the Great Pyramid. It rose about 100 feet. Two more were built for his 2 wives, Henutsen and Meryetes. Laborers reportedly went on strike to get a daily ration of garlic. (eawc, p.1)(SFC, 1/3/98, p.A8)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2550 nend In 2006 a scientist proposed that beginning about this time Egyptians started to use cast concrete in their pyramids. His evidence was taken from samples of the Khufu pyramid. The proposal was controversial in that concrete was later used to restore pyramids. (SFC, 12/1/06, p.A12) -2550 -2400 The "Standard of Ur," a tapered box with rows of people depicting a battle and its aftermath, was made about this time. (WSJ, 5/22/03, p.D8) -2566 -2558 Djedefre (Radjedef) succeeded his father Khufu and ruled as the 3rd king of Egypt?s 4th Dynasty (2528BC-2520BC). (R4,1998)(Arch, 7/02, p.9)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2558 -2532 Khafre ruled as the 4th king of Egypt?s 4th dynasty. His pyramid is the 2nd largest on Egypt?s Giza Plateau. The Sphinx was built under his rule. In 1996 a 4,500 year-old perfectly intact alabaster statue of Pharaoh Khaefre was part of a 1996 show on loan from Cairo at St. Petersburg, Florida. In 2002 Christine Zivie-Coche authored "Sphinx: History of a Monument." (WSJ, 1/16/96, p. A-16)(WSJ, 1/10/03,p.W7)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2532 -2504 Menkaure ruled, son of Khafre, as the 5th king in Egypt?s 4th dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2504 -2500 Shepseskaf, son of Menkaure, ruled as the 6th king in Egypt?s 4th dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) c -2500 nend Aryan followers of King Yama crossed the Aoxus River from Central Asia into Tajikistan and created a new calendar with the new year (Now Roz, Now-Ruz) marked by spring. This was later celebrated by people in Iran and Afghanistan. (SSFC, 3/31/02, p.A22) c -2500 nend African settlers came to the Canary Islands about this time and brought with them a whistling language later known as "silbo Gomero." (SFC, 11/14/03, p.D5) -2500 nend Cycladic figurines on the islet of Keros were deliberately smashed around this time. In 2006 new research led scientists to believe that Keros was a hugely important religious site where the smashed artwork was ceremoniously deposited. The sea-faring Cycladic culture consisted of a network of small, sometimes fortified, farming and fishing settlements that traded with mainland Greece, Crete and Asia Minor. It became renowned for its elegant flat-faced marble figurines. (SFC, 1/10/06, p.D7)(AP, 12/31/06) -2500 nend A 330-foot-tall Egyptian pyramid was erected about this time and came to be known as the ?Bent? pyramid, located outside the village of Dahshur. In 2009 travelers were given access to its inner chambers. (SFC, 3/17/09, p.A2) -2500 nend A flute made of vulture bone from this time is on exhibit at the Paris Museum of Music. (SFEC, 9/14/97, p.T7) -2500 nend Wooden sandals represent the oldest shoes on exhibit in Toronto at the Bata Shoe Museum, and are from an Egyptian tomb estimated to be 4,500 years old. (SFE, 10/1/95, p.T-10) c -2500 nend The tomb of an Egyptian child from about this time was found to contain toys that included miniature pins and balls and a wicket, the first evidence of bowling. (SFC, 7/28/97, p.A3) -2500 nend The first signs of human habitation at Trier (Germany) date to this time. (SFEC, 4/30/00, p.T8) c -2500 nend In India excavations in 2000 revealed a walled city of the middle 3rd millennium at the Dholavira site in Gujarat state. (AM, 11/00, p.22) -2500 nend The Jiroft culture (later Assyria, Persia, southeastern Iran) flourished about this time. (Arch, 5/04, p.51) -2500 nend On Malta by about his time the megalithic temples were no longer in use. (AM, Jul/Aug '97 p.47) -2500 nend In 2006 researchers reported a 4,500-year-old burial in Mexico that showed front teeth ground down so they could be mounted with animal teeth. It was the oldest example of dental work in the Americas. (SFC, 6/14/06, p.A2) -2500 nend The Nuraghic Civilization thrived in Sardinia. (SFEC, 1/30/00, p.T4) -2500 nend Troy II, the second oldest discernible settlement on the site of the mound of Hissarlik in northwest Turkey, a good 1200 years before the estimated date of the Trojan War. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.49) -2500 nend By this time the Sahara desert looked much as it does today. (ATC, p.109) -2500 -2000 The Magan-period of Oman. Numerous slag heaps and third millennium remains from mining and smelting have been found at the oasis village of Maysar in central-eastern Oman. Magan supplied copper ingots to the seafaring merchants of southern Mesopotamia. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.49)(Arch, 9/00, p.48) -2500 -2000 Scotland?s Ring of Brogar in Orkney?s West Mainland dates to about this time. In 2005 36 of the original 60 stones remained standing. The original stones stood in a perfect circle 340 feet in diameter. (SFEC, 3/23/97, p.T3)(SSFC, 11/13/05, p.F10) -2500 -1500 Cities flourished in the Indus Valley. (WH, 1994, p.12) -2500 -1500 Mohenjo-Daro in southern Pakistan was an early urban center. As many as 40,000 people lived there (AM, May/Jun 97 p.74)(AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.D) -2500 -1300 In the Dhofar region of Oman, a fortress was built at Shisur next to a permanent spring and used up to 1500CE. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.52) -2500 -800 The Saqqaq people, the earliest known culture in southern Greenland, thrived over this period. In 2010 scientists sequenced the DNA from four frozen hairs of a Greenlander who lived among the Saqqaq around 2,000BC. He appeared to have originated in Siberia and was unrelated to modern Greenlanders. (Reuters, 2/10/10) -2498 -2491 Userkaf, grandson of Djedefre, ruled as the 1st king of Egypt?s 5th dynasty. He built a pyramid complex at Saqqara. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty5.html) -2494 nend Pharaoh Khafre, builder of the second largest of the Giza Pyramids, died around this time. (AP, 10/18/10) -2491 -2477 Sahure ruled as the 2nd king of Egypt?s 5th dynasty. He built a pyramid complex at Abusir. He established an Egyptian navy and sent a fleet to Punt and traded with Palestine. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty5.html) -2477 -2467 Neferirkare, brother of Sahure, ruled as the 3rd king of Egypt?s 5th dynasty. In 1893 local farmers discovered hieratic papyrus at his pyramid complex consisting of some 300 fragments. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty5.html) -2467 -2460 Shepseskare ruled in Egypt, according to the Turin King-list, for 7 years. Some seal impressions dated to his reign have been found at Abusir. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2460 -2453 Neferefre ruled as the 5th king of Egypt?s 5th Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2450 nend The Troy treasure discovered by Heinrich Schliemann in 1873 was dated to a Bronze Age Troy of about this time. (SFC, 4/16/96, p.A-9) -2453 -2422 Niusserre (Nyuserre) ruled as the 6th king of Egypt?s 5th dynasty. In 1893 local farmers discovered hieratic papyrus at his pyramid complex consisting of some 300 fragments. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2422 -2414 Menkauhor ruled as the 7th king of Egypt?s 5th dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2414 -2375 Djedkare ruled at the end of the 6th dynasty. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/04_06/05.html) c -2400 nend A site at Chien-kou near Handan of China's Longshan culture shows strong evidence of warfare between communities. (NH, Jul, p.30) c -2400 nend In Egypt the bas-reliefs lining the Mastaba of Akhethetep depict the rural life of a prosperous landowner. The chapel is in the French Louvre. (WSJ, 1/29/98, p.A16) -2400 nend Dagan, a name that appears in early Mesopotamia, and that enters into the composition of proper names in Babylonia about this time. Dagan was later a name for head of the Philistine pantheon. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.99, p.104) -2400 nend The Mesopotamian city of Nagar (in northeastern Syria) became the powerful state of Nagar about this time. (MT, summer 2003, p.11) -2400 -2200 Archeologists in 2008 said evidence from Stonehenge dating to this period indicated that the site was used as a place of pilgrimage for the sick. (WSJ, 9/23/08, p.A26) -2400 -1500 Late Danish Neolithic: In the Ertebolle Culture amber pendants were shaped as animals. This includes the Dagger Period of Northern Europe. (PacDis, Winter/?97, p.8)(http://tinyurl.com/9usqn) -2375 -2345 Unas ruled at the end of Egypt?s 6th dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2355 -2195 This is the period of Egypt?s 6th Dynasty. (AM, 7/05, p.14) c -2350 nend Akhethetep, a high ranking official, lived about this time. His mastaba tomb is located in Saqqara, Egypt. (AM, 11/04, p.72) -2348 nend Jul 17, "My Bible also revealed that Noah came ashore on Mt. Ararat on the 17th day of the seventh month, 2348BC." In 1999 William Ryan and Walter Pitman authored "Noah's Flood: The New Scientific Discoveries about the Event That Changed History." They demonstrate how the rising Mediterranean broke through a natural dam in the Bosporus Strait and flooded a freshwater lake that expanded into the Black Sea. [see 5,600BC] (NG, Nov. 1985, edit., p.559)(NH, 12/98, p.13) -2348 nend Nov 25, Biblical scholars have long asserted this to be the day of the Great Deluge, or Flood. [see Jul 17, 2348] (HN, 11/25/98) -2345 -2333 Teti ruled Egypt as the 1st king of the 6th dynasty. In 2008 archeologists discovered a pyramid in Saqqara dating to about this time. It was said to belong to Queen Sesheshet, the mother of King Teti. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm)(AP, 11/11/08) -2345 -2181 In Egypt the "Striding Figure of Meryrahashtef," a 22.5 inch nude statue of a minor 6th dynasty official, was made. (WSJ, 1/16/02, p.A14)(Arch, 9/02, p.61) -2334 -2279 Sargon I (2371BC-2315BC) founded and ruled the city-state of Akkad, after he left the city of Kish where he was an important official. He was the first ruler to maintain a standing army. His empire lasted less than 200 years. (http://tinyurl.com/ctv5f) -2333 nend Userkare ruled in the 6th dynasty of Egypt between Teti and Pepi. He is believed to be a proponent of the group that killed Teti. (www.ancient-egypt.org/kings/0602_userkare/history.html) -2333 nend Go-Chosun (Kojoson) refers to the Korean Empire founded by Tangun in 2333 BC that succeeded the first kingdoms of Hwan Gook (7,197 BC) and Bae Dal (3,898 BC) (also known as Gu Ri). The people of Go-Chosun were referred to by the Chinese as "the eastern bowmen." Chosun means "The Land of the Morning Calm." (www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=Chosun)(Econ, 3/31/07, SR p.8) -2332 -2283 Pepi I ruled as the 3rd king of the 6th dynasty. A pyramid of Queen Ankh-sn-Pepi, wife of Pepi I, was discovered in 2000. The "Pair Statue of Queen Ankh-Nes-Meryre II and her son Pepi II Seated" was part of an Egyptian show on view at the NY Met in 1999. (WSJ, 9/21/99, p.A24)(SFC, 4/3/00,p.A10)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2320 nend Sargon conquered the independent city-states of Sumer and instituted a central government. (eawc, p.2) c -2300 nend Phoenicians, a seafaring people, began living along the Levantine coast. (SFC, 6/24/99, p.A14) -2300 nend Sumerian cuneiform texts mention the land of Magan (possibly Oman) as a source of copper and diorite for the states of Mesopotamia. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.49) -2300 nend A culture traceable to Siberian ancestors made its way eastward across Alaska and through the Arctic to Ellesmere Island's Bache Peninsula. From there Greenland lies just 25 miles across open water in summer or solid sea ice in winter. (NG, 6/1988, 762) -2300 nend The Hmong people lived on the central plains of China. The gradually moved to the mountains of Indochina and Burma and then to Laos and Thailand. (SFC, 6/9/96, DB p.2) -2300 nend A civilization later called the Bactria Margiana Archeology Complex existed about this time in what later became Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Evidence of writing was found at the Annau ruins in 2000. (SSFC, 5/13/01, p.A12) -2300 nend Cultural exchange began between the Indus Valley civilization and Mesopotamia. (eawc, p.2) -2291 -2254 Naram-Sin ruled Akkad. He defeated a rebel coalition in Sumer and re-established Akkadian power. He re-conquered Syria, Lebanon, and the Taurus mountains, destroying Aleppo and Mari in the process. During his reign the Gutians sacked the city of Agade and eventually destroyed all of Sumer (southern Iraq). During his reign Naram-Sin campaigned against the region of Magan (Oman). (http://tinyurl.com/ctv5f) -2278 -2184 Pepi II ruled in Egypt as the last king of the 6th dynasty and the last significant king of the Old Kingdom. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2183 nend Merenre II followed Pepi II as ruler of Egypt. He ruled for just over a year and was murdered. Nitocris, his sister-wife, took rule. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty6.html) -2183 -2180 Nitocris (Nitiqret), the wife-sister-wife of Merenre, rule Egypt. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty6.html) -2254 -2230 Shar-Kali-Sharri, son of Naram-Sin, ruled Akkad. He fought to preserve the realm but it disintegrated under rebellion and invasion. (http://tinyurl.com/ctv5f) -2205 -1766 In China the Hsia Dynasty unfolded. No archeological evidence has confirmed this. [see 2100BC-1600] (eawc, p.2) -2200 nend In what is now Bahrain settlements and temples of the city state of Dilmun, known as the city of the gods in ancient Sumerian literature, were found by Danish archaeologists in the 1950s. A culture contemporary with the city state of Dilmun (now Bahrain) was found in 1959 on the island of Umm-an-Nar off of Abu Dhabi. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.48) -2200 nend In Greece Indo-European invaders, speaking the earliest form of Greek, entered the mainland. (eawc, p.2) -2200 nend In the Peruvian Andes a native culture built a 33-foot pyramid about this time with an observatory marking the summer and winter solstices. In 2006 archeologists working at the Buena Vista site believed that fisherman from the coast had moved to the site to grow cotton for making fishing nets. (SFC, 5/15/06, p.A2) -2200 nend A statue of the Sumerian king Entemena of Lagash was made about this time. The head was later lost and in 2003 the remaining body was looted after the fall of Baghdad. In 2006 it was returned to Iraq?s National Museum. (SFC, 7/26/06, p.A3) -2183 -2181 Nitocris (Nitiqret), the wife-sister-wife of Merenre, ruled Egypt. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty6.html) -2181 -2161 Egypt?s 7th and 8th dynasties ruled during this period. Wadjkare ruled in Egypt?s 7th dynasty and was followed by Qakare. Eusebius has a 7th Dynasty that consisted of five kings of Memphis, who reigned for 75 days and an Eighth Dynasty that consisted of five kings of Memphis, who reigned for 100 years. no_source -2181 -2040 Egypt?s First Intermediate Period. It began with the collapse of the Old Kingdom due to crop failure and low revenues due to pyramid building projects. This seemed to coincide with a period of cooling and drying. (eawc, p.2)(Econ, 12/20/03, p.114)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2160 -2140 Egypt?s 9th and 10th Dynasties ruled over this period from the capital at Herakleopolis. Pharaohs included Meryibre, Merykare, Kaneferre, and Nebkaure. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2145 nend Idin-Dagan, a king of Babylonia. and his son Isme-Dagan. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.104) -2137 nend Oct 22, This is the date of the earliest recorded eclipse according to the Shu King, the book of historical documents of ancient China. Two royal astronomers, Hsi and Ho, failed in their duties to predict the eclipse due to too much rice wine and were executed. (SCTS, p.27) -2134 -2117 Intef I (Antef I) ruled in Egypt?s 11th Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2134 -1991 Period of Egypt?s 11th Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2130 nend By this time Sumer regained its independence from Akkadian rule but did not revert to independent city-states. Sumer was ruled from Ur. (eawc, p.2) -2117 -2069 Intef II (Antef II) ruled in Egypt?s 11th Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2113 nend Ur's golden century began when King Ur-Nammu expanded the Sumerian empire and made his capital the wealthiest city in Mesopotamia. Ur-Namma was the founder of the Third Dynasty of Ur. He made sure Magan (Oman) boats could freely come and go from Ur?s harbor. (AP, 4/15/03)(Arch, 9/00, p.46) -2100 nend Byblos ( Pre-Phoenician city) was burned to the ground probably by the Amorites. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.156) -2100 nend The Sumerian King List was written. It recorded all the kings and dynasties ruling Sumer from the earliest times. Eridu was named as the earliest settlement and archeological evidence seems to confirm the claim. (eawc, p.2) -2100 nend Gudeo served as governor of Lagash (Iraq). (Arch, 9/00, p.46) c -2100 nend Stonehenge Phase II incorporated 60 "bluestones" from the Preseli Mountains in southwest Wales, about 135 miles away. 90 bluestones were set up in a horseshoe shape within a circle of another 60. Some 500 years after Stonehenge I fell into disuse, builders created a radically different Stonehenge with dozens of stone pillars weighing up to 4 tons. (HT, 3/97, p.22)(SSFC, 12/24/00, p.T5)(HNQ, 3/3/01) -2100 nend Amorites came from the Arabian peninsula and were the first important Semitic settlers in the area of Damascus. They established many small states. (SFEC, 11/21/99, p.A26) c -2100 -1900 In Stonehenge Phase III the builders encircled the bluestones with sarsen stones, a sandstone (probably from a quarry in Avebury, 20 miles away). These were topped by caps and the bluestones were re-arranged and dug into the ground. The axis of the circle was also re-calculated so that one way Stonehenge points to the summer solstice at sunrise and lined up the other way it points to the winter solstice at sunset. (HT, 3/97, p.22)(SD) -2100 -1600 Xia Dynasty of China. The Ba people controlled salt production on the Yangtze River. They then slowly migrated upstream and in 316BC were subjugated by the Qin. Fuling was a burial site for the kings of Ba. Fengdu was the first capital of Ba. The 1996 Tujia minority claim descent from the Ba. (NH, 7/96, p.31) -2100 -1600 The protohistoric Xia period. [see 2205-1766] (WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20) -2100 -2000 Some 15,000 tiny Golden rings, estimated at 4,100 to 4,200 years old, were found in 2005 near Dabene, Bulgaria. They were attributed to proto-Thracians, ancestors of the Thracians, who lived in the area until they were assimilated by invading Slavs in the 8th century. (SFC, 8/17/05, p.A2) -2070 nend In China the Xia period began according to results from government funded studies in 2000 CE. This was about the middle of the prehistoric Longshan culture. (SFC, 11/10/00, p.D4) -2069 -2060 Intef III (Antef III) ruled in Egypt?s 11th Dynasty for 8 years. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2068 nend Shulgi, king of Ur, accepted gold from the king of Magan (Oman). (Arch, 9/00, p.47) -2060 -2010 Mentuhotep II (Nebhetepre), son of Theban Inteff III, ruled for about 39-51 years in Egypt?s 11th Dynasty. (http://tinyurl.com/9nr3e)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2040 -1782 In Egypt the period of the Middle Kingdom began with its capital at Thebes. It lasted to 1782BC. About this time "The Plea of the Eloquent Peasant" was written calling for a benevolent ruler. (eawc, p.2)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2013 nend Sumerians built the Ziggurat at Ur (later Iraq) to draw closer attention to the god of the moon. (SSFC, 4/25/04, Par p.5) -2010 -1998 Mentuhotep II, son of Mentuhotep I, ruled in the 11th Dynasty of Egypt for about 12 years. (http://tinyurl.com/b97e3)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -2000 nend The first agricultural tribes appeared on the Bactrian Plain (Afghanistan). (NG, 3/90, p.62) -2000 nend Bronze-age mounds from this time in Turkman SSR indicate that Central Asians built cities around oases and developed a flourishing civilization with monumental architecture, sophisticated gold and silver craft, and irrigation agriculture. (NG, 3/90) c -2000 nend At Arbor Low in Derbyshire, England, a Bronze Age stone circle was constructed. (SFEM, 10/11/98, p.21) c -2000 nend Silbury Hill, located on the prehistoric site of Avebury (named after nearby Avebury, England), is the largest prehistoric mound in Europe. The artificial hill, which rises up 130 feet, was constructed over three separate phases beginning at least 4,000 years ago. Although the shape of the mound is similar to smaller earthen constructions used for burials, its purpose remains a mystery. (HNQ, 6/8/01) -2000 nend The initial phase of what scientists call Stonehenge III was begun about 100 years after Stonehenge II with the lentil structure familiar to modern visitors. The builders continued improvements on Stonehenge III up until about 1550BC, well before historical records of the Druids or the Romans. Both Stonehenge and a neighboring circular monument were added to UNESCO's World Heritage List--a listing of cultural and natural sites--in 1986. (HNQ, 3/3/01) -2000 nend For as many as 4,000 years, the salty sand of the Taklimakan Desert in China held well-preserved mummies wearing colorful robes, boots, stockings and hats. The people were Caucasian not Asian. The bodies have been exhumed from the Tarim Basin of Xinjiang province since the late 1970s. (SFC, 5/6/96, p.C-1) -2000 nend Balathal, outside the city of Udaipur in northeast India, was a Chalcolithic village. The people used copper tools and weapons. Terra-cotta figurines of bulls have been found at the site. It was abandoned and reoccupied c340BC. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.B) -2000 nend Legends from Mecca indicate that the prophet Abraham built the Kaaba about this time. The Kaaba is a shrine meaning cube in Arabic, that enclosed the idols of their gods. Religious rituals were performed around the Kaaba which had a black stone embedded into a corner, said to be a gift to Abraham from the angel Gabriel for his belief in one god. By CE 500 more than 360 idols were housed within the Kaaba. (ATC, p.57) -2000 nend About this time the Egyptians domesticated the cat in order to catch snakes. Advances in astronomy enabled the Egyptians to predict the annual flooding of the Nile. (eawc, p.2) c -2000 nend An Egyptian painting on an interior tomb wall depicted 6 men scrubbing, wringing and folding a cloth. (SFC, 10/11/97, p.E3) -2000 nend It was later believed that emeralds were first mined in Egypt about this time. (WSJ, 2/7/07, p.A12) -2000 nend By this time Baltic amber reached the Mediterranean and was found in ancient Mycenaean shaft graves. (PacDis, Winter/'97, p.10) -2000 nend The Timucuan Indians lived on Cumberland Island, Georgia, back to this time. (Sky, 4/97, p.43) -2000 nend The Hittites lived around what is now Cappadocia. They mixed with the already-settled Hatti and were followed by the Lydians, Phrygians, Byzantines, Romans and Greeks. The name Cappadocia comes from the Hittite for "land of pretty horses." (SFEC, 9/14/97, p.T14) c -2000 nend In India Tantra, a quasireligious doctrine, dates back to this time. Its first texts were in Sanskrit and the original adherents practiced ritual copulation. (WSJ, 12/7/98, p.A1) -2000 nend The Ikom monoliths in Nigeria, phallic-shaped pieces of volcanic rock largely ignored for centuries, were said to date back to about this time. In 2007 they were added to the World Monuments Fund's (WMF) list of sites in danger and are on the "tentative" list for possible inclusion in UNESCO's World Heritage Site list. (AFP, 12/26/07) -2000 nend In 2007 a temple dating to about this time was unearthed on the northern coast of Peru, making it one of the oldest finds in the Americas. The mural filled temple, called Ventarron, sits in the Lambayeque valley, near the ancient Sipan complex unearthed in the 1980s. (AP, 11/11/07) -2000 nend In 2008 researchers reported that the earliest known gold jewelry made in the Americas had been discovered in southern Peru. The gold necklace, made nearly 4,000 years ago, was found in a burial site near Lake Titicaca. (AP, 3/31/08) c -2000 nend The Sumerian goddess Inanna was a fertility figure. (SFEC, 9/27/98, BR p.7) c -2000 nend A palace was built at Qatanah, 12 miles south of Damascus, Syria, that was discovered in 1999. (SFEC, 11/21/99, p.A6) -2000 -1790 The wooden statue of chancellor Nakhti and carved face of governor Hapidjefai date to Egypt?s Middle Kingdom. They are now in the French Louvre. (WSJ, 1/29/98, p.A16) -2000 -1600 In Mesopotamia the Old Babylonian period began after the collapse of Sumer, probably due to an increase in the salt content of the soil that made farming difficult. Weakened by poor crops and lack of surplus goods, the Sumerians were conquered by the Amorites, situated in Babylon. The center of civility shifted north. The Amorites preserved much of the Sumerian culture but introduced their own Semitic language, an early ancestor to Hebrew, into the region. (eawc, p.2) -2000 -1600 The Middle Minoan period. Middle Minoan I finds polychrome decoration in pottery with elaborate geometrical patterns; we also discover interesting attempts to picture natural forms, such as goats and beetles. There then follows some great catastrophe. Middle Minoan II includes the period of the great palace of Phaestos and the first palace of Knossos. This period also includes the magnificent polychrome pottery called Kamares ware. Another catastrophe occurs. The second great palace of Knossos was built and begins the Middle Minoan III. It was distinguished by an intense realism in art, speaking clearly of a rapid deterioration in taste. Pictographic writing was clearly developed, with a hieratic or cursive script derived from it, adapted for writing with pen and ink. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.17) -2000 -1600 In Oman a transitional culture known as early Wadi Suq. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.49) -2000 -1500 The events of the Indian Ramayana epic, written around 500BC, supposedly took place about this time period. (AM, 7/04, p.50) -2000 -1550 The Babylonians built an empire. (WH, 1994, p.12) -2000 -1500 In Greece the Minoan civilization, named after the Cretan ruler Minos, reached its height with central power in Knossos on the isle of Crete. The culture was apparently more female-oriented and peaceful than others of the time. (eawc, p.2) -2000 -1000 Early preclassic period of the Maya. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.B) -2000 -1000 In Italy Indo-Europeans slowly began to inhabit the north by way of the Alps. They brought the horse, the wheeled cart, and artistic knowledge of bronze work to the Italian peninsula. The Greeks and the Etruscans occupied different regions of the peninsula during the 8th century. (eawc, p.2) -2000 -500 Aryan tribes lived in Aryana (Ancient Afghanistan). The City of Kabul is thought to have been established during this time. Rig Veda may have been created in Afghanistan around this time. Evidence of early nomadic iron age in Aq Kapruk IV. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) -1997 -1991 Mentuhotep III, the last king of the 11th Dynasty of Egypt. He was the son of Imi, a secondary wife of either Mentuhotep II or III. His name is missing from most king?s lists. (http://tinyurl.com/e37kx)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1995 nend In 2005 Chinese archeologists reported their find of a 4,000 year-old container in northwestern China of noodles made from millet. (SFC, 10/13/05, p.A2) -1991 -1962 Amenemhet I (Amenemhat I) founded Egypt?s 12th Dynasty of Egypt and ruled for some 30 years. In 2007 Prof. Jahi Issa and Salim Faraji authored ?The Origin of the Word Amen: Ancient Knowledge the Bible Has Never Told,? in which they argued that the word Amen is derived from a pre-dynastic Egyptian culture found in the Sudan with roots in the ancient name for pharaoh, Amen, spelled in some cases as Amun. (http://www.ancient-egypt.org/history/11_13/12.html)(SSFC, 12/2/07,p.A2) -1991 -1783 Egypt, time of the Twelfth Dynasty, the peak of the Middle Kingdom when the Pharaohs won back some of the power which the monarchs of the Old kingdom had enjoyed. It ended with the Middle Kingdom in 1786BC. During the period power was somewhat distributed through the social classes. Religion shifted from a wealth-based system to one based on proper conduct. (eawc, p.3)(www.ancient-egypt.org/history/11_13/12.html) -1980 -1971 Sesostris I (Senusret I) became co-regent with Amenenhet I. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/11_13/12.html) -1971 -1929 Sesostris I (Senusret I) ruled during Egypt?s 12th dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1929 -1926 Amenemhet II ruled in the 12th Dynasty of Egypt as co-regent with his father Sesostris I. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/11_13/12.html) -1926 -1892 Amenemhet II held sole rule during Egypt?s 12th Dynasty. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/11_13/12.html) -1900 nend King Melchizedek ruled Salem before it became Jerusalem. He charged everybody in his domain a flat 10% tax. (SFEC, 4/6/97, Z1 p.5) c -1900 nend The "Epic of Gilgamesh" was redacted from Sumerian sources written in the Babylonian semetic. The legend was written about 1,600BC. (eawc, p.3)(SFC, 11/18/99, p.C6) -1900 -1500 During this period a Semitic group of nomads migrated from Sumer to Canaan and then on to Egypt. They were led by a caravan trader, the Patriarch Abraham, who became the father of the nation of Israel. Ishmael was a son of Abraham had by Hagar. Isaac was a son of Abraham by Sarah. Hebrews trace their lineage through Isaac, Arabs through Ishmael. (eawc, p.3)(NW, 11/02, p.55) c -1898 -1866 In Egypt the Sphinx of Tanis was made. It was later moved to Paris. (WSJ, 10/7/98, p.A20) -1897 -1878 Sesostris II (Senusret II), son of Amenenhet II, ruled as co-regent in Egypt?s 12th Dynasty. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/11_13/12.html) c -1890 nend Sinuhe, a professional soldier of high rank in Egypt, serving in the army of Amenemhat II was faced with a change in political power and left Egypt. He fled to Byblos, where he was befriended by a local ruler named Ammienshi, who governed the land of Retenu. He later returned to Egypt, now ruled by Senusret. (L.C.-W.P.p.21-32) -1878 -1841 Senusret III (Sesostris III) ruled as Egypt?s 5th king in the 12th Dynasty. He built a funerary complex to link himself with Osiris, lord of Abydos. Khakaure was Senwosret?s throne name. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/11_13/12.html) -1842 -1797 Amenemhet III ruled as Egypt?s 6th in the 12th Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1800 nend By this time the Old Babylonians employed advanced mathematical operations such as multiplication, division and square roots. Their duodecimal system, based on 12 and 6 to measure time, is still used today. (eawc, p.3) c -1800 nend In Egypt walls of limestone were marked with alphabetic inscriptions in the Wadi el-Hol (Gulch of Terror). In 1993 the graffiti markings were discovered by Egyptologist John Coleman Darnell and his wife Deborah and later traced to Semitic people, possibly mercenary soldier scribes or Canaanite workers, living in the area. (SFEC, 11/14/99, p.A6)(SFC, 11/23/99, p.B10) -1800 nend About this time Abraham buried his wife, Sarah, in a cave in Hebron. The area later became known to the Jews as the Tomb of the Patriarchs and to Muslims as the Ibrahimi Mosque. (SFC, 12/4/08, p.A27) -1800 -1400 The Second Semitic period. Macalister has five historic divisions to cover his excavation of Gezar (Vol. ii, pp. 128-241). This period in pottery shows Egyptian and Cypriotic influence, and here for the first time painted ornament becomes prominent. The figures are outlines in broad brush strokes, and the spaces are filled in afterwards, wholly or partly, with strokes in another color. The subjects are animals, birds, fishes, and geometrical patterns generally, and there can be little doubt that they are crude local imitations of models of Late Minoan ware, directly imported into the country. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.122) -1798 -1786 Amenemhet IV ruled in the 12th Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1792 -175000 Hammurabi, king of Babylon, established a code of laws during this period that became known as the Code of Hammurabi. They were inscribed on a basalt column, later found at Susa, Iran. One of the laws was that if a married woman was caught lying with another man, both should be bound and thrown into the river. (WH, 1994, p.13)(SFEC, 10/20/96, Z1 p.2)(Econ, 4/12/08, p.91) -1790 nend Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep IV sent a major expedition to Punt during the 8th year of his reign. In 2010 scientists used mummies of baboons to identify the region of Punt as either the lowland area of eastern Sudan or the area where Ethiopia and Eritrea confront each other. (SFC, 5/8/10, p.A8) -1785 -1782000 Queen Sobeknefru (Nefrusobek) ruled in the 12th Dynasty of Egypt. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1782 -1779 Wegaf ruled at the beginning of Egypt?s 13th Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1782 -1650 Egypt?s XIII Dynasty was marked by a period of decay, loss of unity, and many short-lived rival Pharaohs. This lasted through the Sixteenth Dynasty. Over 70 kings are listed in this dynasty and their dates are not well known. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/11_13/13.html) -1782 -157000 Egypt?s Second Intermediate Period. Also dated from 1640-1540. no_source -1800 nend Vesuvius erupted about this time and entombed settlements 15km northwest of the volcano. The Avellino event left evidence at the Nola site that people were able to flee the eruption. (Econ, 3/11/06, p.73) -1766 nend In China the Shang Dynasty, the 2nd dynasty of the country according to tradition, began. It flourished on the banks of the Yellow River from about 1400BC-1027BC. The period is known for its use of bronze containers, oracle bones and human sacrifice, which ended shortly after the collapse of the dynasty. (eawc, p.3) -1763 nend Hammurabi, the Amorite King, conquered all of Sumer. He wrote a "Code of Laws" that contained 282 rules including the principles of "an eye for an eye" and "let the buyer beware." It was one of the first codes of law in world history, predated only by the Laws of Lipit-Ishtar. (eawc, p.3) c -1760 nend Hor ruled in the early part of Egypt?s 13th Dynasty. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1750 nend Hammurabi established a code of laws. One of the laws was that if a married woman was caught lying with another man, both should be bound and thrown into the river. (WH, 1994, p.13)(SFEC, 10/20/96, zone 1 p.2) -1750 nend Hammurabi died but his empire lasted another 150 years when the Kassites, a non-Semitic people, conquered most of Mesopotamia with the help of light chariot warfare. (eawc, p.3) c -1750 nend The 1st evidence for the lapidary engraving wheel appeared about this time. (Arch, 9/00, p.18) -1750 -1540 The Hyksos from Syria and Palestine occupied Egypt and introduced the horse and chariot. Taking advantage of the unsettled state of Egypt, Asiatic invaders from Palestine entered Egypt and set themselves up as kings, even adopting Pharaonic titles and customs. The Jewish historian Josephus claims to quote the words of an Egyptian chronicler, Manetho, in describing this period of foreign rule. The Hyksos, whoever they were, had a 'blitz-weapon' - the horse drawn chariot which they had copied from the horse-rearing Mitanni of northern Mesopotamia. And the Mitanni in turn got the horse from Persia, together with the art of riding it. In 2005 Arthur Cotterrell authored ?Chariot,? a history of the chariot. (eawc, p.3)(WSJ, 6/17/05, p.W6)(L.C.-W.P.p.55-56) c -1747 nend Khendjer, a Hyksos king, ruled in northern Egypt. (R4,1998)(http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/history12-17.htm) c -1745 nend Sobekhotep II ruled in the 13th Dynasty of Egypt. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1741 -1730 Neferhotep I ruled in the 13th Dynasty of Egypt. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/11_13/12.html) -1730 -1720 Sobekhotep IV ruled in the 13th Dynasty of Egypt. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/11_13/12.html) c -1720 nend The Hyksos in northern Egypt dominated the Delta and founded their capital Avaris (Tanis). (http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/history12-17.htm) -1704 -1690 Ay ruled in Egypt?s 13th Dynasty. He was succeeded by Neferhotep II and Nehesy in the 14th Dynasty. (R4,1998)(www.ancient-egypt.org/history/11_13/12.html) -1700 nend Canaanites, before the Hebrew conquest, built a massive wall about this time when Jerusalem was a small, fortified enclave. Archeologists first discovered the 26-foot-high wall in 1909 and later believed it to have been part of a protected passage built from a hilltop fortress to a nearby spring that was the city's only water source and vulnerable to marauders. (AP, 9/3/09) -1700 nend Nubia is known as the Kingdom of Kush in the Bible. By this time the Nubians had established sizable cities with a class society of workers, farmers, priests, soldiers bureaucrats and an aristocracy with technological and cultural skills on a level with other advanced civilizations of their day. (MT, 10/95, p.10-11) -1700 nend Knossos was first destroyed by an earthquake. Mycenae, the great city of the Peloponnesus, was another earthquake victim about this time. (SFC,12/9/97, p.A8) -1700 -1250 Troy VI, the bronze age settlement of the site of the Trojan War. The inhabitants probably spoke Luvian, an Indo-European language related to Hittite. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.49-50) -1700 -1100 This is the Shang Dynasty period of China. [see 1766BC] (Arch, 9/00, p.34) -1696 -1686 Neferhotep, the 22nd king of the 13th Dynasty, ruled Egypt. He was the son of a temple priest in Abydos. In 2005 archeologists unearthed a statue of him. His name means "beautiful and good." (AP, 6/5/05) -1690 nend A kernel of corn was found in 1997 in the McKuen Cave in Eastern Arizona that dated to this time. (SFEC, 4/18/99, Z1 p.2) -1674 nend Sheshi, a Hyksos ruler, conquered Memphis (Egypt). Shesi ruled at the beginning of the 15th Dynasty and was succeeded by Yakubher, Khyan, Apepi I, Apepi II, Anather in the 16th Dynasty, Yakobaam, Sobekemsaf II in the 17th Dynasty, and Intef VII. The Hyksos invaded Egypt in horse-drawn chariots. (WH, 1994, p.13)(http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/history12-17.htm) -1664 -1559 Egypt was ruled for a century by the Hyksos, a warrior people from Asia, possibly Semitic in origin, whose summer capital was in the northern Delta area. In 2010 an Austrian archaeological team used radar imaging to determine the extent of the ruins of the one time capital of Egypt's foreign occupiers underneath the green farm fields and modern town of Tel al-Dabaa. (AP, 6/20/10) -1663 -1555 The period of Egypt?s 15th Dynasty. In Egypt the 15th, 16th and 17th dynasties ruled simultaneously. no_source c -1650 nend Egypt?s 14th Dynasty kings ruled mostly from the Western Nile Delta. Their dates are not well known and they may have been contemporary with the 13th Dynasty. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/14_17/14.html) -1650 nend The volcano Thera, or Santorini in the Aegean Sea, erupted. Akroteri, a Minoan city on the south part of Thera, is being excavated. About 3-6 feet (1-2 m) of ash fell on the city which had a population of about 30,000. The explosion of Thera about this time released energy equal to 200,000 H-bombs. In 1939 Spyridon Marinatos authored ?The Volcanic Destruction of Minoan Crete.? (NH, 5/96, p.3)(AM, 7/00, p.41)(http://tinyurl.com/7ywyr) -1600 -1250 An earthen mound on the southern Mexico-Guatemala border dated to this period and was considered part of a chiefdom center of the Mokaya people. (Arch, 1/06, p.43) -1640 -1540 Egypt?s 2nd Intermediate Period. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/14_17/index.html) c -1633 nend Tao I ruled in Egypt?s 17th Dynasty. In Egypt the 15th, 16th and 17th dynasties ruled simultaneously. (http://tinyurl.com/avkno) -1628 nend The palace at Knossos, Crete, is depicted in the opening of the 1996 book: "Europe: A History" by Norman Davies. (WSJ, 11/18/96, p.A10) c -1600 nend The Nebra disk, a 12-inch bronze and gold disk from this time, was evidence of ancient German astronomy. It recorded images of the sun, moon and 32 stars. (AM, 3/04, p.42) c -1600 nend Chocolate originated in northern Honduras. (SFEC, 5/16/99, BR p.8) c -1600 nend The Middle Helladic - Late Helladic I. This archeological period describes the settlement patterns of Greece at about this time. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.6) -1600 nend The Phaestos Disc (Phaistos) of terra-cotta found in the excavation of the Cretan palace of Phaestos dating to the Middle Minoan III. It is a roughly circular tablet, 15.8-16.5 cm. in diameter. On each face is a spiral band of four coils, indicated by a roughly drawn meandering line; and an inscription, in some form of picture-writing, has been impressed on this band, one by one, from dies, probably resembling those used by bookbinders... On one face of the disc there are 119 signs; on the other face there are 123. they are divided in what appear to be word-groups... by lines cutting across the spiral bands at right angles. These word-groups contain from two to seven characters each. There are forty-five different characters employed. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.83) -1600 nend In Egypt a revolution against Hyksos rule began in the south and spread throughout the country. (eawc, p.3) -1600 nend The Kassites, a non-Semitic people, conquered most of Mesopotamia with the help of light chariot warfare. (eawc, p.3) c -1600 nend Mounded royal tombs containing artifacts from this time were found in the ruins of the city of Kerma from ancient Nubia. (MT, 10/95, p.10-11) -1600 -1000 In India the Early Vedic period of Indian civilization unfolded. (eawc, p.3) -1600 -1200 The Mycenaean civilization on the Greek peninsula emerged. It was named after the leading Greek city of this period. (eawc, p.2) 1600 -1250 An earthen mound in southern Mexican-Guatemala border dated to this period and was considered part of a chiefdom center of the Mokaya people. (Arch, 1/06, p.43) -1600 -1300 Messenia, the home of King Nestor, mentioned in Homer's Iliad, is the site of a well excavated palace that dates to this period. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.6) -1600 -1300 In Oman a transitional culture known as late Wadi Suq. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.49) -1600 -1400 Late Minoan period. Late Minoan I pottery is distinguished from the earlier period by the convention that its designs as a rule are painted dark on a light background. The palace of Phaestos was rebuilt. Fine frescoes and admirably sculptured vases in steatite are found. In Late Minoan II the naturalistic figures become conventionalized, and a degeneration in the arts sets in which continues into Late Minoan III. At the end of Late Minoan II an invasion from the mainland occurs apparently resulting in the destruction of the Knossos. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.17) -1600 -1500 Art pieces attributed to the Xia Dynasty of China are on exhibit at the Shanghai Museum. These include an ax blade, a three legged food vessel, and 3 wine vessels. (WSJ, 5/9/96, p.A-16) -1600 -1500 In India the Aryans invaded the Indus Valley region. In 1999 researchers reported that gene patterns confirmed that Caucasoid invaders entered India between 1000 and 2000BC. (eawc, p.3)(SFC, 5/26/99, p.C2) -1600 -1400 In 2010 Russian researchers said traces of a previously unknown Bronze Age civilization have been discovered in the peaks of the Caucasus Mountains thanks to aerial photographs taken 40 years ago. The civilization dated from the 16th to the 14th centuries BC, high in the mountains south of Kislovodsk. The decorations and forms of bronze items found in the area indicated that the civilization is linked to the Kuban civilization, which was discovered at the end of the 19th century at the foot of Mount Kazbek. (AFP, 10/11/10) -1595 nend The Hittites captured Babylon and retreated. They left the city open to Kassite domination which lasted about 300 years. The Kassites maintained the Sumerian/Babylonian culture without innovations of their own. (eawc, p.4) -1575 -1532 Ipepi (Apophis) ruled as a Hyksos 17th Dynasty king of Egypt. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/14_17/15.html) -1574 nend Tao II ruled in the 17th Dynasty of Egypt. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1573 -1570 Kamose ruled as a Hyksos 17th Dynasty king of Egypt. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/18_20/index.html) -1570 -1546 Ahmose, Pharaoh of Egypt, ruled in Egypt?s 17th Dynasty. His sister-wife was Queen Ahmosep-Nefertary. During his reign he defeated the Hyksos led by Apophis. Ahmose engaged the Hyksos at their city of Avaris, and the city of Sharuhen for three years. (L.C.-W.P.p.64)(AM, 7/01, p.52)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1570 -107000 Egypt?s New Kingdom Period. Thebes (which encompassed the site known today as Luxor) was the chief city of Egypt. Pharaohs began to abandon royal pyramids in favor of hidden tombs in the Valley of the Kings at Thebes. A bust of the Royal scribe Meniou was made in limestone during Egypt?s New Kingdom. It is now in the French Louvre. (AM, 7/01, p.58)(WSJ, 1/29/98,p.A16)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1570 -107000 Egyptian wall paintings included information on beer production. In 2004 Japan?s Kirin Brewery produced a beer dubbed ?The New Kingdom Beer.? (WSJ, 10/14/04, p.A1) -1551 -1524 Amenhotep I (Ahmenophis), son of Amasis I (Ahmose), ruled at the beginning of the 18th Dynasty of Egypt. Inscriptions indicate that he engaged the Nubians in the land of Kush. Some of the southern foes were evidently cave-dwellers (troglodytes), since the inscription goes on to say that 'His majesty captured the Nubian Troglodyte in the midst of his army. (NG, 9/98, p.17)(L.C.-W.P.p.66)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) c -1550 nend During the beginning in Egypt?s 18th Dynasty the Opet Festival celebrated the Theban triad of the sun and creator Amun, his consort Mut, and their son Khonsu. (Arch, 7/02, p.36) -1550 nend A wealthy young teenager, later dubbed "The Boy with the Amber Necklace," was buried near Britain's mysterious Stonehenge monument at about this time. Scientists in 2010 determined that he came from the Mediterranean hundreds of miles away, proof of the site's importance as a travel destination in prehistoric times. (AP, 9/29/10) -1550 nend In India writing disappeared for a time with the destruction of the Indus Valley civilization. (eawc, p.4) -1550 -1295 During Egypt?s 18th Dynasty private people began building small pointy pyramids above their tombs. (Arch, 9/02, p.56) -1550 -1200 The Late Bronze Age. (MT, 3/96, p.2) -1532 -1522 Khamudi (Aseth) ruled as a Hyksos 15th Dynasty king of Egypt. (www.ancient-egypt.org/history/14_17/15.html) -1240 -1518 Tuthmosis I (Thutmose I) ruled at the beginning of the 18th Dynasty of Egypt. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1518 -1504 In Egypt Tuthmosis II ruled in the 18th Dynasty. Hatshepsut was married to her sickly half-brother when she was about 12. (ON, 10/99, p.7)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1504 -1450 Tuthmosis III, a son of one of the lesser wives of Tuthmosis I, ruled in the 18th Dynasty. In the 15th cent. BC Thutmose III led his army from Egypt to Megiddo and outflanked the chariots of the Canaanite forces that had revolted against him. [see 1479-1426] (WSJ, 4/17/97, p.A20)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1500 nend Before this time in India the sap of the palmyra palm was used to make a fermented drink later called a "toddy" by the English. (SFEC, 6/22/97, Z1 p.5) -1500 nend Domesticated dogs companied people to Timor, New Guinea and Australia by about this time. The dogs reverted to a feral existence and in Australia became dingoes. (NH, 11/1/04, p.14) -1500 nend The Shang dynasty began in China. (WH, 1994, p.13) c -1500 nend Stonehenge, a circle of large stones in southern England, was constructed to observe the seasons. (NG, March 1990, p.110) c -1500 nend Linguistic evidence shows that the Canaanites (now more commonly known as the Phoenicians) were non-Jewish Semites whose language was almost identical with Hebrew. (MT, Spg. '97, p.12) c -1500 nend Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt and established a calendar with Egyptian features but based on a seven day week. The later 8-day Sukkot festival commemorates the fall harvest and the wandering of the Hebrews in the Sinai desert after the Exodus. In 1998 Jonathan Kirsch authored "Moses: A Life." Miriam was the sister of Moses and led the celebration following the crossing of the Red Sea. [see 1280BC] (K.I.-365D, p.58)(SFEC,10/19/97, p.A26)(SFEC, 12/13/98, BR p.5)(WSJ,4/7/00, p.W17) c -1500 nend Egyptian tombs show paintings of apparently Cretan messengers and merchants, called by the name Keftiu, bearing Cretan goods: and in addition we find the actual tangible goods themselves, deposited with the Egyptian dead. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.17) c -1500 nend A boy named Djehuti-Irdis (13) died in Thebes. In 2000 a biopsy confirmed that he died of pneumonia. (SFC, 1/3/01, p.A13) -1500 nend By this time the kingdom of Kush was established south of Egypt. The Kushites were dark-complexioned Negroids. (eawc, p.4) -1500 nend In 2009 Spain's scientific research agency (CSIC) announced that a tomb decorated with 3,500-year-old paintings was discovered in Luxor by Jose Manuel Galan, a Spanish Egyptologist. The person was in the service of the 18th dynasty Queen Hatshepsut, the most powerful female pharaoh and who ruled for 21 years from 1479 to 1458 BC. (AFP, 3/17/09) c -1500 nend In 1978 Greek grave robbers at Aidonia dug into ancient tombs believed to be a 3,500BC-year-old palatial cemetery of the Mycenaeneans. The looters plundered 18 graves but left one undisturbed. Objects from the single pit provided archeologists evidence to match the objects of an attempted 1993 sale. (SFC, 8/13/96, p.B2) -1500 nend Chersonesos on the edge of Sevastopol was the Greek world's most northern colony. (SFC,12/19/97, p.F6) -1500 nend The Laws of Manu, a Hindu sacred text, dated to about this time. It sanctified the caste system of India. (www.fordham.edu/halsall/india/manu-full.html)(Econ, 10/6/07, p.15) c -1500 nend In 2002 in southern Italy a settlement was found dating to this time on the River Sarno 6 miles northeast of Pompeii. It was abandoned after being destroyed by a flood in the 6th century BC. It was uncovered by archeologists in 2000. (SFC, 3/22/02, p.A10)(Arch, 7/02, p.15) -1500 nend A court to play ulama was built about this time in Chiapas, Mexico. Olmecs used latex balls for the game. The Olmecs processed rubber using latex from rubber trees mixed with juice from the morning glory vine. The rubber was used to make a bouncy ball for their ball games. (SFC, 6/19/99, p.A9)(Econ, 4/24/04, p.81) -1500 -1400 The Canaanite "Poem of Aqhat," a work of seasonal writing, dates to this time. (SFEC, 1/31/99, BR p.9) -1500 -1200 The Late Bronze Age. The Amorites in the time of Moses came from northeast Syria. The languages of northeast Syria and Palestine appear to have been 1/3 Semitic, 1/3 Indo-European and 1/3 Hurrian. (MT, Spg. '97, p.11) c -1500 -1200 The Persian prophet Zoroaster (Zarathustra) founded the religion known as Zoroastrianism. The principal beliefs included the existence of a supreme deity called Ahura Mazda and a cosmic struggle between the spirit of good, Spenta Mainyu, and the spirit of evil, Angra Mainyu. Later adherents to Zoroastrianism are represented by the Parsees of India and the Gabars of Iran. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.35)(www.livius.org/za-zn/zarathustra/zarathustra.htm) -1500 -1100 Evidence found in 1998 revealed terraced farming for corn back to this time in northeast Mexico on a hilltop overlooking the Rio Casa Grandes. (SFC, 3/13/98, p.A11) -1500 -1000 Nubia was colonized by Egypt. (MT, 10/95, p.10-11) -1500 -400 This period of Greek history was covered by Charles Freeman in his 1999 book "The Greek Achievement." (WSJ, 8/31/99, p.A20) -1500 -300 The Lapita archaeological culture of the Western Pacific. It represents an Austronesian-speaking Neolithic population that colonized Oceania. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.22) -1479 nend Thotmosis II died. He was succeeded by Queen Hatshepsut and his step-son Thotmosis III. Queen Hatshepsut, the only woman to have reigned as a pharaoh, ruled Egypt as 18th Dynasty regent for Thutmose III. Her name translates as "The Foremost of Noble Ladies." In 1996 Joyce Tyldesley authored "Hatshepsut, The Female Pharaoh." (AFP, 4/21/06)(ON, 10/99, p.8)(AP,6/5/05)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1479 -1425 Thotmosis III ruled as pharaoh of Egypt. His initial reign was under the guidance of his mother, Queen Hatsheppsut. (AFP, 4/21/06) -1471 nend Tuthmosis III of Egypt built rafts on the Lebanese coast, put them on wagons, and transported them to the Euphrates in order to cross the river and defeat the King of Mitanni. This was his eighth campaign in the thirty-third year of his reign. This was well over 250 miles. He died in the fifty-fourth year of his reign. An inscription at Napata in Nubia tells us about this. (L.C.-W.P.p.87-89) c -1470 nend The 97-foot obelisk at Karnak, Egypt, was erected as part of a sun dial and cast its shadow on a temple of the sun god Amun Ra. (AM, 3/04, p.42) -1458 nend In Egypt Queen Hatshepsut, mother of Tuthmosis III, died. Tuthmosis III, in his early thirties, declared war on the Prince of the Syrian city of Kadesh, who had organized a confederacy in Palestine and Syria. Tuthmosis defeated the Syrians following an 8 month siege of Megiddo. In 2007 Egyptian archaeologists said the mummy of an obese woman, who likely suffered from diabetes and liver cancer, has been identified as that of Queen Hatshepsut, Egypt's most powerful female pharaoh. Hatshepsut, who ruled Egypt in the 15th century B.C., was known for dressing like a man and wearing a false beard. But when her rule ended, all traces of her mysteriously disappeared, including her mummy. Discovered in 1903 in the Valley of the Kings, the mummy was left on site until 2007, when it was brought to the Cairo Museum for testing. (ON, 3/01, p.11)(AFP, 4/21/06)(AP, 6/27/07) -1450 -1300 The Hittite culture reached its highpoint and dominated the territory North and East of Babylon including Turkey and northern Palestine. By this time the Hittites have constructed a mythology with a state pantheon. (eawc, p.4) -1453 -1419 Amenhotep II (Amenophis II), son of Tuthmose III, ruled in the 18th Dynasty. In the same Giza stele which describes his prowess with a 33-foot oar, there is an account of his skill as a archer. There is no doubt that he did conquer the Asiatic powers of Djahi, Retenu, Mitanni, and 'God's Land'. (L.C.-W.P.p.91-92)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1419 -1386 Tutmosis IV, son of Amenhotep II, ruled in Egypt?s 18th Dynasty with his son as co-regent. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1400 nend Around Greece after the destruction of Knossos the Mycenaean civilization replaced the Minoan. Bronze weapons, war scenes on art, Cyclopean defense walls and the burial of male warriors with their weapons indicates that the Mycenaeans were militaristic. The horse drawn chariot emerged about this time. The Mycenaeans dominated the Aegean world for about 200 years. (eawc, p.4) -1400 nend Michael Ventris (d.1956) and John Chadwick (d.1998 at 78) in 1956 published "Documents in Mycenaean Greek." This was a translation of Greek writings known as Linear B discovered by Sir Arthur Evans at the Minoan palace of Cnossos [Knossos] in 1900 and dated to 1400BC. (SFC, 12/8/98, p.B6) c -1400 nend The Temple of Hatshepsut was built in Luxor. (SFC,11/20/97, p.B2) -1400 nend The tomb of Kha Mirit from this time was later put on display in the Egyptian Museum in Turin, Italy. (SSFC, 1/22/06, p.E6) -1400 nend In 2010 Israeli archaeologists said a newly discovered clay fragment from the 14th century BC is the oldest example of writing ever found in antiquity-rich Jerusalem. Dig director Eilat Mazar of Hebrew University said the 2-centimeter-long fragment bears an ancient form of writing known as Akkadian wedge script. (AP, 7/12/10) -1400 nend Sumerian writing remained pictographic until about this time. (SFEC, 11/14/99, p.A6) c -1400 nend A major earthquake occurred in the Middle East. (SFC,12/9/97, p.A9) -1400 -1200 Chinese pictorial script first appeared during the Shang dynasty. (SFC, 5/8/06, p.A1) -1400 -1200 The spread of the debased Cretan culture over Southern Asia Minor, Cyprus, and North Syria must have been due to the movements of peoples, one incident in which was the sack of Knossos (and the collapse of the island of Thera): and this is true, whether those who carried the Cretan art were refugees from Crete, or were the conquerors of Crete seeking yet further lands to spoil. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.18) -1400 -1000 The Third Semitic period, historic period of pottery which includes the time of the Philistine supremacy. The designs had in fact become 'hieratic', and the fine broad lines in several colors had given place to thin-line monochrome patterns... this change can be most easily accounted for by the assumption that the art passed from one race to another. And the sudden disappearance of fine-line technique coincides so completely with the subjugation of the Philistines, that we can hardly hesitate to painted ware displaying the peculiar Third Semitic characters 'Philistine'. no_source -1400 -400 The Olmecs, who called themselves Xi, were the earliest known civilization of Mesoamerica. They influenced the subsequent civilizations of the Maya and Aztec. They inhabited the Gulf Coast region of what is now Mexico and Central America. Their capital was San Lorenzo, near the present day city of Veracruz. (WSJ, 1/16/96, p. A-16)(SFC, 8/2/05, p.A2) -1391 nend Amenhotep III (Amenophis III), son of Tuthmose IV, began ruling Egypt about this time and continued to about 1351. His reign marked the culmination of the 18th Dynasty. In 2010 a red-granite top half of his statue was discovered at the site of his funerary temple in the southern city of Luxor. (AFP, 10/2/10)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenhotep_III) -1384 nend In China P'an Keng founded the city of Anyang. A mature culture with writing and art was developed by this time. (eawc, p.4) -1350 -1336000 Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) ruled during the 18th Dynasty Amarna Period of Egypt. He became concerned about abuses in the Osiris cult. He posited a new monotheistic religion dedicated to the worship of the sun. His wife was Nefertiti, daughter-in-law of Amenophis III and Queen Tiye. He moved the capital from Thebes to El-Amarna. After his death the capital was moved back to Thebes, and his successor, a young boy named Smenkhkare reigned for three years. The city of Amarna later vanished. (NG, 9/98, p.17)(WSJ, 7/17/00,p.A33)(www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1350 nend The 1st recorded smallpox epidemic took place during an Egyptian-Hittite war. Hittite warriors caught the disease from Egyptian prisoners. The king and heir were fatally infected and the empire fell apart. (SFC, 10/19/01, p.A17)(NW, 10/14/02, p.46) -1345 nend Tutankhamen (King Tut), Egypt?s boy king, was born. His wet nurse was named Maia. (SFC, 1/25/97, p.A7)(USAT, 1/20/04, p.6D) -1345 nend The Ebers Papyrus indicated the medical use of willow bark. It contained salicylic acid, an ingredient of modern aspirin. (SSFC, 10/24/04, p.M6) c -1340 nend A bust of Nefertiti was made that later ended up in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin. (SFC, 7/7/96, T5) -1336 -1334 The period of the 18th Dynasty under Smenkhkare. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1334 -1325 Tutankhamen (10), son of Akhenaten, was Pharaoh of Egypt. Aye, became regent while Tut was growing up and effectively ruled the country. (SFC, 1/25/97, p.A7) c -1330 nend The capital of Amarna was abandoned. In 2004 it was reported that black plague bacteria was found in the remains of fossilized fleas from Amarna. (AM, 7/04, p.12) -1330 nend A memorial to the servant who suckled Tutankhamen was reported found by French archeologists in 1997 at the Saqqara necropolis 13 miles south of Cairo. Hieroglyphics and a relief that showed a woman with breast and nipple exposed pay tribute to Maya, "who fed the body of a god." (SFC,12/897, p.A18) -1323 nend Tutankhamen died about this time at age 19. It was later suspected that the young prince was killed on his way to Egypt under the orders of Ay or Horemhab. Howard Carter discovered the tomb of Tutankhamen in 1922. In 2005 a CT scan indicated that Tut was not murdered by a blow to the head, nor was his chest crushed in an accident. His death remained a mystery. In 2005 a researcher reported evidence that analysis of wine jugs found in his tomb indicated that the wine was red. In 2007 his face was made public for the first time. In 2010 scientists reported that a study of his mummy revealed that King Tutankhamun suffered from a cleft palate and club foot, likely forcing him to walk with a cane, and died from complications from a broken leg exacerbated by malaria. (SFC, 1/25/97, p.A7)(SFC, 10/27/05, p.A2)(AP, 11/4/07)(AP, 2/16/10) -1323 -1321 King Ay succeeded Tutankhamun. In 1931 a ring was found by Percy Newberry in a Cairo antiquities shop that bore an inscription indicating that Aye and Ankhesenaten were married. (SFC, 1/25/97, p.A7)(www.ancient-egypt.org/history/18_20/18.html) -1321 nend Aye died after three years on Egypt?s throne and the walls of his tomb showed another woman, Tiy, as his wife. (SFC, 1/25/97, p.A7) -1321 -1295 A soldier named Horemhab succeeded King Ay. Some regard him as the last Pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty while others think he was the founder of the 19th. Horemhab is thought to have prevented the dynastic marriage of Ankhesnamun, the widow of Tutankhamun, to prince Zananza, son of the Hittite king, Suppilliliumas. Documents discovered at the Hittite capital of Boghaz-Koy in Turkey prove beyond doubt that the young queen was writing to Suppililiumas imploring him to send her one of his sons so that she might make him King of Egypt. (L.C.-W.P.p.107-110)(NG, May 1985,p.598)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty18e.html) -1315 -1201 In 2010 the intricately decorated tomb and coffin of Ken-Amun, the overseer of the royal records during the 19th Dynasty (1315-1201 B.C.), was found near Ismailia, 75 miles (120 kilometers) east of Cairo. (AP, 4/14/10) -1300 nend Late Helladic III. An archeological period of ancient Greece. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.6) c -1300 nend China introduced books around this time. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R55) -1300 nend The oldest know shipwreck dates to about this time, the era of the fall of Troy and reign of King Tut. It was found off the southern coast of Turkey at Uluburun (Big Nose/Cape) by Dr. George Bass in 1984. [see 4431BC] (MT, 3/96, p.2) -1300 nend A 50-foot boat was discovered in 1992 at Dover, England. (AM, Jul/Aug '97 p.13) -1300 nend The Lapita people took once again to the open seas about this time, pushing east past the Solomon Islands to the Bismarck archipelago and beyond to Vanuatu, Fiji and Samoa. Theses Southeast Asian peoples had headed south from Taiwan to Papua New Guinea and as far as the main Solomon islands, where they stopped some 40,000 years ago. (AFP, 11/9/10) -1300 1200 A sprawling Assyrian administrative center was discovered by Dutch archeologists in 1997 in Rakka, 340 miles north of Damascus. The site included a 15-foot high 2-story building with 2 bathrooms, 2 toilets and a tiled floor. (SFC,12/9/97, p.B3) -1300 -1100 From the late Shang Dynasty (13th to the 11th century BC), a pair of 33-inch-tall ting tripod vessels, will be part of the traveling exhibit from the National Palace Museum, Taipei. [see 1600BC-1100] (WSJ, 12/29/95, p.A-11) -1300 -1100 A 9-foot-tall bronze standing figure from this time was found in 1986 at a 'sacrificial pit" at Sanxingdui in Sichuan province. (SFC, 6/15/00, p.E1) -1300 -612 The Assyrians, a Semitic people, established an empire that spread out from Assur in northern Mesopotamia. (eawc, p.4) -1300 -300 The Omani Iron Age. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.49) -1295 -1294 Ramesses I ruled during Egypt?s 19th Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty18e.html) -1294 -1279 Sethi I (Seti I), son of Rammeses I and the father of Rammeses II, ruled during Egypt?s 19th Dynasty. He restored the ancient gods of Egypt, such as Amun-Re, Ptah, Seth, and Osiris. At Abydos he built a splendid temple to Osiris. Sethi claims to have inflicted a victory against the Hittite king, Mursillis II, the successor to Suppililiumas, at the towns of Yenoam and Bethshael. Seti overran Palestine, made peace with the Hittites in Syria, opened mines and quarries, and enlarged the Temple of Amun-Re at Karnak. His tomb was discovered in 1817. (NG, 9/98, p.17,19)(AM, 7/01, p.56)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty18e.html) -1295 -1272 The Hittite king Muwatalli II signed a treaty with Alaksandu, ruler of the Arzawa land known as Wilusa (northwest Turkey), which became Wilios in Bronze Age Greece and then slurred to Ilios for Homer?s Iliad. (Arch, 5/04, p.40) -1292 nend Horemheb, the last pharaoh of Egypt?s 18th Dynasty, died about this time and was buried in the Valley of the Kings. (Arch, 9/02, p.61)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horemheb) -1292 nend An Egyptian scribe documented that a couple of construction worker twins went off a beer binge. They left their wives at home to chase available women and didn't show up for work. Their brother-in-law was the chief engineer on the job and did not fire them. (SFEC, 4/20/97, Z1 p.5) -1280 nend Ramesses II, about this time, built a fortress temple named Zawiyet Umm el-Rakham (the rest house of the mother of vultures). (Econ, 12/19/09, p.133) -1280 -1200 Moses lived about this time. We cannot be certain when Moses lived except that it was obviously before the Jews settled in Palestine, when they were still wanderers. The general opinion seems to be that it was at some time within the period of Ramesses and his son. The father-in-law of Moses was a Midianite. Moses reportedly died at Mount Nebo. (L.C.-W.P.p.123)(MT, Spg. '97, p.11)(WSJ, 5/11/00, p.A24) -1279 -1213 Ramesses II (the Great) ruled during Egypt?s 19th Dynasty. Seti I named him co-ruler early in his life. His capital city was Qantir, 75 miles north of Cairo. A detailed map of the city was created in 1998. His colossal statue, removed from Memphis, now greets the visitor when he leaves Cairo's main railway station. There are huge statues of Ramesses in the Luxor temple... and most gigantic of all, the seated colossi at Abu Simbel. He enlarged the Karnak temple on a scale which makes human beings... look and feel like ants. The tomb of Queen Nefertari, wife of Ramses II, Pharaoh of the 19th dynasty, was discovered in 1904. (L.C.-W.P.p.104,113)(V. Sun, 11/3/95,p.A-20)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty19.html) -1275 nend Ptahmes, the mayor of Memphis, served about this time as army chief, overseer of the treasury and royal scribe under Seti I and his son and successor, Ramses II. Archeologists in 2010 discovered the tomb of Ptahmes at Saqqara. Foreign expeditions in 1885 had made off with pieces of the tomb, whose location was soon after forgotten. (AP, 5/30/10) 1 -1240 The Trojan War is usually dated to this period. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.49) c -1274 nend Battle of Kadesh, in the fifth year of his reign Ramesses moved to meet and destroy the forces of the Hittite king, Muwatallis, grandson of Suppililiumas. Here some 70,000BC-100,000 armed men clashed in fury... The battle lasted two days... and was decisive in that the Hittite advanced no further. The Hittites fought off the invading Egyptians. This reflected the power gained from trading metals abundant in Turkey. Ramesses left his mark on a cliff face by the Nahr al Kalb (Dog River) when he marched north from Egypt to battle the Hittites. (L.C.-W.P.p.116-119)(eawc, p.5)(NG, Aug., 1974, p.157) -1270 nend At Abu Simbel, Egypt, Ramses II constructed The Great Temple in his own honor and the Small Temple in honor of his wife Nefertari. Engulfed by sand over the centuries, the temples lay hidden until discovered by a Swiss traveler in 1813. The temples are moved under a 4 year UNESCO project when in 1964 the rising waters behind the Aswan High Dam threaten to drown them. (NG, May 1985, p.591) c -1260 nend A pottery fragment from this time was found in 2004 near Natadola in western Fiji. It was believed to have been made by the Lapita people, who populated Polynesia. (Arch, 1/05, p.11) -1267 -1237 King Hattusili III ruled the Hittites. He wrote a letter to the king of Ahhiyawa (thought to be Mycenaean Greeks) and mentioned that Wilusa was once a bone of contention. (Arch, 5/04, p.40) -1250 nend By this time the Assyrians committed themselves to conquering the Kassite Empire to the south. (eawc, p.4) -1250 nend Some scholars believe that the Mycenaeans waged a successful war with the Trojans of western Asia Minor. (eawc, p.5) c -1250 -1200 Under the direction of Moses the Hebrew people returned to Canaan from Egypt after wandering for several years in the Sinai desert and began the conquest of Canaan. The conquest took some hundred years and after victory they parceled the land of Canaan into tribal territories under a government known as an amphictyony. (eawc, p.5) -1250 -1150 This time frame is referred to as the Initial Olmec Period of southern Mexico. (Arch, 1/06, p.42) -1250 -1000 Troy VIIa, another discernible era on the site of the Trojan War. Evidence shows that Troy V was destroyed by fire and that Troy VI saw the establishment of an entirely new principality. An earthquake hit the thriving city of 5-6 thousand people, but after the crisis, the same people returned and repaired the city. The renovated Troy VIIa lasted some seventy years and was then destroyed by a conflagration. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.49-50) -1225 nend The Assyrian ruler, Tukulti-Ninurta, captured Babylon and the region of southern Mesopotamia, but their control did not last long. (eawc, p.5) -1225 nend Earliest known Illyrian king, Hyllus, died. (www, Albania, 1998) -1225 -1175 Earthquakes during this period toppled some city-states and centers of trade and scholarship in the Middle East. Jericho, Jerusalem, Knossos and Troy were all hit. (SFC,12/9/97, p.A8)(SSFC, 12/17/00, p.A19) -1213 nend Ramesses II (the Great) Pharaoh during Egypt?s 19th Dynasty, died. In 1976 his mummy was shipped to Paris, where it was treated with radiation and chemicals for protection against bacteriological damage. (NG, 9/98, p.16,22,32)(www.ancient-egypt.org/history/18_20/19.html) -1213 -1203 Maremptah (Merenptah), the 13th son of Rammeses, ruled during Egypt?s 19th Dynasty. He is mainly attested to by three great inscriptions, including 80 lines on a wall in the Temple of Amun at Karnak, a large stele with 35 readable lines from Athribis in the Delta and the great Victory Stele from his ruined mortuary temple at Thebes, with 28 lines. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty19a.html) -1203 -1200 Amenmesse (Ammenemes) about this time led Egypt as the 5th ruler of the 19th Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty19a.html) -1200 nend Afghanistan, near Sheberghan at Tillya Tepe, a temple for the worship of fire was built. (NG, March 1990,V.I. Sarainidi p.62) -1200 nend The first outbreak of human plague may have been the scourge that struck the Philistines in the 12th century BC. The Old Testament account mentions "mice that mar the land." (NG, 5/88, p.678) -1200 nend The tradition of the Mokaya people at coastal Chiapas and Guatemala came to a sudden end about this time. This appeared to coincide with the rise of the Olmec people. (Arch, 1/06, p.43) -1200 nend The end of Mycenaean civilization. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.73) -1200 nend Indian ink became increasingly popular. Other cultures developed inks from berries, plants and minerals. (SFC, 7/26/04, p.F4) -1200 -1194 The period of the 19th Dynasty under Seti II. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty19a.html) -1200 -1020 The Israelites were ruled by the Judges in a period of relative stability until a Philistine invasion in 1050. (eawc, p.5) -1200 -1000 The archeological evidence later confirmed that a collection of small settlements appeared in the eastern parts of the highlands of Palestine later known as the West Bank. (AM, 9/01, p.30) -1200 -400 The Olmecs built impressive cities and established trade routes throughout Mesoamerica, that included settlements at La Venta and Tres Zapotes. (SFEC, 5/17/98, p.T12) c -1200 -300 In Peru a pre-Columbian culture flourished over this time in the Andes site of Chavin de Huantar. (SFC, 12/21/00, p.A20) -1200 -300 The Olmec people ruled southern Mexico and northern Central America. (WSJ, 7/2/96, p.A12) -1194 -1188 The period of the 19th Dynasty under Siptah. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty19a.html) -1187 -1185 Queen Tawosret (Taweseret) ruled during Egypt?s 19th Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty19b.html) -1186 -1184 The period of the 20th Dynasty under Sethnakhte (Setnakht). (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty20.html) -1184 -1153 The period of the 20th Dynasty under Ramses III. After Ramessu III ascended the throne of Egypt, he fought back two major attacks from the northern countries. Ramses III defended his kingdom from foreign invasion in three separate wars, reorganized Egyptian society into classes based on occupation and built a funerary temple based on the Ramesseum. Ramses, son of Setnakht, twice defended Egypt against invasions from Libyan tribes and in his 8th year from a coalition of migrants referred to in records as the "Sea Peoples." The great Battle against the Sea Peoples was captured in a magnificent picture which Ramesses III caused to be sculpted on the walls of his great temple at Medinet Habu in Thebes. (L.C.-W.P.p.104,126)(R.M.-P.H.C.p.21)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty20.html) no_source -1184 nend Jun 11, Greeks finally captured Troy. This corresponds to excavation levels VIi or VIIa at the site of Hisarlik, Turkey [see 1150BC]. (SC, 6/11/02)(Arch, 5/04, p.37) c -1182 nend Ramessu III beat back a more formidable attack by northern countries. An inscription describing this war was engraved on the second pylon of the temple of Medinet Habu. The inscription describes how the northerners were disturbed, and proceeded to move eastward and southward, swamping in turn the land of the Hittites, Carchemish, Arvad, Cyprus, Syria, and other places of the same region. The Hittites and North Syrians had been so crippled by them that Ramessu took the opportunity to extend the frontier of Egyptian territory northward... the twofold ravaging of Syria left it weakened and opened the door for the colonization of its coast-lands by the beaten remnant of the invading army. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.23) c -1179 nend Ramessu III beat back a Libyan invasion in his fifth year, this invasion was accompanied by war galleys from the northern countries. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.22) -1178 nend Apr 16, In 2008 researchers suggested that this was the date that Odysseus struck with arrows, swords and spears, killing those who sought to replace him, as he returned from the Trojan War. (AP, 6/23/08) c -1176 nend Peoples of the sea arrived to the Lebanese coast (c1200-1182). They came probably from the Aegean. They toppled the Hittites, destroyed Ugarit on the Syrian coast and swept south to Egypt where Ramesses III stopped them. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.174) -1175 nend Rameses III built his temple palace at Medinet Habu. (eawc, p.5) -1153 nend Ramesses III of Egypt died, and was succeeded by a series of weak ghost-kings. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty20.html) -1153 -1147 The period of Egypt?s 20th Dynasty under Ramses IV, son of Ramesses III. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty20.html) -1150 nend Troy fell about this time. Estimated date for the beginning of the Aeneid. [see 1275-1240BC] After King Agamemnon, leader of the Greeks, returned home to Mycenae he was killed by his wife Clytemnestra and her lover. In 2006 Cathy Gere authored ?The Tomb of Agamemnon.? (V.D.-H.K.p.60)(Econ, 3/11/06, p.78) -1150 -1000 This time frame is referred to as the Early Olmec Period of southern Mexico. (Arch, 1/06, p.42) -1147 -1143 The period of Egypt?s 20th Dynasty under Ramses V, son of Ramesses IV and Queen Ta-Opet. His mummy indicates that he died of smallpox at about age 35. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty20.html) -1143 -1136 The period of Egypt?s 20th Dynasty under Ramses VI. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty20.html) -1136 -1129 The period of Egypt?s 20th Dynasty under Ramses VII. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty20.html) -1129 -1126 The period of Egypt?s 20th Dynasty under Ramses VIII. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty20.html) -1126 -1108 The period of Egypt?s 20th Dynasty under Ramses IX. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty20.html) c -1116 nend In China an imperial decree stated that it was a requirement of the heavenly powers that people regularly take a moderate amount of alcoholic drink. (SFEC, 8/9/98, Z1 p.8) -1114 -1076 Tiglath-Pileser I ruled the Assyrian empire. (eawc, p.5) 1111 -255 Chou dynasty in China. (V.D.-H.K. p.7) -1108 -1099 The period of Egypt?s 20th Dynasty under Ramses X. During his reign workers went on strike for wages not paid. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty20.html) -1100 nend The Phoenician alphabet containing only consonants was in use. (V.D.-H.K.p.25) -1100 nend By this time the Mycenaeans were overtaken by Dorian invaders who used iron weapons. Greek culture then entered unto a "Dark Age" period characterized by the disappearance of writing and a decline in architecture that lasted to about 800BC. (eawc, p.5) c -1100 -1000 The first Greek tribes settled on Crete around the 11th century BC. (WSJ, 3/20/97, p.A17) c -1100 -1000 In Britain Stonehenge Phase IV the path across the henge ditch was extended into the fields and over the hill to the River Avon. (HT, 3/97, p.22) -1100 -700 The Phoenicians traded around the Mediterranean. (WH, 1994, p.13) -1100 -265 The Zhou period in China. [see 1027-771] (WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20) -1094 -1064 The period of Egypt under Ramses XI. He was the last king of the 20th Dynasty and the New Kingdom. Upon his death Hrihor and Smendes divided Egypt between themselves. Hrihor, the high priest of Amon ultimately usurped the sovereignty and become founder of the Twenty-first Dynasty. In Lower Egypt, the Tanite noble Nesubenebded, in Greek Smendes controlled the Delta. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.29)(Arch, 5/05, p.21) -1085 nend After 1085 BC, Egypt split between a northern 21st dynasty claiming national recognition reigning from Tanis and a line of Theban generals and high priests of Amun who actually controlled the south from Thebes. Relations between the two authorities were peaceful. The Tanites were driven from power by Libyan warriors who established their own 22nd Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty20.html) -1080 -945 High priests ruled Egypt from the capital of Thebes. (www.ancientroute.com/IndexPharCh.htm) -1075 nend Wenamun, a priest of Amun, moved from Egypt to Byblos during the rule of Ramesses XI. This was recorded in the Golenischeff papyrus found in 1891CE at El Khibeh in Upper Egypt. It is the personal report of the adventures of an Egyptian messenger to Lebanon. Zakar-Baal was governor of Byblos. (www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Luxor) -1069 -945 This is the period of Egypt?s 21st Dynasty. The capital moved from Tanis to Libyan, to Nubia, to Thebes, to SAIS, and then back to Nubia and Thebes. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -1069 -664 A black-bronze statue of the falcon-faced god Horus, now in the French Louvre, dates to this time. (WSJ, 1/29/98, p.A16) -1064 -1038 Smendes ruled as the 1st king of Egypt?s 21st Dynasty. (Arch, 5/05, p.21) -1050 nend The Philistines invaded Israel from the North. Facing annihilation the Israelites instituted governmental reform and asked Samuel, the last of the Judges, to select a king. (eawc, p.5) -1045 nend The Zhou King Wu subdued the Shang. [see 1027BC] (Arch, 9/00, p.37) -1034 -981 Psusennes I was the 2nd king of Egypt?s 21st Dynasty. (Arch, 5/05, p.21) -1031 nend The Centennial Stump, a giant sequoia, started its growth, and was cut down in 1874CE. (K.I.-365D, p.146) no_source -1027 nend In China the last Shang ruler, Chou Hsin, was conquered by Wu-wang, and the Chou Dynasty began. It lasted to 221BC and is typically divided into three periods. (eawc, p.5) -1020 nend In Israel Samuel selected Saul to be king and unified the tribes into a nation. Saul faced many losses against the Philistines and eventually committed suicide. David in his campaigns against the Philistines proved victorious. (eawc, p.6) -1027 -771 In China this was the Western Chou period. (eawc, p.5) c -1010 970 King David, the 2nd King of Israel, ruled. He had succeeded Saul. (WUD, 1994, p.369) -1005 nend King David's conquest of Jerusalem. In 1995 Israel launched a 17 month celebration of the event. (WSJ, 9/25/95, P. A-1) -1004 nend David became the king of Israel. He ruled from Hebron before moving his capital to Jerusalem. He began to build a centralized government based in Jerusalem and implemented forced labor, a census and a mechanism for collecting taxes. In 2000 Jonathan Kirsch authored "King David: The Real Life of the Man Who ruled Israel." According to the Bible the census under David was followed by a plague that left some 70,000 Israelites dead. (SFC, 9/15/00, p.A4)(SFC, 12/31/00, BR p.8)(Econ, 12/22/07,p.97)(SFC, 12/4/08, p.A27) c -1000 nend Irrigation canals were made in the Tucson basin of the American Southwest. (SFEC, 4/18/99, Z1 p.2) c -1000 nend A Bronze Age salt mine of this time in Hallstatt, Austria, had a pine and spruce staircase that survived into the 21st century. (Arch, 1/05, p.10) c -1000 nend The British Bronze Age site Flag Fen, estimated to about this time, was accidentally discovered in 1982 by archaeologist Francis Pryor. Flag Fen is the site of some of the most recent and unusual discoveries of ancient British culture. In 1982 archaeologist Francis Pryor tripped over a piece of wood while walking along a dyke in the Fenlands near Peterborough. Noticing that the wood showed signs of deliberate shaping, he poked around in the peaty, wet soil and soon discovered a series of posts. The wood was set deeper into the ground than the surface of a nearby Roman road, so Pryor knew the wood had to have been placed into the ground well before the Roman engineers arrived on the scene. (HNQ, 5/12/01) c -1000 nend An Indo-European group of people moved east to live in what later became Xinjiang province of western China. They left well-preserved Caucasian mummies of this age and 1,300 year old texts written in an unknown Indo European tongue. Some evidence showed that they had come from the steppes north of the Black and Caspian seas as the area filled with Iranian immigrants. They settled in the Tarim Basin on the edges of the Taklimakan Desert. They area has also been named Inner Asia, Chinese Turkistan and East Turkistan. The Uighers of Xinjiang sometimes show physical features that reflects Tocharian blood. (SFC, 2/27/98, p.A2) c -1000 nend In China's southwest one of the world's great cities flourished, and then inexplicably vanished, leaving no trace behind in the historical records. In 2001 excavations at Jinsha village began to uncover extensive artifacts. (AFP, 7/10/05) -1000 nend The Chinese invented kites about this time that could carry scouts on reconnaissance missions. (NPub, 2002, p.2) c -1000 nend The fertile bottom land of the Copan River valley attracted agriculturists to the region more than 3,000 years ago. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.29) c -1000 nend The Phoenicians and other Semites of Syria and Palestine began using graphic signs representing letters. Aleph meaning ox was the sign that represented a sound such as that heard in the pronunciation of the o in bottle, known as a glottal stop. (AHD, 1971, p.1) -1000 nend Ahiram, king of Byblos, had inscribed on his sarcophagus: "His abode in eternity." (NG, Aug., 1974, p.154) -1000 nend Chaldians traced their origins to about this time in Babylon. (SFC, 9/30/00, p.A12) c -1000 nend A brightly colored papyrus of this time depicting a Theban housewife's life after death was found by Herbert Winlock at Thebes in 1912. (WSJ, 12/27/95, p. A-8) -1000 nend Bone lesions in the mummified body of the priest of Ammon from a tomb of the Egyptian 21st dynasty, have been recognized as probably caused by tubercle bacilli. (WP, 1951, p.5) -1000 nend About this time Kush became independent from Egypt. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.167) -1000 nend Israel became a kingdom. (WH, 1994, p.13) c -1000 nend Three-thousand-year-old archives were found in Jerusalem on Mar 13, 1935, confirming biblical history. (HN, 3/13/98) c -1000 nend The Samaritans broke away from the mainstream of Judaism about this time. They believed that God chose Mount Gerizim as the site for the Jews to build their temple. (SFC, 2/14/98, p.A21) c -1000 nend The Garamantes, a tribal people descended from Berbers and Saharan pastoralists, inhabited the area of the Fazzan in southern Libya. (AM, 3/04, p.24) c -1000 nend The first typical Baltic culture of brushed pottery formed at the turn of the last millennium BC in eastern Lithuania. It was the time when the first hill forts and barrows appeared and the cremation of the dead was introduced. (DrEE, 10/12/96, p.2)(TB-Com, 10/11/00) c -1000 nend In India the Rig Veda, the first Vedic literature was written. (eawc, p.6) c 1000 nend The original Hindu calendar in India was based on a lunar cycle and dated back to this time. (SFC, 1/1/00, p.A18) -1000 nend The Sushruta Samhita, an early text of Ayurvedic medicine, was compiled by Sushrut, the primary pupil of Dhanvantri, about this time. In 2003 India moved to assess the country?s herbs systematically in a program called the Golden Triangle Partnership. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurveda)(www.ccras.nic.in/gtp.htm) -1000 nend The Illyrians were Indo-European tribesmen who appeared in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula about 1000 BC. Albanians derive their name from an Illyrian tribe called the Arber, or Arbereshë, and later Albanoi, that lived near Durrës. (http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/illyria/) c -1000 nend In Kyrgyzstan the capital city of Bishkek was founded. (MT, Spg. '99, p.4) -1000 nend The great Olmec Ceremonial Center, in Tabasco, Mexico, was built about this time. It continued to be used till about 600BC. (RFH-MDHP, p.241) -1000 nend The Olmec kings are thought by some to be responsible for the invention of the ancient Mayan ballgame that often left the loser dead. (Hem, Dec. 94, p.125) 1k BC The settlement at Canton Corralito on the southern Mexico-Guatemala border covered at least 60 acres by this time and was believed to be a colony of the Gulf Olmec people. (Arch, 1/06, p.44) c -1000 nend In Pakistan some of the monuments at the Uch Monument Complex in the Punjab date to this time. (SFEC, 8/28/98, p.T4) -1000 nend In Thailand Ban Prasat pottery from the site at Prasat Hin Phanom Wan dates to this time. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.H) c -1000 nend A major earthquake struck along the Carmel-Gilboa fault system about this time. The Hebrew city of Har Megiddo, located at the strategic Nahal Iron Pass - the only route where chariots could speed between Egypt and Syria, was destroyed in the quake. This event is likely one described by John of Patmos in the Book of Revelations, where a great quake takes place at Armageddon. (SFC,12/9/97, p.A8) c -1000 nend In Peru the tomb of a Huayakuntur Indian of this time was found in Ayabaca province in 1999. (SFC, 11/13/99, p.A12) -1000 nend The Phoenicians inhabited Sardinia. (SFEC, 1/30/00, p.T4) -1000 nend Bronze age nomads erected mysterious megaliths throughout regions of Mongolia and southern Siberia about this time. Some scholars believed them to be the work of Iron Age peoples who appeared by 700BC. (Arch, 1/06, p.17) c -1000 nend Troy at Hissarlik in northwest Turkey was destroyed by fire and abandoned. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.50) -1000 nend A cemetery containing the remains of 25 Lapita people in Teouma, Vanuatu, dated to about this time. (Arch, 1/06, p.11) -1000 -975 In 2008 Israeli archeologists found a Hebrew inscription in proto-Canaanite script on a pottery fragment at a site believed to the biblical city of Sha?arayim (Two Gates). The city was located on a hill above the Valley of Elah, where the bible says David slew Goliath. (SFC, 11/17/08, p.A10) -1000 -900 The search for the 10 lost tribes of Israel, who were dispersed in the tenth century BC when the Assyrians conquered part of the Holy Land, is depicted on a CD titled The Myth of the 10 Lost Tribes, by Creative Multimedia Corp. (New Media, 2/95, p.84) -1000 -900 Archeologists in 2005 reported that 2 lines of an alphabet had been found inscribed in a stone in Israel, offering what some scholars say is the most solid evidence yet that the ancient Israelites were literate as early as the 10th century B.C. The stone was found in July, on the final day of a five-week dig at Tel Zayit, about 30 miles south of Tel Aviv. (AP, 11/10/05) c -1000 800 The kingdom of Habushkia was likely centered on the headwaters of the Great Zap River in western Turkey. (AM, 7/00, p.50) -1000 -600 This was the late Vedic period in India. The Aryans were integrated into Indian culture and the caste system emerged. (eawc, p.6) -1000 -500 Oct 31, The Celts of Ireland, Great Britain and northern France celebrated Oct. 31 to Nov 2 as their New Year which they called Samhain. The Druid harvest event incorporated masks to ward off evil ones, as dead relatives were believed to visit families on the first evening. The Catholic holiday of All Hallows' Day (aka All Saints' Day) was instituted around 700 CE to supplant the pagan event and Pope Gregory III made the Nov 1 date official. In the 9th century Nov 2, the last day of Samhain, became All Souls' Day. Halloween was transplanted to the US in the 1840s. (WSJ, 10/28/99, p.A24)(WSJ, 10/29/99, p.W17) -1000 300 Middle preclassic period of the Maya. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.B) -1000 -1 In Thailand a cemetery at the Noen U-Loke site has revealed jewelry, bronze and iron tools and pottery. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.G) c -1000 1000 BE A civilization in Amazonia, called Patiti or Enin by archeologists, dug channels for an elaborate crop irrigation system. (SFEC, 12/6/98, p.T12) -993 -984 Amenope was the 4th king of Egypt?s 21st Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -984 -978 Osochor was the 5th king of Egypt?s 21st Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -978 -959 Siamun was the 6th king of Egypt?s 21st Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -970 nend King David of Israel died about this time. In 2000 Robert Alter authored "The David Story: A Translation with Commentary of 1 and 2 Samuel." In 2005 Robert Pinsky authored ?The Life of David.? (WUD, 1994, p.369)(SFEC, 4/30/00, BR p.10)(SSFC, 10/23/05, p.M1) -965 nend Solomon became king of Israel. He was intent on completing the plans of David to make Jerusalem stand out and to affirm the religious commitment of the people. He undertook expensive building projects that included the building of the temple in Jerusalem and raised taxes with increased forced labor to his ends. (eawc, p.6) -959 -945 Psusennes II was the 7th and last king of Egypt?s 21st Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -955 -587 The Ark of the Covenant, the sacred chest built by Moses containing the Ten Commandments, disappeared from Jerusalem during this period. Legend in Ethiopia holds that the Ark was stolen by Menelik I, son of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, and taken to Aksum where Orthodox Christian monks have watched over it ever since. (SFC, 1/31/98, p.A18) -950 nend Hiram I, king of Tyre, joined two islands and built an impregnable city in the sea. He sent to David, king of Israel, and later to Solomon, the materials to build palaces and the first great temple of Jerusalem. The building of Solomon's temple is described in the First Book of Kings in the Bible. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.163)(WH, 1994, p.13) c -950 nend The Queen of Sheba lived about this time. Local legends from Ethiopia name her Makeda and claim that she was from there. Archeologists have found inscriptions from the ancient Sabean kingdom but no mention of Makeda or Bilqis, the local name for Sheba in Yemen. The Koran claims she ruled from Yemen. (WSJ, 5/2/97, p.A1) c -950 nend The Kebra Negast, a 14th cent. Ethiopian text, claims that the Queen of Sheba came from Ethiopia to see Solomon and that he tricked her into sleeping with him and bearing him a son. (WSJ, 5/2/97, p.A6) -950 nend Peanuts have been traced back to this time in Brazil and Peru. (SFEC, 1/10/99, Z1 p.8) -948 -927 The Egyptian Pharaoh Shishak (Sheshonq) founded Egypt?s 22nd Dynasty. He destroyed many Israelite cities, including Rehov, Megiddo and Hazor. Sheshonq I supported Jeroboam against King Solomon's son, Rehoboam. (WSJ, 12/31/97, p.A4)(SFC, 4/11/03, p.A9)(Arch, 5/05, p.21) 945 -712 Period of Egypt?s twenty-second dynasty. It is often referred to as the Libyan Bubastite Dynasty. Manetho lists the kings of this Dynasty as being from Bubastis which is located in the eastern delta (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) c -938 nend Israel?s King Solomon died about this time. The northerners, unwilling to subsidize the financial difficulties of Jerusalem and the national court, separated from the southern people. This created Israel to the north with its capital in Samaria, and Judah to the south with its capital in Jerusalem. Solomon?s son Rehoboam ruled in the south. Only the tribes of Juda and Benjamin remaining faithful to Rehoboam. Jeroboam, the son of Nathan an Ephraimite, ruled 10 tribes in the north. (eawc, p.6)(www.newadvent.org/cathen/08340a.htm) -930 nend Sheshonq I, ruler of Egypt, campaigned in Palestine about this time laying tribute upon the king of Judah. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -924 -909 Osorkon I ruled Egypt as the 2nd king of the 22nd Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -909 -894 Takelot I ruled Egypt as the 3rd king of the 22nd Dynasty. His reign saw the beginning of another fragmentation into 2 power bases. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) c -900 nend Trade between East Africans and Arabs probably began about this time. (ATC, p.141) -900 nend The Maya site named Blackman Eddy in Belize was occupied from this time to about 1000CE. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.B) c -900 nend In Honduras archeologists in 1997 discovered burial caves that date to this time. A cave from the same period was discovered in 1994 near the Talgua River, known as the Cave of the Glowing Skulls. The new cave was called the Cave of the Spiders. (USAT, 2/12/97, p.9D) c -900 nend A group of people in northern Nigeria produced distinct statuettes in baked clay. Their culture is called the Nok culture after a village where the first statuette was found in 1931. The culture may have lasted to about 900CE. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.168) c -900 nend Anuradhapura (Sri Lanka) was founded about this time. It served as the capital from the 3rd century BC to the 11th century AD. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.D)(Arch, 7/02, p.32) c -900 nend The Fossum panel was carved on a rock outcropping in Sweden about this time and depicted 2 Bronze Age figures with raised axes. (NH, Jul, p.32) -900 -840 The Assyrians expanded their empire to the west. By 840 they conquered Syria and Turkey, territory that had formerly belonged to the Hittites. (eawc, p.6) c -900 -800 Ahab was king of Israel. Pottery, a 4-entry gate at Megiddo, and other structures at Hazor and Gezer are similar to others in the time of Ahab. This kind of data has prompted "the Finkelstein correction," which pushes archeological evidence attributed to David and Solomon more to the time of Ahab and Jezebel, his wife from Phoenicia. (WSJ, 12/31/97, p.A4) c -900 -800 Joash was King of Judah in the 9th century. Joash and Ashyahu are common variations of the same name. The temple priest Zechariah was a contemporary to Joash and was put to death by Joash after a dispute. In 1997 a 13 word pottery fragment was dated to this time with the words: "Pursuant to the order to you of Ashyahu the King to give by the hand of Zecharyahu silver of Tarshish to the House of Yahweh. Three shekels." (SFC,11/4/97, p.A8) -900 -800 Sican and Siculian farmers settled the valleys of central Sicily. (WSJ, 6/9/99, p.A24) -900 -750 Villanovan cultures in Italy. From their hamlets Etruscan cities grew. The name comes from Villanova, a site near Bologna where the culture's artifacts were first unearthed more than a century ago. (NG, 6/1988, p.710, 719) -900 -700 In 2008 archeologists found pottery in Tyre, Lebanon, that was used by Phoenicians during this period. (AP, 11/12/08) -900 -500 This time frame is referred to as the Late Olmec Period of southern Mexico. (Arch, 1/06, p.42) -900 -400 The Etruscan period of Italian prehistory. For about 500 years the Etruscans dominated most of the country from Rome to the Po Valley. Apa means father in Etruscan. It means exactly the same in Hungarian. (NG, 6/1988, p.705)(NG, 10/1988, member's forum) -894 -883 Shoshenq II ruled Egypt during the 22nd Dynasty. He is though to have co-regent during the period between Osorkon I and Takelot I. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -883 -885 Osorkon II ruled Egypt as the 5th king of the 22nd Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) 883 859 Ashurnasirpal II. This Assyrian ruler established the new capital city of Kalhu (Nimrud). (AM, 7/00, p.50) -880 nend There was a very high inundation of the Nile in the 3rd year of the reign of Osorkon II. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) 858 824 Shalmaneser II, Assyrian ruler. (AM, 7/00, p.50) -845 nend During the 15th year of the reign of Egypt?s Takelot II there was warfare in the north and south and great convulsion broke out in the land. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -841 nend In China a Zhou king died. (SFC, 11/10/00, p.D4) -841 -815 Takelot II ruled Egypt as the 6th king of the 22nd Dynasty. (Arch, 5/05, p.21) -835 -783 Shoshenq III ruled Egypt as the 7th king of the 22nd Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -814 nend Carthage was founded by Phoenician traders. (SFEC, 4/12/98, p.T5) 814 -813 Elissa-Dido, Princess of Tyre, Jezebel's grandniece, fled to North Africa after her brother, King Pygmalion, murdered her husband, Tyre's high priest. She was said to have then founded Carthage on a hilltop now called Byrsa. Byrsa means Oxhide and it was said that Elissa could have as much ground as could be covered by the hide of an ox. She cut the hide into narrow strips and so claimed the whole hill. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.174)(SSFC, 12/10/00, p.T8) 812 -783 Hada-Nirari III, Assyrian king enumerated the Philistines among the Palestinian states conquered by him. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.63) -810 805 Sammuramat ruled Assyria as Queen. (eawc, p.6) -803 nend Hadad-Nirari, Assyrian king, conquered the Palestinian states including the Philistines. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.63) c -800 nend Large villages with dome-shaped "pit houses" were constructed in the American Southwest and the inhabitants made plainware pottery bowls. (SFEC, 4/18/99, Z1 p.2) -800 nend Nimrud, capital of Assyria, 500 miles east of Byblos, sample of ivory carving from a piece of furniture depicting a woman in a window wearing an Egyptian wig. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.171) c -800 nend The Zhou of China were driven east by nomads. (Arch, 9/00, p.37) c -800 nend In Greece increased trade and governmental defense fortifications allowed for the emergence of city-states to emerge from tribal communities. These grew up among market places and included Athens, Thebes and Megara on the mainland. (eawc, p.6) -800 nend In Guatemala some structures at San Bartolo dated to about this time. (AM, 7/05, p.51)(http://sanbartolo.org/research.htm) c -800 nend The Jewish city of Sepphoris was founded about this time. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.64) -800 nend Kingdom of Kush in northern Sudan near present day Karima; its monarchs ruled all of Egypt as the pharaohs of the XXV Dynasty. (NG, May 1985, R. Caputo, p.607) -800 nend The twenty-fifth dynasty, as noted by Manetho, consisted of three Ethiopic kings. The seat of the empire was originally at Gebel Barkal, or Napata. They subsequently conquered the whole of Egypt. The first monarch of this line was called Sabaco by the Greek writers; the second Sebechos, or Suechos, his son; the third was Tarkos or Taracus. (RFH-MDHP, A. Layard, 1853, p.62) c -800 nend A great change in climate overcame Europe around this time. (SFEC, 5/2/99, p.T4) -800 -750 The Iliad epic was set down by Homer in about the first half of the 8th century, some five centuries after the war it purportedly reports. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.44) c -800 -700 The period of Homer, reputed author of "The Iliad" and "The Odyssey." (WUD, 1994, p.679) -800 -700 The time of Hesiod, the first Greek poet to name himself. His work included "The Theogony" and "Works and Days." (WUD, 1994, p.666)(eawc, p.7) c -800 -700 The Greeks and the Etruscans occupied different regions of the Italian peninsula during the 8th century. (eawc, p.2) -800 -700 Bubastis was the capital of 8th century BC Egypt. (AM, 7/04, p.12) -800 -700 The Languedoc region of France has produced wine since this time. Langue d'oc refers to the language of Occitan spoken in the region. Greeks began planting vineyards in Languedoc around 600BC. (WSJ, 2/09/99, p.A20)(SSFC, 6/17/01, p.T10)(WSJ, 5/30/03, p.A3) -800 -600 In India the Brahmans, a priestly caste, began to emerge. (eawc, p.7) -800 -500 In India the Upanishadic philosophy began with the writing of the Upanishads. Doctrines of rebirth and the transmigration of souls began to appear. (eawc, p.7) -800 -500 The Archaic period of Greece. It was marked by developments in literature, the arts, politics, philosophy and science. The Peloponnesian city of Corinth, Sparta and cities along the coast of the Aegean flourished. Most of the cities were similar in their political evolution except for the elite dictatorship in Sparta. Most of the cities began as monarchies, evolved to oligarchies, were overthrown during the age of tyrants and eventually established democracies. (eawc, p.6) -800 -500 The Celtic Hallstatt Culture spread across Europe. It was an early iron-using culture named after an Austrian burial site found in the mid-19th century. (NGM, 5/77) -800 -500 Zazacatla in central Mexico covered less than one square mile between during this period. Inhabitants of Zazacatla adopted Olmec styles when they changed from a simple, egalitarian society to a more complex, hierarchical one. Much of it was later covered by housing and commercial development extending from Cuernavaca. (AP, 1/25/07) -800 -500 Texts called Southwest Script dating to this period were later discovered in Portugal. Most experts have concluded they were authored by a people called Tartessians, a tribe of Mediterranean traders who mined for metal but disappeared after a few centuries. Some scientists have proposed that the composers were other pre-Roman tribes, such as the Conii or Cynetes, or maybe even Celts who roamed this far south. (AP, 2/28/09) -800 -300 Scythians dominated the vast lands stretching from Siberia to the Black Sea. Those who roamed what later became Kazakstan and southern Siberia were known as the Saka. (AM, 5/01, p.32) c -800 200 The Mayan city of Takalik Abaj, in later day Guatemala, served as one of the most important economic and cultural centers of pre-Columbian times. (NG, May, 04, p.70) c -800 200 Saba culture (Yemen) was a major economic player in the trade routes from India to the Mediterranean during this period. (Arch, 1/05, p.56) -783 -773 Pami (Pemay) ruled Egypt as the 8th king of the 22nd Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -782 nend Urartian king Argishti the First founded Erebuni, the military and administrative center of the state of Urartu, situated in the location of present-day Yerevan, Armenia. (www.anahit.am/regions/yerevan/)(SSFC, 10/17/04, p.D8) -776 nend In Olympia Greece the Olympic Games were born after Iphitos, king of Elis, asked the Delphic Oracle how to save Greece from civil war and plagues. The answer was to revive the Olympics from their mythological roots. Together with Lycourgos of Sparta and Kleosthenes of Pisa a sacred truce was concluded and the games declared at Olympia. The historian Pausanias (c150CE) wrote: "The Olympic victor must not win with money but the fleetness of foot and the strength of body." In the Pankration, a combination of wrestling and boxing, biting and eye-gouging were forbidden. Adult women were discouraged from attending the games under the penalty of being hurled from the cliffs of Mount Typaion, opposite the stadium (SFC, 7/14/96, p.T1)(WSJ, 7/19/96, p.R16) -773 -735 Shoshenq IV ruled Kush as the 9th king of Egypt?s 22nd Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -771 nend In China the Chou Dynasty faced difficulty when King Yu alienated the noble class who refused to answer his call for help against invading barbarians. King Yu was killed and the nobles installed a new leader. The capital was moved eastward to Loyang and the "Western Chou" period ended. (eawc, p.7) 771 -471 The Spring and Autumn Period. Jingzhou was the capital of the Chu Kingdom. (AMNHDT, 5/98) 771 221 The Eastern Zhou period. The power of the Zhou court waned and frequent state wars took place. (AM, 7/01, p.62) -753 nend Apr 21, Rome was founded. The traditional date for founding by Romulus as a refuge for runaway slaves and murderers who captured the neighboring Sabine women for wives. Archeological evidence indicates that the founders of Rome were Italic people who occupied the area south of the Tiber River. (HFA, '96, p.28)(V.D.-H.K.p.61)(eawc, p.7)(HN, 4/21/98) -750 nend Greeks invent symbols for vowels. (V.D.-H.K.-p.25) 750BC The era of the Greek poet Homer. (MT, 10/95, p.10-11) c -750 nend Two Phoenician ships from Tyre carrying amphorae filled with wine sank some 30 miles off the coast of Israel. In 1999 a team led by Robert Ballard discovered the ships at a depth of about 1,500 feet. (SFC, 6/24/99, p.A14) -750 -719 Piye (Piankhy) ruled Kush (Nubia). In 722 he extended his rule to Egypt. Kashta, ruler of Kush, had begun a campaign against Egypt. With the help of his son, Piankhy, he was successful and Piankhy became pharaoh of Egypt. The Nubian King Piye conquered the weakened and disunited Egypt and became the first of several Nubian Pharaohs who ruled a unified Egyptian and Nubian state for the next century. (eawc, p.7)(MT, 10/95, p.10-11)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) c -750 -700 The long-running Lelantine War between Chalkis and Eretria, the 2 largest cities on the island of Euboia, was named after the name of the plain that both cities claimed. The two cities had jointly founded Cumae in Italy (c750). When they fell out, the war between them split the Greek world in two. (Arch, 1/05, p.34)(www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9047711) c -750 -700 Greeks adopted hoplite gear and the phalanx for warfare over this period. (Arch, 1/05, p.33) -750 -600 Greek colonies exert strong influence over newly urbanized Etruscans. (NG, 6/1988, p.710) -750 117 In 2005 Robin Lane Fox covered this period in his book ?The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian.? (Econ, 11/5/05, p.91) -747 nend Feb 26, Origin of Era of Nabonassar. (SC, 2/26/02) -745 -727 Tiglath-Pileser III ruled as the Assyrian king. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.63) -742 nend The time of the Hebrew prophet Isaiah. (MofB, A&E TV, 9/7/96) -740 nend A population of people that came to called Tibetans moved to the Tibetan plateau about this time. In 2010 researchers claimed that people known as the Han and Tibetans had both come from a single ethnic group which split about this time. (Econ, 7/17/10, p.50) -740 -725 Pedubaste I was the 1st king of Egypt?s 23rd Dynasty. Egypt?s rule in this period is not very clear. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -738 nend Mittinti, king of Ashkelon revolted, trusting to the support of Rezon of Syria. But the death of Rezon so terrified the king that he fell sick and died. His son Rukipti, who reigned in his stead, hastened to make submission. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.63) -735 -712 Osorkon IV ruled Egypt as the 10th and final king of the 22nd Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) c -734 nend Rezon of Syria, and Pekah of Samaria were in league, whereas Ahaz of Jerusalem had become a vassal of the king of Assyria. The Philistines had attached them selves to the Syrian league, so that Tiglath-Pileser came up with the special purpose of sacking Gaza. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.63) -732 nend Tiglath-pileser III, an Assyrian, took Damascus and killed Rezin. He then captured many cities of northern Israel and took the people to Assyria. The Egyptian troops had at one time joined forces with Damascus, Israel and some other states to resist Shalmaneser III at Qarqar. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -729 nend Greek colonists settled in Catania, Sicily. (SFC, 6/2/03, p.A11) -725 -720 Tefnakhte I, a prince of western Egypt, ruled as the 1st king of the 24th Dynasty, known as the Sais Dynasty. He attempted to stop an invasion by organizing other Northern Kings with him against invaders from the south. This southern force was comprised of Piankhi?s Nubian forces that wanted to gain control of all of Egypt. The four northern armies under Tefnakht, Osorkon IV of Tanis, Peftjauabastet of Hernopolis, Nimlot, and Input of Leontopolis all enjoyed a relatively easy time in their conquering of the people down to the south, but Piankhi was actually drawing them down. When Tefnakht's forces finally reached Memphis they were massacred and Tefnakht conceded to Piankhi. Tefnakht and the four other leaders were allowed to remain governors of their territories under the new Pharaoh Piankhi. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -722 nend Hoshea, the king of Israel, sent messengers to Osorkon in Egypt. He was requesting help against Assyria?s Shalmaneser V. No help was sent. Samaria was captured and the Israelites were taken away to Assyria. The Assyrians conquered Israel and left nothing behind. The Hebrew kingdom of Judah managed to survive. Descendants of the Israelites not exiled by the Assyrians were later known as the Samaritans. (eawc, p.7)(WSJ, 10/13/00, p.W15)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -722 nend Piye (Piankhy) marched north from Nubia and began his conquest of Egypt where he founded the 25th Dynasty. He consolidated his rule over Egypt and Kush and became the 1st king of the 25th Dynasty. It has been suggested that he revived pyramid building for royals in Egypt, a tradition that had gone extinct for over eight centuries. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html)(Arch, 9/02, p.55) 722 -481 In China the Ch'un Ch'iu period began. It was characterized by a deterioration of the feudal system and a collapse of central authority. (eawc, p.5,7) -721 nend About this time as the northern Israelite kingdom failed, Hebron remained the capital of the southern Israelite kingdom of Judah. (SFC, 12/4/08, p.A27) 721 -705 Sargon II ruled as king of Assyria. (AM, 7/01, p.33) c -720 nend Some Jewish tribes went missing after being sent into exile by the Assyrians under Tiglath-Pilesar III. In 2002 Hillel Halkin authored "Across the Sabbath River: In Search of a Lost Tribe of Israel," an account of the search for the lost tribes that included the Gadites, Reubenites and tribe of Manasseh (Menashe) and its possible relationship to the Kuki-Chin-Mizo people of Burma. (WSJ, 8/8/02, p.D10)(SSFC, 8/11/02, p.M2) -720 -715 Wahkare Bakenranef ruled in Egypt as the 2nd king of the 24th Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) 715 642 Judah absorbed refugees from the Assyrian conquest an achieved the attributes of a state. (AM, 9/01, p.32) -713 nend Azuri, king of the Philistine city of Ashdod, refused to pay tribute and endeavored to stir up the neighboring princes to revolt. Sargon [of Assyria] came down and expelled Azuri, and established in his stead Azuri's brother, Ahimiti. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.64) -712 -698 Shebaka of Nubia ruled in Egypt. Some consider him the 1st king of the 25th Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) -710 nend Hanunu of Gaza was in the revolt against the king of Assyria which led to the battle of Raphia, the first struggle between Egypt and Assyria. Hanunu, the king of Gaza, fled to Sebako (Shebaka), king of Egypt; but returned and, having made submission, was received with favor. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.71) -708 nend Lampis of Sparta won the pentathlon becoming the 1st Olympic winner in the long jump. (NH, 6/03, p.12) -705 -681 Sennacherib, Assyrian king, also had trouble with the Philistines. Mitinti's son, Rukipti, had been succeeded by his son Sarludari, but it seems as though this ruler had been deposed, and a person called Zidka reigned in his stead. Sennacherib found conspiracy in Zidka, and brought the gods of his father's house, himself, and his family into exile to Assyria, restoring Sarludari to his former throne. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.64) 705 -681 At the same time the Ekronites had revolted against the Assyrian. Their king, Padi, had remained a loyal vassal to his overlord, but his turbulent subjects had put him in fetters and sent him to Hezekiah, king of Judah, who cast him into prison. The Ekronites summoned assistance from North Arabia and Egypt, and met Sennacherib at El-Tekeh. Here they were defeated, and Sennacherib marched against Ekron, slaying and impaling the chief officers. Padi was rescued from Jerusalem... Sennacherib then cut of some of the territory of Judah and divided it among his vassals... (R.M.-P.H.C.p.64) 705 -681 Sennacherib ruled the Assyrians and built a new capital in Ninevah where he began to form a library of Sumerian and Babylonian tablets. He managed to subdue the entire region of western Asia. (eawc, p.7) -701 nend The Assyrian King Sennacherib laid siege to Jerusalem. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.16) -700 nend Homer's time. [see 800BC-700] (NG, Aug., 1974, p.172) c -700 nend The White Horse of Uffington, England, a 365-foot long and 130-foot high image scratched into a chalk hillside, was dated to this time from pottery at the site. The shape is typical of the La Tene art style that spread across Western Europe between the 5th and 1st centuries BC. (AM, 9/01, p.40,43) -700 nend A three foot tall bust of Pharaoh Shabako of Egypt was on loan from Cairo at St. Petersburg, Florida. (WSJ, 1/16/96, p. A-16) c -700 nend In what later became Iraq, the huge bearded head of a large winged-bull dating from this time was made. (SFC, 1/31/98, p.A9) -700 nend Tarquinia was the cultural capital of the Etruscans. Around 700BC, only half a century after the Greeks rediscovered writing, literacy burst across Etruria. The Etruscans had no g sound, so they made it a c. That's why we have abc rather than alpha, beta, gamma. (NG, 6/1988, p.708,726) -700 nend Arabs made earth bricks later know as adobe as early as this time. The word adobe comes from the Arab word "at-tub." (SFC, 8/21/96, p.A8) -700 nend King Hezekiah, about this time, constructed a 1,750-foot tunnel to bring water into Jerusalem. Archeologists in 2003 dated plant fragments in the tunnel's plaster to this time +/- 100 years. In 1880 a tablet known as the Siloam inscription was found in the tunnel. It had been installed to celebrate the moment the two construction teams met underground. The tablet was taken by the Holy Land's Ottoman rulers to Istanbul. It was later placed in the collection of the Istanbul Archaeology Museum. In 2007 Jerusalem's mayor asked the Turkish government to return the tablet. (SFC, 9/11/03, p.A6)(AP, 7/13/07) c -700 nend Nomadic Kimmerians attacked Phrygia. Strabo later reported that Midas committed suicide at the time of the Kimmerian invasion. (AM, 7/01, p.33) c -700 nend A Phrygian king, possibly Midas, ruled into his 60s and was buried in what came to be called the Tumulus Midas Mound at Gordion (later central Turkey). Midas was linked with the worship of the goddess Matar. (AM, 7/01, p.27) -700 -600 A migration of the Cimmerians and Scythians took place in the seventh century BC. These were nomadic tribes from the Russian steppes, who made their way round the eastern end of the Caucasus, burst through into the Moghan plains and the basin of Lake Urmia, and terrorized Western Asia for several generations, till they were broken by the power of the Medes and absorbed in the native population. It was they who made an end of the Kingdom of Urartu, and the language they brought with them was probably an Indo-European dialect answering to the basic element in modern Armenian. (http://tinyurl.com/btq4l) -700 -600 The Armenians, an Indo-European people, migrate from the west to mingle with the people of URARTU. It was ruled by kings of the Orontid dynasty as a satrapy of the Persian empire until the defeat of Persia by Alexander the Great. (CO Enc. / Armenia) -700 -600 The earliest Chinese records of divination using the I Ching date from this period. (NH, 9/97, p.12) -700 -600 The search for the 10 lost tribes of Israel, who were dispersed in the tenth century BC when the Assyrians conquered part of the Holy Land, is depicted on a CD titled The Myth of the 10 Lost Tribes, by Creative Multimedia Corp. (New Media, 2/95, p.84) -698 -690 Shebitku, nephew of Shebaka, ruled in Egypt as the 2nd king of the 25th Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html) no_source -690 nend The underground burial chamber of a warrior prince in the Etruscan town of Veio dated to about this time. It was decorated with roaring lions and migratory birds. (AP, 6/16/06) -690 -664 The Nubian Pharaoh Taharqa, brother of Shebitku, ruled over the upper Nile Nubian-Egyptian state. He is mentioned in the Bible as a pyramid builder. A sculpture of the Kushite king was discovered in the basement of "God's House Tower," an archeological museum, in England in 2000. (MT, 10/95, p.10-11)(SFC, 2/16/00,p.A8)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty21.html)(Arch, 9/02, p.55) -689 nend Sennacherib of Assyria destroyed Babylon, but his son rebuilt it. (eawc, p.7) -687 nend The Lyrid meteor shower was recorded for the first time in Chinese records. It averages about 10-15 shooting stars per hour and occurs on 4/22 in 1994. (PacDis, Spring/'94, p. 40) -681 -668 Esarhaddon, son of Sennacherib became monarch of Assyria after his father was assassinated. "I had monuments made of bronze, lapis lazuli, alabaster... and white limestone... and inscriptions of baked clay... I deposited them in the foundations and left them for future times." (R.M.-P.H.C.p.65)(MofE, 1978, p.1) c -680 nend Inhabitants of Paros island (Greece) colonized the northern Aegean island of Thasos, seizing its abundant timber and gold mines. Soldier-poet Archilochus of Paros took part in the colonization of Thasos as well as in conflicts with Naxos. (Arch, 1/05, p.30,34) -671 nend Esarhaddon [of Assyria] recorded a victory over lower Egypt at the cliff face of the Nahr al Kalb (Dog River), between Beirut and Byblos. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.157) -668 nend The Gymnopaedia was introduced in Sparta. It was a yearly celebration during which naked youths displayed their athletic and martial skills through the medium of war dancing. The custom was introduced concurrently with the introduction of naked athletics, oiling the body for exercise so as to highlight its beauty. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnopaedia) 668 -627 Ashurbanipal succeeded Sennacherib as ruler over Assyria. He continued to develop the library and by the time he finished, there were more than 22,000 clay tablets collected. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.65)(eawc, p.7) -664 -610 Psammetichus ruled in Egypt as the 1st king of the 26th Dynasty. He did not gain control of Egypt until his 9th year of rule. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) c -662 nend The Assyrian Empire collapsed and Egypt enjoyed about a century of independence. (eawc, p.7) c -660 nend Governor Ment (Mentuemhet) served as governor of Upper Egypt, mayor of Thebes, and 4th prophet of Amun. (SFC, 5/4/05, p.E5) -660 nend This is the mythical date of the ascension of Japan's first emperor, Jimmu Tenno. He is said to have been descended from Amaterasu, the sun goddess, who came from the eye of the god Izanagi. (HN, 2/11/97)(Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(Econ, 9/9/06, p.42) -657 nend A 2nd influx of Phoenicians surged into Carthage about this time. (NG, 8/04, p.46) -657 -525 Period of Egypt?s Dynasty 26. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -655 nend Psammetichus, 26th Dynasty king, gained control of Egypt in his 9th year of rule. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -654 -657 Tantamani (Tanwetamani) ruled in Egypt as last Cushite king and the last of the king of the 25th Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty25.html) -650 nend Babylon by this time was again prosperous following its destruction in 689 by Sennacherib of Assyria. (eawc, p.7) -650 nend The Transylvanian Dacians are first known from their contacts with the Greeks about this time. (WSJ, 6/18/97, p.A20) c -650 nend The time of Archilochus, Greek poet. (WUD, 1994, p.78) c -650 nend Greece began using the drachma for currency. (SSFC, 11/11/01, p.F4) -650 nend The Chinese licensed lady lovers. This is considered as the 1st example of legalized prostitution. (SFC, 11/4/00, p.B3) -650 -500 In Greece it was the age of the tyrants. (eawc, p.6) -650 -550 Graves from the Umbrian city of Terni, north of Rome, were dated to this period. The people were known as the Umbri-Nartes and had lived in the region from the Bronze Age up to the Roman conquest. (AM, Jul/Aug '97 p.18) -648 nend Ashurbanipal destroyed the newly rebuilt city of Babylon. (eawc, p.7) -642 nend The first horse race on record was in the Olympic Games of Greece and the first prize was a "woman of well-rounded domestic skills." (SFEC, 8/2/98, Z1 p.8) -642 nend Invading Arabs established a military settlement on what later would become Cairo, Egypt. (NG, May 1985, p.584) -640 nend In Egypt a burial chamber at the necropolis of Saqqara dating back to this time was uncovered in 2009. The chamber contained 8 sarcophagi. (WSJ, 2/12/09, p.A9) -640 nend In Greece the Spartan form of government, adapted from the Dorians, was heavily influenced by militarism. The Messenian wars initiated Sparta's fear of change. They remained isolated by banning trade and discouraging travel outside their territory. Alcaeus, Greek lyric poet, was born in Mytilene on the island of Lesbos. His lyrics expounded on contemporary politics, love, hymns to Apollo and Hermes, and some drinking songs. (eawc, p.8) c -640 nend The 1st coins were minted in Lydia (later part of Turkey), and featured face to face heads of a bull and lion. (SSFC, 12/3/00, WB p.2) -639 -609 King Josiah reigned in Israel. The biblical account of Israel's origin was possibly drafted during this time. The leadership reinstituted the exclusive worship of the god of the Israelites centered on the Temple in Jerusalem. (AM, 9/01, p.30,31) -631 nend The city of Cyrene, in what later became Libya, was first developed by the Greeks. It was later settled by the Romans and destroyed in the earthquake of 365. (SFC, 9/11/07, p.A16) -626 nend The time of the Jewish prophet Jeremiah. He was the last political prophet and went to Egypt at the end of his life. (MofB, A&E TV, 9/7/96) -625 nend Thales born in Miletus, (west coast of Anatolia, today Turkey) considered to be the first philosopher and scientist (of Greece). Said to have predicted eclipse of 585BC. Thales proposed a single universal principle of the material universe. Two remarkable ideas: a)he did not resort to animistic explanations for what happens in the world b)he assumed that the world was a thing whose workings the human mind could understand. He maintained as a first principle that the external world and the internal mind must have much that is in common, how else could that external world be intelligible to the internal mind. The name of this commonality was reason. (V.D.-H.K.p.31, 33, 216) -625 nend The first Greek coins were stamped with the likeness of a wheat head to show that wheat had been used for money before the use of coins. (SFC, 7/6/96, p.E4) -620 nend Ostia was founded about this time at the mouth of the Tiber River. Nearby salt flats provided a valuable source of salt for preserving meat. Around 400BC it was conquered by Rome and turned into a naval base. (SSFC, 5/11/08, p.E8) -616 nend Tarquinius Priscus became the first Etruscan to rule Rome. Legend has it that he was followed by Servius Tullius and Tarquinius Superbus. (NG, 6/1988, p.710,735) -614 nend The Babylonians (particularly, the Chaldeans) with the help of the Medes, who occupied what is today Iran, began a campaign to destroy the Assyrians. (eawc, p.8) -612 nend Ninevah (Mesopotamia), the cradle of Assyrian kings for 2,500 years, fell to the Babylonians and Medes. The Chaldeans, a Semitic people, then ruled the entire region thereby issuing in the New Babylonian period that lasted to 539BC. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.174)(SSFC, 2/11/01, p.C1)(SFC, 3/31/03, p.W5) -612 nend Sappho, Greek lyric poet of Lesbos, was born. She is the most famous female poet of the ancient world and is inscribed in the "Palatine Anthology" among the Muses, rather than among the great lyric poets, in the 2nd century BC. Her poetry explored female sexuality and love in a male dominated society. (eawc, p.8) -610 -595 Nekau II (Necho), son of Psammetichus I, ruled in Egypt as king of the 26th Dynasty. Under his rule Palestine became an Egyptian possession. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -609 nend The biblical king Josiah of Judah was slain on Har (Mt.) Megiddo (root of Armageddon) about this time when he was betrayed by Pharaoh Necho, whom he had approached to stop from going to war on the side of the Assyrians against the Babylonians. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.180)(WSJ, 4/17/97,p.A20)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -606 nend In Cairo the Ben Ezra Synagogue was established. (WSJ, 3/15/00, p.A1) -605 -562 Nebuchadnezzar II ruled in Babylon. He undertook some monumental building projects that included the Hanging Gardens. The New Babylonian Revival used glazed bricks for building thereby creating a colorful city. The king was fond of spinach. (SFC, 12/25/98, p.B5)(SFC, 3/24/00, p.B3) c -604 -531 Lao-tzu (Laozi), Chinese philosopher, author of the "Tao Te Ching" (Tao-te-jing) and founder of Taoism (Daoism) lived about this time. He encouraged people to live simply and according to nature. Taoism is one of the three major "spiritual ways" of China and has influenced Chinese thought--in religion, politics, the social system and the arts and sciences--for more than 2,000 years. The other two "spiritual ways" of China are Buddhism and Confucianism. "To lead the people, walk behind them." "The greater the number of laws and enactments, the more thieves and robbers there will be." "Quarrel with a friend -- and you are both wrong." (SFEC, 2/22/98, Z1 p.8)(AP, 5/4/98)(WSJ, 12/26/00, p.A9)(AM, 7/01,p.62)(HNQ, 11/5/01) c -600 nend Aesop said: "We hang the petty thieves, but appoint the great ones to public office." (SFEC, 3/15/98, Z1 p.8) c -600 nend Turquoise was first mined in the American southwest about this time and began to show up in Mesoamerica. (Arch, 1/05, p.27) c -600 nend The Etruscans, believed to be natives of Asia Minor, established cities that stretched from northern to central Italy. They developed the arch and the vault, gladiatorial combat for entertainment, and the study of animals to predict future events. (eawc, p.8) c -600 nend The Greeks established city-states along the southern coast of Italy and the island of Sicily. They contributed letters to the Roman alphabet, religious concepts and artistic talent as well as mythology. (eawc, p.8) -600 nend The great Olmec Ceremonial Center in Tabasco, Mexico, was abandoned about this time. (RFH-MDHP, p.241) c -600 nend The Zapotec city of Monte Alban was founded in the Oaxaca valley. (SFEC, 10/3/99, p.A24) c -600 nend From about this time the Maya gradually sculpted the land to channel water to a growing population. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.A) c -600 nend Analysis of pottery from this time indicated that Mayans made cocoa drinks as early as this time. (SFC, 7/22/02, p.A4) -600 nend Cyrus I, king of Anshan, was succeeded by his son Cambyses I who reigned until 559 BC. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambyses_I) -600 nend The first polo game was recorded in north Persia about this time. (Hem., 7/95, p.87) c -600 nend Zoroaster introduced a new religion in Bactria (Balkh), also known as ancient Afghanistan. Zoroastrianism is a Monotheistic religion. [see 1500BC-1200BC] (www.afghan, 5/25/98) -600 nend Phoenicians in the pay of Pharaoh Necho II circled Africa, according to Herodotus. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.160) c -600 -500 Epimenides, Cretan philosopher, is said to have originated the Liar paradox, by proclaiming that ?All Cretans are liars.? (Econ, 10/4/03, p.77) -600 -500 The first democratic governments were established in a few Greek city-states during the sixth and fifth centuries BC. (V.D.-H.K.p.299) -600 -500 Rome by this time was the dominant power in its surrounding area. The conservative government consisted of a kingship, that resembled the traditional values of the patriarchal family; an assembly, composed of male citizens of military age; and a Senate, comprised of elders who served as the heads of different community sects. The Palatine is one of the seven hills of Rome (eawc, p.7)(SFC,12/26/97, p.C22) -600 -500 The nomadic Scythians bordered the Hallstatt Culture in the East. They introduced to the Celts the custom of wearing trousers. (NGM, 5/77) -600 -290 The Samnites, an Oscan-speaking people, controlled the area of south central Italy during this period. (AM, 3/04, p.36) -600 -200 The Sarmatians were a nomadic tribe that occupied a homeland that stretched from Russia's Don and Volga rivers east to the Ural mountain foothills. The held a sun-worshipping belief system and buried useful objects with their dead for the journey in the unknown afterlife. (SFC, 1/28/97, p.A5) -600 600 In 1999 Arthur Cotrell published "From Aristotle to Zoroaster," an A to Z companion to the classical world over this period. (SFEC, 1/17/99, Par p.6) -595 -589 Psammetichus II (Psamtik II), son of Nacho II, ruled in Egypt as a 26th Dynasty king. Psamtik II built the temple of Hibis in the al-Khargah oasis, 310 miles south of Cairo. It was built to worship Amun and contained statues of Amun's wife, Mut. (SFC, 7/16/99, p.D3)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) 595 -339 In Greece 4 Sacred Wars were fought for the control of Delphi over this period. (SSFC, 8/8/04, p.D7) -594 nend In Greece Solon, the great elegiac poet, was appointed chief magistrate of Athens. His reforms included political and economic adjustments which led to dissatisfaction in the upper and lower classes. (eawc, p.8) -593 nend The time of the prophet Ezekial. He prophesied the return to the promised land after the destruction of the temple and exile to Babylon. (MofB, A&E TV, 9/7/96) -593 nend The Nubians were defeated by a resurgent Egyptian dynasty after which they moved their capital from Napata to Meroe. (Arch, 9/02, p.56) -589 -570 Apries, son of Psamtik II, ruled in Egypt as a 26th Dynasty king. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -587 nend King Nebuchadnezzar sacked Jerusalem. (SFC, 1/31/98, p.A18) c -587 nend Ezra the scribe and Nehemiah, the Persian-appointed governor of Jerusalem, arrived from Babylon. (SFC, 9/6/04, p.A4) -586 nend Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon, ruler of Mesopotamia, destroyed Jerusalem and recorded his deeds at the Nahr al Kalb (Dog River) cliff face between Beirut and Byblos. He destroyed the first Temple, built by Solomon and took the Jewish people into captivity. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.157)(SFC, 12/31/96, p.A11)(Econ, 12/20/03, p.26) -586 nend Ezekial, in exile at Babylon, described Tyre as it was before Nebuchadnezzar's attack in the Bible: (Ezekial 27:1-25). This time is known as the "Babylonian Captivity." (NG, Aug., 1974, p.162)(eawc, p.8) c -586 nend The Menashe tribe was lost following the Jewish exile in this year. Jews dispersed across Europe and North Africa. In the 1990s members of Shinglung community from the province of Mizuru in India claimed to be the children of Menashe and began returning to Israel. (SFC, 1/12/00, p.A10)(SFC, 5/10/00, p.A13) -585 nend May 25, The first known prediction of a solar eclipse was made [by Thales]. A historically registered eclipse occurred during the savage war between the Lydians and the Medians. The event caused both sides to stop military action and sign for peace. The date of the eclipse coincides with the date in Oppolzer's tables published in 1887. (SCTS, p.27)(HN, 5/25/98) -585 nend May 28, A solar eclipse, predicted by Thales of Miletus, interrupted a battle [a Persian-Lydian battle] outside of Sardis in western Turkey between the Medes and Lydians. The battle ended in a draw. [see May 25] (HN, 5/28/98)(HN, 5/28/99) -585 nend In Miletus, Greece, the founding city of philosophy, Thales predicted a total eclipse of the sun. He was the founder of the Milesian school, and taught that all things are composed of moisture. He was the first to propose a rational explanation of the cosmos. By the end of the 6th century, philosophers began to inquire into the nature of being, the metaphysical nature of the cosmos, the meaning of truth, and the relationship between the divine and the physical world. (eawc, p.8) c -585 nend The Greeks settled in the area of Varna, later part of Bulgaria, on the Black Sea and were followed by the Romans, Byzantines and Turks. (SFEC, 2/1/98, p.T3) 585 572 Bc Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon began his 13 year siege of Tyre. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.157) -580 -500 Pythagoras was born on Samos. He journeyed to S. Italy, and was driven out of Croton to the Bay of Taranto where he starved himself to death. He believed in the transmigration of souls, and is said to have discovered the mathematical ratios in musical harmonics. (V.D.-H.K.p.34) -574 -570 Apries, 26th Dynasty king Egyptian ruler, conducted campaigns against Cyprus and Phoenicia. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -573 nend Nemea, 70 miles from Athens, became the site for the Olympic games. (SFC, 9/25/00, p.A6) -570 nend Feb, General Amasis (Ahmose II), proclaimed Pharaoh of Egypt by his soldiers, defeated Apries and his Aegean mercenaries and forced his retreat. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -570 nend Oct, General Amasis (Ahmose II) defeated King Apries a 2nd time and took control of a united Egypt. Apries sought refuge abroad and later turned up at the court of Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -570 -526 Amasis (Ahmose II), proclaimed Pharaoh by his soldiers, ruled Egypt as the 5th king of the 26th Dynasty. Amasis consolidated Greek merchants to the area of Naukratis. This made for easier control, and created a lucrative income for the crown in the form of taxes. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -567 nend Apries, former ruler of Egypt, marched on Egypt at the head of a Babylonian army, but once again, Amasis defeated him, this time capturing the former king. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) c -566 nend c468BC Simonides, a Greek poet, was also called Simonides of Ceos. He created one of the first information spaces with his "memory palaces." (WUD, 1994, p.1328)(Wired, 2/98, p.101) -565 -545 The island of Cyprus was under Egyptian control. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.20) -563 nend Apr 8, Buddha (d.483BC), Siddhartha Gautama, was born in Northern India. [Nepal] Raja Suddhodana, king of the Sakyas in the 6th century BC, is best known as the father of Buddha. The kingdom of the Sakyas was on what is now the border of Nepal and India. Buddha was born in about 563 BC. The birthplace of the Indian prince Siddhartha, who became the monk Buddha, was believed to have been discovered by archeologists in 1996. Lumbini, Nepal, birthplace of Buddha, was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997. [see May 15] (http://eawc.evansville.edu, p.9)(V.D.-H.K.p.21)(WSJ, 2/6/96,p.A-1)(SFC, 9/1/96, DB p.30)(SFC,12/5/97, p.B2)(HN, 4/8/98)(HNQ, 3/30/99) -563 nend May 15, Wesak Day, also known as Buddha's birthday. [see Apr 8] (SFC, 5/15/03, p.A3) -560 -546 The rule of Croesus in Lydia. The first coins were produced in Lydia under Croesus. It was a kingdom in western Turkey. Croesus made a treaty with the Spartans and attacked Persia and was defeated. (SFEC, 1/19/96, Parade p.5)(WUD, 1994, p.345)(WSJ, 11/11/99, p.A24) -559 nend Cyrus the Great (d.530BC), the son of Cambyses I, began his rule Persia. Cyrus II established his capital at Pasargadae. (Arch, 5/05, p.12)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great) -551 nend Confucius (d.479BC), K'ung Fu-tzu [K'ung Fu-tse], Chinese philosopher, was born in Chufu, China. His followers transcribed his conversations in 20 books called the "Analects" following his death. He was an accountant and later taught the importance of centralized authority and filial piety. Like Aristotle, he believed the state to be a natural institution. He was the 11th child of a 70-year-old soldier. "All eminence should be based entirely on merit." "The way of a superior man is three-fold; virtuous, he is free from anxieties; wise, he is free from perplexities; bold, he is free from fear." "To see the right and not do it is cowardice." "Shall I teach you what knowledge is? When you know a thing, to hold that you know it; and when you don't know a thing, to allow that you don't know it. This is knowledge." (SFC, 8/10/96, p.E4)(http://eawc.evansville.edu, p.9)(SFC, 3/28/98,p.D3)(AP, 6/17/98)(SFEC, 2/27/00, Z1 p.2)(SFEC, 7/9/00, Z1 p.2)(SFC,1/2/04, p.D8) c 550 nend Emperor Justinian built the St. Catherine monastery in the Sinai Desert to honor St. Catherine, an Alexandrian martyr who was tortured to death for converting to Christianity. The site was thought to be the place where Moses saw the Miracle of the Burning Bush. (SFEC, 8/28/98, p.T6) -550 nend Cities were founded in the Po Valley and expansion followed into Campania (by the Etruscans). (NG, 6/1988, p.710) -548 nend The Greek Temple of Apollo was destroyed. Amasis, ruler of Egypt, is said to have financed its rebuilding. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -546 nend In Greece the first of the Athenian tyrants, Peisistratus, replaced Solon as the ruler. (eawc, p.9) -546 nend The Persians destroyed Egypt?s alliance with the Chaldeans, Lydia and Sparta by first capturing Lydia then the Chaldaeans. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -543 nend Colonists from northern India subdued the indigenous Vaddahs (Veddah) of Sri Lanka, known in the ancient world as Taprobane and later called Serendip. Descendants of those colonists, the Buddhist Sinhalese, form most of the population. (SFC, 6/20/96, p.A8)(SFC, 9/22/97, p.A10) -543 1815 The Mahavamsa (600BC-400CE), Great Chronicle, describes the history of the Sinhalese people (Sri Lanka) over this period. The 1st part, from King Mahasena, which dates back to the legendary 5th century BC King Vijaya, was written by King Dhatusena's brother, the venerable thera Mahanama in the 6th century CE. (Arch, 7/02, p.31)(www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/mahavamsa/) -540 nend The population of Xanthos in Lycia (later Turkey) committed mass suicide rather than face slavery under invading armies. (SFEC, 1/17/99, p.T5) -540 -486 In India Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, lived. [see 480BC] (eawc, p.9) c -540 -470 The Greek philosopher Heraclitus, "the obscure," of Ephesus (486BC) lived about this time. For him reality is flux which originated out of fire (as opposed to the "stable reality" of Parmenides). Plato credits him with saying "One cannot step into the same river twice." (WUD, 1994, p.662)(eawc, p.10) -539 nend Babylon, under Chaldean rule since 612BC, fell to the Persians. Cyrus the Persian captured Babylon after the New Babylonian leader, Belshazaar, failed to read "the handwriting on the wall." The Persian Empire under Cyrus lasted to 331BC, when it was conquered by Alexander the Great. Cyrus returned some of the exiled Jews to Palestine, while other Jews preferred to stay and establish a 2nd Jewish center, the first being in Jerusalem. The Cyrus Cylinder was created following the Persian conquest of Babylon, when Cyrus overthrew the Babylonian king Nabonidus and replaced him as ruler, ending the Neo-Babylonian Empire. It was discovered in 1879 and became considered as the world's first declaration of human rights. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.174)(eawc, p.8,9)(http://tinyurl.com/lma678)(AFP,2/7/10) c -539 nend Cyrus the Great founded Persia?s Achaemenian Empire which he expanded into India, Libya and Egypt. Pasargadae was his first capital. (SFEC, 7/5/98, p.T4) -537 nend Cyrus the Persian campaigned west of the Indus River. (eawc, p.9) -535 nend Control of Corsica heralded the greatest extent of Etruscan influence. (NG, 6/1988, p.710) -533 -330 The Achaemenid dynasty ruled over Persia. It stretched from the time of Cyrus the Great to the death of Darius III. (AHD, 1971, p.10) -532 nend Polycrates became tyrant of the isle Samos, an Ionian city-state near Miletus. (V.D.-H.K.p.34) -530 nend Dec, Cyrus the Great, ruler of Persia, died in battle, fighting the Scythians along the Syr Darya. He was succeeded by his son, Cambyses II, who managed to add to the empire by conquering Egypt, Nubia, and Cyrenaica during his short rule. {Persia} (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great) -530 nend In Greece Pythagoras, mathematician and philosopher, and his followers founded the city of Croton and combined philosophy and literature with political activity as the foundation of their community. He is credited with the Pythagorean theorem and the Pythagorean table of opposites, the "dualism" that underlies Greek thought. In 2008 Kitty Ferguson authored ?The Music of Pythagoras,? which surveyed the ideas that have been thought of as Pythagorean. (eawc, p.9)(WSJ, 5/17/08, p.W8) -528 nend May 25, Buddha overcame Mara, and attained the Awakening. (V.D.-H.K.p.22) -528 nend May, Buddha (563-483) sat cross-legged under the great Bo tree. The Great Truth consists of the Four Noble Truths: 1)man's existence is full of conflict, sorrow, and suffering. 2)All difficulty and pain is caused by man's selfish desire. 3)There can be found emancipation and freedom-NIRVANA. 4)The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to liberation: The middle way, known as the Eightfold Path: right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right mode of living, right endeavor, right mindfulness, and right of concentration... (V.D.-H.K.p.22) -526 -525 Psammetichus III ruled for a short time as the last king of Egypt?s 26th Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty26.html) -525 nend Cambyses, king of Persia, met and defeated the Egyptians in front of their city at Pelusium just a few weeks after the death of Pharaoh Amasis. This marked the beginning of Egypt?s 27th Dynasty. Psammetichus III tried to revolt against Cambyses and was killed. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -525 nend On the island of Samos, Greece, castles were built. Samos was the site of the Temple of Hera, one of the 7 ancient Wonders of the World. (SFEC, 7/20/97, p.T10) c -525 nend Acroliths, or partial statues, of Olympian deities were later found in Morgantina in central Sicily that were made by Greeks and dated to this time. (SFC, 4/4/98, p.A13) -525 nend Greek drama grew out of the Dionysian festivals. (eawc, p.9) -525 -522 Cambyses II, son of Cyrus and ruler of Persia, served as the 1st ruler of Egypt?s 27th Dynasty. Cambyses added to his Persian empire by conquering Egypt. During his rule an army sent to Siwa Oasis was overcome by sandstorm and buried. Herodotus said the army numbered 50,000 men. A Jewish document from 407 BC known as 'The Demotic Chronicle' speaks of the Cambyses destroying all the temples of the Egyptian gods. Herodotus informs us that Cambyses II was a monster of cruelty and impiety. (eawc.edu, p.9)(Arch, 9/00, p.18)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -524 -456 Aeschylus, Greek poet and dramatist, lived about this time: "Everyone's quick to blame the alien." (AP, 10/12/98) -525 -465 Aeschylus is credited with being the inventor of drama and for introducing a second actor into the plays held every year in Athens in honor of Dionysus. His plays are considered to be the beginning of tragic drama. His stories were drawn from conflicts between the individual and the cosmos. Late in his career he wrote his plays in groups of three. These included the "Oresteia," "Prometheus Bound" and the "Danaides." In the Danaides only the first play, "The Suppliant Women," has survived. It was about 50 sisters who fled 50 cousins they were supposed to marry. (V.D.-H.K.p.51)(WSJ, 7/10/97, p.A13)(eawc, p.9)(WSJ, 12/5/01, p.A18) 522 nend Mar, Bardiya (Smerdis), another son of Cyrus and pretender to the throne, seized power in Persia as Cambyses was returning home. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -522 nend Aug, Cambyses II, son of Cyrus of Persia and the 1st ruler of Egypt?s 27th Dynasty, died from a dagger wound in Syrian Ecbatana. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) c -522 nend Sep 4, Pindar (d.~443), Greek poet, was born. (WUD, 1994 p.1094)(MC, 9/4/01) -522 nend Sep, Darius hastened to Media, Persia, and with the help of six Persian nobles, killed Bardiya (Smerdis), another son of Cyrus, who had usurped the throne. Darius defended this deed and his own assumption of kingship on the grounds that the usurper was actually Gaumata, a Magian, who had impersonated Bardiya after Bardiya had been murdered secretly by Cambyses. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -522 nend A revolt broke out in Egypt following the death of Cambyses, but it was put down by a Persian general named Darius, who succeeded Cambyses. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -522 nend Darius the Great (558-486), son of Hystaspes, succeeded Cambyses as emperor of Persia. He engaged in many large building programs including a system of roads and instituted the first postal system. (WUD, 1994, p.367)(eawc.edu, p.9)(ON, 4/04, p.9) -522 nend The Greek Temple of Apollo was begun on the island of Naxos on the orders of the tyrant Lygdamis. It was never completed. (SFEC,12/21/97, p.T6) c -522 nend Zoroaster died during a nomadic invasion near Balkh [ancient Afghanistan]. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) -522 -486 Darius the Great expanded the Achaemenid (Persian) empire to its peak, when it took most of Afghanistan, including Aria (Herat), Bactriana (Balk, and present-day Mazar-i-Shariff), Margiana (Merv), Gandhara (Kabul, Jalalabad and Peshawar), Sattagydia (Ghazni to the Indus river), Arachosia (Kandahar, and Quetta), and Drangiana (Sistan). The Persian empire was plagued by constant bitter and bloody tribal revolts from Afghans living in Arachosia (Kandahar, and Quetta). (www.afghan, 5/25/98) -521 nend Darius of Persia made Susa his administrative capital. He restored the fortifications and built an audience hall (apadana) and a residential palace. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -521 nend The name Armenian was mentioned for the first time in the Behistan (Behistun) inscription of the Mede (Persian) Emperor Darius from this year: "I defeated the Armenians." (http://www.atmg.org/ArmenianFAQ.html#q6)(ON, 4/04, p.7) -521 -486 The Persians under Darius fought the Scythians in a series of battles. (AM, 5/01, p.33) -520 -519 Darius of Persia authorized the Jews to rebuild the Temple at Jerusalem, in accordance with an earlier decree of Cyrus. The Hebrew?s began to rebuild Solomon?s Temple destroyed in the sack of 586BC. The Second Temple in Jerusalem was begun. It was remodeled many times and destroyed in 70CE. (SFC, 5/23/95, p.A-10)(eawc, p.10)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -520 -486 Darius, ruler of Persia, occupied Egypt and is considered the 2nd ruler of the 27th Dynasty. During his rule a canal from the Nile River to the Red Sea, probably begun by Necho I in the 7th century BC, was repaired and completed. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -519 nend Darius put down a third rising in Susiana, Persia, and established his authority in the east. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -519 nend Darius of Persia attacked the Scythians east of the Caspian Sea and a few years later conquered the Indus Valley. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -518 nend Pindar (d.438BC), considered by some as the greatest Greek lyric poet, was born in Cynoscephalae, Boeotia. His odes celebrated the games held at religious festivals. Athletic victory served as the ground for his poetic fancy and religious, moral and aesthetic insights. (eawc, p.10) -518 nend Darius visited Egypt and put to death its satrap, Aryandes. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -518 nend Persian leader Darius the Great founded Persepolis as his ceremonial capital. (SSFC, 11/27/05, p.A26) -517 -509 Darius the Persian conquered the Indus Valley region. (eawc, p.10) -516 nend Trilingual texts were chiseled on the cliffs at Behistun by Darius. no_source -515 nend Mar 10, The building of the great Jewish temple in Jerusalem was completed. (HN, 3/10/98) -515 nend Parmenides of Elea was born. He founded the Eleatic school in the Phocaean colony in southern Italy. He was the first to focus attention on the central problem of Greek metaphysics: the nature of being. For Parmenides the laws governing the universe are stable and change is merely an illusion. (eawc, p.10) -513 nend Darius, after subduing eastern Thrace and the Getae, crossed the Danube River into European Scythia, but the Scythian nomads devastated the country as they retreated from him, and he was forced, for lack of supplies, to abandon the campaign. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -510 nend In Greece Hippias, the son of Peisistratus, succeeded his father and was overthrown by a group of nobles with the help of Sparta. (eawc, p.10) -510 -490 In Egypt the temple of Hibis was rebuilt during the reign of Darius. (SFC, 7/16/99, p.D3) -509 nend The Romans overthrew King Lucius Tarquinius and established a republic with rule by the senate and the people of Rome (SPQR - Senatus Populusque Romanus). (V.D.-H.K.p.61)(http://eawc.evansville.edu, p.10)(Econ, 11/6/04, p.85) -509 nend The Fall of the Tarquin dynasty in Rome marked the beginning of Etruscan Decline. (NG, 6/1988, p.711) -508 nend In Greece Cleisthenes, the father of Athenian democracy, ruled Athens. His reforms granted full rights to all free men of Athens. (eawc, p.10) c -504 nend The Philistine city of Ekron burned to the ground. Archeologists in 1996 discovered a stone block inscribed with the city's name and its kings. The city is referred to in the biblical book of I Samuel, which tells of the Philistine capture of the Ark of the Covenant and transport to Ekron. A plague later afflicted the city and the ark was sent back to Judea. (SFC, 7/11/96, p.A10) c -500 nend The El Pilar Maya site in Belize was founded about this time. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.D) -500 nend Confucius composed the Analects about this time. 5 things constitute perfect virtue: gravity, magnanimity, earnestness, sincerity, kindness. (PC Comp. 12/94, p.278) -500 nend The game of Go was devised in China about this time. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.128) -500 nend The Chinese learned to ferment soybean around this time. The fermentation removed toxins and made soy easier to digest. It had already been used for thousands of years as fertilizer. (SSCM, 8/13/06, p.6) c -500 nend In 2004 Egyptian archeologists uncovered the limestone sarcophagus of Badi-Herkhib, the elder brother of a governor of Bahariya, who lived around 500 B.C. (AP, 12/12/04) c -500 nend The use of characters for writing spread to Greece where vowels were added and the basis for all Western alphabets was established. The Greeks invented a reed pen. (I&I, Penzias, p.45)(SFC, 7/26/04, p.F4) c -500 nend The height of Greek sculpture began with the work of Phideas. His masterpieces include the statue of Athena in the Parthenon, the Parthenon reliefs, and the statue of Zeus in the Temple of Olympian Zeus. The 2nd most important sculptor, Myron, is renowned for his statue of the discus thrower. (eawc, p.10) c -500 nend In India the city of Varanasi was also known as Kashi and Benares and has been a center of civilization for 2,500 years. It is the home of the Hindu god Shiva. (SFEC,11/23/97, p.T4) c -500 nend Lars Porsena ruled as the Etruscan king in central Italy. His capital, Clusium, was later believed to lie under the rubble of the Tuscan city of Chiusi. (Econ, 11/6/04, p.85) c -500 nend The Garamantes of southern Libya began constructing underground tunnels to link shafts to sandstone aquifers. (AM, 3/04, p.27) c -500 nend Phoenicians founded Tripoli about this time. (SSFC, 6/27/04, p.D12) c -500 nend The Persians developed a mail system that was later described by Herodotus for its efficiency. (ATC, p.34) c -500 nend Monumental ceremonial centers on the Peruvian coast were abandoned about this time. The period was later found to correspond with an increase in el Nino frequency, (AM, 9/01, p.18) c -500 nend Copper concentrations in the Greenland ice core indicate that twice the normal level was produced at this time. (PacDis, Fall/'96, p.48) c -500 nend North African people settled in present-day Nigeria and began making iron tools. (ATC, p.2) c -500 nend The Charsadda site (aka Bala Hisar) in northern Pakistan was initially occupied during the Achaemenid period. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.C) c -500 nend The city of Hund in northern Pakistan was founded about this time on the banks of the Indus River. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.C) -500 nend The Carthaginians inhabited Sardinia. (SFEC, 1/30/00, p.T4) -500 nend In Thailand black Phimai pottery and bracelets indicate that the site of Prasat Hin Phanom Wan was occupied at this time. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.G) c -500 nend Camels from Asia began showing up in North Africa. (SFEC, 5/17/98, Z1 p.8) c -500 nend A major earthquake occurred in the Middle East. (SFC,12/9/97, p.A9) c -500 -400 Before the rise of Rome, the Etruscans had the most powerful nation in ancient Italy. The Etruscans (who called themselves the Rasenna) inhabited central Italy and greatly influenced the Romans in terms of language, architecture and even fashion (evidence points to the toga as an Etruscan invention). Unfortunately, no Etruscan literary works survive, so most documentation comes from Greek and Roman literary sources as well as archaeological evidence. Their military and political power was eroded over the course of the 5th century BC with Rome rising as the dominant power on the peninsula in the 4th century BC. (HNQ, 2/8/01) -500 -400 A Byzantine shopping mall was uncovered in 1998 in Jerusalem at the site of a new mall. One inscription read "For the victory of the Blues" in Greek. It was a reference to the competing factions of Blues and Greens at horse races. (SFC, 7/7/98, p.A8) -500 -400 The Tairona civilization established a city (Teyuna) later known as Ciudad Perdida (lost city) east of Santa Maria, Colombia, about this time. Its ruins were only rediscovered in 1975. (AM, 11/04, p.19) -500 -300 Small groups of Nok people began to search for new land to settle to the south and east of present day Nigeria. (ATC, p.136) -500 -300 Cival, about 25 miles east of the much better known city of Tikal, was discovered in 1984. It was abandoned about 100 CE. Artifacts at the site dated to this time. (LAT, 5/5/04) c -500 -200 In India the Mahabharata, of which the Bhagavad-Gita is a part, was put into its final form. (PC Comp. 12/94, p.278)(eawc, p.10) -500 -50 The Celtic La Tene culture was named after a Swiss site on Lake Neuchatel where a cache of richly ornamented artifacts were discovered. (NGM, 5/77) c -500 100 Qataban flourished in the 5th-1st centuries BC in what is now southern Yemen. Qataban had a democratic form of government and gained rule over a large area, but its influence and dominions shrank with the emergence of the Himyarites late in the 2nd century BC. Qataban was conquered by Saba' in the early centuries CE. (HNQ, 7/20/00) -500 200 The Nok people lived in the area of present day Nigeria and used iron tools. Evidence indicates that the Nok were making iron as early as 450BC. Their language became the root of the 300 distinct languages spoken in central and southern Africa. The legendary "Dinya Head" is a life sized terra cotta of a woman with plaited hair. (ATC, p.110,136)(WSJ, 6/14/96, p.A12) c -500 500 A Tequesta burial site, discovered in Florida in 1998 and known as the Miami Circle, dated to this time. (AM, 9/01, p.18) -500 800 The bulk of the material at the Plain of Jars in northern Laos dated to this period. Jars up to 9 feet tall were later found to contain tools and human remains. (AM, 7/05, p.31) -499 nend Athens and Eretria supported an Ionian revolt against Persian rule. (AP, 7/9/05) -496 nend Sophocles (d.406BC), the 2nd Greek dramatist after Aeschylus, was born about this time. He is considered by some as the greatest of the Greek dramatists. His works include: "Oedipus Rex" and "Antigone." (eawc, p.11)(SFC, 1/10/04, p.D6) -496 -406 Sophocles added valuable elements to the developing tragic drama. His work involved all men in the tragic elements of life. His work included the drama Philoctetes. It was about how the Greeks needed the aged Philoctetes and his magic bow to capture Troy, but had exiled him to a remote island. They send Neoptolemus, son of Achilles, to secure the bow by deceit and trickery. In 1990 the play was rewritten by Seamus Heaney, 1995 Nobel poet laureate, as "The Cure at Troy." (V.D.-H.K.p.51)(LSA, Spg/97, p.14)(WSJ, 12/3/97, p.A20) -495 -429 Pericles, Athenian leader during the early years of the Peloponnesian Wars. (V.D.-H.K.p.55) -494 nend In Rome the first victory of the plebeian class over the patricians resulted in an agreement between the two classes to allow the plebeians to elect officers, and tribunes with the power to veto any unlawful acts of the magistrates. (eawc, p.10) -492 nend Goujian, the king of Yue (later part of China?s Zhejiang province), was taken prisoner after a disastrous campaign against King Fuchai, a neighbor to the north. After a few years Fuchai let him return home as his vassal. (Econ, 12/4/10, SR p.3) -492 nend Darius put his son-in-law, Mardonius, in charge of a Persian expedition against Athens and Eretria, but the loss of the fleet in a storm off Mount Athos forced him to abandon the operation. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -490 nend Sep 2, Phidippides of Athens set out on his 26-mile run that inspired the Marathon. Phidippides was sent to seek troops from Sparta to help against the invading Persian army. The Spartans were unwilling to help, until the next full moon, due to religious laws. On Sept. 4th, Phidippides returned the 26 miles Marathon without Spartan troops. (MC, 9/2/01) -490 nend Sep 9, First Persian attack on Greece. Greeks led by Miltiades defeated the Persians at the Battle of Marathon. Pheidipiddes, a hemerodromi or long-distance foot messenger, was dispatched to run 26 miles from marathon to Athens to announce the victory. He reached Athens and proclaimed: "Rejoice! We conquer!" The he dropped dead. In the Battle of Marathon Darius the Great of Persia was defeated by the Greeks. The Greeks initiated the war when Persia, the strongest power in western Asia, established rule over Greek-speaking cities in Asia Minor. [see Sep 12] (HFA, '96, p.38)(V.D.-H.K.p.49)(SFC, 7/14/96, p.T7)(eawc, p.10) -490 nend Sep 12, Athenian and Plataean Hoplites commanded by General Miltiades drove back a Persian invasion force under General Datis at Marathon. [see Sep 9] (HN, 9/12/98) -490 nend Empedocles (d.430BC), Greek philosopher, was born. He is best known for being the originator of the cosmogenic theory of the four classical elements. An important idea in ancient Greek philosophy is that "Nothing comes from nothing", so that what exists now has always existed, since no new matter can come into existence where there was none before. An explicit statement of this, along with the further principle that nothing can pass away into nothing, is found in Empedocles (ca. 490-430 BC): "For it is impossible for anything to come to be from what is not, and it cannot be brought about or heard of that what is should be utterly destroyed." (Econ, 2/7/09, p.72)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_of_mass) -490 nend A Persian force under Datis, a Mede, destroyed Eretria and enslaved its inhabitants but was defeated by the Athenians at Marathon. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -490 -479 The Greco-Persian War is commonly regarded as one of the most significant wars in all of history. The Greeks emerged victorious and put an end to the possibility of Persian despotism. (eawc, p.10) c -490 -430 The Greek philosopher Zeno of Elea proposed a number of paradoxes to support the claim of Parmenides that the world was a motionless, unchanging unity. The race between Achilles and the tortoise is one example. (WUD, 1994, p.1660)(SFC, 7/14/97, p.E5) -486 nend The first stretch of the north-south Grand Canal was begun and completed by about 400BC. It became fully navigable in the 14th century. (WSJ, 10/25/99, p.A50)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R51)(Econ, 5/22/10, SR p.12) -486 nend Darius, ruler of Persia, died. His preparations for a 3rd expedition against Greece were delayed by an insurrection in Egypt. He was succeeded by his son Xerxes. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27.html) -486 -465 Xerxes the Great, king of Persia, ruled Egypt as the 3rd king of the 27th Dynasty. His rule extended from India to the lands below the Caspian and Black seas, to the east coast of the Mediterranean including Egypt and Thrace. Persia?s great cities Sardis, Ninevah, Babylon, and Susa were joined by the Royal Road. East of Susa was Persopolis, a vast religious monument. To the north of Persia were the Scythians. (V.D.-H.K.p.49)(eawc, p.11)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27a.html) c -485 nend Athenian democracy was accompanied by an intellectual revolution with beginnings in Sophism. Sophists situated ethics and politics within philosophical discourse, which before was limited to physics and metaphysics alone. Protagoras, the leading Sophist, stated: "Man is the measure of all things." For him all truth, goodness, and beauty are relative to man's necessities and inquiries. In opposition to the Sophists emerged Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, each of whom offered alternatives to the Sophist's relativism. (eawc, p.11) -484 -420 Herodotus was the first historian to lay out a coherent story. He authored the 9-book history of the Graeco-Persian War: "Researches into the Causes and Events of the Persian Wars," and the "The Histories of Herodotus." He also wrote a book dedicated to his travels through Egypt. (V.D.-H.K.p.53)(SFC, 3/26/97, p.A12)(eawc, p.11) -484 -420 Herodotus claimed that the Etruscans were Lydians who had immigrated to Italy from Asia Minor. But modern scholars believe the Etruscans evolved from an indigenous population of Iron Age farmers of the Villanovan culture. (NG, 6/1988, p.710) -484 -420 The Greeks always called the Etruscans the Tyrrhenians, after the prince Tyrrhenus who, according to Herodotus, led them to the shores of Etruria. (NG, 6/1988, p.718) -484 -420 Herodotus mentioned gold-digging ants and that some were kept at the palace of the Persian king. It was later learned that the Persian word for marmot is equivalent to mountain ant, and that marmots in the Dansar plain of northern Pakistan bring up gold dust from their burrows. (SFC, 11/25/96, p.A10) -484 -406 Euripides was an Athenian tragedian who brought the gods and heroes down to earth. He presented pictures of human life that were sometimes tragic, sometimes comic, but always and undeniably real. [see 480-406] (V.D.-H.K.p.52) -487 nend Sep 23, Greek dramatist Euripides, was born. He wrote "Medea" and "The Trojan Women." His plays used a device called "Deus ex Machina," literally "God from a machine." Today the term refers to sudden events that come from nowhere to advance the plot. [see 484-406, 480-406] (MC, 9/23/01) -483 nend Themistocles, fearing destruction at the hands of the Persians, persuaded his fellow Athenians to build a navy of one hundred triremes. He also oversaw the fortification of the harbor at Piraeus, which then replaced Phaleron as the port of Athens. (www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture7b.html)(AM, 7/05, p.12) -483 nend Gautama Siddhartha Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, died about this time in Kushinagar, in northern India. (eawc, p.9)(SSFC, 10/14/07,p.A15)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautama_Buddha) -482 nend Goujian, the king of Yue (later part of China?a Zhejiang province), marched north with some 50,000 warriors and attacked King Fuchai putting his kingdom to the sword. (Econ, 12/4/10, SR p.3) -481 -221 The Waring States period of the Chou Dynasty. [see 475-221] The states of Ch'in and Ch'u emerged as the primary competitors in the struggle to found an empire. During this period a 4-tiered class structure emerged consisting of lesser nobility (including scholars), the peasant farmers, the artisans, and the merchants, who held the lowest position in society. This was also known as the period of the Hundred Schools of Thought with the emergence of several schools of political philosophy that included: Confucianism, Taoism, Mohism and Legalism. (eawc, p.5,11) -480 nend Aug 9, The Persian army defeated Leonidas and his Spartan army at the battle Thermopylae, Persia. In 1998 Steven Pressfield authored: "Gates of Fire, An Epic Novel of the Battle of Thermopylae." In 2006 Paul Cartledge authored ?Thermopylae: The Battle That Changed the World.? (HN, 8/9/98)(SFEC, 11/29/98, BR p.3)(WSJ, 11/11/06, p.P11) -480 nend Sep 20, Themistocles and his Greek fleet won one of history's first decisive naval victories over Xerxes' Persian force off Salamis. Persia under Xerxes attacked Greece. Athens got burned but the Athenian fleet under Themistocles trapped and destroyed the Persian navy at Salamis. Phoenician squadrons were at the heart of Xerxes' fleet; the king of Sidon was among his admirals. 31 states of the Hellenic League fought Xerxes. (V.D.-H.K.p.49), (NG, Aug., 1974, p.174)(HN, 9/20/98)(WSJ, 4/26/99,p.A18) -480 nend Oct 20, Greeks defeated the Persians in a naval battle at Salamis. [see Sep 20] (HN, 10/20/98) -480 nend Xerxes performed a sacrifice at the site of Troy on his way to battle the Greeks. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.50) -480 nend The Acropolis temples were destroyed during the Persian invasion. The ruins lay untouched for 30 years until 447, when Pericles initiated a reconstruction program. (WSJ, 12/14/00, p.A24)(WSJ, 2/19/02, p.A22) c -480 nend Vardhamana Mahavira, the semi-legendary teacher who reformed older doctrines and established Jainism, died. He is regarded as the 24th and latest Tirthankara, one of the people to have attained personal immortality through enlightenment. Jainism was founded as a dualistic, ascetic religion as a revolt against the caste system and the vague world spirit of Hinduism. (WUD, 1994, p.762,1488,1580) c -480 nend Herodotus said marijuana was cultivated in Scythia and Thrace, where inhabitants intoxicated themselves by breathing the vapors given off when the plant was roasted on white-hot stones. (WSJ, 2/8/05, p.D7) -480 -406 Euripides, Greek tragic dramatist. He authored "Medea," "Alcestis," "The Cyclops," "The Trojan Woman," and "The Bacchae." His drama dealt with situations that were analogous to human life. In 1997 Greek archeologists claimed to have discovered the island cave where he worked. [see 484-406, 487] (WSJ, 1/10/97, p.A9)(WUD, 1994, p.492)(USAT, 1/15/97, p.9A)(LSA,Spg/97, p.14)(EEE, p.12)(WSJ, 12/31/97, p.A8) -479 nend Aug 27, A combined Greek army stopped the Persians at the battle at Plataea. (V.D.-H.K.p.49)(NG, Aug., 1974, p.174) -479 nend Confucius (b.551BC), K'ung Fu-tzu [K'ung Fu-tse], Chinese philosopher, died. In 2008 Kung Te-cheng (b.1920), the 77th lineal descendent of Confucius, died in Taiwan. In 2006 Kung Yu-jen, the 80th lineal descendent was born. (WSJ, 11/1/08, p.A6) -479 nend In China the philosopher Mo-tzu (d.438BC), founder of Mohism, was born. He taught a message of universal love and compassion for the common plight of ordinary people. (eawc, p.11) -478 nend Athens led other Greek states in the formation of the Delian League to provide money for a common defense against Persia. Athens used much of the money for building projects that included the Parthenon. The League continued even after the end of the Greco-Persian War and transformed into a naval empire with Athens as its leader. (eawc, p.11)(Econ, 7/11/09, p.19) 475 -221 The Waring States period. [see 403-321BC] (SFC, 4/10/97, p.A16) -474 nend The Etruscans were routed by the Greeks of Syracuse in a sea battle off Cumae near Naples. (NG, 6/1988, p.739) c -470 nend Hanno the Navigator, Carthaginian sailor, described his encounters with ?hairy, wild people? on the west coast of equatorial Africa. (ON, 11/04, p.11) c -470 -469 Jun 5, Socrates (d.399BC) was born in Athens. He served as an infantryman during the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta. A sophist (teacher of philosophy), he claimed not to know anything for certain and used the interrogatory method for teaching. He left no written works. He was a major critic of popular belief in Athens and was the protagonist of Plato's dialogues. "Education is the kindling of a flame, not the filling of a vessel." [3rd source has him born in 469] (V.D.-H.K.p.43)(CFA, '96, p.48)(WU, p.1350)(Hem., 1/97, p.96)(eawc,p.11) -469 nend Sophocles (d.406BC), the 2nd Greek dramatist after Aeschylus, was born. He is considered by some as the greatest of the Greek dramatists. His works include: "Oedipus Rex" and "Antigone." (eawc, p.11) -467 nend A meteorite crashed to earth and convinced Greek philosopher Anaxagoras that heavenly bodies were not divine beings. He became the world's earliest figure to be indicted for atheism. (WSJ, 11/21/03, p.W4) -465 nend Xerxes the Great, king of Persia, was assassinated. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27a.html) -465 -424 Artaxerxes, son of Xerxes I, ruled Persia in the Achaemenis dynasty and Egypt as the 4th king of the 27th Dynasty. The books of Ezra and Nehemiah remember his warmly because he authorized their revival of Judaism. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27a.html) 461 -429 In Athens this was the "Age of Pericles." Athenian democracy reached perfection and the court systems were completed. A jury system was put in place with the jury serving as the absolute authority in judicial matters. (eawc, p.11) -460 nend Herodotus turned back in frustration at the first cataract at Aswan. He stated: "Of the source of the Nile no one can give any account." (NG, May 1985, p.629) -460 nend Democritus born in Abdera, SW Thrace. First proposed theory of atoms as the basic particle of all matter. Only bare fragments of his work survive. (V.D.-H.K.p.38) -460 -400 Thucydides lived about this time. As author of the History of the Peloponnesian Wars, he inserted into his history speeches by important war figures that he made up. He also wrote on the Athenian slaughter of the Melians. He is associated with the historical view that cycles of growth, expansion and decline are a natural part of international life. In 2005 Perez Zagorin authored ?Thucydides: An Introduction for the Common Reader.? (WSJ, 5/13/98, p.A20)(WSJ, 1/19/06,p.D8)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thucydides) -455 nend Artaxerxes, ruler of Persia, put down a revolt in Egypt. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27a.html) c -450 nend The golden plate known as the "Phiale Mesomphalos" was made. In 1998 it was valued at $1.2 million and held by US Customs. (WSJ, 10/8/98, p.W14) -450 nend In 2006 archaeologists in Bangladesh said they had uncovered part of a fortified citadel at Wari, northeast of Dhaka, dating back to this time that could have been a stopping off point along an ancient trade route. (Reuters, 3/15/06) -450 nend Roman law was codified in the twelve tablets. The law allowed the plebeians to have knowledge of their relationship to the law. The plebeians were primarily farmers, craftsmen and tradesmen with foreign backgrounds. The patricians made up the aristocracy. (V.D.-H.K.p.67)(eawc, p.11) -450 nend Herodotus journeyed to the Scythian lands north of the Black Sea and heard tales of women who were fierce killers of men. He named these women "Amazons," from a Greek word meaning without one breast. Legend had it that one breast was removed in order to carry quivers of arrows more conveniently. (SFC, 1/28/97, p.A1,5) -450 nend The Nok people of present day Nigeria began making iron tools. (ATC, p.110) -450 nend Epicharmus, Sicilian Greek comic poet, died: "The wise man must be wise before, not after." (AP, 12/29/97) 448 -380 In Greece Aristophanes, considered by some as the greatest Greek comedy writer, lived. His work includes "The Clouds" and "Lysistrata." Greek comedy like Greek tragedy originated in the Dionysian festivals. In Lysistrata he described how Greek women abstained from sex until their men stopped fighting in the Peloponnesian war. (EEE, p.12)(SFC,11/8/97, p.A10) -447 nend Athens under Pericles initiated a reconstruction program that included the construction of the Parthenon on the Acropolis. (WSJ, 2/19/02, p.A22) -447 -432 The marble friezes of the Parthenon were carved. (AM, 5/01, p.14) -444 nend Ikos of Tarentum won the Olympic Pentathlon. He gave up sex as part of his training regimen. (WSJ, 2/8/06, p.A1) c -444 -360 Agesilaus II, King of Sparta: "If I have done any deed worthy of remembrance, that deed will be my monument. If not, no monument can preserve my memory." (AP, 10/29/97) -440 -420 Sophocles composed his tragedy "The Trachinian Women." It described what happened when he put on the robe woven by his wife Deianeira. In 1680 Pierre Puget made his bronze sculpture of Herakles (Hercules) struggling in the burning tunic. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.55) -438 nend The Parthenon was built atop the Acropolis in Athens, Greece. (SFC, 7/14/96, p.T7) -434 nend The Greek philosopher Anaxagoras suggested that the sun is just a ball of fire about as large as the Peloponnesus, floating in the air about 4,000 miles above the Earth. He believed that the Earth was flat and thereby estimated the diameter of the sun to be about 35 miles. (SCTS, p.3-4) -433 nend In China the Marquis Yi of Zeng died about this time. His tomb was discovered in 1978. (WSJ, 9/27/96, p.A16) -432 nend An Athenian devised a 19-year "Metatonic cycle" to reconcile the lunar and solar years. (SFC, 11/29/03, p.D2) -431 nend Euripides wrote his tragedy "Medea," based on the legend of the sorceress Medea, daughter of Aeëtes, King of Colchis, and wife of Jason, whom she assisted in obtaining the Golden Fleece. It describes how Jason abandoned the sorceress Medea to marry Glauke, a Corinthian princess. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.55)(WUD, 1994, p.890) 431 -404 The Peloponnesian war between Athens and Sparta. It was finally won by Sparta. Athenian trade was destroyed and democracy was overthrown as Athens surrendered to Sparta as a subject state. Sparta assumed dominance over the Greek world and replaced many democracies with oligarchies. In 1972 Geoffrey de Ste. Croix (1910-2000), British Marxist historian, authored "The Origins of the Peloponnesian War." He pinned the cause of the conflict on the Spartans. (V.D.-H.K.p.50)(EEE, p.12)(SFC, 2/15/00, p.A21) -430 nend Thucydides in his History of the Peloponnesian War tells how the Spartans attempted to destroy the city of Plataia with a flaming mixture of pitch and sulfur. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.57) -430 nend Legend has it that the Greek philosopher Empedocles (b.430) climbed Mount Etna only to leap into its crater in despair. It is said that he jumped in out of frustration because he couldn?t figure out how the volcano worked. Empedocles was the author of a work called "On Nature." (PacDisc. Spring/?96, p.26)(WSJ, 8/21/01, p.A17) -430 -410 A mysterious disease killed one-third of the Athenian population. Thucydides, who was stricken but recovered, described the plague in Athens (likely an outbreak of typhus fever) in Book 2 of his History of the Peloponnesian War. (NH, 6/97, p.11)(WSJ, 9/9/06, p.P8) -429 nend Pericles (b.490BC), Athenian statesman, died of the plague. (WUD, 1994, p.1071)(NH, 6/97, p.10) -427 nend May 21, Plato (d.347BC), Greek philosopher, was born. His work included the "Republic," and the dialogues "Critias" and "Timaeus" in which he mentioned the island empire of Atlantis. He claimed that an Egyptian priest confided information about Atlantis to Solon, the Athenian legislator, whose memoirs Plato claimed to have read. In 1998 2 books on Atlantis were published: "Atlantis Destroyed" by Rodney Castleden and "Imagining Atlantis" by Richard Ellis. (HN, 5/21/98)(WSJ, 6/26/98, p.W9) -424 nend Thucydides in his history of the Peloponnesian War tells how the Spartans used pitch and sulfur against the Athenians at Delium. In this 7th year of the war unexpected Boeotian horsemen charged on the right flank of Athenian hoplite column causing many Athenians to flee. Socrates and Alcibiades retreated into the woods and survived. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.57)(SSFC, 9/21/03, p.M6) -415 nend Greece undertook its Sicilian Expedition. The overseas adventure destroyed Athenian power and freedom. (WSJ, 1/19/06, p.D8) -411 nend Aristocratic Athenians, including students of Socrates, overthrew Athen?s democracy in conspiracy with Alcibiades. The oligarchic junta lasted only a few months. (Econ, 12/19/09, p.63) -410 nend Darius II, ruler of Persia, quelled a revolt in Media but lost control of Egypt. He secured much influence in Greece in the Peloponnesian War through the diplomacy of Pharnabazus, Tissaphernes, and Cyrus the Younger. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27a.html) -407 nend Euripides wrote "The Bacchae" while residing at the court of the king of Macedon. He had left Athens in the last years of its war against Sparta. The play dealt with the violent introduction of the cult of Dionysos into the city of Thebes. (WSJ, 12/31/97, p.A8) -406 nend Athenian admirals abandoned scores of shipwrecked sailors after a victory over the Spartans at Arginusae. A storm prevented the ships assigned to rescue the survivors of the 25 disabled or sunken Athenian triremes from performing their duties, and a great number of sailors drowned. (Econ, 1/23/10, p.16)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Arginusae) -406 nend Euripides (b.480/484), Greek tragic dramatist, died. His plays included Phedre, which tells the story of a queen?s incestuous love for her stepson. (EEE, p.12)(Econ, 6/20/09, p.89) -406 nend Sophocles (b.496/97BC), the 2nd Greek dramatist after Aeschylus, died. He is considered by some as the greatest of the Greek dramatists. His works include: "Oedipus Rex" and "Antigone." (eawc, p.11)(SFC, 1/10/04, p.D6) -405 nend Aristophanes wrote his play ?The Frogs.? It tells how Dionysus, the god of theater, travels to Hades with his slave Xanthias to bring back the shade of a great playwright who will revive the declining art of drama and make the world a better place. (WSJ, 7/23/04, p.W1) -405 nend Persian rule of Egypt ended. (eawc, p.9) -404 nend Another coup toppled Athen?s democracy. Leaders included Critias and Charmides, relatives of Plato. Oligarchs conducted a reign of terror for much of a year before Athens reclaimed its democracy. (Econ, 12/19/09, p.63) -404 nend Artaxerxes II succeeded Darius II over Persia but was challenged Cyrus the Younger. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27a.html) -404 -399 Amyrtaios, believed to be a Libyan, ruled Egypt following the death of Darius II from Sais as the 1st and only ruler of the 28th Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty27a.html) 404 -338 Sparta is not able to persist in the rule of Greece. Power over Greece shifts from Sparta to Thebes and then to numerous other city-states, none able to maintain rule over such a large empire. (http://eawc.evansville.edu) 403 -321 During the Waring States period in China, the Pu people buried wedged wooden coffins into the cliffs a 1,000 feet above the Yangtze River in Jingzhu Gorge. [see 475-221BC] (NH, 7/96, p.36,37) -401 nend Oligarchs in Athens schemed a 3rd coup but failed. (Econ, 12/19/09, p.63) -401 nend In the Battle of Cunaxa Cyrus attempted to oust his brother Artaxerxes from rule over Babylon. Greek forces, hired to help Cyrus, were left stranded when Cyrus died. The Greek army elected Xenophon to lead them back home. Xenophon later authored his ?Anabasis? (expedition up country), which told the story of return home. In 2005 Tim Rood authored ?The Sea, The Sea,? an analysis of Xenophon?s life story following his death. (WSJ, 5/4/05, p.D10) -400 nend In 2007 a 2,400-year-old golden mask that once belonged to a Thracian king was unearthed in a timber-lined tomb in southeastern Bulgaria. (AP, 7/17/07) c -400 nend In southern Greece the Phigaleians built a temple in tribute to Apollo for restoring their homeland taken by invading Spartans. The temple of Apollo Epikourios near Bassai was said to have been designed by Iktinos. (Arch, 9/00, p.16) c -400 nend The first temple known to be dedicated to the "supreme" Zeus was constructed about this time. In 2003 a 2,400BC - year-old headless marble statue was found along with 14 columns depicting eagles, one of the symbols of Hypsistos Zeus, the chief deity of ancient Greece. (AP, 8/2/03) -400 nend In India Panini's "Sutra," the earliest Sanskrit grammar, was written. (EEE, p.12) c -400 nend In a wave of Celtic expansion tribes poured through the Alps into Italy. (NGM, 5/77) -400 nend Korean farmers about this time brought rice to Japan. (Econ, 12/19/09, p.66) -400 nend By this time the Sarmatians were occupying outposts of the Roman empire in the Balkans. (SFC, 1/28/97, p.A5) c -400 nend A nomadic tribal chief was buried at Pazyryk in southern Siberia. This tomb in the Altay Mountains was later found and discovered to contain wool fabrics, a carpet, a saddle of felt and leather, felt figures of swans, a horse harness with carved wooden rams' heads. and a fleece in near perfect condition. The origin of the carpet with its 1,125,000 knots is under debate. It might have come from Assyria or Iran. (NG, 5.1988, pp. 567-569) -400 -300 In China the Zhuangzi, the 2nd great Taoist text, was compiled. (WSJ, 12/26/00, p.A9) -400 -300 The Chinese began suffering from fierce attacks of nomadic herdsmen, the Hsiung-nu, from the north and west. They began to build parts of what came to be called the Great Wall for protection. (SFEM, 10/12/97, p.24) c -400 -300 The Greeks founded Neopolis (Naples), their "New City" in the 4th century BC They carved blocks of tufa stone to build the city structures and left behind cavernous quarries. Centuries later the Romans turned the quarries into cisterns and connected them with tunnels. Water was brought in from the Serino River in the hills of Avellino, 96 miles to the north. This provided the water supply until 1883. (SFEC, 1/26/97 , p.T9) -400 -300 Tamassos was the capital of one of 11 kingdoms on Cyprus that were abolished at the end of the 4th century and replaced by a unified administrative system. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.20) -400 300 Aeneas the Tactician in his siege craft manual advised generals defending city walls to throw burning bags of linen fibers treated with sulfur and pitch on the enemy. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.57) -400 -300 The Greek writer Ephorus referred to the Celts, Scythians, Persians and Libyans as the four great barbarian peoples in the known world. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.11) -400 -300 King Bardhylus united Illyria, Molossia (Epirus) and part of Macedonia. The Illyrian kingdom reached its peak. (www, Albania, 1998) -400 -300 A mint of this time served Chersonesos on the Crimean peninsula with a population of 10,000 to 20,000. (SFC,12/19/97, p.F6) c -400 300 Praxiteles sculpted Aphrodite, the 1st known sculpture of a nude woman. (SFC, 6/3/00, p.D4) c -400 300 Archestratus was a 4th century Greek Sicilian. His writings included recipes of the time. (SFC, 3/31/99, p.A8) -400 300 Theophrastus, a natural historian, wrote a treatise on pyrophoric minerals. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.58) c -400 -200 The "creative" phase of classical Greek geometry. The subject was studied by Prof. Wilbur Richard Knorr (d.1997 at 51) of Stanford who wrote: "The Evolution of Euclidean Elements," "Ancient Sources of the Medieval Tradition of Mechanics," "The Ancient Tradition of Geometric Problems," and "Textual Studies in Ancient and Medieval Geometry." (SFC, 3/20/97, p.A24)(SFEC, 3/30/97, p.D5) -400 250 The Yayoi culture is identified by its pottery. Mongoloid people from Korea entered Japan and mixed with the older Jomon populations. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.34,38) c -400 1100 Anuradhapura served as the capital of Sri Lanka (Ceylon) during this period. (SFC, 9/16/96, p.A9) -399 nend Feb 15, Socrates was condemned to death on charges of corrupting the youth and introducing new gods into Greek thought. A tribunal of 501 citizens found Socrates guilty of the charge of impiety and corruption of youth. Socrates b.(469BC) had been the teacher of two leaders who were held responsible for the Greek?s loss to Sparta in the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC). Plato?s Apology, Crito, and Phaedo describe Socrates? trial, imprisonment and death. (eawc, p.11)(HNQ, 3/21/00) -399 nend May 7, Socrates (b.469BC), Greek philosopher, committed suicide. He had been indicted for rejecting the Gods acknowledged by the State, of bringing in strange deities, and of corrupting the youth. In 2007 Emily Wilson authored ?The Death of Socrates.? (www.crystalinks.com/socrates.html)(WSJ, 11/24/07, p.W8) -399 -393 Nepherites served as the 1st ruler of Egypt?s 29th Dynasty. During his rule he entered into an alliance with Sparta against the Persians. A gift ship to Sparta was lost at Rhodes, which had defected to the Persians. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -396 nend Roman legions sacked the Etruscan city of Veio, after a ten-year siege, ended the city's long conflict with Rome. (NG, 6/1988, p.711)(SFC, 6/17/06, p.A12) -395 nend Agesilaos of Sparta ravaged northwestern Turkey. (Arch, 7/02, p.8) -394 nend Athens, Greece, declared an embargo on Megara about this time. The ensuing 27-year struggle left the Athenians humiliated and Magara?s ally, Corinth, triumphant. (Econ, 10/21/06, p.70) -393 -380 Hakoris served as the 2nd or 3rd ruler of Egypt?s 29th Dynasty. There is some confusion because a king named Psammuthis ruled in 393BC. During Hakoris? reign there was a 3 year war with Persia. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -391 -377 Hecatomnus, satrap of Caria, ruled over Mylasa about this time. The Persian king Artaxerxes II Mnemon appointed Hecatomnus as satrap of this part of the Achaemenid Empire. A 2,800-year-old tomb and carved coffin, decorated with reliefs of a bearded reclining man, believed to be Hecatomnus, was discovered in 2010. (AP, 8/13/10)(www.livius.org/he-hg/hecatomnids/hecatomnus.html) -387 nend Rampaging bands of Celts captured Rome and then settled down to a life of agriculture in the Po Valley. (NGM, 5/77) -384 nend Aristotle (d.322 BC) was born in Stagira, Macedonia. He entered Plato's Academy at age 17. After several years as tutor to Alexander the Great he returned to Athens and founded the Lyceum. [see Mar 7, 322 BC] (V.D.-H.K.p.44,45)(WSJ, 9/30/98, p.A16)(NH, 12/98, p.10)(SFC,8/13/02, p.A13) 384 -322 Demosthenes, Greek statesman: "He who confers a favor should at once forget it, if he is not to show a sordid, ungenerous spirit." (AP, 10/4/00) -382 -336 Philip II of Macedon, king of Macedonia (359-336), and father of Alexander the Great. (WUD, 1994, p.1081) -380 nend Nepherites II, son of Hakoris, served as the 4th and final ruler of Egypt?s 29th Dynasty. He reigned for only 4 months before being overthrown. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -380 nend In Egypt a giant stone was set at the Nile's exit into the Mediterranean by order of Pharaoh Nektanebo I. A smaller stela noted the name of the city as Herakleoin. The city was submerged by an earthquake around 800CE. In 2001 the stones were pulled from the sea. (SFC, 6/8/01, p.A9) -380 -362 Nectanebo served as the 1st ruler of Egypt?s 30th Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -380 700 The site at Tra Kieu, Vietnam, is believed to be Simhapura, the former capital of an Indianized Cham kingdom. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.H) -373 nend The Greek city of Helike was destroyed by an earthquake. Historians recorded that rats, snakes and weasels had abandoned Helice just days before the quake struck. (NH, 10/02, p.78)(WSJ, 5/16/08, p.A6) -373 nend The Persian army moved to attack Egypt. They abandoned the effort when the Nile flooded over the Delta. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -373 -288 In China the Confucianist Meng-Tzu (Mencius) lived. He departed from the ideas of Confucius by positing a theory of just rebellion against immoral rulers. [see 371-289BC] (EEE, p.12) -371 nend Jul, Sparta, led by King Agesilaus II, was decisively defeated in the Battle of Leuctra by the Thebans under Epaminondas (47), commander of the Boeotian League, which was an alliance of 11 city states in central Greece. (HNQ, 10/24/00)(ON, 9/06, p.1) -371 -289 Mencius, Chinese philosopher: "The great man is he who does not lose his child's heart." [see 373-288BC] (AP, 11/19/98) -370 nend Epaminondas, commander of the Boeotian League, led an army into the Peloponnese and captured the prefecture of Messenia, which had been ruled and enslaved by Sparta for 3 centuries. (ON, 9/06, p.3) c -369 nend c286BC Chuang-tzu (Zhuang Zhou), Chinese philosopher and writer. His work included the spiritual masterpiece "Inner chapters." "Rewards and punishments are the lowest form of education." (AP, 11/11/97)(NH, 7/00, p.59)(SSFC, 2/18/01, DB p.35) -367 nend In Rome the first plebian consul was elected to the assembly. The Plebeians also became eligible to serve as lesser magistrates, formerly a position reserved for the aristocratic class. Because an ancient custom allowed promotion from the magistracy to the Senate, the patrician-dominated Senate was broken. (EEE, p.12) -367 -348 Aristotle studied under Plato at the Academy in Athens. He left Athens to travel for 12 years and returned to Macedonia where he tutored Alexander, son of Philip for 3 years. It was Plato who said that "A woman is only a lesser man." (V.D.-H.K.p.44,45)(SFEC, 10/20/96, Z1 p.2) -367 -283 Ptolemy I (Soter), founder of the Macedonian dynasty of Egypt. He ruled Egypt from 306-285. (WUD, 1994, p.1162) -365 -360 Teos, son of Nectanebo, served as the 2nd ruler of Egypt?s 30th Dynasty. He failed in an attempted attack on Persia and was deserted by the Egyptians and Greek mercenaries. He fled to Persia where Artaxerxes II gave him refuge. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -364 nend Gan De, noted Chinese astronomer, reported a viewing of Jupiter and one of its 16 moons. (SFC, 4/10/97, p.A16) -363 nend Artaxerxes III (Ochus), son of Artaxerxes II, became king of Persia. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -362 nend Epaminondas, commander of the Boeotian League, confronted an army of Spartan and Athenian troops near Mantinea. The Boeotians won the battle but Epaminondas died from a javelin wound. (ON, 9/06, p.3) -360 nend Greek philosopher Plato, in his "dialogues" from about this time, said an island he called Atlantis "in a single day and night... disappeared into the depths of the sea." He described Atlantis as "an island situated in front of the straits which are by you called the Pillars of Hercules." In 2011 a US-led research team, using a satellite photo of a suspected submerged city, suggested a site just north of Cadiz, Spain, as the site of Atlantis. (Reuters, 3/12/11) -360 -343 Nectanebo II served as the 3rd and final ruler of Egypt?s 30th Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) 359 336 Philip II ruled the Kingdom of Macedonia. He founded Plovdiv, Bulgaria. (WUD, 1994, p.1081)(SFC, 7/18/96, p.E1) -358 nend Illyrians were defeated by Philip II of Macedonia. (www, Albania, 1998) -356 nend Alexander the Great (d.323) was born in Pella, Greece. Alexander also married the daughter of Darius, whom he defeated in 333, and a Sogdian princess while staying firmly attached to his comrade, Hephaistion. Alexander later married a barbarian princess, Roxana, the daughter of the Bactrian chief Oxyartes. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great)(WSJ, 5/15/98,p.W11)(SFC, 7/29/09, p.A4) -354 nend Demosthenes wrote a series of speeches, later called the Philippics, which urged Athenians to defend the city against Philip of Macedon. (ON, 9/00, p.12) -352 nend The Greek Mausoleum of Helicarnassus was built. It was destroyed by an earthquake in the 1300s. (WSJ, 10/10/01, p.B1) -350 nend First evidence of humans in southwest Colorado: corn pollen. Nomadic hunter-gatherers planted crops in the spring, then left to forage and hunt over the summer, returning in the fall to harvest and seek shelter in caves for the winter. They made baskets of yucca fibers, sometimes waterproofed with pitch from piñon pine. (HN, 2/11/97) c -350 nend The zi were probably living in Colorado caves. Their present name comes from a Navajo word meaning "the ancient ones" or "the ancient enemy." (HNQ, 7/1/01) -350 nend Babylonian tables of astronomical numbers regularly use zero. (V.D.-H.K.p.28) c -350 nend The time of Praxiteles, Greek Athenian sculptor. (WUD, 1994, p.1129)(AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.19) c -350 nend The new philosophy of the Cynics emerged led by Greek philosopher Diogenes (404-323). He argued against conventional life and that people should live naturally and strive for self-sufficiency. (eawc, p.13)(SFC, 10/29/08, p.G2) c -350 nend Temples in Greece began to be used by ill worshippers hoping for a cure from the gods. These were later considered as the first hospitals. (SFEC,6/11/00, Z1 p.2) c -350 nend The kingdom of Illyria emerged in the region of Shkoder in what is now Albania. (CO, Grolier's Amer. Acad. Enc./ Albania) -350 nend The Chavin civilization had a settlement at this time on the north-western coast of Peru. The elite of this civilization tracked the movement of the sun throughout the year. (Econ, 3/3/07, p.84) -350 -338 In China Shang Yang ruled the Ch'in Dynasty. He operated against the assumptions of a theory of absolute aggression justified by the "School of Law." (EEE, p.12) -350 -283 Kautilya, Indian political advisor, lived about this time. He is generally called Chanakya (derived from his father's name "Chanak") but, in his capacity as author of the Arthashastra, is generally referred to as Kautilya derived from his clan's name "Kotil" (Kautilya means "of Kotil"). He was a master of the shrewd act of diplomacy. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chanakya) 348 -345 Aristotle lived and taught in Assos, (later Behramkale), Turkey, before he was summoned to teach Alexander in Macedonia. (SFC, 10/6/05, p.E8) -347 nend Plato (b.427BC), the most distinguished student of Socrates, died. His real name was Aristocles. Plato meant broad and he was known to have broad shoulders. He was a prolific writer and considered by some as the most important of all Greek philosophers. His works were all in dialogue form and include: the "Apology," the "Symposium," the "Phaedo," the "Phaedrus," and the "Republic." (EEE, p.12)(SFEC, 9/28/97, Z1 p.2) -343 nend Artaxerxes III of Persia led a successful campaign against Egypt and Nectanebo II fled to Ethiopia. Artaxerxes appointed Pherendares as satrap of Egypt and returned to Babylon laden with treasures. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) 343 -332 In Egypt the Persians ruled for a 2nd time. (eawc, p.13) -343 -338 Artaxerxes III (Ochus), king of Persia, served as 1st ruler of Egypt?s 31st Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -342 nend Menander (c.~291), Greek playwright, was born about this time in Athens. He wrote more than 100 plays, but many of his works have been lost. A 9th century manuscript from a Syrian monastery contains 200 verses from Menander's play "Dyskolos" ("The Grouch"). In 2003 a scholar reported another 200 verses in the document appear to be by Menander. (AP, 12/6/03)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menander) 341 -270 Epicurus, Greek philosopher born [342BC] in Samos, held that happiness is the supreme good. He had studied under Democritus and was a confirmed atomist. His happiness is interpreted to mean the avoidance of pain. (V.D.-H.K.p.71)(eawc, p.14) -340 nend Aristotle argued for the spherical shape of the Earth in his "On The Heavens." (BHT, Hawking, p.2) -340 nend In 1962 a papyrus scroll was found in a grave, about five miles northwest of Thessaloniki. It was part of a rich cemetery belonging to the ancient city of Lete. The original several yards of papyrus, rolled around two wooden runners, was found half burnt. It dates to around 340 BC, during the reign of Philip II of Macedon, father of Alexander the Great. (AP, 6/1/06) c -340 -265 Zeno of Citium, aka Zeno the Stoic, was born in Cyprus. [see 335-263] (WUD, 1994, p.1660) c -340 200 Balathal near Udaipur in northeast India was reoccupied by a new people who built a massive rampart around the site and later abandoned it. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.B) -338 nend In Greece Philip of Macedon conquered the country and was succeeded by his son 2 years later. Athens ceased to be a major power from this point on. Philip?s League of Corinth was composed of impotent Hellenic states that had lost their collective freedom at the battle of Chaeronea. (eawc, p.13)(WSJ, 12/26/97, p.A7)(WSJ, 4/26/99, p.A18) -338 nend Philip II erected Olympia?s Philippeion in Athens following his victory at Chaeronea. The round marble building was completed by his son, Alexander. (AM, 7/04, p.24) -338 nend Artaxerxes III (Ochus), king of Persia, was murdered by his own commander Bagoas. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -338 nend Arses, the youngest son of Ochus, succeeded his father as king of Persia. He served as the 2nd ruler of Egypt?s 31st Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -336 nend King Philip II, the father of Alexander the Great, was murdered at a theater in Aigai in northern Greece. (AP, 8/29/09) -336 nend Alexander inherited the throne of Macedonia and all of Greece. He went to see the Oracle of Delphi but was initially refused entry. He forced his way and dragged the seeress into the temple. Plutarch wrote: "As if conquered by his violence, she said, 'My son, thou art invincible.'" "That is all the answer I desire," replied Alexander. He began his campaign to acquire new territory in Asia at age 22. Within 4 years he conquered the entire Persian Empire. (V.D.-H.K.p.50)(NG,Jan,1968 , p.1,4)(eawc, p.13) -336 nend Arses, king of Persia and ruler of Egypt?s 31st Dynasty, was murdered by his commander Bagoas. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -335 nend Aristotle opened the Lyceum in Athens which was devoted to scientific work. He invented the science of logic, and divided the sciences into different fields distinguished by subject matter and methodology. He believed in the innate inferiority of slaves and females. He wrote the "Nicomachean Ethics," a book about virtue and its reward, happiness. He identified circularity in reasoning as the "fallacy of the consequent" i.e. A good man is one who makes the right choices. Greek archeologists claimed to have found the Lyceum site in 1997. (V.D.-H.K.p.44,45)(USAT, 1/15/97, p.9A) -335 -332 Darius III was raised to the throne of Persia by the eunuch Bagoas, who had killed the 2 previous rulers. Darius in turn had Bagoas murdered. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) c -335 nend c263BC Zeno the Stoic set up a school in Athens at the Stoa Poikile (Painted Colonnade), and taught that happiness consists in conforming the will to the divine reason, which governs the universe. Thus a man is happy if he fully accepts what is and does not desire what cannot be. Zeno was a Phoenician from Kition on Cyprus. He taught that "events were destined to repeat themselves" in endless cycles. [see 340-265] (V.D.-H.K.p.71)(NG, Aug., 1974, p.189)(SFC, 7/14/97, p.E5) -334 nend Alexander (22) left Pella, Greece, with 30,000 foot soldiers and 5,000 cavalry and proceeded to conquer western Asia including Miletus and Samos. His favorite horse was named Bucephalus. At Gordium, where King Midas is fabled to have held court, Alexander solved the puzzle of the Gordian knot by severing it with his sword. (V.D.-H.K.p.50)(NG, Jan, 1968 , p.1,4,6)(ON, 1/01, p.9) c -334 nend Seleukos I, a general under Alexander the Great, founded Antioch on the banks of the Orontes River. (AM, 11/00, p.69) -333 nend Alexander first confronted Darius, king of Persia, and defeated him at the battlefield of Issus. During the Renaissance German painter Albrecht Altdorfer (1480-1538) painted a depiction of the battle. (NG, Jan, 1968 , p.18)(WSJ, 5/15/98, p.W11) -333 nend Alexander the Great (353BC-323BC), married a barbarian (Sogdian) princess, Roxana, the daughter of the Bactrian chief Oxyartes. Alexander also married the daughter of Darius, whom he defeated in 333, while staying firmly attached to his comrade, Hephaistion. (V.D.-H.K.p.68)(Hem., 2/97, p.116)(WSJ, 5/15/98, p.W11) -333 nend Alexander?s forces overcame the Pisidians of Sagalassos. (AM, 11/04, p.38) c -333 nend Hittite lands and the village known as Ancyra (later Angora, Ankora) was conquered by Macedonians led by Alexander the Great. (HNQ, 4/15/02) -332 nend Jul, In Phoenicia Alexander stormed the island of Tyre by building a causeway to the island. He then besieged the city of Gaza. He moved on to conquer Egypt and founded Alexandria. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.71), (NG, Aug., 1974, p.162)(Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.167) -332 nend Alexander entered Egypt and founded Alexandria. A fishing village at the site was called Rhakotis. In 2007 archeologists found evidence of urban settlement at Alexandria dating back to about 1,000 BC. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html)(AP, 7/26/07) 332 -63 The Hellenistic period in Israel. (AM, 9/01, p.32) -331 nend Sep 23, Alexander's scouts encountered the camp of King Darius near Guagamela. The force numbered 25,000 horsemen, 50,000 foot soldiers, 200 chariots and 15 war elephants. (ON, 1/01, p.11) -331 nend Oct 1, Alexander the Great decisively shattered King Darius III's Persian army at Gaugamela (Arbela), in a tactical masterstroke that left him master of the Persian Empire. (HN, 10/1/98) -331 nend Alexander left Egypt and left Cleomenes of Naukratis in charge. This position was later claimed by Ptolemy. When Alexander died, Ptolemy's generals divided the kingdom. (www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -331 nend Alexander conquered the Persian Empire and made his way to India and conquered part of it. (eawc, p.13) -331 nend The Achaemenid King of Persia, Darius III, died in Bactria. Bessus, the satrap of Bactria had him murdered. (AHD, 1971, p.10)(www.crystalinks.com/dynasty29.html) -331 nend Alexander reached Persopolis, the capital of Persia, and burned it. (V.D.-H.K.p.50)(Econ, 9/17/05, p.48) -330 nend Alexandria became the capital of Egypt. (SSFC, 5/9/04, p.A17) c -330 nend Euclid showed that an infinite number of Prime numbers exists, but occur in no logical pattern. (SFC, 11/23/98, p.A3) -330 -320 A Temple of Zeus was built at Nemea, Greece, on the foundations of an earlier temple. (SSFC, 8/21/05, p.B2) -329 nend Alexander the Great took Samarkand [in what is now Uzbekistan]. Its ancient name was Marakanda. (WUD, 1994, p.1264) -329 -326 After conquering Persia, Alexander the Great invaded Afghanistan. He conquered Afghanistan, but failed to really subdue its people. Constant revolts plagued Alexander. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) -327 -326 Alexander the Great passed through the Indus Valley and installed Greek officials in the area. (eawc, p.13) -326 nend Alexander crossed the Indus river at Hund and then the Jhelum river and defeated King Porus at the edge of India. This was his last great battle. (NG, Jan, 1968, p.56) -326 nend The Charsadda site (aka Bala Hisar) in northern Pakistan was besieged by Alexander. It then passed from Mauryan to Indo-Greek, Parthian, Sassanian, and Kushan rule. The pagan Kalash of Pakistan later claimed to be descendants of Alexander's soldiers. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.C)(WSJ, 4/30/98, p.A17) -325 nend Pytheas (c380BC-310BC), Greek merchant, geographer and explorer, made a voyage of exploration to northwestern Europe around this time. He traveled around Great Britain, circumnavigating it between 330 and 320 BC. He claimed to have sailed past Scotland and mentioned a land called Thule, where the surrounding ocean froze and the sun disappeared in winter. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pytheas) 325 -300 Flavius Josephus, historian of the first century, wrote that a Samaritan Temple was built (on Mt. Gerizim) that was a copy of the Second Temple of Jerusalem. Josephus dated it to the late part of the fourth century. The temple's first chief priest is said to have been Manasseh, a Jewish priest who married a Samaritan woman named Nikaso. The Jewish elders forced Manasseh to choose between the Jewish Temple or his wife. He chose his wife and her father, Sanballat, built for Manasseh a copy of the Jewish temple on Mt. Gerizim. (SFC, 5/23/95, p.A-10) -323 nend Jun 10, Alexander died in Persia at Babylon at the age of 32. His general, Ptolemy, took possession of Egypt. Apelles was a painter in Alexander's court. He had been commissioned by Alexander to paint a portrait of Campaspe, Alexander's concubine. Apelles fell in love with Campaspe and Alexander granted her to him in marriage. In 1984 Curtius Quintas Rufus authored "the History of Alexander." In 1991 Peter Green authored "Alexander of Macedon, A Historical Biography." ?Alexander the Great? by Norman F. Cantor (d.2004) was published in 2005. (BS, 5/3/98, p.12E)(WSJ, 2/11/00, p.W6) (ON, 1/01, p.11)(SSFC,12/25/05, p.M3) -323 nend The Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, a Graeco-Roman seaport (later in Turkey), was completed after 125 years of construction. It was acclaimed the most beautiful structure in the world and considered one of the 7 architectural wonders of the ancient world. Its ruins were discovered in 1869 by archeologist John T. Wood (d.1890). (ON, 11/00, p.3) -323 nend The Greeks ruled Bactria (Northern Afghanistan) (www.afghan, 5/25/98) -323 nend The death of Alexander provided an opportunity for an independent state in India. Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya dynasty, the first Indian empire with its capital in Patna. (eawc, p.13)(SC, 5/18/02) -323 -285 Ptolemy I Soter, son of Lagus and commander under Alexander, ruled Egypt as the first king of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Under his rule the library of Alexandria was commissioned. (www.crystalinks.com/ptolemaic.html)(http://tinyurl.com/bodry) -323 -30 In Greece this period is called the Hellenistic Age, the time from Alexander's death to Roman rule. The principle work on this period is "Hellenistic Athens" by Prof. William Scott Ferguson (1875-1954). In 1995 Prof. Christian Habicht published "Athens from Alexander to Antony" in Germany. An English edition was translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider in 1997. (WSJ, 12/26/97, p.A7) -323 -30 Ptolemy and his descendants ruled over Egypt. This era came to be known as the Ptolemaic period. At the ancient library of Alexandria Callimachus of Cyrene was the first to catalog writings alphabetically. (Enc. of Africa,1976, p.167)(SFC, 11/4/96, p.A11)(SFEC, 11/10/96,Parade p.13) -323 -30 During the Hellenistic Age the Grand Theater of Ephesus was built into the side of Mt. Pion and could hold 24,000 spectators. (SFEC, 1/18/98, p.T7) -322 nend Athens was brought under the control of the Macedonian empire. Demosthenes was sentenced to death, but he escaped and sought refuge on the island of Calauria, where he committed suicide after troops followed him. In 1927 Charles Darwin Adams authored "Demosthenes and His Influence." (ON, 9/00, p.12) -322 nend Mar 7, Aristotle (d.322 BC) died. His writings included treatises on logic, metaphysics, ethics, politics, rhetoric and natural sciences. He first described language in terms of subject and predicate as well as parts of speech. Aristotelian logic is based on a small number of unambiguous constructs, such as, "if A, then B": the truth of one implies the truth of another. This celebrated rule gives Aristotelian reasoning the power to establish facts through inference. The constructs also included A=A, representing that every entity is equal to itself. He defined politics as the science of the sciences that looks after well-being. His writings included "De Generatione Animalum." His "Historia Animalium" was later translated by D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson." "Hope is a waking dream." The opening of his "Metaphysics" began: "All men by nature desire to know." (V.D.-H.K.p.44,45)(I&I, Penzias, p.73)(Hem., 1/96, p.11)(LSA,Spg/97, p.6)(EEE, p.12)(AP, 8/9/98)(WSJ, 9/30/98, p.A16)(NH, 12/98,p.10)(SFC, 8/13/02, p.A13) -322 nend The Mauryans ruled over India. (WH, 1994, p.13) -320 nend c235BC In China the philosopher Hsun-tzu, the founder of Legalism, lived. He was an orthodox Confucianist and believed strongly in moral education. He repudiated any belief in a spiritual realm and believed that human beings are evil by nature. (eawc, p.13) -316 nend The Ba people on the Yangtze River were subjugated by the Qin. (NH, 7/96, p.31) -316 nend The Ch'in conquered Shu and Pa (modern-day Szechuan) and gained a serious advantage over the Ch'u. (eawc, p.13) -315 nend Thessaloniki, Greece, was founded about this time and flourished during the Roman and Byzantine eras. In 2008 Greek workers discovered around 1,000 graves, some filled with ancient treasures, while excavating for a subway system. Some of the graves, dated from the first century B.C. to the 5th century A.D., contained jewelry, coins and various pieces of art. (AP, 3/11/08) -312 nend Appius Claudius, the Blind, as consul began the building of the Via Appia. The historian Procopius states that the road was completed at this time. It ran due south from Rome to Capua. (V.D.-H.K.p.69)(SFC, 6/3/96, p.E5) -312 nend King Glauk of Illyria expelled the Greeks from Durrës. (www, Albania, 1998) -310 nend Aristarchus of Samos founded Hellenistic astronomy. Contrary to Aristotle he said that the earth and all the other planets revolve around the sun. [see 300BC-200BC] (eawc, p.14) -310 nend Pytheas (b.c380BC), Greek merchant, geographer and explorer, died about this time. He made a voyage of exploration to northwestern Europe around 325 BC. He traveled around a considerable part of Great Britain, circumnavigating it between 330 and 320 BC. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pytheas) -309 nend Heracles, the illegitimate teenage son of Alexander the Great, was murdered about this time during the wars of succession and buried in secret. (AP, 8/29/09) 309 247 Ptolemy II (Philadelphus). He ruled Egypt from 285-247?. (WUD, 1994, p.1162) -304 nend Cnieus Flavius, a commoner, brought justice to Rome by stealing a calendar. He posted his purloined tablet in the Roman Forum. The letters A-H corresponded to an 8-day Roman market-day cycle. (SFEC, 9/27/98, BR p.5) -304 nend In India Chandragupta traded 500 war elephants to Seleucus in exchange for the Indus region and lands immediately to the West. (eawc, p.14) -301 nend The generals of Alexander fought the Battle of Ipsus in Phrygia that resulted in the division of the Greek Empire into 4 divisions ruled by Seleucus, Lysimachus, Cassander and Ptolemy. Greek cities revolted against Macedonian rule but to no avail. (eawc, p.13) c -300 nend In 2005 a well-preserved and colorful mummy from the 30th pharaonic dynasty was unveiled at Egypt?s Saqqara pyramid complex. (SFC, 5/4/05, p.A1) -300 nend Euclid compiled his "Elements of Geometry." Included was his demonstration for "regular partitioning." (V.D.-H.K.p.37)(WSJ, 12/9/96, p.B1) c -300 nend In Greece Epicureanism and Stoicism originated in Athens. Both Epicurus and Zeno, the Stoic, believed in an individualistic and materialistic philosophy. Neither believed in spiritual substances. The soul was thought to be material. The Epicureans believed that pleasure is the highest good, and that only by abandoning the fear of the supernatural can one achieve tranquility of mind. The Stoics believed that tranquility of mind was only achieved by surrendering the self to the order of the cosmos. (eawc, p.14) -300 nend Kautilya (aka Chanakya), an Indian statesman and scholar, authored the Artha-Shastra (the Science of Material Gain) at the end of the 4th century BC. This is the first known treatise on government and economy. (www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Ancient/Kautilya.html) -300 nend In Ireland 2 men were murdered about this time. In 2005 their preserved remains were found in a peat bog. One dubbed Clonycavan Man was about 5 feet 2 inches and used hair gel. The other, dubbed Oldcroghan Man, stood 6 feet 6 inches. "Oldcroghan Man was stabbed through the chest. He was then decapitated and his body cut in half while Clonycaven Man had his head split open with an axe before he was disemboweled. (Reuters, 1/7/06) -300 nend Carthago Nova (Cartagena, Spain) had coins minted in the Greek style. One face bears the image of Melqart, chief god of Tyre, the other face shows a horse and palm tree, emblems of Carthage. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.171) -300 nend Spain was named by the Carthaginians about this time as Ispania, meaning land of rabbits. The Romans changed the name slightly to Hispania, which evolved to Espana (Spain). (SSFC, 12/19/10, p.M2) c -300 nend As early as this time, travelers went to Petra in the northwest corner of the Arabian peninsula for its abundant spring water. (ATC, p.55) c -300 nend Palur in eastern India near Chilika Lake has yielded red-and-black-ware potsherds, one of which had the image of a boat. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.B) -300 nend Dura-Europos, a Greek colony was built on the Euphrates in eastern Syria. (SSFC, 6/28/09, p.A8) c -300 nend By about this time iron-working had spread all along the savanna belt of West Africa. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.168) -300 nend Seleucia was founded about this time in southeastern Turkey as a Greek settlement by Seleucus I Nicator one of Alexander?s generals. Seleucia was on the west bank and Apamea on the east bank of the Euphrates River. In 64 BC it was conquered and ruled by the Roman Empire and with this shift the name of the city was changed into Zeugma, meaning "bridge-passage" or "bridge of boats." (Arch, 9/02, p.62)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeugma_(city)) -300 250 Late preclassic period of the Maya. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.B) c -300 -200 Aristarchus, Greek philosopher of the late 3rd cent., proposed the Sun as the center of the universe. [see 310BC] (NH, 9/96, p.70) c -300 -200 Apollonius, Greek poet emigrant from Alexandria to Rhodes, and author of the "Argonautica." (HH, 1932, p.498)(SFC, 9/15/97, p.E3) c -300 -200 In China an emperor dispatched the sailor Hsu Fu to search the Pacific Ocean for the "drug of immortality." He came back empty-handed after the first trip and set out again never to return. (SFEC, 8/17/97, Z1 p.3) c -300 -200 In China Qu Wan, a poet and official, despaired on the possibility of justice in this world and threw himself into a river. (WSJ, 9/24/97, p.A20) c -300 -200 In Egypt scientists of the Univ. of Calif. Berkeley expedition of 1899 uncovered hundreds of crocodile mummies encased and stuffed with papyrus covered with writings from the ruins of the city of Tebtunis. The site dated from the 3rd century BC when Ptolemy the Great ruled. (SFC, 12/4/96, p.A4) -300 -200 In 2006 archaeologists at the San Bartolo site in Guatemala dated Mayan hieroglyphs painted on plaster and stone to this period. (Reuters, 1/5/06) -300 -200 The city of Berenice on the Mediterranean coast (later in Libya) was named by the Greeks. (SFC, 6/15/99, p.C6) c -300 -200 Andronicus Livius, a Roman actor of the 3rd cent. BC improvised silently and originated pantomime. (SFC,12/27/97, p.C3) -300 -200 During the 3rd century BC Mongolia became the center of the Hsiung-nu empire. (www.gobiexpeditions.com) -300 -200 In Thailand Ban Chaibadan on the Pasak River is one of several sites that has archaeological remains that show the development of a complex society. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.G) -300 -64 Antioch served as the capital of the kingdom of Syria. (WUD, 1994 p.66) -300 -68 The Dead Sea Scrolls of Qumran, Jordan, date to this period. The scrolls are usually identified with the Jewish-monkish cult, the Essenes, know for their pathological aversion to stool. In 2004 Chicago Prof. Norman Golb authored ?Who Wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls.? In 2009 Israeli scholar Rachel Elior theorized that the Essenes, did not exist. She suggested they were really the renegade sons of Zadok, a priestly caste banished from the Temple of Jerusalem by intriguing Greek rulers in 2nd century BC. When they left, they took the source of their wisdom - their scrolls - with them. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.74)(WSJ, 5/15/98, p.W11)(SFC, 9/6/04, p.A4)(TIME,3/17/09) -300 -68 The Dead Sea Scrolls dating to this period were discovered by Bedouin at the caves of Qumran in Jordan in 1947. The scrolls predated the Christian gospels, but contained many similarities. They also contained some differences from the traditional (Masoretic) text of the Hebrew Bible. In 1955 Edmund Wilson published "The Scrolls from the Dead Sea." In 1998 Hershel Shank published "The Mystery and meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls." From 1978-1998 over 6,000 books were written about the scrolls. The discovery date was later contested as were many of the historic circumstances surrounding the scrolls [see Jordan 1947]. (WSJ, 5/15/98, p.W11)(WSJ, 6/22/98, p.A20) -295 nend The Battle of Sentinum. Etruria was defeated by Rome and the Etruscan decline continued for more than 200 years. (NG, 6/1988, p.739) -290 nend Ptolemy I of Egypt authorized the construction of the Pharos Lighthouse in Alexandria. It became one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. (www.unmuseum.org/pharos.htm) -290 nend The 110-foot Colossus of Rhodes, one of the ancient seven wonders of the world, was built to the sun god Helios. (AM, 7/00, p.16) -287 nend In Rome the plebeians passed a law that allowed the decisions of the assembly to override the Senate. (eawc, p.14) -287 nend Theophrastus (b.c371BC), Greek philosopher, died. He produced the 1st known work on plant reproduction ?De historia plantarum. He was a contemporary of Aristotle and succeeded him as head of the Lyceum. (www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/e01/01a.htm)(Econ, 11/12/05, p.88) -287 -212 Archimedes, Greek mathematician, physicist and inventor. He discovered the principles of specific gravity and of the lever. His works included "Method of Mechanical Theorems" and "On Floating Bodies." He named the number, later known as pi, as the Archimedes Constant. Scientists in 2000 began translating the Floating Bodies treatisse from a single known parchment copy, dating to about 1000CE, that was scraped and reused for a prayer book. (SFC, 10/30/98, p.A7)(SFEC, 3/14/99, p.C5)(SFC, 10/14/00, p.C1)(SFC,5/23/05, p.A4) -285 -246 Ptolemy II (b.c309BC, Philadelphus) of Macedonia served as the 2nd king of Egypt?s Ptolemaic Dynasty. During his reign (285-247) he founded the Cyprian port of Famagusta and built a canal to link the Nile to the gulf of Suez. (NG, 8/04, Geographica)(www.crystalinks.com/ptolemaic.html) -280 nend The Achaean League was reformed along political lines. It had been a confederation of Achaean cities formed for religious observances and was broken up by the Macedonians. (AHD, 1971, p.10) -280 nend Li Ssu, Legalist scholar, was born in the kingdom of Ch?u, later a region of China. (ON, 9/04, p.1) -279 nend The Pharos at Alexandria was constructed. The lighthouse, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, was toppled by an earthquake in 1303CE. It was rediscovered by archeologists in the waters off Alexandria in 1996. (SFEC, 4/5/98, Par p.20)(SFC, 11/4/96, p.A11)(WSJ, 10/10/01, p.B1) -279 nend The Celts plundered the shrine at Delphi and then retreated north to Thrace. The Thracians later routed the intruders. (NGM, 5/77) -278 nend Qu Yuan (b.~340BC), Chinese poet and scholar, died. His poems included ?The Lament,? written following the capture of Yingdu, capital of Chu, by General Bai Qi of the state of Qin. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu_Yuan) -273 -232 Ashoka, the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, ruled India, an area of a million sq. miles, and 50 million people. He was the most impressive ruler of the Maurya dynasty and was strongly disposed in favor of Buddhism, which orientation showed positively in his public policy. (V.D.-H.K.p.21)(EAWC, p.14) -270 nend The Nubian royals opted for burial at Meroe about this time and pyramids were built there for some 700 years. (Arch, 9/02, p.56) -269 nend The Roman system of coinage was established. (eawc, p.14) -265 nend Rome completed its domination of the entire Italian peninsula and began its pursuit of a larger empire that resulted in a series of wars with other nations. (eawc, p.14) -264 nend Rome initiated the Punic Wars with Carthage, an oligarchic empire that stretched from the northern coast of Africa to the Strait of Gibraltar. The primary cause was the Carthaginian expansion into the Greek cities of Sicily. Carthage was forced to surrender its control over the western region of Sicily and this marked the end of the first Punic War. The three Punic Wars: 264-241 BC, 218-202 BC, 149-146 BC, also known as the Carthaginian Wars, finally resulted in the destruction of Carthage and Roman control of the western Mediterranean. (eawc, p.14)(HNQ, 8//00) -262 nend War broke out between Carthage and Rome. Three long wars lasted till 146BC when Carthage was destroyed by Rome. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.167-8) -261 nend Rome captured a Punic quinquereme. In two months they copied it plank by plank and built 100 like it and eventually the Roman fleet was able to defeat the Carthaginians. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.178) -260 nend Ashoka, the 3rd ruler of the Mauryan empire (India), converted to Buddhism after defeating the Kalinga region. He began promoting Buddhist teaching throughout the subcontinent and beyond to Sri Lanka and even Greece. (www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/04/ssa/ht04ssa.htm) -259 nend Qin Shi Huangdi (d.210BC), the emperor who unified China, was born about this time. He became ruler of Qin at age 13. In 2006 Tan Dun?s opera ?The First Emperor,? premiered at the NY Metropolitan with Placido Domingo as the Emperor. It was based on the life of Qin Shi Huang (First August and Divine Emperor). (WSJ, 12/27/06, p.D8)(Econ, 9/8/07, p.87) -256 nend The Carthaginian city of Kerouane was sacked by the Romans. (NG, 8/04, p.48) -251 nend Aryan Hindus occupied Ceylon. [see Sri Lanka] (eawc, p.14) -250 nend About this time Eratosthenes ascribed the difference between the positions of the noon sun at Alexandria and at Styrene at the summer solstice as due to the curvature of the Earth and not due to the proximity of the sun. He thereby calculated the radius of the Earth to be about 4,000 miles. The modern value is 3963 miles. (SCTS, p.6) -250 nend About this time Aristarchus of Samos, a Greek astronomer, proposed the idea of a sun-centered cosmology. (Econ, 9/24/11, p.106) -250 nend In India a general council of Buddhist monks was held in Patna, where the canon of Buddhist scripture was selected. (eawc, p.14) -250 nend In India Emperor Ashoka ordered a sculpture of four Asiatic lions about this time. The image later became a model emblazoned on India?s passports and currency. (WSJ, 6/27/07, p.A9) c -250 nend In Patan, Nepal, the 4 corners are marked by stupas said to be constructed on orders of Emperor Ashoka. (WSJ, 1/22/98, p.A17) -250 nend In Persia about this time two brothers, Arashk (Arash Pers. Arsaces, Lat.) and Tirdat (Tiridates), with their forces under the command of five other chiefs, occupied the district of upper Tejen. Arashk (Arsaces) was to become the first king of the Ashkanian (Arsacid or Parthian) dynasty. In 2005 the Ashkali community in Kosovo claimed roots to this period. (www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/History/ashkanian/parthian.htm) -250 nend A finely burnished red pottery was introduced by the Parthians into northern Oman. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.53) -250 -150 Punic wars between Rome and Carthage. [see 264BC & 146BC] (V.D.-H.K.p.63) -250 1400 The city of Jenne-jeno on the inland delta of the Niger River (Mali) was inhabited over this period. Iron tools similar to that of the Nok people indicate that Nok craftspeople had come to this site. It was discovered by archeologist in 1977. (ATC, p.110) -247 nend Li Ssu left Ch?u and traveled to Ch?in, a kingdom where Legalist doctrines were practiced. He found employment with Lu Pu-wei, the king?s grand councilor, who was compiling an encyclopedia. Lu Ssu soon became tutor to Prince Zheng, heir to the throne of Ch?in. (ON, 9/04, p.2) -246 nend Jan 9, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, 2nd king of Egypt?s Ptolemaic Dynasty, died. (www.crystalinks.com/ptolemaic.html) -246 nend In China the Ch'in completed the Chengkuo canal connecting the Ching and Lo rivers. This created a key agricultural and economic area in western Szechuan. About the same time the last Chou ruler was deposed. (eawc, p.14) -246 nend Qin Shihuangdi (13), became the head of Qin, one of 7 major Chinese states. (AM, 9/01, p.35) -246 -222 Ptolemy III Euergeter served as Egypt?s 3rd ruler of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. In 2010 archeologists discovered a temple, thought to belong to Queen Berenice, wife of King Ptolemy III who ruled Egypt in the 3rd century B.C. Archeologists believed that the temple might have been dedicated to the ancient cat-goddess Bastet. (www.crystalinks.com/ptolemaic.html)(AP, 1/19/10) -241 nend Mar 10, The Battle of Aegusa in which the Roman fleet sank 50 Carthaginian ships occurred. (HN, 3/10/98) -241 nend The Romans incorporated Sicily as a province. (AM, 11/00, p.12) -240 nend Jun 19, Eratosthenes estimated the circumference of Earth using two sticks. (DTnet, 6/19/97)(HN, 6/19/98) -239 -169 Ennius, Roman poet: "A friend in need is a friend indeed." (SSFC, 5/18/03, Par p.26)(WUD, 1994, p.474) -238 nend The Romans occupied Sardinia. (SFEC, 1/30/00, p.T4) -238 227 The Parthians (238 B.C.-A.D. 227) ruled the Persian Empire despite attempts by the Roman Republic (133-27 B.C.), the Roman Empire (27 B.C.-A.D. 476) to conquer it. During the centuries-long struggle, border towns and provinces in the Near East passed back and forth like Alsace-Lorraine or the Polish Corridor would in nineteenth-and twentieth-century Europe. Rarely in the history of human conflict has a feud such as the one between the empires of Rome and Persia lasted so long and accomplished so little. (HNQ, 12/22/00) -236 nend Archimedes, according to the Roman architect Vitruvius, built his first elevator about this time. (SFC, 8/23/08, p.F4) -234 -149 Cato, Roman statesman and historian: "If you are ruled by mind, you are a king; if by body, a slave." (AP, 1/11/99) -233 nend General Quintus Fabius Maximus led a Roman victory against the Ligurian tribes northwest of Italy. (ON, 9/05, p.6) -232 nend King Agron died, the Illyrian throne was occupied by Queen Teuta. (www, Albania, 1998) -231 nend King Qin Shihuangdi (28), head of one of 7 major states, embarked on a series of campaigns that in 10 years created China. The king of Ch?in invaded Han. (AM, 9/01, p.35)(ON, 9/04, p.3) -230 nend Celtic warriors were repelled at Pergamon. The king of Bithynia had invited some 20,000 Celts as mercenaries and after 50 years of pillaging they were repelled and settled in Galatia. (NGM, 5/77) -230 nend The capital of Han fell. Its king and entire extended family were massacred. Han was absorbed by Ch?in and under Li Ssu?s direction was transformed into a Legalist state. (ON, 9/04, p.3) -228 nend The Kingdom of Chao fell to the Ch?in. (ON, 9/04, p.3) -225 nend The Kingdom of Wei fell to the Ch?in. (ON, 9/04, p.3) -225 nend Polybius, a Greek historian, described the naked gaesatae, Celtic spearmen, at the Battle of Telamon, northwest of Rome where the Romans defeated the Celts. (NGM, 5/77) -224 nend An earthquake reportedly broke the Colossus of Rhodes at his knees. (AM, 7/00, p.16) -223 nend The Kingdom of Ch?u fell to the Ch?in. Li Ssu had the royal family spared. (ON, 9/04, p.3) -222 nend The Kingdom of Yen fell to the Ch?in. The royal family was slaughtered. (ON, 9/04, p.3) -222 -205 Ptolemy IV Philopater served as Egypt?s 4th ruler of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. (www.crystalinks.com/ptolemaic.html) -222 -196 The Romans showed up at the site of Milan and subdued the Gauls after 26 years of butchery. Mittaland was Latinized to Medioland, i.e. middle of the plain, and later transformed to Milano. (SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T12) -221 nend The Kingdom of Ch?i fell to the Ch?in and Li Ssu advised King Zheng that there were no other countries worth conquering. King Zheng proclaimed himself Shi Huangdi, ?First Emperor of the World Under Heaven.? (ON, 9/04, p.3) -221 nend The Qin (Ch?in) unified China at the end of the "Warring States." King Zheng engaged in a process of unifying 7 kingdoms in China under a central bureaucracy. He killed most of the people in the 6 rival kingdoms and buried alive 400 scholars whose loyalty he questioned. The 1998 Chinese film "The Emperor?s Shadow" was directed by Zhou Xiaowen. It was a historical drama of the first emperor (Ying Zheng or Jiang Wen) of a united China. The 1999 film "The Emperor and the Assassin," directed by Chen Kaige, was about Zheng. (eawc, p.5,14)(NH, 7/96, p.31)(WSJ, 9/27/96, p.A16)(SFC, 6/24/98,p.E3)(SFEC, 12/12/99, Par p.11)(SFEC, 1/16/00, DB p.42) -221 -206 Qin Shi Huang ruled as the first emperor of China. His tomb is in X?ian, one of the ancient capitals of China, and is guarded by thousands of life-sized terra-cotta soldiers. He fixed Chinese script of 2,500 characters. The Great Wall of China was completed under Shi Huangdi and his minister Li Ssu. In 2001 it was found that the Great Wall extended into Gansu province to Xinjiang and measured 4,470 miles. The wall was extended during the Ming Dynasty. In 1990 Arthur Waldron authored ?The Great Wall of China.? (WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20)(SFC, 2/23/01, p.A20)(ON, 9/04, p.3)(WSJ,5/10/06, p.D12) -221 220 A section of the Great Wall was built during the Qin (221-206 BC) and Han (206 BC to 220 AD) dynasties in northeastern Jilin province. In 2009 the Xinhua news agency reported the discovery of this section, 11km (6.7 miles) further east than what was previously thought to be the wall's terminus. (AFP, 9/22/09) -218 nend The Romans renewed their efforts against Carthage as Carthage expanded into Spain. This 2nd Punic War lasted 16 years (202BC) at the end of which Carthage was forced to surrender all of its territory to Rome except for its capital city in North Africa. (eawc, p.15)(HNQ, 8/9/00) -218 nend Hannibal crossed Portugal on his way to storm Rome. (SSFC, 9/29/02, p.C11) 218 -201 Numidia, ancient Roman name for part of northern Africa roughly equivalent to modern Algeria. In the Second Punic War (218-201 BC) between Carthage and Rome, western Numidia supported Carthage. King Masinissa of eastern Numidia joined the Romans. With the victory of Rome, Masinissa controlled all Numidia. (WWW, Encarta, 12/19/98) -217 nend Jun 21, Carthaginian forces led by Hannibal destroyed a Roman army under consul Gaius Flaminicy in a battle at Lake Trasimenus in central Italy. Hannibal of Carthage attacked Roman Consul Flaminio at Tuoro on Lake Trasimeno in Umbria. Hannibal's army of Numidians, Berbers, Libyans, Gascons, and Iberians was down to one elephant after crossing the Alps with 39. His army of 40,000 drove the Romans into the lake where 15,000 died as opposed to 1,500 of Hannibal's men. Two nearby towns were named Ossaia (boneyard) and Sanguineto (bloodied). (SFEM, 10/12/97, p.37)(HN, 6/21/98) -217 nend During the Second Punic War Rome appointed Quintus Fabius Maximus as dictator to stave off Hannibal?s Carthaginian army. (ON, 9/05, p.6) -216 nend Aug 2, Hannibal Barca of Carthage won his greatest victory over the Romans at Cannae. Hannibal seized a grain depot in the small village of Cannae in order to lure the Romans to battle. Having crossed over the Alps, Hannibal's forces defeated the Romans at the Trebia River and also at Lake Trasimene. Thereafter, the Romans were unwilling to commit a large force to attacking Hannibal. However, Hannibal's spies had learned two Roman consuls shared command of the legions and attempted to goad the more impetuous of the two into battle at Cannae. (HN, 8/2/98)(HNQ, 11/16/00) -214 nend In China the building of the Great Wall was begun. It was designed to keep out the destitute and starving nomadic Hsiung Nu people. (eawc, p.15) -214 nend Guangdong province became a part of China. (WSJ, 9/16/99, p.A26) -213 nend Minister Li Ssu convinced Ch?in King Zheng to outlaw all philosophies except Legalism. Some 500 Confucian scholars resisted and were buried alive. A number of Confucian and Taoist libraries were burned. (ON, 9/04, p.4) -212 nend Archimedes (b.287BC), Greek mathematician, died. Legend holds that he was killed by a Roman soldier during an invasion of Syracuse, because he was too busy doing calculations to obey the soldier?s orders. (SFC, 5/23/05, p.A4) -211 nend Roman legions overran the Greek settlement of Morgantina on Sicily. (SFC, 4/4/98, p.A13) -210 nend Qin Shi Huang (b.259BC), the first emperor of China, died while on a journey. His death was kept quite until the entourage returned home. He was buried near the city of Xi'ab in Central China with some 7-8,000 larger-than-life terracotta soldiers. The soldiers had real weapons and each had distinct facial features. Villagers found the 1st terracotta figure in 1974. [see Jul 11, 1975] Qin Shi Huangdi provided his empire with a uniform script, currency, a measuring system and a bureaucracy. (Smith., 4/95, p. 33,34)(WSJ, 3/11/97, p.A20)(HN, 7/11/01)(Econ,9/8/07, p.87) -210 nend Crown Prince Fu Su, an anti-Legalist, committed suicide on orders from a forged message. Prince Hu-hai was installed as the Second Emperor. Chief eunuch Chao Kao and Li Ssu shared power at first but Chao Kao gained the backing of Hu-hai. (ON, 9/04, p.4) -208 nend Ch?in Chief eunuch Chao Kao had Li Ssu arrested and condemned to death. Most of Li Ssu?s reforms, including standardized writing, measurement and money, survived for over 2,000 years. (ON, 9/04, p.4)(EWH, 1968, p.57) -207 nend In China the Ch'in Dynasty ended. (eawc, p.14) 207 -195 In China Han Kao-tzu (Liu Ping), a man of humble origins, became the first ruler of the Former Han Dynasty. The dynasty lasted to 9CE. (eawc, p.15) -206 nend Rome destroyed Carthaginian forces at the Battle of Metaurus in northern Italy. (ON, 9/05, p.7) -206 25 In 2003 China's Xinhua News Agency reported that archaeologists in western China had discovered five earthenware jars of 2,000BC-year-old rice wine in an ancient Han dynasty tomb (206BC-25CE), and its bouquet was still strong enough to perk up the nose. (AP, 6/21/03) -206 220 The Han Dynasty ruled in China. The Western Han period. In the early Han period Prince Liu Sheng had a jade suit made of 2,498 pieces sewn together with gold thread for his death. Jade was also used to make plugs for his bodies orifices. (NH, 7/96, p.31)(WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20)(WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20)(WSJ,9/27/96, p.A16) -205 -180 Ptolemy V Epiphanes served as Egypt?s 5th ruler of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. He became ruler at age 5 following the death of his father. He married Cleopatra I and died at age 29 while putting down insurgents in the Delta. His wife became regent for their young son. (www.crystalinks.com/ptolemaic.html) -204 nend The sacred stone of Cybele, the Great Mother, was brought to Rome, and her worship was established. (RFH-MDHP, p.206) -204 -202 Greece and most of Asia Minor came under the control of the Romans after the Roman victory over Carthage in the 2nd Punic War. (WSJ, 12/26/97, p.A7)(ON, 9/05, p.7) -203 nend Hannibal and his army returned home to defend Carthage against Roman forces. (ON, 9/05, p.7) -203 nend Quintus Fabius Maximus, Roman general and dictator, died shortly before Hannibal?s final defeat. The name Fabian has come to mean ?using a cautious strategy of delay and avoidance of battle.? (ON, 9/05, p.7) -202 nend The Han Dynasty began in China. (ATC, p.33) -202 nend Roman forces under Scipio Africanus defeated Hannibal of Carthage on the Plains of Zama in northern Tunisia. (NG, 8/04, p.44)(www2.cs.uh.edu/~clifton/hannibal.html) c -200 nend Trade between the Arabs and East Africans on the Indian Ocean was established. It took this long to learn the seasonal winds known as the monsoons to sail across the Indian Ocean. Between Nov. and March the monsoon blows from the northeast. Between April and Oct. the monsoon blows from the southwest. (ATC, p.141) -200 nend The Chinese natural history classic "Erya" said that the Yangtze River was teeming with baiji, a freshwater white dolphin. By 1998 the baiji were on the verge of extinction. (SFC, 3/23/98, p.A8) c -200 nend At this time the Chinese were using the sternpost rudder to steer their ships. (ATC, p.12) c -200 nend The Egyptian priest Hor cared for the ibis galleries. His writings explained that hundreds of people were involved in the animal mummification business at Saqqara. (AM, 9/01, p.29) c -200 nend The Greek Venus de Milo statue of marble was sculpted about this time. It was found in 1820 on Melos and is now in the Louvre. [2nd source says 2,500 years old] (WUD, 1994, p.1586)(SFEC, 3/9/96, Z1 p.5) -200 nend In Greece Skepticism arose under the influence of the Carneades. It had close ties to Sophism and taught that because all knowledge is achieved through sense perception, nothing can be known for sure. [see Heisenberg 1901-1976] (eawc, p.15) c -200 nend Drawings in stone of this time showed women milking elk in what later became northern Iran. (SFEC, 7/19/98, Z1 p.8) c -200 nend In Mexico migrations began toward the area north of Lake Texcoco where the urban center of Teotihuacan developed. (SSFC, 5/6/01, p.T8) c -200 nend A Sanskrit marriage manual dates back to this time (SFEC, 11/17/96, Z1 p.2) -200 -100 The excavation of Pergamon (now Bergama), Turkey, in 1876 by German archeologist uncovered a monument called the Great Altar with a frieze of the mythological hero Telephos. The Telephos Frieze recounts the story of Telephos, a son of Herakles and legendary founder of Pergamon. It is viewed as political propaganda legitimizing the rule of Pergamon's Attalid lineage (after Attalos, its first king's father). (WSJ, 1/16/96, p. A-16)(SFC, 5/4/96, p.E-1) -200 -100 The Silk Road made the city of Ashgabat, Turkmenistan rich. Spice and silk merchants stopped here on their way from China to Europe. (WSJ, 7/11/96, p.A1) -200 500 The Tunisian city of Leptiminus was a major port for the shipment of olive oil throughout the Roman Empire. The ancient city is today largely covered with olive groves. The entire surface of the city (some 150 hectares) has been surveyed by teams from the Univ. of Michigan. Two kinds of pottery were made there: African Red Slip Ware and amphorae. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.7) c -200 650 Caves at Ajanta, India, were painted and sculpted during this period with court scenes and tales from the Jataka and Bodhisattvas. (WSJ, 11/12/98, p.A28) -199 -150 Greco-Bactrian kingdom. Now Afghanistan, it was then a major stop on the silk route between Rome and China. (NG, March 1990, Geographica) -199 -150 Early in the 2nd century BC the Romans made Macedonia into a province and obliterated the city of Corinth. (WSJ, 12/26/97, p.A7) c -196 nend In Egypt the Rosetta Stone, found in 1799, was inscribed about this time. It affirmed the rule of Ptolemy V (age 13) in 3 languages. (WSJ, 6/5/01, p.B1) -195 nend China's 1st Han Emperor Liu Pang died and his empress Lu Zhi took the empire for her own family. (NG, Feb, 04, p.13)(www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0830015.html) -190 nend In the US state of New Mexico a volcanic lava flow occurred at the 114,000 acre El Malpais National Monument and covered wood that was later dated to this time. (SFC, 12/24/99, p.A25) -190 nend Hipparchus was born in what is now Turkey. He calculated the length of a year to within 6 1/2 minutes and was the first to explain the Earth's rotation on its axis. He also compiled the first comprehensive catalog of the stars. [see 160-125BC] (LAT, 3/30/05) -190 -180 The ?Wisdom of Sirach? was written about this time in Hebrew. Its apocalyptic tone reflects the shock of the Jewish religious establishment at the encounter with Hellenic culture. (Econ, 1/20/07, p.91)(www.updated.org/sirach.shtml) c -190 -120 Hypsicles of Alexanderia, mathematician. He wrote ?On the Ascension of Stars,? in which he was the first to divide the Zodiac into 360 degrees. (SSFC, 5/9/04, p.A17)(www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/TLAstronomy.htm) -186 nend In China Li Cang, the prime minister of Changsha, died. Lady Dai, his wife, died about 20 years later. Her tomb was found in the early 1970s on Mawangdui, a hill in Changsha, near the capital of Hunan Province. More than 1,400 equally well-preserved artifacts were found around her, designed to help her in the afterlife. (AP, 9/17/09) -184 nend In Rome Cato the Censor (234-149) was elected as one of two censors, i.e. assessors of property and moral conduct. He aimed to preserve Roman ways and tried to extirpate Greek influences. (V.D.-H.K.p.65) 184BC In India the Maurya dynasty ended when the last ruler was assassinated by an ambitious army commander. (eawc, p.15) -183 -182 Hannibal, Carthaginian general, committed suicide. Some reports said that a comet in the night sky was an omen of his death. (www2.cs.uh.edu/~clifton/hannibal.html) -180 nend The Great Altar of Pergamon was built at Pergamos in Asia Minor (later Turkey). It depicted the battle of the gods of Olympus against the giants. (WSJ, 10/27/07, p.W14) -180 nend The Liu clan regained control of China and enthroned Emperor Wen, a surviving son of Liu Bang. (NG, Feb, 04, p.13) -180 nend The state of Meroe in Nubia was a great cultural center whose scribes developed an alphabet to better express the Nubian language around this time. (MT, 10/95, p.10-11) -180 -164 Ptolemy VI Philometor served as Egypt?s 6th ruler of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. His regent mother died around 176BC and Ptolemy ruled under the control of his guardians, Eulaeus and Lenaeus. (www.crystalinks.com/ptolemaic.html) -175 -164 King Antiochus IV, Seleucid tyrant, ruled Syria. (MH, 12/96)(SFC, 12/6/04, p.B2) -171 nend There was a major wave of migration to Japan from the Korean Peninsula. The migration of other peoples from mainland Asia around this time brought metal tools, rice and new farming techniques. Computer modeling in 2011 showed a that the migration also had significant impact on linguistic development. (AP, 5/5/11) -170 nend The rebel Maccabees were able to gain victory in Jerusalem occupied by Antiochus IV During the re-dedication of the temple they stretched a days worth of oil out to 8 days for which the holiday of Hanukkah is celebrated. (SFC, 11/27/96, zz1 p.F1) -170 nend Lucius Accius, Roman poet, wrote "Has oderint dum metuant" (Let them hate us, so long as they fear us). This became a favorite phrase of Emperor Caligula. (SFC, 3/16/03, p.D3) -170 -160 The Bactrian--Parthian era of Afghanistan. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) -168 nend The Greek city of Aigai was destroyed by the Romans. (AP, 8/29/09) -168 nend Illyria and Epirus were conquered by Rome. (CO, Grolier's Amer. Acad. Enc./ Albania) -168 nend Syria?s Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes ruled over Israel and tried to outlaw Judaism. He tried to Hellenize the Jews by erecting idols. The Jews resisted and began the Maccabean revolt. The Maccabees were successful until internal dissension tore them apart. (eawc, p.15)(PC, 1992 ed, p.27) -167 nend Antiochus IV, the Hellenistic tyrant of the what later became called the Middle East, began to increase religious persecution against the Jews in Palestine and outlawed observance of the Torah. This included the circumcision of males, dietary restrictions and observance of the Sabbath. He installed a cult of Zeus in the Temple in Jerusalem. The Jewish priest Mattathias of Modin defied Antiochus, escaped outside Lydda with his 5 sons and began a revolt. (WSJ, 12/11/98, p.W15)(PC, 1992 ed, p.27) -167 nend Rome presented to Athens the island of Delos, whose prosperous slave and commodities market brought large profits. (WSJ, 12/26/97, p.A7) -165 nend Romans captured King Gent of Illyria and sent him to Rome. Illyria went under Roman control. (www, Albania, 1998) -165 nend Jerusalem and sacred temple of Judah were recaptured by the Maccabees. They used guerrilla tactics and elephants as tanks to throw off the tyranny of the Greco-Syrian oppressors. During the cleanup they found one container of the sacred oil used to light the temple's candelabra known as a menorah. They gathered to light the oil which was expected to last only a day, but lasted eight nights. The event was memorialized in the celebration of Hanukkah (rededication), the Feast of Lights. [see 164BC] (SFC,12/10/97, Z1 p.4)(SFC,12/23/97, p.A13)(WSJ, 11/27/98, p.W8) -164 nend Ptolemy VI Philometor went to Rome and left Egypt under the rule of his brother Ptolemy VII Euergetes II Physcon. (www.crystalinks.com/ptolemaic.html) -164 nend The Temple of Jerusalem was recaptured by forces under Judah Maccabee, religious traditionalists from the countryside. [see 165BC] The restoration of Jewish law was also a victory over Jewish factions who wanted to turn Jerusalem to a city modeled after the Greek pagan city-states. (WSJ, 12/11/98, p.W15) -163 -145 Ptolemy VI Philometor was called back to Egypt and agreed to split their rule. Physcon assumed rule of the western province of Cyrenaica and Philometor ruled Egypt. (www.crystalinks.com/ptolemaic.html) -161 nend Elara (b.235BC), Tamil king (205BC-161BC), died. He ruled Sri Lanka from the ancient capital of Anuradhapura. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elara_(monarch)) -161 -137 The legendary King Duthagamani ruled Sri Lanka. He began construction of the Ruvanvali stupa. His brother Saddhatissa completed the project. (Arch, 7/02, p.34) -160 -125 Hipparchus, Greek mathematician and astronomer, often called the father of modern astronomy. He attempted to calculate the distance to the moon and the sun. His estimate for the distance to the moon was 67r vs. the modern value of 60.267r. He estimated the sun to be 37 times farther than the moon and at least 12 times greater in diameter than the Earth. His figures were accepted for 17 centuries until the invention of the telescope and precise astronomical instruments. Together with Ptolemy he graded the visible stars into six magnitudes. The first magnitude was comprised of about 20 of the brightest stars. He compiled a stellar catalogue in Alexandria which shows the position of 1080 stars. [see 190BC] (SCTS, p.7-8,137,142) -160 -220 The Weerdinge Couple, 2 men dating to this period, were found in a Holland bog in 1904. (AM, 7/97, p.66) -156 -141 In China Han Ching-ti ruled the Han Dynasty. (eawc, p.15) -155 213 Some evidence has it that the Ark of the Covenant was brought to Ethiopia during this period. The 1992 book "The Sign and the Seal" by Graham Hancock presents the evidence. (SFC, 1/31/98, p.A18) -154 nend In China Han Ching-ti wrote the laws of inheritance that made all sons co-heirs of their father's estate. (eawc, p.15) c -150 nend Agora's Stoa of Attalos, a massive colonnaded monument at the foot of the Acropolis, was dedicated by King Attalos of Pergamon. (AP, 4/16/03) c -150 nend The craft of paper making was developed in China around this time. Paper was made by soaking flattened plant fibers and then allowing them to dry on a screen. (ATC, p.89) c -150 nend Cival was a large and sophisticated Mayan city of some 10,000 people. (USAT, 5/11/04, p.7D) -150 nend In 2005 archaeologists at the San Bartolo site in Guatemala led by Guatemalan Monica Pellecer Alecio found the oldest known Maya royal burial, from around 150 BC. Excavating beneath a small pyramid, that team found a burial complex that included ceramic vessels and the bones of a man, with a jade plaque, the symbol of Maya royalty, on his chest. (AP, 12/14/05) -150 -100 In 1901 pieces of an ancient Greek calculating machine, called the Antikythera Mechanism, were discovered by sponge divers exploring the remains of a shipwreck off the tiny island of Antikythera. Radiocarbon dating suggested it was built around 65 BC, but in 2006 newly revealed lettering on the machine indicate a slightly older construction date of 150 to 100 BC. In 2008 researchers said the device, which originally contained 37 gears, included the cycle of the Greek Olympics. (http://tinyurl.com/y255xr)(SFC, 7/31/08, p.A15) -150 200 In Oman triliths, small, 3-stone monuments, were set in rows in the Mahra tribal territory. Many were inscribed with an undeciphered south Arabic script. The Mahra and Shahra are Semitic, non-Arabic speaking tribes in the Dhofar Mountains that even today control much of the frankincense region. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.53) 149 -146 Rome and Carthage fought the 3rd Punic War that resulted in the total defeat of Carthage. All inhabitants of Carthage were sold into slavery and the city was burned to the ground. As a result of the Punic wars Rome expanded its empire to cover Spain, North Africa, Greece, Asia Minor and Egypt. (eawc, p.15)(HNQ, 8/9/00) -146 nend Roman forces breached the walls of Carthage. All inhabitants were sold into slavery. The city was burned to the ground and the land was sown with salt. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.174)(NG, 8/04, p.46) -146 -30 All Hellenistic territory became subject to Rome over this period. (eawc, p.15) -146 -30 Roman civilization as a result of the Punic Wars witnessed a series of cultural conflicts and assassinations. (eawc, p.15) -145 nend In China Su-ma Ch'ien, the historian and author of the "Records of the Historian," was born. He included social and economic consideration in his history but mentioned nothing of Han Wu-ti and his administration. He was eventually castrated by Wu-ti after writing an apology on behalf of the Hsiung Nu. He died around 90BC. (eawc, p.15) -141 nend Wu Di (15) became China's 5th Han emperor. (NG, Feb, 04, p.14) -141 nend The Romans incorporated Macedonia as a province. (AM, 11/00, p.12) -137 nend Dutugemunu, Sinhalese king of Sri Lanka (161BC to 137 BC), died. He gained rule after defeating Elara, a Tamil usurper from India. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutugamunu) -133 nend China's Emperor Wu Di declared war on the Xiongnu, a nomadic people in northwest China. (NG, Feb, 04, p.15) -133 nend In Rome Tiberius Gracchus was elected as tribune. He and his brother, elected in 123BC, strove for reforms in the Roman Republic, but failed due to the conservative customs of the upper class and their resistance to change. Marius and Sulla, 2 military leaders, followed the attempts of the Gracchi. (eawc, p.15) -133 nend Attalus III of Pergamon bequeathed his kingdom to Rome. It became the province of Asia. (AM, 11/00, p.12) -130 nend The Huns pushed the Kushan and Scythian nomads west across the Central Asian steppes. (NG, March 1990, p.63) -130 nend The Great Silk Road opened from China to the West. (WH, 1994, p.13) -123 nend In Rome Gaius Gracchus was elected as tribune. [see 133BC] (eawc, p.15) -123 nend The Romans won a victory over the Gauls near a 3,000 foot peak that was named Mt. Sainte-Victoire in commemoration. It established a marker between civilization and barbarism. (WSJ, 2/13/04, p.A12) c -119 nend The Huns invaded China. (ATC, p.33) -117 nend In China the original salt monopoly was set up during the Han dynasty. (WSJ, 6/20/01, p.A1) -116 -27 Marcus Terentius Varro, a Roman scholar and author. (AM, 11/00, p.78)(WUD, 1994 p.1581) -113 nend The army of John Hyrcanus, leader of the Hasmonean rulers in Judea, burns down a Samaritan Temple and the surrounding city. The temple is thought to be copy of the Second Temple of Jerusalem. Archeologists in 1995 find stone fragments inscribed with the Ten Commandments written in the Samaritan script, similar to an ancient form of Hebrew known as Paleo-Hebrew. (SFC, 5/23/95, p.A-10) -108 -62 Catiline, tyrant of Rome. He was defeated by Cicero. This was a period when civil conflict had become epidemic. (V.D.-H.K.p.75) -106 nend Jan 3, Marcus Cicero (d.43BC), Roman orator, statesman and author, was born. He was elected Consul in 63. He chose to support Pompey over Caesar and was murdered by Mark Antony: "What is more unwise than to mistake uncertainty for certainty, falsehood for truth?" (V.D.-H.K.p.74)(AP, 4/10/98)(HN, 1/3/99) -106 -48 Pompey. He was a rival to Caesar for Roman power. no_source -105 nend The Jihong Bridge across the Lancang River in Yunnan, China, was built. It linked 2 portions of the Southern Silk Road. (SFEC, 10/6/96, T5) -105 nend The heart of ancient Numidia lay in the eastern region of what is now Algeria in Northern Africa. The Numidians were originally nomadic horsemen. They were defeated by Roman troops in the Jugurthine War in 105 BC and conquered by Rome in 46 BC. The Vandals and Byzantines ruled successively before Arabs conquered the area in the seventh century AD. Jugurtha was the king of Numidia. (HNQ, 6/2/98)(SFC, 2/12/02, p.D3) -104 nend Rome faced a slave retaliation in Sicily. (eawc, p.15) c -100 nend Jul 12, Gaius Julius Caesar (d.44BC), Roman general and statesman, was born. (WUD, 1994 p.208)(AP, 7/12/97)(HN, 7/12/98) c -100 nend Camulodunum (later Colchester in southeastern England) was established about this time as a fortress dedicated to the Celtic god of war. (Arch, 7/02, p.46) c -100 nend The Bantu-speaking people began expanding and moving southeast. It is thought that they originated in the Congo basin (now Zaire) or the mountains of Cameroon. They used iron, grew millet and kept goats. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.169) -100 nend The Greek poet Meleager gathered a collection of poems in his ?anthologia? (The Greek Anthology). (WSJ, 11/15/08, p.W10) -100 nend In 2005 archaeologist William Saturno said he was awe-struck when he uncovered a Maya mural not seen for nearly two millennia. Discovered at the San Bartolo site in Guatemala, the mural covers the west wall of a room attached to a pyramid. (AP, 12/14/05) c -100 nend The Shilla Dynasty began in southeastern Korea and grew to become a top-heavy feudal system that covered most of South Korea for almost 900 years. (SFEM, 6/20/99, p.6) c -100 nend The community situated on an island in the Seine River was known by the Romans in the first century BC as Lutetia. At the time, it was occupied by the Gallic tribe called Parisii. As the city grew into a Roman trading center, it came to be known as Paris. (HNQ, 4/18/02) c -100 nend The area around Palenque (Mexico) was 1st occupied. (SSFC, 5/5/02, p.C5) -100 -1 A Roman fortified citadel was built about this time in Moldova. It may have protected a town occupied by a late-era Sarmatian king. (SFC, 1/28/97, p.A5) -100 -1 The painted cave of Naj Tunich in the Peten of Guatemala began attracting pilgrims. (AM, 7/97, p.52) c -100 -1 Diodorus Siculus, Greek historian of the late 1st century. (WUD, 1994 p.405)(AM, 7/01, p.31) -100 100 The Mayan site of Palenque was settled by farmers over this period. (SSFC, 12/7/03, p.C10) -100 500 The Hopewell Mounds of Ohio were erected by a mound building culture of this period that dominated the eastern US. (AM, adv. circular, p.2) -100 668 The Three Kingdoms era of Korea. (SFC, 7/26/97, p.E3) -100 1300 This represents the time period of the Anasazi culture of northern Arizona, New Mexico, southern Utah and Colorado. (WUD, 1994, p.53) -96 -81 The Circus of Domitian was built in Rome. It later became the Piazza Navona. (SFEC, 7/2/00, p.T5) -95 -55 The Artaxiad King Tigranes I extends the Armenian state from Georgia in the north to Mesopotamia and Syria in the south. (CO Enc. / Armenia) -95 -51 T. Lucretius Carus author of the epic poem "On the Nature of Things", about the science of physics, yet dedicated to pleasure. He was a devoted follower of Epicurus. (V.D.-H.K.p.70) -94 -56 Tigranes (Dikran) the Great, a scion of the Eastern Dynasty, ruled. He welded the two Armenian satrapies into one kingdom, and so created the first strong native sovereignty that the country had known since the fall of Urartu five centuries before. (http://raven.cc.ukans.edu/~kansite/ww_one/docs/bryce2.htm) -90 nend After centuries of decline, Etruscans become Roman citizens. (NG, 6/1988, p.711) -89 nend Roman general Cornelius Sulla sacked Clusium, the Etruscan capital. (Econ, 11/6/04, p.85) -89 -80 Mithridates, ruler of Pontus in the north of Asia Minor, made war on Rome and overran much of Asia Minor and parts of Greece. The Athenians joined Mithridates and was consequently besieged by the Roman Gen'l. Sulla. (WSJ, 12/26/97, p.A7) -87 nend Chinese Emperor Wu Di died. Sima Qian, historian of the era, had been castrated by Wu Di for daring to stand in support of a disgraced general. (NG, Feb, 04, p.21) -87 nend Haley's comet was observed. (NG, Aug., 1974, K.F. Weaver p.223) c -81 -30 Mark Antony had Cicero murdered. He cut off his hands and had them nailed to the senate rostrum as a warning to other men who might wish to speak the truth. (V.D.-H.K.p.73) -80 nend Cicero journeyed to Greece and Asia suffering from pthisis [tuberculosis], and returned cured after 2 years. (WP, 1951, p.27) -80 -70 The Romans built the Flavian Amphiteatre and named it after the family name of Emperor Vespasian. The Colosseum could seat 50,000 spectators and had underground chambers, dens and passageways, an area known as the hypogeum. (SFC, 10/15/10, p.A5) -74 nend According to Pliny the Roman General Lucullus introduced cherries to Europe. Greeks had cultivated cherries hundreds of years before this. (SFC, 4/12/03, p.E3) -73 nend Rome faced a 2nd slave uprising in Sicily. (eawc, p.15) -70 nend Oct 15, Virgil (d.19BC) [Vergil] (Publius Vergilius Maro), Roman poet, was born in Mantua. He wrote about the mythical founding of Rome in the Aeneid, which told the legend of Rome's founder and was considered a national epic. (V.D.-H.K.p.60)(HN, 10/15/98)(AMNHDT, 5/98) -70 -15 Vitruvius, author of De Architecture, translated to Italian in 1531. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) -69 nend Cleopatra (d.30BC), daughter of Ptolemy XII, was born. She was queen of Egypt from 51BC-49BC, 48BC-30BC. During her reign she declared earthworms to be sacred and her subjects were forbidden to kill them. (WUD, 1994, p.276)(WSJ, 9/9/96, p.A16)(SFC, 10/29/98, p.A13) -69 nend The Roman Gen'l. Lucullus experienced an attack by the Samosatans with a flammable mud called maltha (semisolid petroleum and gases). The event was later recorded by Pliny the Elder (23-79CE), a Roman naturalist. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.57) -66 nend Tigranes I, King of Armenia was forced to become a tributary of Rome. (CO Enc. / Armenia) -65 nend Dec 8, Quintus "Horace" Horatius Flaccus (d.8 BC), Roman poet and satirist best known for his three books "Odes," was born. "Drop the question what tomorrow may bring, and count as profit every day that Fate allows you." (HN, 12/8/98)(AP, 11/4/00) -64 nend The Greek settlement of Seleucia (in southeastern Turkey) was conquered and ruled by the Roman Empire and with this shift the name of the city was changed into Zeugma, meaning "bridge-passage" or "bridge of boats." (Arch, 9/02, p.62)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeugma_(city)) -63 nend Sep 23, Caesar Augustus (63BC-14CE) was born in Rome. Augustus, first emperor of Rome, ended the era of the Roman Republic and introduced the Pax Romana, the era of peace. Augustus held power but shared administrative tasks with the Senate, consuls, and tribunes who continued to be elected: "Make haste slowly." (V.D.-H.K.p.63)(AP, 9/23/97)(AP, 11/20/97)(HN, 9/23/98) -63 nend Cicero was elected Consul of Rome. During this time he suppressed a conspiracy to murder the entire Senate. (WSJ, 6/11/02, p.D7) -63 nend The Romans conquer the Jews The Jews appealed to Pompey to settle internal dissention. The Romans intervened and began their occupation of Palestine. (V.D.-H.K.p.102)(eawc, p.15) -63 nend Caesar's troops plundered Terena in Portugal's Alentejo province. (SSFC, 9/29/02, p.C11) -61 nend Jul 7, Commagene, a small kingdom of the upper Euphrates, under the reign of King Antiochus, had a citadel area in front of which a lion was sculpted in relief with recognizable constellations on or near the lion's body. Prof. Otto Neugebauer of Brown Univ. studied the marks and identified the date of the sculpture. (K.I.-365D, p.127)(NG., Mar., 1961, pp.390-405) -59 -52 Caesar?s legions battled the Gallo-Celtic tribesmen of King Vercingetorix in northern Burgundy. (SSFC, 12/5/04, p.F4) -55 nend Aug 26, Roman forces under Julius Caesar invaded Britain. 80 war galleys with some ten thousand foot soldiers prevailed over the native Britons. (AP, 8/26/97)(ON, 6/09, p.6) -55 nend Pompey dedicated his theater, the first to be constructed of stone in Rome. (RFH-MDHP, p.214) -54 nend Jul, Roman forces under Julius Caesar invaded Britain for a 2nd time. He was accompanied by Mandubracius, an exiled British chieftain. The expedition of 10,000 foot soldiers and 2,00 cavalry was followed by a number of privately owned vessels commissioned by Roman merchants eager to take advantage of Caesar?s anticipated victory. (ON, 6/09, p.7) -54 nend The Eburons, A Belgian tribe under the command of their King Ambiorix, won a victory against the Roman Legion. (http://www.trabel.com/tongeren-history.htm) -54 nend The Romans under Julius Caesar fought the first skirmishes with the Celts in England. British chieftain Cassivellaunus, who had killed the father of Mandubracius, led a guerilla style war against Caesar?s legions. Caesar?s forces prevailed and Cassivellaunus agreed not to make was against Mandubracius. (SFEC, 6/22/97, BR p.3)(ON, 6/09, p.7) -54 nend Gaius Valerius Catullus (b.~84BC), Roman poet, died about this time. He became famous for his epicurean lifestyle and erotic poems. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catullus)(Econ, 2/23/08, p.103) -54 -52 The Gauls rose in revolt against Caesar. (ON, 6/09, p.7) -53 nend Sep 23, Augustus, the first Roman emperor, or Caesar, was born. His ascension to the title of emperor marked the end of true Roman democracy, even though the Senate survived for generations. [see 63BC] (MC, 9/23/01) -53 nend Caesar claimed to have wiped out the Celtic Eburones after they conspired with other groups in an attack that killed 6,000 Roman soldiers. The Eburones lived in an area that later came be known as part of Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands. (AP, 11/14/08)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eburones) -53 nend The Persians defeated the Romans in the Battle of Carrhae. Some 20,000 Romans under Crassus were killed by the Parthian army and 10,000 were captured. The Parthians then used the Romans as guards on their eastern frontier in what later became Turkmenistan. (ATC, p.33)(HC, 9/3/04)(Econ, 12/18/04, p.59) -52 nend Pompey dedicated his Temple of Venus Victrix. (RFH-MDHP, p.214) c -52 nend Cicero defended Titus Milo for the murder of Publius Clodius. The setting is the background for the historical detective novel: "A Murder on the Appian Way" by Steven Saylor. (SFC, 6/3/96, p.E5) -52 nend Caesar climaxed his conquest of Gaul at Alesia in northern Burgundy where he vanquished Celtic forces under Vercingetorix. (NGM, 5/77)(SFEC, 11/21/99, p.T4) -51 -49 Cleopatra was queen of Egypt from 51BC-49BC and 48BC-30BC. (WUD, 1994, p.276) -50 nend Jun-Aug, In Egypt the "Zodiac of Dendera," a map of the stars of this period, was carved in stone. It is now in the French Louvre. (WSJ, 1/29/98, p.A16) -50 nend Virgil first described the Damask Rose. (TGR, 1995, p.3) -50 nend Maastricht, Netherlands, began as a Roman settlement. (SSFC, 2/20/05, p.F2) -49 nend Jan 11, Julius Caesar led his army across the Rubicon, plunging Rome into civil war. [see Jan 12, Mar 10] (HN, 1/11/99) -49 nend Jan 12, Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon River signaling a war between Rome and Gaul. [see Jan 11, Mar 10] (HN, 1/12/99) -49 nend Mar 10, Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon and invaded Italy. The event was noted by Suetonius in the phrase: "The die is cast." [see Jan 11] (SFEC,12/14/97, BR p.5)(HN, 3/10/98) -49 nend Mauretania (now northern Morocco and Algeria) became a client kingdom of Rome. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.22) -48 nend Aug 9, Julius Caesar defeated Gnaius Pompey at Pharsalus. (HN, 8/9/98) -48 nend Sep 28, On landing in Egypt, Pompey was murdered on the orders of King Ptolemy of Egypt. (HN, 9/28/98)(MC, 9/28/01) -48 nend The library at Alexandria was ravaged by fire during the fighting between Caesar and Ptolemy XIII. (WSJ, 6/1/00, p.A1)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria) -47 nend Aug 2, Caesar defeated Pharnaces at Zela in Syria and declares "veni, vidi, vici," (I came, I saw, I conquered). (HN, 8/2/98) -47 nend Julius Caesar adopted a modified form of the Egyptian Calendar. Together with Sosigenes, an astronomer from Alexandria, the new calendar spreads the last 5-6 days of the Egyptian calendar amongst alternate months. March 1 began the year as a carry over from the old Roman calendar. (K.I.-365D, p.84) -46 nend Caesar's calendar went into effect at the time of the first new moon after the winter solstice. (K.I.-365D, p.86)(AM, 11/04, p.9) -46 nend The heart of ancient Numidia lay in the eastern region of what is now Algeria in Northern Africa. They were conquered by Rome in 46 BC. The Vandals and Byzantines ruled successively before Arabs conquered the area in the seventh century CE. (HNQ, 6/2/98) -45 nend Jan 1, The Julian calendar took effect. (MC, 1/1/02) -45 nend Feb 29, The first Leap Day was recognized by proclamation of Julius Caesar. Under the old Roman calendar the last day of February was the last day of the year. (HN, 2/29/00) -45 nend Mar, Caesar defeated the least of his rivals and was proclaimed dictator for life. (ON, 6/09, p.7) c -45 nend Colonia Julia Equestris, a Roman veterans' colony, was founded in what is now Nyon, Switzerland. Nyon is derived from the Celtic name Noviodunum. (AM, Jul/Aug '97 p.10) -44 nend Mar 15, Roman Emperor Julius Caesar (b.100BC) was murdered by Brutus, Cassius and other conspirators on the Ides of March. Caesar had defeated Pompey in battle and had Pompey murdered in 48BC. He was perceived as a big threat to the Roman Aristocracy and so his murder was supported by Cicero and most Romans. In 2006 Adrian Goldsworthy authored ?Caesar: Life of a Colossus.? (ATC, p.24)(AP, 3/15/97)(WSJ, 10/24/06, p.D6) -44 nend Quintilis, the fifth month was changed to Julius in honor of Julius Caesar. A bright comet was declared by the Romans to be the soul of Julius Caesar ascending to join the gods. (SFC, 3/28/97, p.A12) -44 nend Caesar began building a colony at Butrint, Albania. Titus Pomponius Atticus described the area as "the quietest, coolest, most pleasant place in the world." (Reuters, 6/13/06) -43 nend Mar 20, Ovid (d.17?18CE), Publius Ovidius Naso, Roman poet, was born. His writings included: "The Art of Love." (WUD, 1994, p.1032)(SFEC, 12/22/96, Z1 p.2)(HN, 3/20/01) -43 nend Apr 21, Marcus Antonius was defeated by Octavian near Modena, Italy. (HN, 4/21/99) -43 nend Nov 27, Octavian, Antony and Lepidus formed the triumvirate of Rome. (HN, 11/27/98) -43 nend Dec 7, Cicero (b.106BC), considered one of the greatest sons of Rome was assassinated on the orders of Marcus Antonius. Cicero, elected Consul in 63, had chosen to support Pompey over Caesar. He translated Greek works that they might be understood by his fellow Romans, and tried to apply Greek ethical thought to Roman business and politics. His last work was "On Duties," where he propounds a common solution to all social problems i.e. "Always do the right thing... that which is legal... that which is honest, open and fair...keeping your word... telling the truth... and treating everyone alike. In 2002 Anthony Everitt authored "Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome?s Greatest Politician," a biography based on his letters. In 2006 Robert Harris authored ?Imperium,? a novel that covers Cicero?s early courtroom feats. (V.D.-H.K.p.74)(HN, 12/7/98)(WSJ, 6/11/02, p.D7)(WSJ, 11/10/06, p.W4) -42 nend Oct 23, Marcus Junius Brutus, a leading conspirator in the assassination of Julius Caesar, committed suicide after his defeat at the Battle of Philippi. Octavian and Mark Antony defeated Brutus and Cassius at Philippi in Macedonia. (WUD, 1994, p.1081)(MC, 10/23/01) -42 nend Nov 16, Tiberius Claudius Nero (d.37CE, Roman Emperor, was born. Tiberius was chosen by Augustus in 4CE as emperor of Rome. (V.D.-H.K.p.77) (HN, 11/16/98) -37 nend King Herod (d.4BC) reigned over Judea. During his reign underground support structures were built for an expansion of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. The Wall of King Herod's Second Temple is the famed "Wailing Wall." (SFC, 7/9/96, p.D1)(SFC, 10/10/96, p.A13)(WSJ, 4/9/97, p.A10) -37 nend Virgil (b.70BC), Roman poet, authored the 4th of his Eclogues. This included text regarding the newborn son of Consul Polio in which Virgil said the child would initiate a golden age in which lion and lamb would lie together amid peace and plenty. Early Christians took this as a prediction of Christ. (WSJ, 12/29/07, p.W12) -37 448 The Koguryo kingdom straddled what is now North Korea and part of South Korea and the northeastern Chinese region of Manchuria. It spread Buddhism throughout the region. (AP, 2/1/04) -37 668 The Koguryo kingdom (Gaogouli in Chinese) flourished during this time. At its height the territory stretched from central Manchuria to south of Seoul, Korea. It was later taught to be one of Korea?s three founding kingdoms. (Econ, 3/31/07, SR p.8) -33 nend Agrippa called for the construction an aqueduct, 500 fountains and 700 basins for central Rome. (SFEC, 7/2/00, p.T4) -32 nend Pompey's theater was damaged in a storm and repaired by Augustus who especially noted that in repairing it he nowhere recorded his own name. (RFH-MDHP, p.214) -32 nend A Roman coin dating from this time bore the images of Cleopatra on one side and Marc Antony on the reverse. It represented one three hundredth of a Roman soldier's salary and was probably minted to pay the wages of those stationed in Egypt. (AFP, 2/14/07) -32 -23 Octavian ruled as Consul over Rome by self election. no_source -31 nend Sep 2, The Naval Battle of Actium in the Ionian Sea, between Roman leader Octavian and the alliance of Roman Mark Antony and Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. Octavian soundly defeated Antony's fleet which was burned and 5000 of his men were killed. Cleopatra committed suicide. The rivals battled for control of the Roman Empire in the naval battle of Actium, where Cleopatra, seeing Antony's navy being outmaneuvered by Octavian's, ordered her 60 ships to turn about and flee to safety. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.18)(HNPD, 7/30/98)(MC, 9/2/01) c -31 nend Augustus founded the city of Nikopolis in Epirus (northwestern Greece) to commemorate his victory over Antony and Cleopatra at Actium. (AM, Jul-Aug/99, p.10) -31 nend Rome under Emperor Augustus annexed the Carthage territory. (SSFC, 12/10/00, p.T8) -31 nend An earthquake occurred at the Qumran caves by the Dead Sea when Herod ruled in Jerusalem. This was the site where fragments of scrolls from the books of Psalms and Numbers were later found, as well as a human skeleton beneath boulders from the earthquake. (SFC,12/9/97, p.A9) -30 nend Jul 30, Mark Antony, lover of the Egyptian queen Cleopatra VII and claimant to the Roman throne, stabbed himself when faced with certain defeat at the hands of his rival Octavian. Antony expected to be named the heir to Rome after the assassination of his friend and confidant Julius Caesar, but had not counted on Caesar naming his adopted son Octavian as his successor. Shaken by his loss at Actium and abandoned by his allies, Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra followed him in death shortly afterward when she allowed herself to be bitten by a venomous asp. (HNPD, 7/30/98) -30 nend Aug 30, Cleopatra, the 7th and most famous queen of ancient Egypt, committed suicide about this time. (AP, 8/30/97) -30 nend Rome gained control over Egypt. The wheat fields of Egypt became one of Rome's main sources of food. Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.168)(SFC, 11/4/96, p.A11) -30 nend Construction began on the Temple of Isis in Sabratha, Libya. It was completed in 14CE. (SSFC, 6/27/04, p.D12) -29 nend Cicero complained that "Two of my shops have fallen down... The tenants have fled... Even the mice have migrated." [see 43BC] (SFEC, 9/28/97, Z1 p.2) -28 nend Oct 9, The Temple of Apollo was dedicate on the Palatine Hill in Rome. (HN, 10/9/98) -28 nend In Rome the mausoleum of Emperor Augustus(d.14AD) was built. (WSJ, 6/23/07, p.P16) -27 nend An earthquake hit Egypt and devastated the temple of Amenhotep III in Luxor, which dated to about 1389. (AP, 4/26/11) -27 nend The Roman senatorial province of Achaea was established. It comprised all of Greece south of Thessaly. (AHD, 1971, p.10) -27 14 Octavian, adopted son of Julius Caesar ruled as Rome's first emperor. He was given the name Augustus (revered or exalted one) and put an end to the chaos and power struggles that had occurred after Caesar's assassination. He also expanded the empire by conquering the territory that ran along the Rhine and Danube rivers. (ATC, p.26) -25 nend Augustus received two trade groups from India. (ATC, p.33) -25 nend Strabo, a geographer and scholar from Alexandria, made the most comprehensive map of the known world. (SFC, 12/1/98, p.A10) -19 nend Sep 20, The Roman poet Virgil (Publius Vergilius Maro, b.70BC) died. His epic "The Aeneid" became one of the great classics of Western literature. The story it tells runs from the end of the Trojan War to the start of the Roman Empire. (WUD, 1994 p.1587)(MC 9/20/01) -19 nend Agrippa had the Aqua Virgo built in Rome. (SFEC, 7/2/00, p.T4) -19 nend A wine jug bearing reference to King Herod was found in an ancient garbage dump near the synagogue at Masada, Israel. The cone-shaped, two-handled jug held about 20 gallons of wine and had been shipped from Italy. (SFC, 7/9/96, p.D1) -19 nend Lucius Cornelius Balbus led 20,000 men of the 3rd Augusta Legion across the Hamada al-Hamra (Red Rocky Plain) in the first Roman attack on the Garamantian heartland (Libya). Romans turned Ghadames, Libya, into a garrison town. (Arch, 9/02, p.48)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garamantes)(SSFC,6/27/04, p.D12) -16 nend Flying Swallow (16) became empress to China's Emperor Cheng. (NG, Feb, 04, p.12) -15 nend King Herod of Judea built the coastal settlement of Caesarea. It was razed to the ground in 1265. (Econ, 4/24/04, p.83) -12 nend Aug 31, Caligula (Gaius Caesar), 3rd Roman emperor (37-41 CE), was born. (YN, 8/31/99) -10 nend Aug 1, Claudius (d.54CE)., Roman Emperor, was born. Tiberius Claudius Nero Caesar Drusus, the nephew of Tiberius and grandson of the wife of Augustus, was made emperor after Caligula. (HN, 8/1/98) -9 nend The Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace), ordered by Augustus Caesar, was constructed in Rome. In 2005 the Museum of the Ara Pacis opened in Rome. (WSJ, 6/23/07, p.P16) -8 nend Augustus, emperor of the Roman Empire. The Roman Senate changed the name of the month Sextilis to Augustus, and an extra day was added while subtracting a day from February. (K.I.-365D, p.89) -8 nend Augustus Caesar ordered a census under the consulship of Gaius Censorinus and Gaius Asinius. 4,233,000 Roman citizens were counted. (www.biblehistory.net/volume2/Quirinius.htm) -8 nend Horace (b.65BC), Roman poet, died. In 2002 J.D. McClatchy edited "Horace: The Odes, New Translations by Contemporary Poets. (SSFC, 12/29/02, p.M2) c -7 nend Dionysius of Helicarnassus, Greek rhetorician and historian in Rome, died. He said that history is philosophy learned from examples. (WUD, 1994, p.405)(Nat. Hist., 3/96, p.75) -6 nend Apr 17, Jupiter was in a rare alignment with the constellation Aries and marked an important date for ancient astrologers. Jesus was believed to have been born in this year. (SFC, 4/13/01, p.C1) -6 -4 Publius Quinctilius Varus served as Roman governor of Syria. (http://www.rovenet.com/tno/tacitus%20named%20officials/varus.html) c -5 65 Seneca, Roman statesman: "Malice drinks one-half of its own poison." (AP, 6/8/98) c -4 nend The Second Temple in Jerusalem was rebuilt a few years before the birth of Jesus under King Herod. Jerusalem at this time had a population of about 100,000 people. (SFC, 8/28/96, p.A10) -4 nend Publius Sulpicius Quirinus served as Roman governor of Cilicia, which was annexed to Syria. (www.botcw.com/bible/kjv/easton/east0953.htm) -4 nend King Herod the Great died. He governed Judea from 37BC. (SFC, 6/26/00, p.A12) -4 nend Lucius Annaeus Seneca (d.65) (aka Seneca the younger), Roman intellectual, was born in Spain. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger) -4 40 Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great, tetrarch of Galilee for this period. He examined Jesus at the request of Pilate. He executed John the Baptist. Pontius Pilate served as governor of the island of Ponza before he was made procurator of Judea. (AHD, 1971, p.618, 706)(SFEC, 11/8/98, p.T12) -3 nend Sep 14, Jupiter appeared to pass very close to the star Regulus, "the King's Star." (SSFC, 12/23/01, Par p.9) -3 -2 Astronomical events occurred at this time and coincided with the probable birth of Jesus Christ. During the conjunctions of 3BC, Jupiter, the King Planet, came into contact with the King Star, Leo the Lion, which was also the sign for the Jewish tribe of Judah. (SFEC, 2/16/97, p.A16) -2 nend Feb 17, Jupiter again appeared to pass very close to the star Regulus, "the King's Star." (SSFC, 12/23/01, Par p.9) -2 nend May 8, Jupiter appeared to pass very close to the star Regulus, "the King's Star" for a 3rd time in recent months. (SSFC, 12/23/01, Par p.9) -2 nend Jun 17, Jupiter and Venus drew close together and appeared to fuse as a single star. This was later thought to be the Biblical star of Bethlehem. (SSFC, 12/23/01, Par p.92BC Heratosthene of Greece drew a map that showed 3 continentsabout equal in size labeled: Europe, Asia and Libya. (SFEC, 2/15/98, Z1 p.8) -2 nend The Maccabeans built an aqueduct in Jerusalem. (SFC, 9/26/96, p.A10) -1 nend Mar 1, Start of the revised Julian calendar in Rome. (SC, 3/1/02) 1 nend Dec 25, The celebrated birth of Christ in Bethlehem. The birth of Jesus is celebrated on Dec. 25th because the Romans needed to replace the pagan holiday called the Feast of the Unconquered Sun. In Ethiopia Jan 7 is the day that Christmas is celebrated. According to the gospel of Matthew, Joseph soon fled with his family to Egypt following a decree by Herod that ordered all boys of Bethlehem under age 2 to be put to death. The gospels of Luke and Matthew are inconsistent on historical facts. Christ?s birth on this day was officially set by the Roman Church in 336AD. [see 6-2BCE] (SFC, 12/4/94, p. S-4)(SFC, 8/2/99, p.A10)(Econ, 1/1/05, p.38) 1 nend As long as 2,000 years ago, a Native Indian People later known as the Cherokee, lived in the area of the Southern Appalachians who had probably split from the Iroquois about this time. (NG, 5/95, p.78) c 1 nend Stone forts were built on the 3 Aran islands: Inishmore, Inishmaan, and Isisheer, whose total area was 18 sq. miles. The islands are on the west coast of Ireland at the mouth of Galway Bay. (SFEC, 1/23/00, T8,9) c 1 nend The 2000 year-old city of Dujiangyan, perched on the hills where the River Min leaves the Tibetan highlands for the Sichuan plain, was founded. (SFC,12/26/97, p.A18) c 1 nend In Laos stone jars at the Plain of Jars that measured on average 10-feet high and 9-feet wide are believed to be 2,000 years old and to have been used for burials. Only 300 jars are intact due to the bombing during the 1960s Vietnam War. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.E) c 1 nend The Mayan city of La Milpa was founded. (SFC, 6/23/96, p.A10) c 1 nend Ceramic cups are found in Karanog graves of Nubia that depict a herdsman with his dog and cattle, a face with scarification patterns on the forehead, and eye-motifs. (MT, 10/95, p.10-11) c 1 nend Nazca, Peru. The Owl Man was dug out of a dry hillside with one arm pointing to the sky and the other to earth. (NG, March 1990, J.B. Carlson, p.76) c 1 nend Settlers began arriving to Madagascar from Polynesia (SFC, 6/23/96, zone 1 p.5) c 1 30 The life of Jesus Christ. In 1998 "The Acts of Jesus -- What Did Jesus Really Do? The Search for the Authentic Jesus" was published with translation and commentary by Robert W. Funk, director of the Westar Institute and The Jesus Seminar. In 2001 Philip Jenkins authored "Hidden Gospels: How the Search for Jesus Lost Its Way," in which he examines the motives and methodologies of radical biblical scholars. (SFEM, 4/19/98, p.6)(WSJ, 4/30/01, p.A16) 1 100 The first century CE Villa dei Papiri by the Bay of Naples was used as a model for the J. Paul Getty Museum of the 20th cent. on the Pacific Coast Highway of California. (Hem., Nov. '95, p.78) c 1 100 Steam engines--machines harnessing the heat energy of hot steam to perform work--date to the steam turbine invented by Hero of Alexandria in the 1st century CE called the aeolipile. However, the aeolipile was regarded as a curiosity demonstrating a mechanical principle and was not developed into a practical engine. (HNQ, 1/18/01) 1 100 A Teutonic tribe known as the Frisians (or Friesians) settled in what is now the Netherlands in the first century A.D. (HNQ, 3/5/00) c 1 100 Hungary was the Roman province of Pannonia and Pecs was the capital. (Hem., 6/98, p.128) 1 100 Christianity came to Illyrian populated areas. (www, Albania, 1998) 1 100 The first century Greek physician, Dioscorides, recommended the use of orchid tubers as an aphrodisiac. (NH, 4/97, p.77) 1 100 The 1st century Roman gourmet, Marcus Gavius Apicius, was thought to be the writer of the earliest known cookbook. (SFEC, 4/16/00, Z1 p.2) 1 100 Quintus Curtius Rufus, Roman historian, wrote a Latin test on the History of Alexander the Great. It was translated into French in the 15th century. (SFEC, 1/26/97 BR, p.7) 1 100 The Greek city of Berenice on the coast of Libya was acquired by the Romans. The site later became a suburb of Benghazi and was studied by British archeologist John Lloyd (d.1999) in the 1970s. (SFC, 6/15/99, p.C6) 1 300 Kushan Empire. The Kushan nomads, pushed west by Huns, united with the Scythian nomads 130 years before Christ and raged across the Central Asian steppes. When they crossed the Amu Darya (the Oxus river to Alexander the Great) they laid waste the Greco-Bactrian lands. They later rebuilt the cities they had sacked and created the great Kushan Empire on their own debris. (NG, March 1990, p.63) 1 600 In Thailand the Non Muang Kao was a moated settlement of this time. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.G) c 1 1250 The cliff-dwelling Anasazi flourished in the Four corners area of the American Southwest. (NH, 5/96, p.8) c 1 1500 Paintings were made on rock surfaces in the central mountain ranges of the Baha Peninsula by unknown native Indians. In 1997 Harry W. Crosby published "Cave Paintings of Baha California." (WSJ, 3/5/98, p.A20) 2 nend Feb 17, Jupiter again appeared to pass very close to the star Regulus, "the King?s Star." (SSFC, 12/23/01, Par p.9) 2 nend May 8, Jupiter appeared to pass very close to the star Regulus, "the King?s Star" for a 3rd time in recent months. (SSFC, 12/23/01, Par p.9) 2 nend Jun 17, Jupiter and Venus drew close together and appeared to fuse as a single star. This was later thought to be the Biblical star of Bethlehem. (SSFC, 12/23/01, Par p.9) 2 nend A Chinese census counted 57,671,400 people. (NG, Feb, 04, p.12) 2 8 Ovid wrote the "Metamorphosis." It was an epic poem that begins with the creation of the world and ends with the rise of Julius Caesar. Rolfe Humphries made a translation in 1955 that became a standard. A 1997 translation by Ted Hughes, "Tales From Ovid," retold 24 of the original 250 stories. (WSJ, 1/9/98, p.A14) 3 nend Feb 19, Sadiq Hidajat, Persian writer (Blind Person Owl), was born. (MC, 2/19/02) 3 nend Aug 12, Venus-Jupiter were in conjunction: alleged "Star of Bethlehem." [see Feb 17, May 8, Jun 17, 2CE] (MC, 8/12/02) 3 427 The Korean Kokuryo Dynasty rules over Manchuria. Its second capital is said to have been Jiban. A contemporary Chinese guidebook claims that Jiban at this time was controlled by China's Western Han Dynasty. (WSJ, 10/9/95, p.A-8) 4 nend Gaius Caesar (24), the nephew and adopted heir of Caesar Augustus, died. (WSJ, 6/23/07, p.P16) 4 nend Tiberius (42BC-37CE) was chosen by Augustus as emperor of Rome. He later banished the young Nero to the island of Ponza. (V.D.-H.K.p.77)(SFEC, 11/8/98, p.T12) c 4 nend Romans terraced the steep slopes of the Mosel River for the cultivation of grapes. (SFEC, 4/30/00, p.T8) 6 nend The Romans named Caesarea as a regional capital. (SFC, 6/18/02, p.A2) 6 nend Sulpicius Quirinius (Cyrenius), Roman governor of Syria, ordered a 2nd census of Judea. (Econ, 1/1/05, p.38)(www.biblehistory.net/volume2/Quirinius.htm) 9 nend Sep 9, Publius Quinctilius Varus (59), Roman governor of Germania (6-9CE), died of likely suicide following defeat at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest. Arminius, aka Hermann the German, had stopped a Roman advance eastward across the Rhine at the battle of Teutoburg, setting a limit on the Roman border. no_source 8 nend /7/10, p.86) no_source 9 nend Wang Mang usurped the Chinese throne and ended Han rule. (eawc, p.15)(NG, Feb, 04, p.21) 9 nend Emperor Tiberius of Rome subjugated the Illyrians and divided present day Albania between Dalmatia, Epirus, and Macedonia. (www, Albania, 1998) 12 41 Caligula (little boots, a nickname by the soldiers), Gaius Caesar. He was chosen by Tiberius as successor. (V.D.-H.K.p.77-78) 13 nend Nov 16, Tiberius made his triumphant procession through Rome after siege of Germany. (MC, 11/16/01) 14 nend Caesar Augustus died and rule passed to Tiberius. (V.D.-H.K.p.77) 15 nend May 24, Julius Caesar Germanicus, Roman commandant, was born. (MC, 5/24/02) 17 nend Jan 2, Publius Ovidius Naso, Roman poet, died. (MC, 1/2/02) 17 nend May 26, Germanicus of Rome celebrated a victory over the Germans. (HN, 5/26/98) 19 nend Oct 10, Julius Caesar Germanicus (33), Roman commandant of Rijnleger and the best loved of Roman princes, died of poisoning. On his deathbed he accused Piso, the governor of Syria, of poisoning him. (HN, 10/10/98)(MC, 10/10/01) 22 nend Sulpicius Quirinius (Cyrenius), Roman soldier and civilian governor of Syria, died. (Econ, 1/1/05, p.38)(www.biblehistory.net/volume2/Quirinius.htm) 23 nend Chinese rebels known as Red Eyebrows entered Changan and beheaded Emp. Wang Mang. Liu Xiu (Guang Wu Di), a 9th generation descendant of Emp. Liu Bang, proclaimed himself emperor and led his followers to Luoyang to begin the Eastern Han rule. (NG, Feb, 04, p.21) 23 nend Tiberius lost his son Drusus, and from then on seems to have lost interest in the Empire and occupied himself with pleasure. (V.D.-H.K.p.77) 23 24 Strabo (b.~63-64BC), Greek geographer and historian, died about this time. He had traveled to Egypt and Kush, met members of the Noba tribe, and decided to call their country Nubia. Strabo is mostly famous for his 17-volume work Geographica, which presented a descriptive history of people and places from different regions of the world known to his era. (Arch, 9/02, p.55)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabo) 23 79 Pliny the Elder, Gaius Plinius Secundus, Roman naturalist, encyclopedist and writer. He died in the eruption of Vesuvius. [see 79CE] He wrote the classic 37-volume "Natural History." "Among these things but one thing seems certain -- that nothing certain exists, and that nothing is more pitiable or more presumptuous than man." (WUD, 1994, p.1106)(SFC, 9/1/97, p.A2)(AP, 11/5/98) 25 220 The Eastern Han Dynasty received embassies from Persia who brought lions to the court as tribute. From this originated the Lion Dancing which represents purity and protection to the Chinese. The dances are preformed on special occasions and on the Chinese New year. (Hem. 1/95, p. 123)(WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20) 27 37 Tiberius moved to the isle of Capri and never returned to Rome. (V.D.-H.K.p.77)(SFEM, 10/11/98, p.54) 28 nend Jan 28, The Roman Emperor Nerva named Trajan, an army general, as his successor. (HN, 1/28/99) c 29 30 Aug 28, John the Baptist was beheaded by King Herod, perhaps at whim of Salome. (HFA, '96, p.36)(MC, 8/28/01) 30 nend From about 30 to 64/67 Peter served as the first pope. By 2003 he was still noted as the longest-serving, for a total of 34 or 37 years. (AP, 10/16/03) 30 nend Apr 30, Jesus of Nazareth was crucified [see 33AD]. Christ died on hill of Golgotha, Jerusalem. His path along the Via Dolorosa was later disputed as to whether he was tried by Pontius Pilate at the palace of Herod or at the Roman fortress of Antonia. His death was at an abandoned quarry, the site of today?s Church of the Holy Sepulchre. In 1998 Robert Funk and the Jesus Seminar published "The Acts of Jesus: The Search for the Authentic Deeds of Jesus." The group had published an earlier work "The Five Gospels," in which the sayings of Jesus were examined. In 1999 Thomas Cahill authored "Desire of the Everlasting Hills," a book about Jesus and his effect on the world. In 2010 Paul Johnson authored ?Jesus: A Biography From a Believer.? Also in 2010 Philip Pullman authored ?The Good Man Jesus and the Scoundrel Christ,? in which he proposes that Jesus and Christ were twin brothers. (SFC, 3/27/97, p.C2)(SFEC, 4/12/98, BR p.8)(HN, 4/30/98)(WSJ,11/5/99, p.W12)(Econ, 4/3/10,p.85)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_Jesus) 30 nend When the Roman governor of Palestine was confronted by an angry Jewish crowd demanding the execution of the leader of a small, radical religious movement, like Socrates, he cross-examined him. When he asked him if he was a king, the man replied, "To this end I was born, and for this cause I came into the world, to bear witness to the truth. Everyone that belongs to the truth will hear me." The governor, being a Roman, answered as any educated Roman would. For Pontius Pilate had been raised on the Greek and Roman skeptical traditions that denied that there was anything like certain truth, only probable knowledge. So, as any other Roman would have done, he asked the question, "What is truth?," but received no answer. In 2000 Ann Wroe authored the historical novel "Pontius Pilate." (WWW, WC, 8/15/98)(SFEC, 5/21/00, Par p.19) 30 33 Dismas was the repentant thief crucified with Christ. (WSJ, 11/2/98, p.B1) c 30 33 Lazarus lived in Cyprus as a bishop after the miracle by Christ. (NH, 4/97, p.62) c 30 33 Easter [in commemoration of the resurrection of Christ] is generally observed on the Sunday following the first full moon of spring. In 1215 the 4th Lateran Council announced that "Christ descended into Hell, rose again from the dead, and ascended into Heaven. But he descended in soul, rose again in the flesh, and ascended equally in both." (PacDis, Spring/'94, p. 40)(WSJ, 4/18/03, p.W13) 30 40 The decade following the execution of Jesus. In 1998 John Dominic Crossan published "The Birth of Christianity: Discovering What Happened in the Years Immediately After the Execution of Jesus." (SFEC, 4/12/98, BR p.8) 31 nend Mar 25, The 1st Easter, according to calendar-maker Dionysius Exiguus (470-540). (MC, 3/25/02)(www.nndb.com/people/741/000104429/) 31 nend Sep 18, Sejanus, Roman head of praetorian guard, was executed. (MC, 9/18/01) 33 nend Apr 3, Christ was crucified (according to astronomers Humphreys and Waddington). The date is highly debated. See April 30, 30AD. (Econ, 4/23/11, p.64) 33 34 Road builders linking Roman legionary camps during the reign of Tiberius left inscriptions in the rock in the Lepenski Vir region on the Danube near the Iron Gates gorges. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.25) 36 nend Ancient Chinese records recorded an August meteor shower that was later assumed to be the Perseids. The meteorites originated when the Swift-Tuttle comet passed so close to the sun that its ice head melted and left a stream of pea-sized particles. (SFC, 8/11/99, p.A2) 37 nend Feb 15, Claudius Drusus Germanicus Caesar Nero (d.68CE), emperor of Rome (54-68), was born. [see Dec 15] (MC, 2/15/02) 37 nend Mar 16, Tiberius Claudius Nero (78), Roman emperor (14-37), died on a trip to the Italian mainland from his home on Capreae. He was succeeded by Caligula. (PCh, 1992, p.36)(HN, 3/16/99)(AP, 3/15/07) 37 nend Mar 18, The Roman Senate annulled Tiberius? will and proclaimed Caligula emperor. (HN, 3/18/99) no_source 37 nend Dec 15, Nero Claudius Caesar, emperor of Rome who is blamed for the great fire of Rome, was born. Nero (Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus) was born (d. 68CE). [see Feb 15] (WUD, 1994, p.959)(HN, 12/15/98) 37 nend Caligula succeeded Tiberius and went mad within a year. His cruelty was so bad that he was murdered by the tribune of the palace guard after 4 years. He imprisoned his nieces on the island of Ponza for converting to Christianity. (V.D.-H.K.p.78)(SFEC, 11/8/98, p.T12) 37 nend Some 20,000 pieces of jewelry and other objects were buried about this time with a warrior-prince and 5 women in northern Afghanistan. In 1978-79 a team led by Russian archeologist Viktor Sarianidi discovered their 6 sealed tombs at a site called Tillya Tepe (hill of gold). The findings became known as the ?Golden Hoard of Bactria.? (WSJ, 11/19/08, p.D7) 37 41 Caligula ruled Rome. He had 2 large ships built and anchored for his pleasure on Lake Nemi. (AM, 5/01, p.26) 37 100 ?CE Flavius Josephus, original name Joseph Ben Matthias, Jewish historian and general. (AHD, 1971, p.707) 39 nend Nov 3, Lucan, Latin poet (Bellum Civile), was born in Cordova, Spain. (MC, 11/3/01) 39 nend Dec 30, Titus, 10th Roman emperor (79-81) and conqueror of Jerusalem, was born. (MC, 12/30/01) 40 nend Jun 13, Gnaeus Julius Agricola, Roman general and governor of Britain, was born. [WUD says 37-93CE] (WUD, 1994, p.29) c 40 nend Saul of Tarsus, while on the road to Damascus, experienced a profound conversion to Christianity. He became known as St. Paul. In 1997 A.N. Wilson wrote "Paul: The Mind of the Apostle." Wilson argued that Paul was the real founder of the Church of Jesus. Paul was a student of the Jewish scholar Raban Gamliel. (CU, 6/87)(SFC, 3/28/97, p.C11)(Internet) 40 nend Mauretania was divided into the provinces of Tingitana and Caesariensis. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.22) 40 60 The Pont du Gard was built to carry an aqueduct serving Nimes, France. The 160-foot high structure is 900 feet long with 3 tiers of stone arches. (www.vers-pont-du-gard.fr/anglais/tpatrimoine11.php) c 40 107 St. Ignatius Theorphorus, Apostolic Father. He served as the bishop of Antioch. (WUD, 1994 p.708) 41 nend Jan 24, Shortly after declaring himself a god, Gaius Caligula Germanicus, emperor from 37-41, was assassinated by two Praetorian tribunes. (HN, 1/24/99)(MC, 1/24/02) 43 nend The Romans under Claudius, the great nephew of Caesar, invaded and conquered Britain. They founded a settlement on the "Tamesis River" where a bridge could be built that grew to become London. (SFEC, 6/22/97, BR p.3)(ON, 6/09, p.7) 43 nend The Briton Caratacus, also known as Caradoc and chief of the Catuvellauni, mounted a guerrilla uprising against the Romans. His uprising ultimately failed after he was betrayed by the Brigantian queen, Cartimandua. He was taken to Rome where he was later pardoned by Claudius. (HNQ, 9/23/00) 43 nend The Romans brought with them the board game latrunculi (little soldiers), when they conquered Britain. (Arch, 1/05, p.39) 45 nend Greek sailors discovered the monsoon winds and were able to sail from the Horn of Africa to Kerala, India in 40 days. This shifted the spice trade from north Indian ports to Muziris which called the "first commercial center of India." (NG, 5/88, p.609) 46 nend ?-120?CE Plutarch, Greek biographer and philosopher. He was the author of Plutarch's Lives. The work was set up as a series of dual biographies that compared Greek and Roman statesmen. (AHD, p.1009)(Wired, Dec. '95, p.229) 48 nend Claudius married his niece Agrippina. (V.D.-H.K.p.78) c 49 nend The Church convened a council in Jerusalem about this time. The participants adopted the missionary principle of St. Paul, which stressed the universal scope of salvation. (CU, 6/87) 50 nend The "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea" was written about this time and indicated contact with the Somali coast of East Africa by the Egyptians and Ethiopians. (NH, 6/97, p.43) 50 nend Kushan ruled over Afghanistan under King Kanishka. (www.afghan-web.com/history/) 50 nend Graeco-Buddhist Gandharan culture reach its height. (www.afghan-web.com/history/-web.com/history/) 52 nend Tradition in the State in the state of Kerala, India, has it that the Apostle Thomas converted Hindus to Christianity in this year. (NG, 5/88, p.598) 52 nend St. Paul of Tarsus, Christian preacher, arrived in the port city of Ephesus (Turkey) about this time and spent 3 years there. Silt from the Kaistros River ended cargo shipping by the end of the first century. By 2007 the sea was 7 miles from the former port. (SFC, 8/16/07, p.E2) 53 nend Sep 18, Marcus Trajanus (d.117), 13th Roman emperor (Trajan's Arch) (98-117), was born at Italica near Seville, Spain. (http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Trajan) 54 nend Oct 13, Roman emperor Claudius I died, after being poisoned with mushrooms by his wife, Agrippina. Nero (37-68CE), son of Agrippina, succeeded his great uncle Claudius, who was murdered by his wife, as the new emperor of Rome. After the murder of his wife, Octavia, Nero descended deep into a religious delirium. His acts became wild and unintelligible and he was displaced by his soldiers with Galba after which he committed suicide. (WUD, 1994, p.959)(V.D.-H.K.p.78)(AP, 10/13/97)(HN, 10/13/01) 56 nend Tacitus, Publius Cornelius was born. He was the Roman author of the Histories (begins with the death of Nero), and the Annals (begins with Tiberius' reign and goes to the end of Nero). Only a portion of the Histories survives (69-70CE). Of the Annals only those books dealing with the early career of Tiberius, and some treating the reigns of Claudius and Nero survive. (V.D.-H.K.p.81) 56 nend Huan Tan, Go strategist, died. In his book ?Xin Lun? (New Treatise) he advised that the best approach to the game is to spread your pieces widely so as to encircle the opponent. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.128) 57 nend The King of Nakoku sent an envoy to the Eastern Han capital Loyang, the 1st recorded envoy to China from Japan. (www.museum.city.fukuoka.jp) 59 nend Agrippina became insane and was murdered by her son, Nero. (V.D.-H.K.p.78) 60 nend Feb 10, St. Paul is believed to have been shipwrecked near Malta while enroute to Rome for trial for practicing Catholicism. The story is told in the Bible?s New Testament Acts of the Apostles, chapter 27. The event is marked in Malta every February 10. (WSJ, 6/21/08,p.W8)(www.maltamedia.com/artman2/publish/out_about/article_5012.shtml) 60 nend A comet appeared and was interpreted by the people of Rome to mean the impending death of their new emperor. (NG, 12/97, p.105) 60 nend Boudicaa, queen of the Iceni in Britain, burned Roman London. Boudicaa rose up in revolt against the Roman occupation of Britain. When Prasutagus, chief of the Iceni tribe, died without heirs, the Romans confiscated his lands. His wife and Queen, Boudicaa, protested and as a result was publicly scourged. Calling on all native Britons to rise against the oppressors, she then led them in revolt, killing 70,000 Romans and destroying several towns before she was defeated and captured. She killed herself while in Roman custody. (NGM, 5/77)(HNQ, 8/5/00) 62 nend Nero murdered his wife Octavia. (V.D.-H.K.p.78) c 62 113 Pliny the Younger, Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, Roman writer, statesman and orator. He described the death of his uncle, Plinius the Elder, at the 79CE eruption of Vesuvius in a letter to Tacitus. (WUD, 1994, p.1106)(SFC, 9/1/97, p.A142) c 62 63 James, the "brother" of Jesus, was stoned to death for teaching the divinity of Christ. He had led the church in Jerusalem for the 3 decades following the death of Jesus. In 2002 a stone ossuary, looted from a Jerusalem cave, was found with an Aramaic inscription that read "James, son of Joseph, brother of Jesus." In 1997 Robert Eisenman authored "James, the Brother of Jesus." In 2003 Hershel Shanks and Ben Witherington III co-authored "The Brother of Jesus: The Dramatic Story & Meaning of the First Archeological Link to Jesus & His Family." In 2003 the stone ossuary was declared a fake. (SFC, 10/22/02, p.A12)(SSFC, 4/20/03, p.E2)(AP, 6/18/03) c 63 nend The Norse Skalds Kaparmal are written. These have been translated and interpreted by the Frenchman Paul Du Chaillu. (K.I.-365D, p.109) 64 nend Jul 18, The Great Fire of Rome began. After the fire Nero began to build his Golden House in the center of the city. (V.D.-H.K.p.78)(AP, 7/18/97) 64 nend Jul 19, The Circus Maximus in Rome caught fire. (MC, 7/19/02) 64 nend Nero initiated the first persecution against the Christians. According to Seneca Nero sentenced hundreds of Christians to die by "tunica molesta," a naphtha impregnated "shirt of torture." (CU, 6/87)(AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.58) 65 nend Jun 8, Jews revolted against Rome, capturing the fortress of Antonia in Jerusalem. (MC, 6/8/02) 65 nend Lucius Annaeus Seneca (b.4BC) (aka Seneca the younger), Roman intellectual, died. He was a Stoic philosopher and playwright and wrote a version of "Medea." Seneca was Nero's teacher. Nero had Seneca compose his speeches. Seneca and his colleague were ordered by Nero to contrive the murder of Agripinna. He was forced to commit suicide after the conspiracy of Caius Piso to murder Nero. His wife Paulina cut her wrists together with Seneca but Nero ordered that she be saved. Seneca's blood did not flow well and he asked for poison which was refused. He then requested a hot bath to increase the blood flow and apparently was suffocated by the steam. ?Luck is what happens when preparation meets opportunity.? (V.D.-H.K.p.80)(AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.57)(SFEC, 8/2/98, Z1 p.8)(Econ,10/4/08, p.54) 66 nend Jan 26, The 5th recorded perihelion passage of Halley's Comet. (MC, 1/26/02) 66 nend Jewish Zealots called sicarii (from the Latin word for dagger) murdered Roman officials and high-ranking Jews whom they considered as enemies to Israel?s war of independence. (NG, 11/04, p.76)(Econ, 10/27/07, p.33) 66 70 The Jews during this period laid in supplies and prepared to hide during their revolt against the Romans. In 2006 archeologists in northern Israel reported the discovery of chambers, linked by short tunnels, that would have served as a concealed subterranean home. (AP, 3/14/06) 66 73 Roman general Vespasian's army assaulted the forces of Jewish rebel Joseph ben Matthias at Jotapata in Galilee. During the Jewish revolt of 66-73 CE, Emperor Nero chose Titus Flavius Vespasianus (Vespasian) to subdue Judea. Vespasian was eminently qualified for this martial task. He was fresh from crushing a German rebellion, and as commander of Legio II, he had played a significant role in the conquest of Britannia (Britain) by Nero?s predecessor. Joseph, meanwhile had assembled his own army from the rebel bands of Galilee and trained them in the Roman model. He also fortified many towns, the strongest being Jotapata, a natural fortress perched on a rock outcrop. It was surrounded on three sides by steep valleys that made attack virtually impossible. The only approach to the city was from a hilltop to the north, and that was blocked by a dry moat fronting a sturdy wall. (HNQ, 12/4/00) 67 nend Two monks entered China on the Silk Road and introduced Buddhism in Luoyang. (NG, Feb, 04, p.28) 67 nend Some 37,000 Jewish prisoners were held at the Roman stadium in Tiberias after they lost a naval battle on the Sea of Galilee. (SFC, 6/18/02, p.A2) c 67 nend St. Paul, Catholic apostle to the Gentiles and writer of many epistles, died. He founded one of the first Christian churches in Europe at Philippi in Macedonia. He was martyred by Nero and according to tradition invoked his right as a Roman citizen to be beheaded. (WUD, 1994, p.1058,1081)(NG, 12/97, forum) 68 nend Jun 9, Nero (31), Roman Emperor (54-68), committed suicide. (AP, 6/9/97)(MC, 6/9/02) 68 69 Galba reigned as the Roman emperor. He was a commander of Roman forces in Spain and acclaimed emperor by his 2 legions. When the praetorian guard accepted Galba, Nero committed suicide. (WUD, 1994, p.1667) 69 nend Jan 2, Roman Lower Rhine army proclaimed its commander, Vitellius, emperor. (MC, 1/2/02) 69 nend Jan 10, Roman emperor Galba adopted Marcus Piso Licinianus as Caesar. (MC, 1/10/02) 69 nend Jan 15, Servius Sulpicius Galba (70), 6th emperor of Rome (68-69), was murdered along with his newly adopted successor, Piso Licinianus. Marcus Salvius Otho (36) committed the murder and forced the senate to recognize himself as emperor. (PC, 1992, p.37) 69 nend Apr 16, Otho (32-69) committed suicide after he was defeated by Vitellius' (15-69) troops at Bedriacum. (WUD, 1994, p.1667)(HN, 4/16/98) 69 nend Sep 1, Traditional date for the destruction of Jerusalem. [see Aug 29 70CE] (MC, 9/1/02) 69 nend Dec 20, Vespian?s supporters entered Rome and discovered Vitellius in hiding. Vitellius, a Roman commandant of Rhine and the 7th emperor, was dragged through the streets before being brutally murdered. Vitellius had been acclaimed emperor by his legions in Germany in place of Galba. He was then killed in Rome fighting the supporters of Vespasian, the Roman commander of Judea. Gen. Vespasianus occupied Rome. (WUD, 1994, p.1667)(HN, 12/20/98)(MC, 12/20/01) 69 nend Dec 21, Vespacian, a gruff-spoken general of humble origins, entered Rome and was adopted as emperor by the Senate. (PCh, 1992, p.37) 70 nend May 31, Rome captured the 1st wall of the city of Jerusalem. (MC, 5/31/02) 70 nend Aug 29, The Temple of Jerusalem burned after a nine-month Roman siege. The Second Temple of Jerusalem was destroyed by Rome?s 10th Legion and the Jews there were exiled. In the Jewish War the Israelites tried unsuccessfully to revolt against Roman rule. The destruction buried the shops that lined the main street. Archeologists in 1996 found numerous artifacts that included bronze coins called prutot. Carpenters from Israel?s Antiquities Authority used manuscripts of the Roman master builder Vitruvius to reconstruct contraptions used in the construction of the temple. (SFC, 5/23/95, p.A-10)(SFC, 8/28/96, p.A10)(WSJ, 6/22/98, p.A20)(HN,8/29/98) (SFEC, 3/28/99, p.T11) 70 nend Jun 5, Titus & his Roman legions breached the middle wall of Jerusalem. (MC, 6/5/02) 70 nend Jul 1, Roman Emperor Titus assaulted the walls of Jerusalem with battering rams. (MC, 7/1/02) 70 nend Aug 8, Tower of Antonia was destroyed by the Romans. (MC, 8/8/02) 70 nend Aug 29, The Temple of Jerusalem burned after a nine-month Roman siege. The Second Temple of Jerusalem was destroyed by Rome?s 10th Legion and the Jews there were exiled. In the Jewish War the Israelites tried unsuccessfully to revolt against Roman rule. The destruction buried the shops that lined the main street. Archeologists in 1996 found numerous artifacts that included bronze coins called prutot. Carpenters from Israel?s Antiquities Authority used manuscripts of the Roman master builder Vitruvius to reconstruct contraptions used in the construction of the temple. In 2007 Martin Goodman authored ?Rome and Jerusalem: The Clash of Ancient Civilizations.? (SFC, 5/23/95, p.A-10)(SFC, 8/28/96, p.A10)(WSJ, 6/22/98, p.A20)(HN,8/29/98)(SFEC, 3/28/99, p.T11)(Econ, 1/20/07, p.90) 70 nend Sep 7, The Roman army under Titus occupied and plundered Jerusalem. (MC, 9/7/01) 70 nend Sep 27, The walls of upper city of Jerusalem were battered down by Romans. (MC, 9/27/01) 70 nend The Gospel of Mark, the earliest chronicle of the life of Jesus, dates to about this time. (SFC, 10/22/02, p.A12) 70 nend Josephus recorded that Vespasian and his son Titus plundered 50 tons of gold and silver during the Roman conquest of Jerusalem. (SFC, 10/23/06, p.A15) 70 nend The Jerusalem mansion of Queen Helene, who came from a royal clan that ruled Adiabene (northern Iraq), was destroyed along with the rest of Jerusalem. In 2007 archeologists uncovered remains of the structure. Helene converted along with her family to Judaism when they came to Jerusalem in the first half of the first century AD. (AP, 12/7/07) 70 nend A Roman punitive expedition forced the Garamantes of southern Libya to enter into an official relationship with Rome. (AM, 3/04, p.28) 71 nend Vespasian and his son Titus paraded the treasure plundered from Jerusalem in triumph through the streets of Rome. They used the 50 tons of gold and silver to help finance the building of the Colosseum. (SFC, 10/23/06, p.A15) 73 nend Jewish zealots on Mount Masada chose to perish by their own hands rather than surrender to slavery under the Romans. (SFEC, 3/28/99, p.T5) 73 nend When the Jewish rebellion against Roman rule was crushed, many Jewish refugees fled in all direction. Those who fled to Europe became known as Ashkenazim. (Econ, 6/4/05, p.75) 75 nend The treasure plundered from Jerusalem in 70AD by the Romans under Vespasian and his son, Titus, was put on public display in the Temple of Peace in the Roman Forum and stayed there into the early 5th century. (SFC, 10/23/06, p.A15) 76 nend Jan 24, Publius A. Hadrianus, 14th Roman Emperor (117-138), was born. [see Mar 15] (MC, 1/24/02) 76 nend Mar 15, Hadrian, Roman Emperor (builder of Hadrian's Wall), was born. [see Jan 24] (MC, 3/15/02) 78 nend Mar 3, Origin of Saka Era in India. (SC, 3/3/02) 79 nend Aug 24, Pliny the Elder, Roman naturalist, witnessed the eruption of long-dormant Mount Vesuvius and was overcome by the fumes as he tried to rescue refugees. The eruption buried the Roman cities of Pompeii, Stabiae, Herculaneum and other, smaller settlements in 13 feet of volcanic ash and pumice. An estimated 20,000 people died. The event was described by Pliny the Younger, the elder?s nephew, in a letter to Tacitus. (HFA, '96, p.36)(DD-EVTT, p.70)(AP, 8/24/97)(WUD, 1994, p.1106)(SFC,9/1/97, p.A2)(HNQ, 6/16/98) 79 nend Aug 25, Gaius Plinius Secundus, [Plinius Maior], Roman admiral, writer, died in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. [see Aug 24] (MC, 8/25/02) 79 nend Nov 1, Pompeii was buried by eruption of Mt. Vesuvius. [see Aug 24] (HN, 11/1/98) 79 nend The Hindu calendar was updated to the solar year with this year as year 1. The original dated back to about 1000 BC. (SFC, 1/1/00, p.A18) 80 nend The Colosseum was inaugurated under Emp. Titus (Vespacian) with 100 days of gladiator combat. The poet Martial described one combat between Verus and Priscus. The amphitheater occupied the site of a large artificial lake, created by Nero for his Domus Aurea. (SFC, 7/20/00, p.C3)(AM, 3/04, p.54)(WSJ, 1/25/05, p.D12) 80 nend The Theater of Pompey was burned and restored by Titus and Domitian. (RFH-MDHP, p.214) 81 nend Sep 13, Titus Flavius Vespasianus, emperor of Rome (69-81), died at 42. (MC, 9/13/01) 81 96 The reign of Domitian. Soldiers under his reign earned an annual salary of about 1,200 sesterces. (HNQ, 10/5/00)(AM, 5/01, p.36) c 81 138 Secret police agents in Ancient Rome were known as frumentarii. Growing out of an Augustine messenger service?the cursus publicus?frumentarii were originally just supply sergeants responsible for such mundane functions as the purchase and distribution of grain. However, under the reign of Domitian (a.d. 81-96), or possibly Hadrian (117-138), they were turned into intelligence officers and gradually became more involved in state security. (HNQ, 10/5/00) 82 nend Jul 27, Joseph of Arimathea, died and was buried in tomb he once lent to Jesus. (MC, 7/27/02) 85 130 Some 2000 letters on wooden tablets were excavated beginning in 1973 at Vindolanda in northern England from Roman soldiers stationed there. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.14) 86 nend Sep 19, Antoninus Pius, 15th Roman emperor (138-161), was born. (MC, 9/19/01) c 90 nend Luke, a Greek-born physician and contemporary of St. Paul, authored his Gospel about this time. St. Luke?s feast day is October 18. no_source 90 168 Claudius Ptolemy, geographer and mapmaker, collected information from travelers and constructed maps of the then known world. His maps were forgotten as the Roman Empire declined and were not rediscovered until the early 1400s. Robert Newton in his book "The Crime of Claudius Ptolemy" (1977), called him "the most successful fraud in the history of science." (ATC, p.15)(NH, 6/97, p.43)(LAT, 3/30/05) 95 nend St. John the Divine established a Christian colony on the Greek island of Patmos after being exiled from Ephesus by Emperor Domitian. It is said that he wrote here the Book of Revelations in a grotto overlooking the main town. Greek Orthodox tradition says that he is the apostle John but that is not confirmed. (SFEC, 1/18/98, p.T6)(WSJ, 6/28/02, p.W8) 96 nend Jul 1, Vespasian, a Roman Army leader, was hailed as a Roman Emperor by the Egyptian legions. (HN, 7/1/98) 96 nend Sep 18, Domitian, Roman emperor, died. He was murdered and was succeeded by Nerva. (V.D.-H.K.p.83)(MC, 9/18/01) 97 nend Oct 27, To placate the Praetorians of Germany, Nerva of Rome adopted Trajan, the Spanish born governor of lower Germany. (HN, 10/27/98) 97 nend Sextus Julius Frontinus, Roman water commissioner, wrote of Rome: "The city looks cleaner, different, the air is purer and the causes of pollution that gave the air so bad a name with the ancients are now removed." (SFEC, 7/2/00, p.T1) 97 105 Flavius Cerialis was prefect of Cohort IX of Batavians and the last occupant of the commandant?s house at Vindolanda. The cohort was transferred to the Danube to join Trajan?s forces gathering for the Second Dacian War. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.17) 98 nend Jan 27, Marius Cocceius Nerva (67), emperor of Rome (96-98), died. (MC, 1/27/02) 98 nend Cornelius Tacitus referred to the Baltic peoples in his book Germania. "In the East the Svebes washes the shores inhabited by the Aistian tribes (Aestiorum gentes)." (DrEE, 10/12/96, p.2) 98 117 Trajan, rules as emperor over Rome. His reign coincides with the apex of Roman territorial power. Along with his successor Hadrian, he converted the flexible frontiers of Rome to a line of fixed walls and forts. (V.D.-H.K.p.64) c 100 nend Oct 31, The pagan Celts of Britain and Ireland celebrated Samhain on October 31 as the end of the season of the sun and the beginning of the season of darkness. It was believed that on this day the souls of the dead revisited their homes. Bonfires were lit to chase away evil spirits. When the Romans conquered Britain in the first century A.D., their fall harvest festival, Poloma Day, mixed with the traditions of Samhain to form a major fall festival at the end of October. (HNPD, 10/31/99) c 100 nend The first Chinese dictionary was compiled. (ATC, p.33) c 100 nend Since before this time in the central-west section of Arabia, Mecca attracted desert dwellers due its fresh water well. It is in a desert valley surrounded by mountains and is a crossroad for two heavily traveled long-distance trade routes. (ATC, p.56) c 100 nend A Greek merchant was sent by the Romans occupying Egypt to investigate rumors of a booming trade between Indian Ocean ports. His report was written as: The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. (ATC, p.141) c 100 nend Raban Gamliel in the first century is credited with arranging the Amidah, considered by many to be the most important prayer in the Jewish liturgy. Raban Gamliel was the most influential Rabbi in the period following the destruction of the Temple. This was a time when many different rabbis each had their own individual domains. (www.kolshalom.com/divrei/dvarilana1.html) c 100 nend A mural was painted about this time at the Mayan ceremonial site of San Bartolo (Guatemala). It was uncovered by archeologist William Saturno of the Univ. of New Hampshire in 2001. (SFC, 3/13/02, p.A4)(USAT, 1/16/04, p.10A) 100 nend Dioscorides, a Roman physician, named the marijuana plant cannabis sativa. (WSJ, 2/8/05, p.D7) 100 150 Archeologists in 1998 uncovered evidence of a pre-Columbian civilization from under the Pyramid of the Moon in Teotihuacan that was dated to this time. The skeleton of a man was found by a team led by Saburo Sugiyama. The most important and largest city of pre-Colombian central Mexico, the Nahuatl meaning of Teotihuacan was "Where Men Become Gods" or "The City of Gods." Just north of Mexico City, Teotihuacan was planned at about the beginning of the Christian era and was sacked and burned by invading Toltecs in 650. (SFC, 10/22/98, p.C2)(SFEC, 11/8/98, p.T10)(HNQ, 4/24/99)(SFEC,9/19/99, p.A22) 100 200 Serdica was home to a Roman amphitheater. It stood on the trade road between the Danube and Constantinople. Known to the Romans as Serdica, it later became known as Sophia, the capital of Bulgaria. (AM, 7/04, p.14) c 100 200 A report from London on 6/27/96 said that the British Library had acquired Buddhist texts that date back as early as the 2nd cent CE. The texts were believed to be part of the canon of the Sarvastivadin sect, which dominated Gandhara, now north Pakistan and east Afghanistan. (SFC, 6/27/96, p.A12) c 100 200 Simon Ben Azzai, second century (A.D.) Jewish scholar: "In seeking wisdom thou art wise; in imagining that thou has attained it thou art a fool." (AP, 11/15/97) 100 200 Celsus, a second century scholar, thought that Christianity was a threat to the social order. He made some attempt to strip away its mythology and identify the historical Jesus. (WSJ, 5/26/98) 100 200 Poompuhar (southern India) grew during the reign of Karikal Cholan, the second-century Chola king who established trade ties with China, Arabia and the Roman Empire. In the 20th century remnants of brick buildings, water reservoirs, a boat jetty and Roman coins were found during undersea excavations. (AP, 1/14/05) 100 400 In the Canary Islands Roman artifacts were found in strata dated to this time. The islands were described by Plutarch and Ptolemy gave their precise location. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.22) c 100 700 A group of agricultural Indians (today called the Moche) inhabit the desert margin between the Andes and the Pacific in what is today called Peru. They raised huge monuments of sun baked mud where they laid their dead with fine gold and pottery. They irrigated crops such as corn, beans, squash, and peanuts. The ate llamas and guinea pigs and caught fish in the Pacific. [2nd source dated the Moche from 0-800] The Nasca [Nazca] Indians also inhabited this area about this time. (NG, Oct. 1988, p. 510)(SFEM, 4/13/97, p.16) c 100 700 In Peru the Nazca Lines are a complex series of huge birds, animals and other figures etched into the ground by the Nazca culture some 225 miles southeast of Lima. (SFC, 9/1/97, p.A14) -100 1500 In Vietnam the city of Hoi An was the principal port of the seafaring Champa kingdom, that embraced Indian culture. The kingdom withstood attacks from the Chinese, Vietnamese, Khmers and Mongols. Archaeological study in Hoi An in the 1990s proved that more than 2000 years ago Hoi An was an embryonic port town of the Sa Huynh people. From the 2nd to the 15th centuries, Hoi An was the main port of the Champa Kingdom. In these centuries, Hoi An became a prosperous commercial port town, very well developed and famous in Asia. (SFEC, 4/26/98,p.T4)(www.hoianworldheritage.org/ehoian/cultural/lichsu_vh_chinh.htm) 100 1300 Time period of the Anasazi culture of northern Arizona, New Mexico, southern Utah and Colorado. (WUD, 1994, p.53) 100 1300 The Bir-Kot Shwandai site in northern Pakistan marks an urban settlement. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.C) 103 105 Apolodorus of Damascus built a bridge over the Danube for Emperor Trajan. It connected the Roman provinces of Moesia Superior and Dacia (the Yugoslavian and Romanian banks respectively). (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.26) 104 nend There was a fire in Rome. Emp. Trajan built massive baths over the Domus Aurea of Nero. (WSJ, 1/25/05, p.D12) 105 nend Ts'ai Lun (Cai Lun), a Chinese government official (eunuch), told Emperor He about making zhi, i.e. paper. By the end of the second century, the Chinese were printing books on rag paper using wooden type. (V.D.-H.K.p.154)(NG, Feb, 04, p.9) 105 nend Flavius Cerialis, prefect of Cohort IX of Batavians at Vindolanda in northern England, was transferred to the Danube to join Trajan?s forces gathering for the Second Dacian War. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.17) 106 nend Nabatae, whose capital was Petra, became a Roman province under Trajan. The Roman city of Jerash was one of the 10 cities of the Decapolis. (WUD, 1994, p.948)(SFEM, 4/11/99, p.8)(AM, 3/04, p.60) c 109 nend Silk was carried by a caravan from China to Persia for the first time. (ATC, p.33) c 111 nend A Roman amphitheater was built at Nyon, Switzerland. An inscription at the site had a dedication to the emperor Trajan. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.10) 117 nend Aug 8, Marcus Ulpius Trajanus (Trajan), emperor of Rome (98-117), died. (www.roman-emperors.org/hadrian.htm) 117 nend Aug 11, The Roman army of Syria hailed its legate, Hadrian, as emperor, which made the senate's formal acceptance an almost meaningless event. One of his first acts was to withdraw Rome?s army from Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). (www.roman-emperors.org/hadrian.htm)(Econ, 7/19/08, p.94) 117 nend The Trimontium amphitheater was built in Plovdiv, Bulgaria. The area was later sacked by Attila the Hun and the site was covered in dirt until a landslide exposed it in 1972. (SSFC, 7/16/06, p.G4) 117 138 The reign of Hadrian. (HNQ, 10/5/00) 117 180 Aulus Gellius, Roman writer. (RFH-MDHP, p.214) 118 nend Jul 9, Hadrian, Rome's new emperor, made his entry into the city. (HN, 7/9/98) 120 130 Roman Emperor Hadrian ordered a great wall to be built in northern England along with a series of forts "to separate the Romans from the barbarians." It extended for 73.5 English miles from the estuary of the river Tyne on the east to Solway Firth on the west. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.15) 121 nend Apr 20, Marcus Aurelius (d.180), 16th Roman emperor, philosopher, was born. He authored the "Meditations." [see Apr 26] (V.D.-H.K.p.64)(HN, 4/20/98) 121 nend Apr 26, Antonius Marcus Aurelius, [Marcus A. Verus], Emperor of Rome (161-180), was born. [see Apr 20] (MC, 4/26/02) 121 135 The Temple of Venus and Rome was built in Rome. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.14) 122 nend Sep 13, Building began on Hadrian's Wall. (MC, 9/13/01) 125 nend Lucius Apuleius, Roman philosopher and satirist, was born about this time. His work included "Metamorphoses." (WUD, 1994, p.74)(WSJ, 5/14/99, p.W8) 125 nend The Gospel of John dated to this time. A papyrus fragment mentioned Jesus. (SFC, 10/22/02, p.A12) 126 nend Aug 1, Publius Helvius Pertinax, Roman emperor (193 CE), was born. (MC, 8/1/02) 129 nend Sep 22, Claudius Galenus (d.~199-217), Greek physician and scholar, was born. Some sources put his birth in 131. Galen went to Rome in 162 AD and made his mark as a practicing physician. Galen developed the first typology of temperament in his dissertation ?De temperamentis,? and searched for physiological reasons for different behaviors in humans. no_source 130 nend Antinous, the Greek lover of Roman Emperor Hadrian, died in the Nile. Hadrian insisted that Antinous be given the status of a god. (Econ, 7/19/08, p.94) 132 nend Zhang Heng introduced an earthquake weathercock, a device that could inform the Chinese court of a distant earthquake. (NG, Feb, 04, p.28) 132 nend Jewish rebels occupied the mountain ridge of Hebron during the Bar Kochba revolt against the Romans. The remains of an ancient synagogue and mikveh are still visible. (SFEC, 12/22/96, p.T2)(Econ, 7/19/08, p.94) 135 nend Chinese astronomers recorded what later became known as a supernova. (SFC, 11/6/09, p.A7) 135 nend Roman Emperor Hadrian sent 12 divisions under Julius Severus to quell the Jewish rebellion led by Simon Bar Kokhba, who was killed at Bethar. An estimated 600,000 Jews were killed. Hadrian ordered Jerusalem plowed under and Aelia Capitolina was built on the site. He barred Jews from returning and survivors dispersed across the empire. Judea was renamed Syria-Palestina. (SFC, 12/26/96, p.C16)(PBS, Nova, 11/23/04)(PC, 1992 ed, p.41) 136 140 Hyginus was pope. He was later proclaimed a saint. (WUD, 1994, p.697) 138 nend Jul 10, Publius A. Hadrianus (b.76), Roman emperor (117-138), died. He was responsible for Hadrian's Wall in Britain, begun in 122. (www.roman-emperors.org/hadrian.htm) 138 161 Antoninus Pius succeeded Hadrian to Rome. (AM, 11/00, p.13) 139 nend Hadrian?s Mausoleum was built in Rome. (SSFC, 5/1/05, p.F8) c 140 nend Emperor Antoninus Pius ordered Hadrian?s Wall to be abandoned and a more northerly defense to be established. Remnants could later be seen of the Antonine Wall around Falkirk, Scotland. Roman troops advanced northwards into the Scottish lowlands, driving the barbarians back before them and establishing a new frontier called the Antonine Wall, named for the new Emperor, Antoninus Pius. The Antonine Wall was later abandoned, reoccupied, and abandoned a second and final time under the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. (NG, 12/97, forum)(HNQ, 9/9/00) c 140 nend The Persians begin to frequently trade with the Romans and Chinese. (ATC, p.33) 141 nend Mar 20, The 6th recorded perihelion passage of Halley's Comet. (MC, 3/20/02) 141 155 St. Pius I, pope, martyr. (PGA, 12/9/98) 145 nend A temple was completed in Rome as a tribute to Emperor Hadrian. In 1802 it became the site of the Rome stock exchange. (WSJ, 12/13/96, p.B11A) 150 nend Ptolemy of Alexandria published his theory of epicycles, the idea that the moon, the sun and the planets moved in circles which were moving in circles which were moving in circles around the Earth. (Econ, 2/7/04, p.75) c 150 nend About this time the lateen sail was first used on the Mediterranean Sea. (ATC, p.12) c 150 nend The subterranean graveyard beneath the Appian Way had existed from about this time and probably originated as the private open-air burial ground of the noble Cecili family of Rome. About 200CE it became the first official Christian cemetery. (ITV, 1/96, p.59) 150 200 The Temple of Quetzalcoatl in Teotihuacan (City of the Gods) was built near what later became Mexico City. Quetzalcoatl was considered as the origin of all human activities on earth, the creator of land and time and its divisions. (SSFC, 5/6/01, p.T9)(SSFC, 11/9/03, p.C7) 150 250 Acharya Nagarjuna, Indian philosopher, lived about this time. He founded the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism. (Econ, 1/8/11, p.43)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagarjuna) 151 nend The Almagest by Claudius Ptolemy, roughly translated as "the Greatest Compilation," was published around this time and became one of the most influential scientific texts in history. He argued that the cosmos consisted of concentric spheres with the Earth at the center. (LAT, 3/30/05)(SSFC, 2/5/06, p.M1) 155 nend Feb 23, Polycarp, disciple of Apostle John, was arrested and burned at stake. (MC, 2/23/02) 155 nend St. Pius I, pope, was martyred. (PGA, 12/9/98) 156 nend Montanus of Phrygia (central Asia Minor) pronounced himself to be the incarnation of the Holy Spirit and that the New Jerusalem was about to come crashing down and land in Phrygia. His followers were called Montanists. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.34) 158 nend Apulieus of Madaura, author of ?The Golden Ass,? defended himself at the roman basilica in Sabratha (Libya) against charges of witchcraft in an oration known as Pro de se magia, or more commonly the Apologia. (Arch, 9/02, p.47) c 160 nend The Romans abandoned their garrison at Cramond, Scotland, and retreated to Hadrian?s Wall. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.14) 160 230 Tertullian, Carthaginian theologian. (WUD, 1994, p.1466) 161 nend Mar 7, Marcus Aurelius became emperor on the death of Antoninus Pius [Titus Aurelius], age 74, at Lorium. Antoninus ruled from 138-161. (HN, 3/7/99)(MC, 3/7/02) 161 nend Aug 31, Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus, emperor of Rome (180-92), was born. (WUD, 1994 p.297)(MC, 8/31/01) 166 nend A Roman envoy arrived in China. This was their 1st recorded official contact. (ATC, p.33)(Econ, 12/18/04, p.58) 167 nend Feb 13, Polycarp, a disciple of St. John and bishop of Smyrna, was martyred on the west coast of Asia Minor. (HN, 2/13/99) 180 nend Mar 17, Antonius Marcus Aurelius (58), [Marcus Verus], Emperor of Rome, died. (MC, 3/17/02) 180 nend Jul 17, Christenen Cittinus Donatus Natzalus Secunda Speratus Vestia was sentenced to death in Carthage. (MC, 7/17/02) c 180 nend Pausanius, traveler and geographer, wrote a description of Greece which we have and it is, so to speak, the first guide book known. (WUD, 1994 p.1058)(AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.58)(SSFC, 12/1/02, p.C3) 180 nend A Roman military transport ship was built about this time, as Marcus Aurelius passed the throne to the emperor Commodus. It later sank in the Rhine. In 2003 archeologists in the Netherlands unveiled the preserved ship. (AP, 5/15/03) 180 nend A smallpox epidemic hit Rome and killed 3.5 to 7 million people including Emp. Marcus Aurelius. It was dubbed the Plague of Antonine. (NW, 10/14/02, p.46) 182 nend Roman Emp. Commodus executed the brothers Sextus Quintilius Maximus and Sextus Quintilius Condianus for alleged conspiracy. Their Villa dei Quintili, several miles from the center of Rome and comparable to Hadrian?s villa in Tivoli, was identified in 1828. (AM, 7/05, p.28) c 182 nend c251 Origen of Caesarea, a church father, urged Christians not to celebrate birthdays because they were a pagan custom. (WSJ, 12/18/98, p.W15) 185 nend Dec 7, Emperor Lo-Yang of China saw a supernova (MSH15-52?). (MC, 12/7/01) 188 nend Apr 4, Caracalla, [Marcus Aurelius Antonius], well-bathed Roman emperor (211-217), was born. (MC, 4/4/02) 190 nend General Dong Zhuo seized power in China and placed a child, Liu Xie, on the throne. (NG, Feb, 04, p.28) 190 nend The abacus was invented about this time. (NW, 9/2/16, p.34D) 192 nend Dec 31, Lucius A.A. Commodus (b.161), Emperor of Rome (180-192), was murdered. His mistress Marcia, Chamberlain Eclectus, and praetorian prefect Laetus hired the wrestler Narcissus to strangle Commodus after they found their names on an imperial execution list. (PCh, 1992, p.42)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodus) 193 nend Mar 28, Publius Helvius Pertinax, Roman Emperor (192-93), was assassinated. (HFA, '96, p.26)(MC, 3/28/02) 193 nend Apr 9, The distinguished Roman soldier Lucius Septimius Severus was proclaimed emperor by the army at Carnuntum (Austria). (www.roman-emperors.org/sepsev.htm) 193 nend Apr 14, Lucius Septimius Severus (d.211), a native son of Leptis Magna in Libya, was crowned emperor of Rome. Under his rule the empire reached its greatest extent with almost 50 provinces. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimius_Severus)(SSFC, 6/27/04, p.D12) 193 nend Jun 1, The Roman Emperor, Marcus Didius (61), was murdered in his palace. (HN, 6/1/99)(MC, 6/1/02) 195 nend Sho-saiko-to is a Chinese formula of bupleurum root, pinellia tuber, scutellaria root, jujube fruit, ginseng root, glycyrrhiza (licorice) root, and ginger rhizome. It is used to help prevent liver cancer. (WSJ, 9/25/95, p.B7B) 197 nend Feb 19, Lucius Septimius Severus' army beat Clodius Albinus at Lyon. D Clodius Septimus Albinus, Roman dignitary in England, died in the battle. (MC, 2/19/02) c 197 nend The sculpture of a lioness devouring a man made about this time was found in 1997 in the mud of the Almond River near Edinburgh, Scotland. (SFC, 1/22/97, p.A9)(AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.14) 199 217 Pope Zephyrinus led the Church. (ITV, 1/96, p.59) 200 nend The first Runic inscriptions that have survived to the modern day dated from around this time. The Runic alphabet, also known as Futhark, consists of 24 letters, 18 consonants and 6 vowels. (www.ancientscripts.com/futhark.html) c 200 nend The Forma Urbis Romae was a 60 by 45-foot map carved out of marble that detailed every building, room and staircase in 2nd century Rome. (Wired, 11/98, p.117) c 200 nend Romans began making glass objects that included windows, bottles and drinking vessels. (SFEC, 6/20/99, Z1 p.8) c 200 nend The Mishna, a section of the Talmud consisting of a collection of oral laws, was edited by Rabbi Judah Ha-Nasi in the Jewish city of Sepphoris. (WUD, 1994, p.916)(AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.64) c 200 nend Pope Zephyrinus assigned his deacon, Calixtus (a former slave), to administer the large underground complex beneath the Appian Way. The subterranean graveyard had existed from about 150CE. This first official Christian cemetery probably originated as the private open-air burial ground of the noble Cecili family of Rome. From this time on it became known as the Catacombs of St. Calixtus. It extended over an area of 20 km., one 3-5 levels, and includes some 500,000 tombs. (ITV, 1/96, p.59) c 200 nend West African people called Bantu, which means "the people," migrated into central and southern Africa. (ATC, p.24) c 200 nend Barbarian invasions and civil wars begin in the Roman empire. (ATC, p.33) 200 300 A Roman bathhouse was constructed in Milan and its columns still stood in the 20th century. (SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T3) 200 300 The Chinese scholar Wang Bi wrote an extensive commentary on the I Ching. He lived only to the age of 23. His commentaries dominate Chinese thinking on the I Ching until the Confucian revival in the 11th century. In 1997 an English translation by Richard John Lynn was published. (NH, 9/97, p.12) c 200 300 Diophantus, a 3rd century Hellenistic mathematician, wrote a series of classical texts on Algebra called Arithmetica. (SFEC, 4/5/98, Z1 p.8)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantus) 200 300 In Laos evidence has indicated the presence of a Hindu Shrine at Wat Phu with prehistoric levels below. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.F) 200 300 Campeche (Mexico), from the 3rd century, was the principal town of the Maya kingdom of Ah Kin Pech (place of serpents and ticks). (SSFC, 1/25/09, p.E4) 200 300 The original Polynesians arrived at Hawaii probably from the Marquesas. They brought with them edible plants and animals. (SFEM, 2/8/98, p.10) 200 400 A giant statue of Buddha was made at Bamiyan some 100 miles west of Kabul. It was destroyed by the Taliban in 2001. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.19)(SFC, 2/12/02, p.A16) c 200 400 Sealed royal tombs were found in 2 pyramids at the Yaxuna Maya site in Mexico. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.H) 200 400 Christianity spread rapidly in Numidia and the diocese of Lamiggiga was established. It was later abandoned and just the name was used as an honorary jurisdiction for Catholic auxiliary bishops. (SFC, 9/19/98, p.C1) c 200 700 In Cambodia at Angkor Borei excavations were proceeding on what might have been the capital of the ancient kingdom of Funan. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.A,D) 200 1215 The Fremont people lived in Utah and etched into rock designs of animals and people. (SFEC, 3/14/99, p.T8,9) c 200 1450 The Hohokam people lived in the area of Tucson, Arizona. (SSFC, 3/31/02, p.C6) 202 nend St. Iranaeus around this time was Bishop of Lugdunum, Gaul, then a part of the Roman Empire (later Lyons, France). He was an early church father and apologist, and his writings were formative in the early development of Christian theology. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irenaeus) 203 nend Lucius Septimus Severus (d.211), emperor of Rome, returned to visit home at Leptis Magna (Libya). (SSFC, 6/27/04, p.D12) 205 270 Plotinus was an Alexandrian philosopher in Rome and founder of Neo-Platonism, which strongly influenced the later Augustine, who taught of a mystical union with the Good through the exercise of pure intelligence. He founded Neo-Platonism, a religion that for a time rivaled Christianity. Neo-Platonism developed out of the philosophical doctrines of Plato in the fourth century B.C. Plotinus developed the spiritual side of Plato's thought into a mystical philosophy teaching reunion with the One and that material things are unworthy. Saint Augustus, formerly a Neo-Platonist, brought some of his ideas into Christian theism. (V.D.-H.K.p.93)(HNQ, 5/11/98) 211 nend Feb 4, Lucius Septimius Severus (64), emperor of Rome (193-211), died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimius_Severus) 211 217 The reign of the Roman emperor Caracalla (188-217). Coins were minted at the Jewish city of Sepphoris during the reign of Caracalla. (WUD, 1994, p.221)(AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.64) 215 nend Clement of Alexandria, a Church father, died. He cited early efforts to fix the Nativity on Apr 19, 20th or May 20. (WSJ, 12/18/98, p.W15) c 216 276 Manes, aka Manicheus or Mani, Persian profit and founder of the dualistic religious system called Manichaeism. It was a combination of Gnostic Christianity, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism and other elements. The basic doctrine was based on a conflict between light and dark, with matter being regarded as dark and evil. (WUD, 1994, p.871) 217 nend Apr 8, Caracalla (b.188), [Marcus Antonius], Roman emperor (198-217), was murdered in his baths. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caracalla) 220 nend The Han Dynasty dissolved as Liu Xie abdicated. Three separate kingdoms became established: Shu in the west, Wu to the east of the gorges, and Wei in the north. The later classic "Tale of the Three Kingdoms" traced the collapse of the Han Dynasty. (NH, 7/96, p.33)(WSJ, 9/16/99, p.A26)(NG, Feb, 04, p.28) 220 nend Cao Cao (65), skillful Chinese general and ruler, died. He built the strongest and most prosperous state in northern China during the Three Kingdoms period (208-280), when China had three separate rulers. In 2009 Chinese archeologists discovered his tomb in Xigaoxue, a village near the ancient capital of Anyang in central Henan province. (AP, 12/28/09) 220 nend At Baalbeck in the Bekaa Valley of Lebanon the Romans constructed an incomplete acropolis that contained a Temple of Jupiter and a Temple of Bacchus. (SFEC, 4/13/97, p.T9) 220 nend The Kushan empire [Afghanistan] fragmented into petty dynasties. (www.afghan-web.com/history/-web.com/history/, 5/25/98) 222 nend Mar 11, Varius A. Bassianus (18), Syrian emperor of Rome (218-22), was murdered. (MC, 3/12/02) 224 641 The Sassanid Dynasty ruled over Persia. (ATC, p.32) 226 nend The Iranians conquered the Parthians. (WUD, 1994, p.1051) c 226 nend In Iran Zoroastrianism was revitalized as a state religion under the Sassanians. (WSJ, 2/2/00, p.A24) 227 261 The Sassanids (A.D. 227-651), ruled the Persian Empire despite attempts by the Roman Empire (27 B.C.-A.D. 476) and later the Byzantine (or Eastern Roman) Empire to conquer it. Bam was founded during the Sassanian Period along one of the East-West trade routes collectively known as the Silk Road. (HNQ, 12/22/00)(SFC, 12/27/03, p.A12) 230 nend The St. Georgeous Church was built in Jordon. In 2008 archeologists found a cave under the church with evidence that it was used as a church by 70 disciples of Jesus in the first century after his death, which would make it the oldest Christian site of worship in the world. (AP, 6/11/08) 230 nend In Tunisia a Roman coliseum was built in the town of El Jem that could hold 30,000. (SFEC, 4/12/98, p.T5) c 230 nend St. Cecilia of the patrician Cecili family was martyred [possibly during the persecutions of Diocletian]. She lived in Trastevere where she reportedly sang hymns all day and so became the patroness of music. She was decapitated by Roman soldiers after 3 abortive attempts. (WUD, 1994, p.237)(ITV, 1/96, p.60) 230 nend Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus (anglicized as Tertullian), early Christian apologist, died. He was a church leader and prolific author of Early Christianity. Tertullian was born about 150 and lived and died in Carthage (later Tunisia). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian) 232 238 In China tens of thousands of bamboo strips and wooden boards recording regional government matters during the Three Kingdoms period were found in an ancient well during construction in 1997 in the southern city of Changsha. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.26) 235 nend Mar 18, Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander (b.208), Syrian emperor of Rome (222-235), was murdered. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Severus) 235 nend An inscription in Greek in the Calixtian Complex of Rome was dedicated to the pope St. Pontian, who died in the Sardinian mines. (ITV, 1/96, p.60) 235 nend An inscription in Greek in the Calixtian Complex of Rome was dedicated to pope St. Anterus, who reigned for only 43 days and died in prison. (ITV, 1/96, p.60) 238 nend May 10, Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus ("The Thracian"), Roman Emperor, was murdered. (MC, 5/10/02) 238 nend Solinus wrote that the Hibernian mother places the first morsel of food in her child?s mouth with the point of her sword. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.11) 239 nend In Japan Queen Himiko (Pimiko, Queen of Wa) of the Kingdom of Yamataikoku sent an envoy to China. (www.gias.snu.ac.kr/wthong/) 243 nend The text "De Pascha Computus" calculated the spring equinox, March 25, under the Julian calendar from the first day of creation. The author used this to derive March 28 as the birthday of Jesus. (WSJ, 12/18/98, p.W15) 250 nend An inscription in Greek in the Calixtian Complex of Rome was dedicated to pope St. Fabian, who re-organized the Church in a period of peace and was then martyred during the Decian persecutions. (ITV, 1/96, p.60) 250 300 The smaller Buddha at Bamiyan, 114 feet high, dated to about this time. It was a gigantic magnification of a Gandhara image. It was destroyed by the Taliban in 2001. (WSJ, 3/5/00, p.A22)(SFC, 2/12/02, p.A16) 250 600 Early classic period of the Maya. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.B) 250 710 The Japanese Kofun period. Mongoloid people from Korea continued to enter Japan and mixed with the older Jomon populations. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.38) 250 800 This period was covered in the 2000 book "Late Antiquity" edited by G.W. Bowersock, Peter Brown and Oleg Grabar. (WSJ, 2/2/00, p.A24) c 250 900 During this time about a hundred thousand Mayans lived in the area of Tikal (meaning "the place where spirit voices are heard"). It was abandoned after some 15 hundred years of continuous habitation. (SFEM, 6/13/99, p.8) 250 900 The classic period of Maya culture. (SFC, 6/23/96, p.A10) 253 nend Valerian became emperor of Rome and ruled until 260 when he was captured and executed by Persian King Shapur I. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Valerian_I) 254 nend May 12, St. Stephen I began his reign as the 23rd Catholic Pope. According to the "Liber Pontificalis" he instituted the rule that clerics should wear special clothes at their ministrations. (SC, Internet, 5/12/97)(HN, 5/12/98) 254 nend Pope St. Lucius I, who spent part of his pontificate in exile, was buried in the Calixtian Complex of Rome and has an inscription in Greek. (ITV, 1/96, p.60) 256 nend The Anatolian city of Zeugma on the Euphrates was sacked by Persian King Shapur I. This was soon followed by a devastating fire and an earthquake and Zeugma was abandoned. In 2000 the area was submerged as part of the Southeast Anatolia Project of dams for power. (SFEC, 5/7/00, p.A23)(Arch, 9/00, p.41) 257 nend Aug 2, Pope Stefanus I (St. Stephen), bishop of Rome (254-57), heretic fighter, died. (MC, 8/2/02) 258 nend Aug 6, Pope Sixtus II, bishop of Rome (257-58), was beheaded upon orders of Emperor Valerian. (ITV, 1/96, p.60)(MC, 8/6/02) 258 nend Sep 14, Thascius Caecilius Cyprian (b.~200), Christian writer and Bishop of Carthage (248), died as a martyr in Carthage. (http://www.fact-index.com/c/cy/cyprian.html) 258 nend A red agate cup with gold handles, the Santo Caliz, was sent to Spain by Pope Sixtus II and St. Laurence as Rome went under siege by the Persians. In 1437 the church moved it to the Cathedral of Valencia. (SSFC, 5/27/06, p.G3) 258 260 Persia and Rome engaged in a 2-year war. (WUD, 1994 ed., p.1667) 260 nend Persia?s King Shapur I captured Roman Emp. Valerian. (Arch, 9/00, p.41) 260 268 Emp. Gallienus, son of Valerian, ruled Rome until he was assassinated. (AM, 5/01, p.40)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Valerian_I) 260 339 Eusebios (Eusebius of Caesarea, c263-340), Christian theologian and historian. He served as Bishop of Caesarea from 315-340. (WUD, 1994 p.492)(AM, 7/01, p.33) 266 nend King Odenathus of Palmyra, ruler of the Roman province of Syria, was murdered. Zenobia Septimia, his wife, took control in the name of her teenage son, Vaballathus. (ON, 7/00, p.1) 267 nend Dec 26, Dionysius, bishop of Rome and saint, died. (MC, 12/26/01) 268 nend Roman Emp. Gallienus, son of Valerian, was assassinated. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Valerian_I) 268 nend Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus, a Roman emperor of Batavian origin, died about this time. He usurped power from Gallienus in 260 and formed the so called Gallic Empire. He was recognized in Gaul, Germania, Britannia and Iberia until his murder in 268. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postumus) 269 nend Nov 20, Diocletian was proclaimed emperor of Numerian in Asia Minor by his soldiers. He had been the commander of the emperor's bodyguard. (HN, 11/20/98) 270 nend Feb 14, The early Christian martyr, St. Valentine, was beheaded about this time by Emperor Claudius II, who executed another St. Valentine around the same time. The Catholic Bishop Valentine was clubbed, stoned and beheaded by Emperor Claudius II for refusing to acknowledge the monarch?s outlawing of marriage. The Catholics then made Valentine a symbol to oppose the Roman mid-February custom in honor of the God Lupercus, where Roman teenage girls? names were put in a box and selected by young Roman men for "sex toy" use until the next lottery. The two Valentines merged into a single legendary patron of young lovers. St. Valentine?s Day evolved from Lupercalia, a Roman festival of fertility. (SFEM, 2/9/97, p.11)(SFC, 2/14/97, p.A26)(SFC, 2/4/04, p.D7) 270 nend Feb 15, Valentine's Day probably has its origins in the Roman feast of Lupercalia, which was held on February 15. One of the traditions associated with this feast was young men drawing the names of young women whom they would court during the following year--a custom that may have grown into the giving of valentine's cards. Another legend associated with Valentine's Day was the martyrdom of the Christian priest St. Valentine on February 14. The Roman emperor believed that men would remain soldiers longer if they were not married, but Valentine earned the wrath of the emperor by secretly marrying young couples. The first American publisher of valentines was printer and artist Esther Howland, who sold elaborate handmade cards for as much as $35 at the end of the 19th century. Complex and beautiful machine-made cards brought the custom of valentine exchanging within the reach of many Americans. (HNPD, 2/14/99) 270 nend Zenobia of Syria proclaimed herself "Queen of the East" and attacked Roman colonies adjoining her and conquered Egypt. (ON, 7/00, p.1) 272 nend Roman emperor Aurelian sent an army to attack Zenobia?s troops in Egypt and was repulsed. (ON, 7/00, p.1) 272 nend Queen Zenobia led a failed uprising against the Romans, which left the city of Palmyra partly destroyed. Forces of Emperor Aurelian laid siege on Palmyra, from which Zenobia and a few retainers escaped. They were soon captured by Roman scouts. In 1967 Agnes Carr Vaughn authored "Zenobia of Palmyra." In 1994 Richard Stoneman authored "Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia?s Revolt Against Rome." (AMNHDT, 11/99)(ON, 7/00, p.3) 273 nend The Gallic Empire of the Batavian Postumus ended. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carausius) 274 nend Feb 27, Constantine I was born. He became the great Roman emperor (324-337) who adopted Christianity. [see c288] (MC, 2/27/02) 274 nend Dec 25, Emperor Aurelian imported into Rome the cult of Sol Invictus and made its Dec 25 festival a national holiday. (WSJ, 12/18/98, p.W15) 276 nend Jul 16, Marcus Annius Florianus, emperor of Rome (276), was murdered. (MC, 7/16/02) 276 nend The prophet Mani (b.210), a resident of Babylon, died. His writings led to Manichaeism, one of the major Iranian Gnostic religions, originating in Sassanid Persia. Although most of his original writings have been lost, numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived. Manichaeism is distinguished by its elaborate cosmology describing the struggle between a good, spiritual world of light, and an evil, material world of darkness. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manichaeism) 280 nend By this time descendants of the Nok people were farming near the southeastern coast of Africa on the fertile slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro and Mt. Kirinyaga. They called themselves Bantu. (ATC, p.137-138) 280 473 During some time in this period Sun Zi, also known as Master Sun, authored the famous Chinese mathematical text ?Sun Tze Suan Ching.? The 3-volume book contained the Chinese remainder problem in volume 3. (www.math.sfu.ca/histmath/China/3rdCenturyBC/Sunzi.html)(Econ,3/24/07, p.92) 283 nend Pope St. Eutychian escaped persecution but struggled with early heresies. He was buried in the Calixtian Complex of Rome and has an inscription in Greek. (ITV, 1/96, p.60) 283 nend Sebastian, a Christian soldier, enlisted in the Roman army about this time. Emp. Diocletian, unaware that he was a Christian, appointed him as a captain of the Praetorian Guard. When he treated Christian prisoners due for martyrdom kindly, Diocletian reproached him for his supposed ingratitude and ordered him executed by arrow. He survived and returned to preach to Diocletian. In 287 Diocletian ordered Sebastian to be beaten to death. no_source 284 nend Aug 29, Gen Gaius Aurelius V Diocletianus Jovius (3) became emperor of Rome. Reign of Diocletian (Era of Martyrs), began. (MC, 8/29/01) 284 nend Nov 20, Diocletian (245-316) became Emperor of the Roman Empire and continued to 305. Under his rule the last and most terrible persecution of the Christians took place, perhaps some 3,000 martyrs. He divided rule over the empire among four men. He put two rulers to oversee the east and two to oversee the west. He also established four capitals. He moved his own capital from Rome to Nicomedia, south of Byzantium in Asia Minor. He also increased the size of the Roman army from 300,000 to 500,000 men. no_source 1 nend /96, p.58) no_source 286 nend Carausius, a Roman naval officer, seized power in Britain and northern Gaul ruled until he was assassinated in 293. (AP, 7/8/10)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carausius) 286 336 King Trdat III ruled over Armenia. (MH, 12/96) c 288 nend Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus, Roman emperor Constantine I (324-337), was born in Yugoslavia. In a battle against an army led by his brother-in-law, Maxentius, at the Milvian bridge near Rome Constantine was victorious. The night before this battle was when Constantine dreamed of an angel holding a cross and saying "In this sign thou shalt conquer!" [see 274] (WUD, 1994 p.314)(V.D.-H.K.p.91) 290 nend Oct 1, [Christian] Bacchus, Roman soldier and martyred saint, was killed. (MC, 10/1/01) 290 nend Oct 7, [Christian] Sergius, Roman soldier and martyred saint, was decapitated. (MC, 10/7/01) 293 nend Mar 1, Roman emperor Maximianus introduced tetrarchy. (SC, 3/1/02) c 293 nend The Roman fort at Qasr Bashir, Castra Praetorii Mobeni, was built under Aurelius Asclepiades, governorship of Arabia. (AM, 11/00, p.14) 296 nend Apr 22, St. Gaius ended his reign as Catholic Pope. (HN, 4/22/98) 296 nend Roman Emp. Diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical manuscripts for fear their discoveries would debase his coinage. This may have set back the science of distillation. (Econ, 12/20/03, p.68) 297 nend The Roman poet Eumenius first mentioned the Picts. The 2 most important Pictish groups were the Verturiones and the Caledones. (AM, 7/01, p.46)(AM, 11/04, p.41) 299 311 The period of Christian persecutions begun by Diocletian. (WSJ, 10/30/98, p.W11) 300 nend About this time Tiridates III, king of Armenia, adopted Christianity as the religion of his kingdom, making Armenia the first Christian state. (CO Enc. / Armenia) 300 nend About this time Berbers from North Africa began to rule Ghana and continued for about the next 400 years. They are thought to have originated as nomads from the Middle East. (ATC, p.113) 300 nend The Mayan city of Cancuen was already established by this time. Ruins of the city were discovered in 1999 in Guatemala. (SFC, 9/9/00, p.A2) 300 nend Mayans began building on Cozumel Island off Mexico?s Yucatan peninsula about this time. The town of San Gervasio was built and inhabited through 1650. Cozumel covers 189 square miles, about the size of Lake Tahoe. (SSFC, 9/25/05, E4) 300 nend In India about this time Vatsayana wrote the philosophical treatise "Kama Sutra" during the classical age of the Gupta period. One of its 35 chapters dealt with various sexual positions. (SFEC, 3/2/97, DB p.32) 300 nend Iron-using people settled at Zimbabwe in central Africa about this time. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.169) 300 400 See the reference for this period. (www.scholiast.org/history/timetables/300s.html) 300 400 Historian Egami Namio in 1948 proposed the "horserider" thesis that cited equestrian goods and foreign culture elements as evidence that the ancestors of the Japanese imperial line had migrated from Korea about this time and conquered the northern part of Kyushu. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.36) 300 400 The book "Deipnosophistae," The Dinner Table Philosophers, described the use of "happy baskets" for leftovers. (SFC, 9/10/97, Z1 p.5) 300 400 The Circus Maximus in ancient Rome, expanded under Constantine in the 4th century CE, had an estimated seating capacity of 250,000. The largest of hippodrome in Rome, a U-shaped stadium with a low wall running in the middle around which chariots raced, it seated an estimated 150,000 spectators at the time of Julius Caesar in the 1st century B.C. (HNQ, 8/29/99) 300 400 As long ago as the 4th century, an Egyptian scientist named Papp suggested there should be a science called heuristics to solve inventive problems. (www.mazur.net/triz/) 300 400 During this time the 1st French church dedicated to the Virgin Mary was built in the 4th century on the hill site of the later Chartres cathedral. (Hem., 10/97, p.83) 300 400 During this time Ammon Scholasticus, Greek lawyer, worked in Panopolis, Egypt. In 1997 Prof. William H. Willis (d.2000) of Duke Univ. completed an archive of his papers: "The Archives of Ammon Scholasticus." (SFC, 7/19/00, p.B2) 300 400 During this period Kuqa on the silk road in western China was a Buddhist center of learning. (SFEC, 11/22/98, p.T5) 300 400 By the 4th century El Mirador, the most powerful city in the Preclassic Maya world, had become a ghost town. (Arch, 9/00, p.28) 300 467 The well-run government of the Gupta Dynasty existed during this period. (ATC, p.35) 300 525 During the Gupta Dynasty, India trades with the Eastern Roman Empire, Persia, and China. (ATC, p.24) 300 645 Yamato Period of Japan. The Yamato clan had taken root in the Nara basin and gave rise to the people called ?Japanese.? (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(Hem, 9/04, p.41) 300 700 Goths, Huns, Avars, Serbs, Croats, and Bulgars successively invade Illyrian lands. (www, Albania, 1998) c 300 1000 During the 4th-10th century, Orhon Turks were prominent in Mongolia. (www.gobiexpeditions.com) 300 1300 During this period the Anasazis inhabited the Canyon de Chelly and the Canyon del Muerto in northeast Arizona. (SFEC, 11/29/98, p.T8) 301 nend In Armenia King Trdat III declared Christianity to be the state religion. Armenia became the first country to adopt Christianity. (MH, 12/96)(SFEC, 3/22/98, p.A25) 301 nend San Marino traced its roots to this time and later claimed to be the world?s oldest republic. (WSJ, 1/16/06, p.A1) 303 nend Feb 23, Emperor Diocletian ordered the general persecution of Christians in Rome. (HN, 2/23/98) 303 nend Apr 23, St. George, dragon-slaying knight, died. He was made the patron saint of England in the 14th century. George, later fired by the Pope as mythical, was tortured and beheaded at Nicomedia. He was a soldier who was reported to have risen to a high rank under Diocletian. (HFA, '96, p.28)(AHD, p.552)(MC, 4/23/02) 303 nend Lactantius, an early Christian writer, said that Romula, mother of Roman emperor Galerius, encouraged her son to persecute Christians in this year. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.29) 304 305 Massive persecution of the Christians under Diocletian. (V.D.-H.K.p.91) 305 nend May 1, Emperor Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus Jovius of Rome abdicated. Constantius I Chlorus (Flavius Valerius Constantius) became Western emperor. Galerius (Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus) became Eastern emperor. (www.ancienthistory.about.com) 305 nend San Gennaro, a pious bishop, was beheaded by Roman Emp. Diocletian. In the 14th century Naples began celebrating the miracle of San Gennaro, whereby the city?s archbishop shakes a vial allegedly containing blood from Gennaro. (SSFC, 11/6/05, p.A2) 306 nend Jul 23, Constantine was proclaimed Caesar of the west by the army, while Severus, the former Caesar, was proclaimed Augusta of the west by Galerius. (HN, 7/23/98) 306 nend Oct 28, Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius was proclaimed emperor of Rome. (MC, 10/28/01) 307 nend Nov 11, Flavius Valerius Severus, compassionate emperor of Rome (306-07), died. (MC, 11/11/01) 309 nend Feb 16, Pamphilus Caesarea, Palestinian scholar, martyr, was beheaded. (MC, 2/16/02) 309 310 Apr 18, St. Eusebius began his reign as Catholic Pope. He ruled for just 4 months in either 309 or 310. (PTA, 1980, p.62)(WUD, 1994 p.492)(HN, 4/18/98) 311 nend Apr 30, Emperor Galerius recognized Christians legally in the Roman Empire. (MC, 4/30/02) 311 nend May 5, Gaius VM Galerius (~50), emperor of Rome, died in Dardania. (SFC, 6/23/97, p.29)(MC, 5/5/02) 311 nend Jul 2, St. Miltiades began his reign as Catholic Pope. (SC, 7/2/02) 311 nend At the consecration of bishop Caecilian of Carthage, one of the three bishops, Felix, bishop of Aptunga, who consecrated Caecilian, had given copies of the Bible to the Roman persecutors. A group of about 70 bishops formed a synod and declared the consecration of the bishop to be invalid. Great debate arose concerning the validity of the sacraments (baptism, the Lord's Supper, etc.) by one who had sinned so greatly against other Christians. (http://religion-cults.com/heresies/fourth.htm) 311 nend The Donatists were a Christian sect that developed in northern Africa [Numidia] and maintained that it alone constituted the whole and only true church and that baptisms and ordinations of the orthodox clergy were invalid. The Donatists insisted that sinners must be re-baptized. (WUD, 1994, p.425)(SFC, 9/19/98, p.C1)(Econ, 5/14/05, p.87) 311 nend Licinius (Valerius Licianus Licinius) became Eastern emperor. He was deposed and executed by Constantine in 325. (www.ancienthistory.about.com) 312 nend cOct 27, Prior to a battle between Constantine and Maxentius, Constantine experienced a vision of Christ that ordered him to ornament the shields of his soldiers with the Greek letters chi and rho, the monogram for Christ. Constantine won the battle and attributed his success to Christ. He became emperor of the West and an advocate of Christianity. [see Oct 28] (MH, 12/96)(CU, 6/87) 312 nend Oct 28, Constantine the Great defeated Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius at the Mulvian Bridge. Constantine?s smaller army (about 50,000 strong) won a decisive victory there; while fleeing, Maxentius drowned in the river. Constantine was instantly converted when he saw a cross in the sky, with the inscription "In hoc signo vincit" ("In this sign you shall conquer"). [see Oct 27] (HN, 10/28/98)(DoW, 1999, P.398) 312 nend Appius Claudius began construction of the Appian Way as a military highway. (SFC, 8/2/07, p.E2)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Appia) 313 nend Jan 1, A 15 year cycle used in reckoning ecclesiastical calendars was established as a fiscal term to regulate taxes. It is called the Roman Indiction. (CFA, '96,Vol 179, p.23) 313 nend Apr 30, Co-emperor Licinius unified the whole of the eastern empire under his own rule. (HN, 4/30/98) 313 nend Constantine met with the eastern emperor at Milan, capital of the late Roman Empire. They agreed on a policy of religious tolerance. The Edict of Milan legalized Christianity, but also allowed Romans religious choice. (CU, 6/87)(ITV, 1/96, p.58)(SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T13)(SSFC, 3/21/04, p.M6) 313 nend Constantine wrote a letter to the proconsul of Africa in which he explained why the Christian clergy should not be distracted by secular offices or financial obligations. "When they are free to render supreme service to the Divinity, it is evident that they confer great benefits upon the affairs of the state." (V.D.-H.K.p.91) 313 nend Nanai-vandak, a Sogdian agent, wrote that "The last emperor fled from Louyang [the eastern capital of China] because of famine and fire" due to nomadic invasions. (AM, 9/01, p.50) 313 nend Maximinus II Daia, Eastern emperor, was killed at Tarsus. (www.ancienthistory.about.com) 314 nend Licinius declared Valens (d.314) as co-emperor during the war with Constantine. Licinius was deposed and executed by Valens. (www.ancienthistory.about.com) 314 335 Pope Sylvester I. A document from the 9th or 10th century called the "Donation of Constantine" was forged to show Constantine granting to Sylvester and his successors spiritual supremacy over all matters of faith and worship and temporal dominion over Rome and the entire Western empire. (V.D.-H.K.p.104) 316 nend Diocletian, former emperor of Rome, died. By this time there were about 30,000 converts to Christianity and some 33 popes had followed in the footsteps of St. Peter. (ITV, 1/96, p.58) 317 nend Aug 7, Flavius Julius Constantius II, Emperor Egypt, Byzantium, Rome (337-61), was born. (MC, 8/7/02) 320 nend In India the Gupta state began with the accession of Chandragupta I. His son and grandson were successful conquerors and extended the state across Northern India from sea to sea. The journal of the Buddhist monk Fa-hsien provides most of our knowledge of Gupta society. (MWH, 1994) 324 nend Constantine chose Byzantium as his new capital. He moved his court to Byzantium and chiseled his name on the portal. (ATC, p.24)(WSJ, 3/28/97, p.A1) 324 nend Licinius proclaimed Martinian (Marcus Martinianus) as co-emperor. Martinian (d.325) was soon deposed by Constantine. (www.ancienthistory.about.com) 325 nend May 20, An ecumenical council was inaugurated by Emperor Constantine in Nicea, Asia Minor. The Church Council of Nicaea (aka Iznik) in Asia Minor condemned the teaching of Arius, a Christian priest at Alexandria (d.336), who held that Christ was not divine in the same sense as God the Father. The council fixed Orthodox Easter as the first Sunday after the first full moon following the vernal equinox unless the date falls on the 1st day of Passover, in which case it moves to the next Sunday. (WUD, 1994, p.80,81)(Sky, 4/97, p.56)(SFC, 4/25/97, p.A21)(HN, 5/20/98) 325 nend Aug 25, Council of Nicaea ended with adoption of the Nicene Creed establishing the doctrine of the Holy Trinity. The Council also decreed that priests cannot marry after their ordination. (MC, 8/25/02)(SFC, 3/16/02, p.A3) 325 nend Emperor Constantine and his mother Helena reportedly announced the discovery of Christ?s tomb. The site became the Shrine of the Holy Sepulchre. (Econ, 3/26/05, p.81) 325 nend Licinius (Valerius Licianus Licinius), Eastern emperor, was deposed and executed by Constantine. (www.ancienthistory.about.com) 325 nend Martinian (Marcus Martinianus) was executed by Constantine. (www.ancienthistory.about.com) 326 nend Jul 25, Constantine refused to carry out the traditional pagan sacrifices. (HN, 7/25/98) 326 nend Constantine executed his son Flavius Julius Crispus, born to his 1st wife, under the persuasion of his 2nd wife Fausta. (PCh, 1992, p.48) 326 330 The Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem was built by the Roman emperor Constantine. The church was rebuilt under Justinian (527-565). (SFC, 12/26/96, p.B2)(WSJ, 4/5/02, p.A1) 330 nend May 11, Constantine renamed the town of Byzantium to: "New Rome which is Constantine?s City." It became know as Constantinople. (ATC, p.31)(HN, 5/11/98) 330 nend Constantine began the building of the Great Palace in Constantinople. (SFC, 7/27/98, p.A8) 330 nend Ezana (Aezianas), ruler of Aksum (northeast Ethiopia), converted much of his realm to Christianity. During his rule he constructed much of the monumental architecture of Aksum, including a reported 100 stone obelisks, the tallest of which loomed 98 ft over the cemetery in which it stood and weighed 517 tons. Most of the obelisks were later destroyed, but one was hauled off by Italian forces after their 1937 invasion. It was returned in 2003. (http://archaeology.about.com/cs/africa/a/aksum.htm)(SSFC, 11/9/03,p.A2) 330 379 Saint Basil of Caesarea. His followers erected monastic communities in Turkey. (SFEM, 3/12/00, p.30) 330 1025 This is the period covered by John Julius Norwich, historian, in his Byzantium: The Decline and Fall. (WSJ, 10/14/95, p.A-12) 331 nend Nov 17, Flavius Claudius Julianus, [Julian the Apostate], emperor (361-363), was born. (MC, 11/17/01) 335 nend Oct 21, Constantinople emperor (Constantine the Great) enacted rules against Jews. (MC, 10/21/01) 335 nend Byzantine Emperor Constantine built the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem on the hill of Golgotha, where his mother claimed to have found the remains of the True Cross. It was raised by the Persians in 614, reconstructed and again destroyed by Caliph Hakim of Egypt in 1009. It was rebuilt by the Crusaders. (WSJ, 1/27/07, p.W13) 336 nend Dec 25, The first recorded celebration of Christmas on this day took place in Rome. By this year Dec 25 was established in the Liturgy of the Roman Church as the birthday of Jesus. [see 354] The Basilica of St. Anastasia was built as soon as a year after the Nicaean Council. It probably was where Christmas was first marked on Dec. 25, part of broader efforts to link pagan practices to Christian celebrations in the early days of the new religion. In 2007 Italian archaeologists unveiled an underground grotto, near St. Anastasia, that they believe ancient Romans revered as the place where a wolf nursed Rome's legendary founder Romulus and his twin brother Remus. (WSJ, 12/18/98, p.W15)(AP, 12/25/99)(AP, 12/22/07) 336 nend Arius, Christian priest from Alexandria and teacher of the doctrine of Arianism, died. (WUD, 1994, p.80,81) 337 nend May 22, Constantine (47), convert to Christianity and Emperor of Rome (306-37), died. He had made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire and had the Chapel of the Burning Bush built in the Sinai Desert at the site where Moses was believed to have witnessed the Miracle of the Burning Bush. He was baptized just before death. (V.D.-H.K.p.92)(PCh, 1992, p.48)(MC, 5/22/02) 337 nend Sep 9, Constantine's three sons, already Caesars, each took the title of Augustus. Constantine II and Constans shared the west while Constantius II took control of the east. (HN, 9/9/98) 340 nend Ambrose (d.397), later Bishop of Milan (374-397), was born about this time. He set to music the principal prayer of the Mass and, according to St. Augustine, set the fashion for silent reading. (WUD, 1994, p.46)(WSJ, 5/10/96, p.A-8) 340 nend St. Jerome (d.420), Christian ascetic and biblical scholar, was born about this time. He was the chief preparer of the Vulgate version of the Bible. Jerome condemned the use of potions that caused sterility and murder of those not yet conceived. [Wired dates him 321-420] (WUD, 1994, p.524)(Wired, 8/96, p.98)(AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.13) 340 360 The Codex Sinaiticus, a manuscript of the Christian Bible, was written in the middle of the fourth century and contains the earliest complete copy of the Christian New Testament. For most of its history it resided at St. Catherine?s Monastery built (527-565) on Egypt Mt. Sinai. It left the monastery in the 19th century for Russia, in circumstances that were later disputed. (Econ, 7/18/09,p.82)(www.codexsinaiticus.org/en/codex/default.aspx)(Econ, 3/26/05, p.80) 345 nend Dec 6, Nicholas of Myra (later Demre) died on this day in either 345 or 352. He reported as bishop to the Byzantine church in Constantinople. In 2005 Jeremy Seal authored ?Nicholas: The Epic Journey from Saint to Santa Claus.? (WSJ, 8/31/98, p.B1)(www.newadvent.org/cathen/11063b.htm)(Econ,12/24/05, p.115) 346 nend Theodosius was born in Spain. He served as emperor East Roman Republic 379-395. (WUD, 1994 p.1471)(SSFC, 3/21/04, p.M6) 347 nend May 14, Pachomius, Egyptian monastery founder, abbot (Coenobieten), died. (MC, 5/14/02) 347 nend St. John Chrysostom (d.407), was born about this time. He was the ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. (WUD, 1994 p.264) 350 nend In Teotihuacan 3 men were buried amid lavish goods about this time. Their graves were discovered in 2002 in a tomb at the top of the 5th of 7 layers of the Pyramid of the Moon near Mexico City. (SFC, 11/22/02, p.J2) 350 nend A new state with its capital at Axum in the Ethiopian mountains grew and controlled the coast of Eritrea and the sea trade route to southern Arabia. The rulers spoke a Semitic language and about this time conquered Kush, which broke in two, the kingdom of Dongola and the kingdom of Alwa. By the mid 500s, Alwa, Axum and Dongola had become Christian. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.169) 350 nend The Huns invaded Persia. (ATC, p.33) 350 nend In Sudan the last pyramid in the Egyptian tradition was built at Meroe about this time. The Meroe dynasty ruled Kush for more than 1,000 years until the kingdom's demise in 350 AD. (Arch, 9/02, p.55)(AP, 3/3/10) 352 nend May 17, Liberius began his reign as Catholic Pope replacing Julius I. (MC, 5/17/02) 352 nend Sep 12, Maximinus van Trier, bishop of Trier, saint, died. (MC, 9/12/01) 353 431 St. Paulinus, poet and Bishop of Mola: "For it is after the Solstice, when Christ born in the flesh with the new sun transformed the season of cold winter, and giving to mortal men a healing dawn, commanded the nights to decrease at his coming with advancing day." (WSJ, 12/18/98, p.W15) 354 nend Augustine (Aurelius Augustinus, d.430) was born in Tagaste, North Africa (modern Souk Ahras, Algeria). Augustine of Hippo, Church Father and philosopher, held that as long as the fetus was "shapeless" homicide laws did not apply because it had no senses and no soul. "Total abstinence is easier than perfect moderation." He fused the New Testament with Greek philosophy. "Nothing is so powerful in drawing the spirit of a man downwards as the caresses of a woman." (http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/augustine.html)(AM, Mar/Apr 97p.13)(HN, 11/13/98) (SFC, 3/16/02, p.A3) 354 nend Winter, Emperor Julian the Apostate came ashore at Hissarlik, the site of ancient Troy, and found a fire still burning on an altar to the Trojan hero, Hector. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.50) 354 nend Pope Liberius decided to add the Nativity to the Church calendar and selected December 25 to celebrate it. [see 336] (WSJ, 12/21/07, p.A19) 355 nend Donatus, bishop of Casae Nigrae in North Africa, died. He taught that the effectiveness of the sacraments depends on the moral character of the minister. In other words, if a minister who was involved in a serious enough sin were to baptize a person, that baptism would be considered invalid. (http://religion-cults.com/heresies/fourth.htm) 356 nend Feb 19, Emperor Constantius II shut all heathen (non-Christian) temples. (MC, 2/19/02) 357 nend Apr 28, Constantius II visited Rome for the first time. (HN, 4/28/98) 357 nend Aug 25, Flavius Claudius Julianus, the cousin of Constantius, beat the Alamanni in a Battle at Strasbourg. Chonodomarius was caught. (PCh, 1992, p.48)(HN, 8/25/99) 359 nend Christians allegedly established a camp in Skythopolis, Syria, to torture and execute pagans from around Europe. This can only be a reference to the Arian Bishop of Scythopolis, Patrophilus, who cruelly abused Christian bishops exiled to his see under Constantius. These included Eusebius of Vercelli. It was not a death-camp, nor did it last 30 years, nor were pagans the victims. (Arch, 1/05, p.70)(www.tektonics.org/af/crimeline.htm) 360 nend Feb 15, The first Hagia Sophia was inaugurated by Constantius II. It was built next to the smaller church Hagia Eirene in Constantinople. Both churches acted together as the principal churches of the Byzantine Empire. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Sophia) 361 nend Nov 3, Flavius Julius Constantius II (44), the 1st Byzantine Emperor, died. Flavius Claudius Julianus, Julian the Apostate, succeeded Constantius and tried to make paganism the official religion of the empire. (V.D.-H.K.p.92)(PCh, 1992, p.48)(MC, 11/3/01) 362 nend Jun 17, Emperor Julian issued an edict banning Christians from teaching in Syria. (HN, 6/17/98) 363 nend Jun 27, The death of Roman Emperor Julian brought an end to the Pagan Revival. Julian received a mortal wound in battle with the Sassanian Persians, whom he tried to conquer. (HN, 6/27/98)(WSJ, 3/24/99, p.A27) 363 nend A devastating earthquake leveled half the city of Petra, the principal city of Nabatea. (AP, 6/21/03) 364 nend Feb 17, Flavius Jovianus (~32), Christian emperor of Rome (363-64), died. (MC, 2/17/02) 364 nend Feb 26, On the death of Jovian, a conference at Nicaea chose Valentinian, an army officer who was born in the central European region of Pannania, to succeed him in Asia Minor. (HN, 2/26/99) 365 nend Jul 21, An earthquake, whose epicenter was in Crete, leveled the Egyptian Port of Alexandria as well as the Roman outpost of Leptis Magna in Libya. Some 50,000 people died. The ancient Egyptian city, known as Leukaspis or Antiphrae, was hidden for centuries after it was nearly wiped out by the tsunami. When Chinese engineers began cutting into the sandy coast to build the roads for a new resort in 1986, they struck the ancient tombs and houses of the town founded in the second century B.C. (www.earthscape.org/r2/jos/vol1-1june1997/pg55.html)(AM, Mar/Apr 97p.18)(AP, 9/8/10) 366 384 Pope St. Damasus I located martyr?s graves and had verse inscriptions composed for their tombs. He transformed the catacombs into popular and venerated shrines. (ITV, 1/96, p.58) 367 nend Much of Gortyn, the Roman capital of Crete, was destroyed be an earthquake. It was 1st inhabited around 3,000 BC and was destroyed by an Arab invasion in 824. (AP, 9/30/05) 370 415 Hypatia, female mathematician born in Alexandria, Egypt. She was a professor of mathematics and philosophy at the Univ. of Alexandria. She lectured on Plato, Aristotle, astronomy, geometry, Diophantine algebra, and the conics of Apollonius. (Alg, 1990, p.145) 374 nend Emperor Valentinian ended the parental right to kill their infants. (SFEC, 2/13/00, Z1 p.2) 374 397 Ambrose served as the Bishop of Milan. Later proclaimed St. Ambrose. (WUD, 1994, p.46)(SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T13) 375 nend Nov 17, Enraged by the insolence of barbarian envoys, Valentinian, the Emperor of the West, died of apoplexy in Pannonia in Central Europe. (HN, 11/17/98) 376 nend Dec 25, In Milan, Ambrose, the Bishop of Milan, forced the emperor Theodosius to perform public penance for his massacre. (HN, 12/25/98) 377 nend Niall of the Nine Hostages, warlord and head of the most powerful dynasty in ancient Ireland, was crowned king. He reportedly had 12 sons, many of whom became powerful Irish kings themselves. In 2006 scientists in Ireland presented evidence that he was the country's most fertile male, with more than 3 million men worldwide among his offspring. (Reuters,1/17/06)(www.irishclans.com/articles/famirish/niall9hostages.html) 378 nend Aug 9, In the Battle of Adrianople the Visigoth Calvary defeated Roman Army. (MC, 8/9/02) 378 nend Tikal saw the establishment of a new line of kings following its military victory over many cities of the Maya Lowlands. The 1st king was Nuun Yax Ain (Green Crocodile) and he claimed descent from a Teotihuacan lord that scholars later dubbed Spear-thrower Owl. (Arch, 9/00, p.27) 379 nend In Milan the brick Basilica of St. Ambrose was begun. (SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T3) 379 395 Theodosius I (c.346-395) served as emperor East Roman Republic. (WUD, 1994 p.1471) 380 nend Theodosius I ordered that all people under his rule embrace Christianity. (SSFC, 3/21/04, p.M6) 383 nend Aug 25, Flavius Gratianus (25), Emperor of Rome (375-383), was murdered. (MC, 8/25/02) 384 nend May 13, Servatius (Aravatius), bishop of Tongeren, died at age 65. (MC, 5/13/02) 384 nend Sep 9, Flavius Honorius, emperor East Roman Republic (395-423), was born. (MC, 9/9/01) 385 nend Pope Siricius left his wife to become pope and told priests to stop sleeping with their wives. (SFC, 3/16/02, p.A3) 385 nend Priscillian, bishop of Avila in Spain, was convicted of sorcery and executed by the Roman emperor Maximus. (NH, 9/96, p.20) 386 nend Augustine (354-430) became a priest and soon after bishop of Hippo, a Roman city in what is now Algeria. He wrote "The City of God," in which he laid out a plan of world history, showing how two cities vied with each other for dominance and would continue to do so until the end of time. One city was human- material, fleshly, downward-turning. The other city was divine- spiritual, turning upward toward the Creator of all things... An individual thinking being, Augustine said, does not make the truth, he finds it. He discovers it within himself as he listens to the teachings of the magister interiore, the "inward teacher," who is Christ, the revealing Word of God. According to Augustine, St. Ambrose set the fashion for silent reading and marveled at the innovation. (V.D.-H.K.p.94)(WSJ, 5/10/96, p.A-8) 386 535 The Northern Wei Dynasty is associated with the spread of Buddhism from India to China. (AM, 9/01, p.49) 387 nend Apr 24, Bishop Ambrose baptized St. Augustine in Milan at the Baptistry of San Giovanni alle Fonti, later the site of the Duomo Cathedral. (SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T12) 387 nend The Parthians and Romans agreed to settle the Armenian question by the drastic expedient of partition. The Sassanid kings of Persia (who had superseded the Parthians in the Empire of Iran) secured the lion's share of the spoils, while the Romans only received a strip of country on the western border which gave them Erzeroum and Diyarbakir for their frontier fortresses. (http://raven.cc.ukans.edu/~kansite/ww_one/docs/bryce2.htm) 388 nend Aug 28, Magnus Maximus, Spanish West Roman Emperor (383-88), was executed. (MC, 8/28/01) c 389 nend Mar 17, St. Patrick (d.461), the patron saint of Ireland, was born. Calpurnius, his father, was a deacon and local official who lost his son to Irish raiders when Patrick was 16. Patrick allegedly drove all the snakes (i.e. pagans) out of Ireland. (HN, 3/17/99)(HNQ, 3/17/01)(WSJ, 3/12/04, p.W13) c 389 461 St. Patrick, an English missionary and bishop of Ireland. March 17 is celebrated in his honor. He was a Celt born in Romanized Britain and was kidnapped by Irish pirates at 16, sold into slavery, and served for 6 years as a shepherd until he escaped. (SFC, 3/15/97, p.A16)(WUD, 1994, p.1057)(SFC, 3/17/97, p.A20) 390 nend Jul 16, Brennus and Gauls defeated the Romans at Allia. (MC, 7/16/02) 392 nend May 15, Valentinianus II (21), emperor of Rome (375-392), was murdered. (MC, 5/15/02) 392 nend Nov 8, Theodosius of Rome passed legislation prohibiting all pagan worship in the empire and declared Christianity the state religion. (HN, 11/6/98)(MC, 11/8/01) 393 nend The ancient Olympic Games were held at intervals beginning in 776 BC until about 393 CE when they were abolished by Roman emperor Theodosius I after Greece lost its independence. The modern Olympic Games were started in 1896. [see 396CE] (HNQ, 11/23/98) 394 nend Sep 6, Theodosius became sole ruler of Italy after defeating Eugenius at the Battle of the River Frigidus. (HN, 9/6/98) 394 nend Sep 8, Arbogast, French general, committed suicide. (MC, 9/8/01) 395 nend Jan 17, Emperor Theodosius I (49), the Great, Spanish head of Rome, died. Theodosius I wrote into his will that upon his death the eastern and western sections of the empire should be declared separate empires. His death in this year marks the split of the Roman and Byzantine Empire. (ATC, p.24)(MC, 1/17/02) 396 nend The last Olympic Games were held under Emp. Theodosius I, who halted them due to increasing professionalism and corruption. [see 393CE] In 2004 Nigel Spivey authored ?The Ancient Olympics.? (SFC, 7/14/96, p.T1)(WSJ, 8/13/04, p.W8) 397 nend Nov 8, Martin of Tours, [St Martin], bishop of Tours, died. [see Nov 11] (MC, 11/8/01) 397 nend Nov 11, Martinus (81), (St Martin), Roman bishop of Tours, died. [see Nov 8] (MC, 11/11/01) 397 nend In southeastern Turkey the Mor Gabriel monastery was founded by Syriac Christians. In 2009 it had just 3 monks and 14 nuns and faced the loss to the state of some 100 acres representing 60% of its core property. (WSJ, 3/7/09, p.A8) 400 nend A stable form of ink was developed with iron-salts, nutgalls and gum. (SFC, 7/26/04, p.F4) 400 nend The Barbarians, Hsiung-nu nomads, moved West. These "Huns" displaced the Goths and the Vandals, who moved west. The displaced Goths broke into two groups, one moving west into Gaul forcing the native Germanic peoples south, the other branch, called the Visigoths, headed south into Italy. The Vandals continues to move west, and turned south through Gaul and into Spain. They ravaged Spain and crossed into Africa and later recrossed the Mediterranean into Italy. (V.D.-H.K.p.88) 400 nend Afghanistan was invaded by the White Huns. They destroyed the Buddhist culture, and left most of the country in ruins. (www.afghan-web.com/history/-web.com/history/) 400 nend About this time sage-prince Kambu of the Cambodian legends, who belonged to the Kamboja lineage, appears to have sailed from Indian subcontinent, probably from Saurashtra/Gujarat on the west coast of India and established a small Kamboja kingdom in Bassac around Vat-Ph'u hill in Mekong Basin. The first Khmer or king, know as Kambu, founded Kambujadesa, which means the Sons of Kambu or Kambuja for short. (SFEC, 10/20/96, T5)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kambu_Svayambhuva) 400 nend By this time the Chinese had developed rigid metal stirrups which gave the rider more security in the saddle. (ATC, p.11) 400 nend In Ireland the Celtic ruler Niall of the Nine Hostages lived around this time. (SFC, 7/14/97, p.E1) 400 nend About this time Kalidassa wrote the great Indian literature: "Kumara?s Fight Against the Demon Taraka." (ATC, p.33) 400 nend About this time Nubia faded as a independent civilization. (MT, 10/95, p.10-11) 400 nend About this time people from the chiefdom Dal Riata in northern Ireland crossed the Irish Sea and settled along the Scottish coast of County Argyll. (AM, 7/01, p.46) 400 500 The Angles and Saxons crossed the North Sea to England bringing with them the 5 day week: Tiwsday - of the god Tiw; Wodensday - of the god Woden; Thorsday - of the god Thor; Frigsday - of the goddess Frig; and Seternesday - of the god Seterne. The Anglo-Saxons, a group of Germanic tribes, gradually invaded England by sea starting in the 5th century in the wake of the collapse of the Roman Empire. (K.I.-365D, p.107)(AP, 9/24/09) 400 500 About this time Apicius, a Roman gourmand, authored ?De re coquinara? (concerning cookery). It is considered to be the first Western cookbook. The first printed edition came out in 1483. (Econ, 12/20/08, p.140)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apicius) 400 500 The Quraysh tribe of west-central Arabia makes treaties with neighboring areas to ensure the safe passage of trade caravans through the desert around Mecca. (ATC, p.56) 400 500 During this period the Jutes of Jutland, at the northern tip of the Danish peninsula, migrated to Britain as part of a Germanic invasion. The notion that they settled in what is now Kent and the Isle of Wight, as is recorded by Anglo-Saxon chronicler Bede the Venerable, has been confirmed by archaeological evidence. (HNQ, 10/7/00) 400 500 A tomb in 1996 was found in the ruins of the Maya city of La Milpa in Belize near the Mexican border. It contained the skeleton of a man adorned with a pendant depicting the head of a vulture, signifying lord or ruler. Archeologist Norman Hammond speculated that it could be the burial place of the king known as Bird Jaguar, who lived around 450, or his successor. (SFC, 6/23/96, p.A10) 400 500 Yax K?uk Mo (Blue-Green Quetzal Macaw) was the 5th century founder of Copan in Honduras, although the site was occupied from early preclassic to late classic times. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.F) 400 500 In Ashkalon, Israel, bones from this period of some 100 infants were discovered in 1988 in the debris of a sewer adjacent to a bath house of this time. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.12) 400 500 The Aymara people lived on the shores of Lake Titicaca between Bolivia and Peru since the 5th century. Their ancient capital was Tiahuanaco. Their world is described in "Valley of the Spirits" (1996) by Alan L. Kolata. (NH, 8/96, p.14) 400 500 St. Ursula, a legendary British princess, and her 11,000 martyr virgins were said to have been slaughtered by the Huns at Cologne in the 5th century. (WUD, 1994, p.1573)(SFEC, 2/15/98, p.T8) 400 500 During this period the Indian philosopher Yashomitra made commentaries on Buddhism and described it as "awakened" (vibuddha) and "full-bloomed" or "perfected" (prabuddha). (SFEM,12/14/97, p.46) 400 500 In Japan two imperial tombs of this time in Miyazaki Prefecture, Kyushu, are held by legend to belong to Ninigi, grandson of the sun goddess Amaterasu and his wife. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.12) 400 500 The leap year tradition of women proposing marriage to men began in 5th century Ireland. (SFEC, 6/8/97, Z1 p.6) 400 600 The large Buddha at Bamiyan, Afghanistan, 170 feet tall, was constructed during this period. It was an enlargement of an Indian Buddha of the Gupta period. (WSJ, 3/5/00, p.A22) 401 nend Apr 10, Theodosius II, the Younger, Eastern Roman emperor, was born. (MC, 4/10/02) 401 nend Dec, St. Innocent, born in Albano, Italy, became pope. He was the pope nine years later when the Visigoths captured and sacked Rome. (AP, 3/21/09) 402 nend Apr 6, Battle at Pollentia: Roman army under Stilicho beat the Visigoths. (MC, 4/6/02) 402 nend The capital of the Roman empire was moved from Rome to Ravenna on the Adriatic. (V.D.-H.K.p.88) 405 nend In Northern Ireland St. Patrick (16) was sold about this time as a slave by King Niall?s men. (WSJ, 3/15/02, p.W15) 405 nend The Armenian alphabet was invented. (MH, 12/96) 406 nend Aug 23, At the Battle at Florence the Roman army under Stilicho beat the Barbarians under Radagaisus. (PC, 1992, p.50) 406 nend Dec 31, Godagisel, king of the Vandals, died in battle as some 80,000 Vandals attacked over the Rhine at Mainz. (MC, 12/31/01) 406 nend Some of the inscriptions from a stone monument from the Maya city of La Milpa have been deciphered to give this date. (SFC, 6/23/96, p.A10) 407 nend Sep 14, Johannes Chrysostomus (b.c347), patriarch of Constantinople (398) and exiled in 404, died in Pontus (later northeast Turkey). He is generally considered the most prominent doctor of the Greek Church and the greatest preacher ever heard in a Christian pulpit. (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08452b.htm) 408 nend May 1, Theodosius II succeeded to the throne of Constantinople. (HN, 5/1/98) 408 nend Aug 22, Flavius Stilicho (48), West Roman field leader (395-408), died. (MC, 8/22/02) 408 450 Theodosius II was emperor of Rome. (MH, 12/96) 410 nend Aug 18, King Alaric I's Visigoths occupied and plundered Rome. [see Aug 24] (PC, 1992, p.50) 410 nend Aug 24, Rome was overrun by the Visigoths, an event that symbolized the fall of the Western Roman Empire. German barbarians sacked Rome [see Aug 18]. (V.D.-H.K.p.87)(AP, 8/24/97)(HN, 8/24/98) 410 nend Rome abandoned its British provinces. (AM, 11/04, p.41) 411 nend Proclus (d.485), Greek mathematician and theologian, was born. [see 412] (WUD, 1994 p.1147)(MC, 4/17/02) 412 nend Feb 8, St. Proclus, Patriarch of Constantinople, was born. [see 411] (HN, 2/8/98) 413 nend Oct 10, Nicias, Athens politician (Peace of Nicias), killed at about age 57. (MC, 10/10/01) 415 nend Archbishop Cyril of Alexandria sent a mob of religious police to stop Hypatia, an eccentric pagan ascetic and scholar. The mob kidnapped her, dragged her to a church, stripped and tortured her with broken shards of pottery. Her body parts were then butchered, put on public display and burnt to a crisp. In 2004 Jonathan Kirsch authored "God Against the Gods: The History of the War Between Monotheism and Polytheism." (SSFC, 3/21/04, p.M1) 418 nend Mar 10, Jews were excluded from public office in the Roman Empire. (MC, 3/10/02) 418 nend Dec 27, Zosimus, Greek Pope (417-8), died. (MC, 12/27/01) 419 nend Jul 2, Valentinian III, Roman emperor (425-55), was born. (SC, 7/2/02) 420 nend Padua, Italy, was founded on the edge of the Adriatic. (SFC,12/19/97, p.F3) 421 nend Feb 8, Flavius Constantine became emperor Constantine III of Roman Empire West. (MC, 2/8/02) 421 nend Mar 25, Venice was founded on a Friday at 12 PM. (MC, 3/25/02) 421 438 King Bahram V ruled Persia. (MH, 12/96) 422 432 The Bible and the works of the church fathers were translated into Armenian. (MH, 12/96) 425 nend Feb 27, Theodosius effectively founded a university in Constantinople. (HN, 2/27/99) 425 550 Independent Yaftalee ruled in Afghanistan. (www.afghan-web.com/history/-web.com/history/, 5/25/98) 426 nend Yax K?uk Mo? founded Copan in what is now western Honduras. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.A) 427 nend Dec, The Patriarch of Constantinople died. (Usenet, 3/4/97) 427 nend The Nalanda Buddhist center of learning was established in Bihar state, India, and continued to 1197. It has been called one of the first great universities in recorded history. (Econ, 9/4/10, p.46)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nalanda) 428 nend Apr 10, John Nestorius from Antioch was consecrated as the new Patriarch of Constantinople by Emperor Theodosius. (Usenet, 3/4/97) 428 nend The Arsacid (Arshakuni) monarchy of Armenia ended and control fell under the rule of the Persian Sassanids. (MH, 12/96) 429 nend Roman Africa was invaded by the Vandals, barbarians who had fought and conquered their way across Germany, France, Spain and across the Strait of Gibraltar. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.168) 430 nend Aug 28, Augustine (b.354) died in Hippo (Annaba, Algeria) with a Vandal army outside the gates of the city. His writings included "The Confessions." In 1999 Garry Wills authored the biography "St. Augustine." Augustine had developed the theory of a "just war" and said a nation?s leaders must consider among other things, anticipated loss of civilian life and whether all peaceful options have been exhausted before war starts. In 2003 Garry Wills authored "Saint Augustine's Sin." In 2005 James J. O?Donnell authored ?Augustine: A New Biography.? (SSFC, 12/21/03, p.M6)(Econ, 5/14/05,p.86)(www.connect.net/ron/august.html) 431 nend The Council of Ephesus was held to deal with the heretics and heresies of the day such as Arianism and Apollinarianism. The council condemned Nestorianism, which taught that there were 2 person in Christ and that Mary was the mother of the human Christ but not of God. In 2009 Miri Rubin authored ?Mother of God: A History of the Virgin Mary.? (Usenet, 3/4/97)(PTA, 1980, p.86)(Econ, 2/21/09, p.84) 431 nend The Assyrians and Chaldeans broke from what was to become the Roman Catholic Church over a theological dispute. (WSJ, 3/12/00, p.A10) 431 nend A great Mayan dynasty arose at Palenque and soon began trading with communities hundreds of miles away. (SSFC, 12/7/03, p.C10) 432 nend About this time St. Patrick was consecrated a bishop and returned to Ireland as missionary. He established Ireland?s first monasteries and Irish monks made it their mission to copy all literature, sacred and secular, while barbarism swept the continent. This period is covered in the 1995 book "How the Irish Saved Civilization" by Thomas Cahill. (SFC, 3/17/97, p.A20)(WSJ, 11/5/99, p.W12) 434 453 Attila the Hun was known in western Europe as the "Scourge of God." Attila was the king of the Huns from 434 to 453 and one of the greatest of the barbarian rulers to assail the Roman Empire. (HNQ, 12/19/98) 435 nend John Nestorius was banished from his monastery in Antioch by Emperor Theodosius II. (Usenet, 3/4/97) 435 808 In Mexico Yaxchilan on the bank of the Usumacinta was occupied at least over this period. King Mah K?ina Skull III was one of the rulers during the construction of some 90 stone structures. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.G) 437 nend Nov 30, A glyph in Copan [in later Honduras] records this date and mentions the 1st and 2nd rulers of the city-state. (NG, 12/97, p.81) 438 nend Easter, In Ireland St. Patrick used the 3-leaf clover to illustrate the Trinity. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.D7) 438 457 The Persian King Yazdegird II ruled. He pressured the Armenians to accept Zoroastrianism and worship the supreme god Ahura Mazda. Mihr-Nerseh, the Persian grand vizier, promulgated an edict that enjoined the Armenians to convert. (MH, 12/96) 439 nend Oct 9, Ancient city of Carthage was captured by Genseric the Vandal. [see Oct 19,24] (MC, 10/9/01) 439 nend Oct 19, The Vandals, led by King Gaiseric, took Carthage and quickly conquered all the coastal lands of Algeria and Tunisia. Egypt and the Libyan coast remained in Roman hands. [see Oct 24] (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.168)(HN, 10/19/98) 439 nend Oct 24, Carthage, the leading Roman city in North Africa, fell to Genseric and the Vandals. [see Oct 19] (HN, 10/24/98) 439 nend Oct 29, Vandals under Genseric occupied Carthage. [see Oct 24] (MC, 10/29/01) 439 nend In Mauretania (now northern Morocco and Algeria) Roman rule ceased about this time when barbarian incursions forced the legions to withdraw. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.) 440 nend Aug 19, Pope Sixtus III (432-440) died. (PTA, 1980, p.88) 440 790 The Mayan city of Palenque flourished. (AM, 5/01, p.49) 441 nend Bishop Patrick allegedly fasted for 40 days on a 2,500-foot peak later named Croagh Patrick in county Mayo. He allegedly banished snakes from Ireland during this time. (SFCM, 10/14/01, p.23) 444 nend In Ireland St. Patrick selected the site for the Cathedral of Armagh. It later became Ireland?s ecclesiastical center and preceded the 360 churches that he established. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.D7) 449 nend The Armenians held a General Assembly to ponder the Persian edict that demanded conversion to Zoroastrianism. They chose to remain Christian and their leaders were summoned to Persia to answer to the king. The leaders opted to yield under heavy pressure but were renounced on their return home. (MH, 12/96) 450 nend St. Benedict (d.547) was born in Norcia, Italy, about this time. (V.D.-H.K.p.106) 450 nend The Hun invasions of India began. (ATC, p.33) 450 nend In Peru a tattooed Moche woman was entombed about this time, at a site later called El Brujo, with a sacrificed teenage slave and a collection of weapons and jewelry. In 2006 her mummy was discovered in a pyramid called Huaca Cao Viejo. (SFC, 5/17/06, p.A2) 450 470 The Vakataka emperor Harisena, ruled over central India. He is recognized as bringing India's Golden Age to its apogee. He oversaw the greatest building phase at the monasteries of Ajanta, where monks lived in rock-cut cells. (LSA., pp. 10-16) 451 nend Apr 13, A Persian Army of 300,000 men under Mushkan Nusalavurd arrived at a place between her and Zarevand (now Khoy and Salmast in Iran) to face the Armenian forces. (MH, 12/96) 451 nend May 26, The Battle of Avarair. Vardan Mamikonian, son of Sparapet (general) Hamazasp Mamikonian and Sahakanush, daughter of the Catholicos Sahak Bartev, led a force of 66,000 Armenians to face the Persians. Prior to battle Vardan read aloud the story of the Jewish Maccabees. Persian losses tripled the Armenian dead, but Mushkan won and Vardan was killed. (MH, 12/96) 451 nend Apr 7, Attila's Huns plundered Metz. (MC, 4/7/02) 451 nend Jun 20, Roman and Barbarian warriors halted Attila?s army at the Catalaunian Plains (Catalarinische Fields) in eastern France. Attila the Hun was defeated by a combined Roman and Visigoth army. The Huns moved south into Italy but were defeated again. (V.D.-H.K.p.88)(HN, 6/20/98)(MC, 6/20/02) 451 nend Sep 20, General Aetius defeated Attila the Hun at Chalons-sur-Marne. (MC, 9/20/01) 451 nend Oct 8, Council of Chalcedon (4th ecumenical council) opened. The Council declared that the two natures of Christ, divine and human, were united without change, division or confusion in Christ. This led to the formation of the Coptic Monophysite Church which continued to hold that Jesus had but one divine nature. Copt comes from the Arabic word for Egyptian. (CU, 6/87)(SFC, 3/31/97, p.A9)(MC, 10/8/01) 451 nend The Armenians were the first Christians to take up arms in defending their right to worship. (HN, 7/25/98) 451 nend Clan leaders of Armenia united to defeat the Sassanians at Avarair. (CO Enc. / Armenia) 451 nend John Nestorius, former Patriarch of Constantinople, died about this time. Prior to his death he wrote his book "Bazar of Heracleids." (Usenet, 3/4/97) 451 484 Vahan Mamikonian led the Armenians in a 33-year guerrilla war. The Persian Sassanids underwent 3 rulers and pressure from the Ephthalites, White Huns, and when King Peroz was killed by the White Huns, his successor, Balash, sued for peace. Vahan demanded and was granted religious freedom. (MH, 12/96) 452 nend Feb 4, The Mayan city of Tikal has a monolith in hieroglyphics that reports an inferior conjunction of Venus". (K.I.-365D, p.164) 452 nend Jun 8, Italy was invaded by Attila the Hun. (HN, 6/8/98) 452 nend Pope Leo I met Attila the Hun on the banks of the Mincio and Attila agreed to make peace and spare Rome. (PTA, 1980, p.90) 452 nend Attila the Hun died. (V.D.-H.K.p.88) 454 nend Sep 21, In Italy, Aetius, the supreme army commander, was murdered in Ravenna by Valentinian III, the emperor of the West. (HN, 9/21/98) 455 nend May 31, Petronius Maximus, senator, Emperor of Rome, was lynched. (MC, 5/31/02) 455 nend Jul 9, Avitus, the Roman military commander in Gaul, became Emperor of the West. (HN, 7/9/98) 455 nend Jun 16, Rome was sacked by the Vandal army. Gaiseric looted and burned Rome for 14 days. He took the looted treasure, which likely included the 70AD plunder from Jerusalem, by ship to the temple of Carthage. (V.D.-H.K.p.88)(HN, 6/16/98)(SFC, 10/23/06, p.A15) 455 nend Genseric, at the invitation of Eudoxia, Valentinian's widow, sailed to Italy, and took Rome without a blow. At the intercession of Leo the Great, he abstained from torturing or massacring the inhabitants and burning the city, but gave it up to systematic plunder. For 14 days and nights the work of pillage continued. Genseric then returned unmolested to Africa, carrying much booty and many thousand captives, including the empress Eudoxia and her two daughters. The elder became the wife of his son Hunneric; the younger, with her mother, was eventually surrendered to the emperor Leo. (www.earlychristianwritings.com/info/galen-wace.html) 457 nend Feb 7, A Thracian officer by the name of Leo was proclaimed as emperor of the East by the army general, Aspar, on the death of the Emperor Marcian. (HN, 2/7/99) 457 nend A Monophysite was named patriarch of Alexandria. (SFC, 3/31/97, p.A9) 461 nend Mar 17, According to tradition, St. Patrick (b.c389), the patron saint of Ireland, died in Saul, County Down. Some sources say he died in 493AD. He was an English missionary and bishop of Ireland. In 2004 Philip Freeman authored "St. Patrick: A Biography." (SFC, 3/15/97, p.A16)(WSJ, 3/12/04, p.W13)(AP, 3/17/08) 461 nend Nov 10, Leo I the Great, Pope (440-61), died. (MC, 11/10/01) 468 nend Mar 3, St. Simplicius was elected to succeed Catholic Pope Hilarius. (SC, 3/3/02) 472 nend Aug 18, Flavius Ricimer, general of the Western Roman Empire, kingmaker, was born. (MC, 8/18/02) 473 nend An ancient king in Sri Lanka constructs an impenetrable fortress atop a giant rock that rises 200 yards above the plains. The site is called Sigiriya. (WSJ, 8/3/95, p.A-8) 474 nend Jan 18, Leo I, Roman Byzantine Emperor (457-74), died. He was succeeded by his grandson Leo II. (www.roman-emperors.org/leo1.htm) 474 nend Nov 17, Leo II (b.467), Roman Byzantine Emperor, died. (www.roman-emperors.org/leo2.htm) 476 nend Aug 28, The western Roman Empire formally ended at Ravenna as the barbarian general Odoacer deposed the last of the Roman emperors, the young boy Romulus Augustus. (ATC, p.32)(PC, 1992, p.52) 477 nend In Sri Lanka the usurper King Kasyapa I founded Sigiriya and built his castle atop a 550-foot outcrop. He had murdered his father Dhatusena. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.D)(Arch, 7/02, p.32) 477 nend Harisena, emperor of Central India dies. (LSA., p. 12) 480 nend Boethius (d.524) was born in Rome about this time. He acquired an important post under the Ostrogoth King Theodoric, but later fell into disfavor and was imprisoned. In prison he wrote his famous The Consolation of Philosophy. (V.D.-H.K.p.113) 480 nend Hun invasions began to weaken the Gupta Dynasty in India. (ATC, p.33) 483 nend Mar 13, St. Felix began his reign as Catholic Pope. (HN, 3/13/98) 484 nend The Church of Mary Theotokos was built over the presumed site of a Samaritan Temple that is believed to be a copy of the Second Temple of Jerusalem at Mt. Gerizim in the Israeli occupied West Bank. (SFC, 5/23/95, p.A-10) 484 nend The Armenians signed a treaty in the village of Nuwarsak with the Persians and Vahan Mamikonian was appointed marzban of Armenia. (MH, 12/96) 485 nend Apr 17, Proclus (b.411), Greek mathematician, died in Athens. (WUD, 1994 p.1147)(MC, 4/17/02) 485 505 In Armenia Vahan Mamikonian began his rule with services at the Cathedral of Dvin with the Catholicos Hovhan I Mandakuni presiding. (MH, 12/96) 490 nend Oct 29, Petrus Mongus, patriarch of Alexandria, died. (MC, 10/29/01) 492 nend Mar 1, St. Felix III ended his reign as Catholic Pope. (SC, 3/1/02) 492 nend Mar 1, St Gelasius I began his reign as Catholic Pope (492-496). (PTA, 1980, p.98)(SC, 3/1/02) 493 nend Mar 3, Odovacar, the Herulian leader, surrendered Ravenna to Theodorik, king of the Ostrogoths. Theodorik invited Odovacar to dinner and had him murdered. Theodorik united Italy as an Ostrogoth kingdom until 554. [see Mar 15] (PCh, 1992, p.52)(V.D.-H.K.p.88)(SC, 3/3/02) 493 nend Mar 15, Theodoric the Great beat Odoacer of Italy. Odoacer, German army leader, King of Italy (476-93), died. [see Mar 3] (MC, 3/15/02) 495 nend May 3, Pope Gelasius asserted that his authority was superior to Emperor Anastasius. PTA, 1980, p.98)(HN, 5/3/98) no_source 496 nend Nov 21, Pope Gelasius, an African by birth or descent, died. He changed the mid-February lottery rules for young Roman men so that they drew names of Catholic Saints to emulate instead of young girls for play. The Lupercalia pagan rite had been revived to bring good luck to the city following a plague. He named Feb 14 as St. Valentine?s Day. (PTA, 1980, p.98)(SFEM, 2/9/97, p.11)(SSFC, 2/11/01, DB p.40) 496 nend In China the Shaolin Temple was built in the foothills of Mount Songshan in Henan province. It was later considered as the birthplace for Shaolin boxing, a combination of Buddhism and Chinese martial arts that evolved into kung fu (gongfu). (SFC, 9/26/02, p.B3) 496 nend Clovis, king of the Salian or Merovingian Franks, became the first of the pagan barbarians to adopt Catholicism. (www.patmospapers.com/daniel/in508.htm) 498 nend Nov 19, Anastasius II, Pope (496-98), (Dante Inferno XI, 8-9), died. (MC, 11/19/01) 500 nend The northern California Emeryville Shellmound, CA-Ala 309, dates to about this time. (Buckeye, Winter 04/05) 500 nend In England, the Anglo-Saxons brought Futhark from continental Europe in the 5th century and modified it into the 33-letter "Futhorc" to accommodate sound changes that were occurring in Old English, the language spoken by the Anglo-Saxons. An early offshoot of Futhark was employed by Goths, and so it is known as Gothic Runes. It was used until 500 CE when it was replaced by the Greek-based Gothic alphabet. (www.ancientscripts.com/futhark.html) 500 nend About this time the Ridgeway, the oldest road in Europe, wandered along empty, open ridges over Wiltshire?s Marlborough Downs in England. Invading Saxons gave this ancient track its present name: ?The Ridgeway,? but even then it was already old beyond all memory. Fifty centuries earlier, Stone Age traders probably followed this track to barter stone axe heads with farmer folk in the valleys. These Neolithic merchants picked up The Ridgeway at the Thames River ford at Goring, then followed it westward and southward along the crest of the Downs, into what would become the counties of Berkshire and Wiltshire in the times of the Wessex kings. Since those first Neolithic peddlers, 200 generations have found their own good reasons to tramp along the Ridgeway track. (HNQ, 7/29/01) 500 nend By this time the Chalchihuites culture (New Mexico) engaged in extensive turquoise mining and exporting raw turquoise to West Mexican centers like Alta Vista. (Arch, 1/05, p.28) 500 nend By this time the Kaaba at Mecca housed more than 360 idols of the gods of various tribes. Protection of the Kaaba was organized by the Quraysh tribe, who encouraged other tribes to deposit their idols their for protection and a fee. During four months of each year the Quraysh forbade fighting and raiding along the trade routes and this allowed both merchants and travelers make their pilgrimages in peace for a fee. (ATC, p.57) 500 nend The Manteno people inhabited the area of northern Ecuador about this time. It was believed that they ran a vast maritime empire and traded with the Aztecs in Mexico and made voyages of 3,000-4,000 miles. In 1998-99 a team led by John Haslett (34) attempted to duplicate their maritime voyages with a 20-ton, 60-foot balsa raft. (SFC, 1/6/99, p.A8) 500 nend About this time Nubians turned from their Egyptian-influenced religion to Christianity. A thousand years later the people of their region will convert heavily to Islam. (MT, 10/95, p.10-11) 500 nend About this time the Indian monk Bodhidharma hit on the idea of Zen after staring at a wall for nine years. (WSJ, 10/23/96, p.A1) 500 nend Teotihuacan people built a 60-foot pyramid about this time in what later became known as Iztapalapa, Mexico. It was abandoned after about 300 years, when the Teotihuacan culture collapsed. Archeologists began to unveil the site in 2004. (AP, 4/6/06) 500 nend In Peru a Moche pyramid from about this time at Dos Cabezas contained tombs that archeologists found in 1997. The tombs revealed people of unusual height along with miniatures of the deceased and the tomb?s contents. (SFC, 2/15/01, p.A7) 500 nend Ancient Turks are believed to have originated in Mongolia about this time. (Arch, 1/06, p.17) 500 600 Arabs about this time brought back home from India the numerals we refer to as Arabic numbers. (SFEC, 1/23/00, Z1 p.2) 500 600 The Arabian city of Ubar, disappeared in the early 6th century. The event was later cited by Muhammad in the Quran. In 1992 a team of investigators announced the discovery of he long lost Arabian city of Ubar. George Hedges (1952-2009), a Hollywood litigator, and filmmaker Nicholas Clapp, participated in the find. Clapp later authored ?The Road to Ubar: Finding the Atlantis of the Sands? (1999). (WSJ, 3/20/09, p.A12) 500 600 In England the 6th century Gildas was the only historian whose work survived. He made no mention of King Arthur. He described the Picts as ?Loathsome hordes, dark swarms of worms that emerge from the narrow crevices of their holes when the sun is high, preferring to cover their villainous faces with hair rather than their private parts and surrounding areas with clothes. (WSJ, 3/27/98, p.W10)(AM, 11/04, p.41) 500 600 The monastic complex of David Gareja was founded in the 6th century by David (St. David Garejeli), one of the thirteen Assyrian monks who arrived in Georgia at the same time. His disciples Dodo and Luciane expanded the original lavra and founded two other monasteries known as Dodo's Rka (literally, "the horn of Dodo") and Natlismtsemeli ("the Baptist"). Part of the complex is also located in the Agstafa rayon of Azerbaijan and thus became subject to a border dispute between Georgian and Azerbaijani authorities. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Gareja_monastery_complex) 500 600 The rulers of Ghana stored grain in mud huts on high, steep land. (ATC, p.106) 500 600 About this time Irish monks brought an alembic from the Middle East that was initially used to distill perfumes. They soon applied it to spirits and produced Uisce Beatha (water of life), better known as whiskey. (WSJ, 8/14/02, p.D8) 500 600 In Laos a local legend describes a military celebration for which the stone jars of the Plain of Jars were created to ferment and store alcohol. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.E) 500 600 El Pital, a Maya regional hub on the gulf coast since c300 BC, suddenly became inactive. It was later suspected that a catastrophic flood hit the area. (SFC, 9/14/00, p.C8) 500 600 The Picts of Scotland developed a script about this time made up of 30 symbols. In 2005 it still defied interpretation. (AM, 11/04, p.43) 500 700 A Babylonian earthenware demon bowl from Seleucia-on-Tigris dated to this period. (MT, 3/96, p.5) 500 700 The clay Lydenburg Heads from southern Africa, dated to this period. These earliest know South African sculptures were later exhibited at the Guggenheim. (NYT, 6/7/96, p.B9) 500 700 Chronicles of the 8th century record the peaceful arrival of immigrants from Korea in the 6th and 7th centuries. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.38) 500 700 Evidence in 2005 suggested that Polynesians visited California during this period and transferred their canoe building technology to the local Chumash and Gabrielino Indians. (SFC, 6/20/05, p.A5) 500 800 Curse tablets are widely used in this era. "Lead scrolls, used to place curses against lawyers, lovers, and horses, have been discovered in a Roman-era well at King Herod?s palace in Israel." (USAT, 10/28/94, 1A) c 500 1100 The Sinagua people lived in the area of Sunset Crater, Az. (AM, 3/04, p.48) 500 1315 The Fremont Indians lived in Utah?s Range Creek Canyon during this period and etched into rock designs of animals and people. (WSJ, 1/31/06, p.B6) 502 557 In China the Liang stele dates to this time. (WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20) 508 nend The Franks, led by Clovis, took Paris and made it their capital. Under Charlemagne, the capital was moved to Aachen and Paris waned, raided repeatedly by Norsemen during the 9th and 10th centuries. (HNQ, 4/18/02) 508 nend Clovis, king of the Franks (later France), defeated the Visigoths and pushed into Spain. (www.patmospapers.com/daniel/in508.htm) 510 nend Boethius began the translation of the works of Aristotle from Greek into Latin. He only completed the "Organon," or works on logic. (V.D.-H.K.p.113) 511 nend Nov 11, Clovis (45), king of Salische France and founder of Merovingians, died. [see Nov 27] (MC, 11/11/01) 511 nend Nov 27, Clovis, king of the Franks, died and his kingdom was divided between his four sons. [see Nov 11] (HN, 11/27/98) 515 nend Boethius in his treatise on the Trinity writes "As far as you are able, join faith to reason." (V.D.-H.K.p.113) 520 nend St. Benedict founded the Benedictine Order at Monte Cassino. From there monks went forth and created a network of monasteries all over Europe. The monks taught the values of agricultural living to the nomadic barbarians. (CU, 6/87) 520 nend Guptas invent the decimal system in India. (ATC, p.69) 521 597 St. Columba, Irish missionary in Scotland. The Irish monks of Columba preceded the Benedictines in Northern Europe, but their ascetic otherworldliness did not meet the needs of the practical barbarian people. (CU, 6/87)(WUD, 1994, p.292) 523 nend May 6, Thrasamunde, king of Vandals (496-523), died. (MC, 5/6/02)(http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15268b.htm) 524 nend Jun 21, Battle at Vezerone: Burgundy beat France. (MC, 6/21/02) 525 nend By this time the Hun invaders have conquered India. The Gupta Dynasty ends. (ATC, p.35) 526 nend May 18, St. John I, Catholic Pope (523-526), died. (HN, 5/18/98)(SC, 5/18/02) 526 nend May 20, An earthquake killed 250,000 in Antioch, Turkey. This was the capital of Syria from 300-64BCE. [see May 29] (MC, 5/20/02) 526 nend May 29, Antioch, Turkey, was struck by an earthquake and about 250,000 died. [see May 20] (AM, 11/00, p.69)(SC, 5/29/02) 526 nend Aug 30, Theodorik the Great (72), King of Ostrogoths, died of dysentery. He was succeeded by his grandson Athalaric (10), who reigned until 534 with his mother Amalasuntha as regent. (PC, 1992, p.54) 527 nend Apr 1, Emp. Justin named Justinianus co-emperor of Byzantium. [see Apr 4] (OTD)(PC, 1992 ed, p.54) 527 nend Apr 4, In Constantinople, Justin, seriously ill, crowned his nephew Justinian as his co-emperor. [see Apr 1] (HN, 4/4/99) 527 nend Aug 1, Justinus I, Byzantine emperor (518-27), died. (PC, 1992 ed, p.54) 527 548 Empress Theodora, considered the most powerful woman in Byzantine history, ruled with her husband Justinian. (ATC, p.24) 527 565 Justinian ruled the Byzantine Empire. (WSJ, 4/5/02, p.W12) 527 565 Emperor Justinian built the St. Catherine monastery in Egypt?s Sinai Desert to house the bones of St. Catherine of Alexandria, who was tortured to death for converting to Christianity. The site was thought to be the place where Moses saw the Miracle of the Burning Bush. (SFEC, 8/28/98, p.T6)(http://interoz.com/egypt/Catherines.htm) 528 nend Justinian assigned 10 men the task of condensing the 1,600 books of classic Roman law. (ATC, p.43) 529 nend Justinian, ruling from Constantinople (517-565), promulgated the Codex Constitutionum, the chief source and authority of Roman law. (V.D.-H.K.p.68) 529 nend The new Justinian Code was composed of 4,652 laws. It extended the rights of women, children and slaves, and also called for harsher penalties for crime. (ATC, p.43) 529 nend Justinian closed the Platonic academy at Athens. (V.D.-H.K.p.107) 529 nend The Monte Cassino monastery in Italy was founded by St. Benedict (450-547). (V.D.-H.K.p.107)(NW, 10/28/02, p.16) 530 nend Oct 14, Dioscurus, anti-Pope (530), died. (MC, 10/14/01) 532 nend Jan 13-532 Jan 14, The 2nd Hagia Sophia cathedral burned down in Constantinople during the Nika uprising, which failed leaving some 30-40,000 people dead. Justinian and his wife Theodora had attended festivities at the Hippodrome, a stadium for athletic competition. Team support escalated from insults to mob riots and in the end Constantinople lay in ruins. Justinian proceeded to rebuild the city with extensive commissions for religious art and architecture, including the new Hagia Sophia. (ATC, p.33)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Sophia) 532 nend Oct 17, Boniface II, 1st "German" Pope, died. (MC, 10/17/01) 533 565 Justinian?s armies regained parts of Spain, all of Italy and North Africa. (ATC, p.45) 534 nend Justinian brought the Vandal king into Constantinople and resurrected the triumphal procession of 71AD. (SFC, 10/23/06, p.A15) 535 nend Feb, In Southern China the Nan Shi Ancient Chronicle reported that "yellow dust rained down like snow." (WSJ, 5/15/00, p.A46) 535 nend Apr 30, Amalaswintha, queen of Ostrogoten, was murdered. (MC, 4/30/02) 535 nend May 13, St Agapitus I began his reign as Catholic Pope (SS, Internet, 5/13/97) 535 nend Feb, There is evidence that the Krakatoa volcano had a major eruption about this time. In 1869 Rangawarsita, a Javanese royal courtier, compiled the Books of Kings, which mentioned an event from the middle of the first millennium that sounded like a major eruption. (WSJ, 5/15/00, p.A46)(Disc., 7/4/03) 535 536 John of Ephesus, a Syrian bishop, reported that the sun darkened for a period of 18 months with feeble light for only about 4 hours a day. (WSJ, 5/15/00, p.A46) 536 nend Apr 22, St. Agapitus I ended his reign as Catholic Pope (535-36). (HN, 4/22/98)(MC, 4/22/02) 536 nend Dec 9, Byzantine Count Belisarius entered Rome through the Asinarian Gate at the head of 5,000 troops. At the same time, 4,000 Ostrogoths left the city through the Flaminian Gate and headed north to Ravenna, the capital of their Italian kingdom. For the first time since 476, when the Germanic king, Odoacer, had deposed the last Western Roman emperor and crowned himself "King of the Romans," the city of Rome was once more part of the Roman empire?albeit an empire whose capital had shifted east to Constantinople. Belisarius had taken the city back as part of Emperor Justinian?s grand plan to recover the western provinces from their barbarian rulers. The plan was meant to be carried out with an almost ridiculously small expeditionary force. The 5,000 soldiers that General Belisarius led included Hunnish and Moorish auxiliaries, and they were expected to defend circuit walls 12 miles in diameter against an enemy who would soon be back, and who would outnumber them at least 10-to-1. (HN, 12/9/98)(HNC, 10/1/99) 537 nend Mar 11, The Goths laid siege to Rome. The Goths cut the aqueducts to Rome in the 6th century. (HN, 3/11/98)(SFEC, 7/2/00, p.T4) 537 nend Dec 27, The Hagia Sophia Byzantine cathedral in Constantinople was consecrated. St. Sophia (meaning "the holy wisdom" in Greek) was built by Emperor Justinian. It remained a symbol of Byzantine grandeur until Istanbul was conquered by Muslim armies. (Sky, 4/97, p.55)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Sophia) 538 nend Nov 30, St. Gregory of Tours, chronicler and bishop, was born. (MC, 11/30/01) 538 552 Introduction of Buddhism to Japan from Korea. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 538 600 Buddhist missionaries introduced the art of flower arranging to Japan. The 1st school of flower arranging, ikenobo, was founded by Ono no Imoko in the early 7th century. Ikebana became the umbrella name for the schools of flower arranging. (SFEC, 4/23/00, Z1 p.2) 541 543 Plague swept Asia Minor. (AM, 11/04, p.38) 541 750 The beginning of a pandemic of plague that swirled around the Mediterranean for more than two centuries. It killed as many as 40 million people and weakened the Byzantine Empire. "The bodies of the sick were covered with black pustules... the symptoms of immediate death," wrote Procopius, historian of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian. At its peak in Constantinople, he reported, the plague killed 10,000 people a day. (NG, 5/88, p.678) 542 nend The St. Columbas monastery was founded on Iona. [see 563] (SSFC, 8/12/01, p.T8) 544 nend In India about this time Pulakeshin I instituted the Chalukyan kingdom and his son established Vatapi, identified as Badami, as the capital. (http://tinyurl.com/mdkhf) 546 nend Colmcille, an Irish saint, founded a monastery at Derry. (SFC, 12/1/97, p.A14) 546 nend Totila the Goth besieged Rome. (PTA, 1980, p.120) 547 nend St. Benedict (b.450), Italian monk, died. He lived for years as a hermit near the ruins of Nero's palace above Subiaco, 40 miles east of Rome. He established the monastery of Monte Cassino, the founding house of the Benedictine order. His rules and standards of communal life are known as the rules of St. Benedict. (V.D.-H.K.p.68) 548 nend In Ireland St. Kieran founded a monastery at Clonmacnoise, an Irish phrase meaning "the meadow of the sons of Nos." (SFEC, 8/1/99, p.T8) 549 nend Jerusalem held to a Jan 6 date for the celebration of the Nativity of Jesus until this year. In the end the West added the Epiphany and the East added the Dec 25 nativity to their liturgical calendars. (WSJ, 12/18/98, p.W15) 550 nend Native peoples in southwest Colorado began building pit houses. Found the world over, these are rooms dug in the ground with roofs of mud and logs. To get in or out, people used a ladder through a hole in the roof that doubled as a smoke vent-unpleasant for humans but a good way to keep animals out. You can see several excavated pit houses at the National Park. (HN, 2/11/97) 550 nend Aryabhata (b.476), Indian astronomer and mathematician, died. The Aryabhatiya, an astronomical treatise, is the magnum opus and only extant work of Aryabhata. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryabhata) c 550 nend Japanese rulers allow their subjects to practice the Buddhist faith. (ATC, p.50) 550 nend Persians reasserted control over all of what is now Afghanistan. Revolts by various Afghan tribes followed. (www.afghan-web.com/history/) 550 577 The Northern Qi dynasty ruled in China. A wall parallel to the Great Wall in the Jinshanling area is attributed to their rule. (SFC, 2/9/06, p.E4) 550 730 Ancient Turkic people flourished in Mongolia during this period. (Arch, 1/06, p.19) 550 1200 The period of Irish Monasticism. (NGM, 5/77) 552 nend Jul 10, Origin of Armenian calendar. (MC, 7/10/02) 552 nend Aug 5, In Italy snow fell in the town of Panicale in Umbria. The Church of the Virgin of Snows commemorated the rare event. (SFEM, 10/12/97, p.49) 552 nend Agents from Byzantium impersonating monks smuggled silkworms and mulberry leaves out of China in hollow canes. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R50)(Econ, 8/23/08, p.51) 553 578 Moon-Jaguar, the tenth Mayan ruler of Copan, reigned over this period. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.28) 554 nend Aug 14, Ravenna became the seat of the Byzantine military governor in Italy. (MC, 8/14/02) 555 nend Jun 7, Vigilius ended his reign as Catholic Pope (537-555). (PTA, 1980, p.118)(SC, 6/7/02) 556 nend Feb 21, Maximianus van Ravenna, bishop (Basilica S Stefano), died. (MC, 2/21/02) 556 nend Apr 16, Pelagius I began his reign as Catholic Pope. (HN, 4/16/98) c 556 nend Dionysius Exiguus, Scythian monk, died. He devised the current system of reckoning the Christian era. (WUD, 1994, p.405) 558 nend May 7, The dome of the church of St. Sophia in Constantinople collapsed. Its immediate rebuilding was ordered by Justinian. (HN, 5/7/99) 560 nend Emperor Justinian about this time returned the treasure of Jerusalem, plundered by the Romans in 70AD, to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. (SFC, 10/23/06, p.A15) 561 nend Mar 4, Pelagius I, Italian Catholic Pope (556-61), died. (PTA, 1980, p.120) 561 nend Jul, John III was consecrated Pope. (PTA, 1980, p.122) 562 nend Tikal in Guatemala was conquered possibly by the Mayans of Calakmul city in Mexico. Calakmul is one of the largest of Mayan cities with more than 6,000 structures. It was the capital of a widespread hegemony of Lowland Maya kingdoms during the Late Classic (600-900). (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.G)(Arch, 9/00, p.27) 562 nend Mayans from the city of Ah Witz Na, in what is now Belize, conquered Tikal. (SFEC, 6/1/97, p.T3) 563 nend The Irish Catholic monk Columba (Colum Cille) arrived on the Scottish island of Iona. [see 542] (SFC, 2/10/99, p.A10)(AM, 7/01, p.51) 563 594 In northern Peru a 30-year mega el nino weather period began that caused major flooding in areas populated by the Moche people. (PBS, 10/1/06)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moche) 565 nend Aug 22, St. Columba reported seeing a monster in Loch Ness. (MC, 8/22/02) 565 nend Nov 14, Justinian I, [Petrus Sabbatius], Byzantine emperor (527-565), died at age 83. (Baker, 2002) 570 nend Jan 19, Mohammed (d.632), "The Prophet", founder of Islam and speaker in the ?Koran,? was born into the Quraysh tribe in Makkah. He was orphaned at an early age and found work in a trade caravan. He married a wealthy widow and this gave him the freedom to visit Mount Hira each year to think. His birthday is observed on the 12th day of Rabi ul'Awwal, the 3rd month of the lunar calendar, in a festival known as Mawlid-al-Nabi. The Koran was probably not fixed for the 1st two centuries after the emergence of Islam. (ATC, p.59)(SFC, 7/6/98, p.A14)(WSJ, 11/15/01, p.A16)(Econ, 4/28/07,p.97) 573 nend Aug 20, Gregory of Tours was selected as the bishop of Tours. (MC, 8/20/02) 573 nend In Copan the Rosalila structure on the Acropolis culminated a period of intense construction (NG, 12/97, p.92) 574 nend Jul 13, Pope John III died. (PTA, 1980, p.122) 574 nend Prince Shotoku was born in Japan. He later brought the Kongo family from Korea to Osaka and had them build a Buddhist temple. The temple took 15 years to build and the Kongo family became established as the premier temple builders in Japan. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R46) 575 nend Jun 2, Benedict I began his reign as Catholic Pope. (SC, 6/2/02) 578 nend Oct 5, Justinus II, Byzantine emperor (565-78), died. (MC, 10/5/01) 578 nend The family business Kongo Gumi was founded in Japan by a Korean in Osaka to build Buddhist temples. The company continued to flourish in 2004 as general builder. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.104) 579 nend Jul 30, Pope Benedict I died. (PTA, 1980, p.124) 580 nend Pope Pelagius left married priests alone if they kept their wives and children from inheriting church property. (SFC, 3/16/02, p.A3) 580 728 Pallava kings ruled in southern India, later Tamil Nadu state. The port town of Mahabalipuram was the capital of their ancient kingdom. (AP, 9/21/05) 581 618 The Sui Dynasty ruled in China. The "Sui Shu" are the annals of the Sui Dynasty and mention of cormorant fishing in Japan is made. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(SFEC, 8/11/96, Z1, p.6)(NH, 10/98, p.69) 587 nend Nov 28, Treaty of Andelot: King Guntram took cousin Childebert II as heir. (MC, 11/28/01) 590 nend Feb 7, Pelagius II, Gothic Pope (579-90), died from plague. (MC, 2/7/02) 590 nend Sep 3, St. Gregory I began his reign as Pope. Gregory the Great reigned until 604 and established the popes as the de facto rulers of central Italy, and strengthened the papal primacy over the Churches of the West. (CU, 6/87)(MC, 9/3/01) 590 nend Pope Gregory said he spotted an angel atop Hadrian?s Mausoleum. The site was then reconfigured as a fortress called Castel Sant?Angelo. In 1925 it became a national museum. (SSFC, 5/1/05, p.F8) 590 nend Pope Gregory I revised an earlier list to form the more common Seven Deadly Sins, by folding sorrow/despair into acedia, vainglory into pride, and adding extravagance and envy, while removing fornication from the list (Anger, Envy, Gluttony, Greed, Lust, Pride, Sloth). In the order used by both Pope Gregory and by Dante Alighieri in his epic poem The Divine Comedy, the seven deadly sins are as follows: 1. luxuria (extravagance/lust) 2. gula (gluttony) 3. avaritia (avarice/greed) 4. acedia (acedia/discouragement/sloth) 5. ira (anger/wrath) 6. invidia (envy) 7. superbia (pride). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_deadly_sins) 592 710 The Asuka Period of Japanese history. (www.japan-101.com) 593 622 The Regency of Prince Shotoku on Japan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 594 nend In Peru a 30-year drought began about this time that followed years of flooding in areas populated by the Moche people. (PBS, 10/1/06)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moche) 598 658 Chu Suilang: Tang Dynasty calligrapher. (SFC, 5/14/03, p.D1) 600 nend Feb 16, Pope Gregory the Great decreed "God bless You" as the religiously correct response to a sneeze. (MC, 2/16/02) 600 nend Li Shimin, son of Chinese General Li Yuan (the Duke of Tang), was born about this time. (ON, 5/06, p.1) 600 nend Yang Di (Yangdi), a Sui emperor, extended the Grand Canal. He reportedly assumed power by poisoning his father. Ma Shu-mou, aka Mahu, was one of the canal overseers and was said to have eaten a steamed 2-year-old child each day he worked on the canal. On completion the canal extended for 1,100 miles. 5.5 million people were pressed into service to complete 1,550 mile canal. (WSJ, 10/25/99, p.A50)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R51) 600 nend Quill pens, made from the outer feathers of crows and other large birds, became popular. The 1st books were printed in China. (SFC, 7/26/04, p.F4) c 600 nend Small porkers came to Hawaii with the Polynesians some 1400 years ago, and big pigs arrived with the Europeans. (WSJ, 7/25/95, p.A-6) c 600 nend Early settlers from the Marquesas built the Alakoko fishpond and taro fields on Kauai, Hawaii. (SFEC, 8/29/99, p.T6) c 600 nend The Joya de Ceren Maya site in El Salvador was buried beneath 16 feet of ash from nearby Loma Caldera. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.D) 600 nend Germanic invaders, who occupied England after 600AD, saw themselves as a nation of immigrants, according to Prof. Nicholas Howe (1953-2006) of UC Berkeley, author of ?Migration and Mythmaking in Anglo-Saxon England? (1989). (SFC, 10/16/06, p.B6) c 600 nend The Navigatio Sancti Brendani Abbatis (Voyage of St. Brendan the Abbott) recounts a 7-year trip to a land across the sea by the Irish saint and a band of acolytes about this time. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.24) c 600 625 The burial site of the Prince of Prittlewell, an East Saxon prince or king, dated to about this time. (www.southend.gov.uk/content.asp?content=3686) 600 700 The Tantras, Buddhist texts for generating deep religious experiences, were produced in India. (SFEC,12/14/97, p.T5) c 600 700 King Songstan Gampo reigned over Tibet in the 7th century. He introduced Buddhism and started construction of the Potala Palace and Jokhang Temple. He married the Chinese princess Wen Cheng. (WSJ, 8/2/01, p.A12) 600 700 The library at Alexandria, Egypt, disappeared in the 7th century. (WSJ, 6/1/00, p.A1) 600 700 In the seventh century the Frisians clashed with the Franks and resisted Christianity, but succumbed to Frankish rule and accepted Christianity a century later. Citizens of the Netherlands?s province of Friesland are still called Frisians and the Frisian language is still spoken there. (HNQ, 3/5/00) 600 700 Irish monastic monks founded a monastery at Skellig Michael (Michael?s Rock) during the 7th century and for the next 600 years the island was a center of their monastic life. In 1996 UNESCO listed it as a World Heritage Site. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skellig_Michael)(Econ, 9/12/09, p.94) c 600 700 St. Willibrord, an Irish missionary, spread Christianity in the region of Luxembourg. (SFC, 9/1/96, T3) 600 700 Calinicus (Callinicus), an engineer from Heliopolis, Syria, is thought to have brought "Greek fire," (flammable petrochemicals) to Constantinople. The incendiary liquid could be fired from siphons toward enemy ships or troops. The weapon helped save the Byzantine Empire from Islamic conquest for several centuries. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.57)(NH, 10/98, p.24) 600 700 The Caracol Maya site in Belize was one of the most prosperous cities in the pre-Columbian world with some 120,000 people in a 65-square-mile metropolis. It has the 140-foot-high platform Caana, or "Sky-Place. " (SFC, 4/26/97, p.E4) 600 700 The martial art of "tie-kwan-doe" (kick-strike-art) was developed as part of the military training for young noblemen charged with protecting the kingdoms of what became Korea. (WSJ, 10/3/97, p.A1) 600 700 In Vietnam Hoi An was a port site of the Cham kingdoms of central Vietnam. It may date back to the 2nd century BC. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.H) 600 800 In 2003 evidence of an Indian village was found at an Illinois site some 35 miles east of St. Louis, that dated to the Late Woodland period. (SFC, 4/21/03, p.A6) c 600 800 Irish monks began to seek solace in Iceland. (NH, 6/96, p.53) 600 800 Polynesian seafarers 1st landed on Easter Island, 1400 miles from the coast of South America. They later carved nearly 900 colossi of compressed volcanic ash: the moai. In 1722 A Dutch explorer stopped by on Easter Sunday. It later became a possession of Chile. (WSJ, 2/8/02, p.W11C) c 600 850 Late Classic Mayan paintings were found at a site in eastern Chiapas, Mexico, named "Bonampak," (painted walls). (AM, May/Jun 97 p.35) 600 900 Late classic period of the Maya. The San Andres site in El Salvador flourished during the late classic. The El Tajin civilization thrived on the central coast of what became Mexico. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.BC)(SFC, 9/14/00, p.C8) 600 900 A three hundred year dynasty ruled over Palenque. In the Pyramid of Inscriptions is the tomb of Pakal, the greatest king of the dynasty. (SFC, 5/19/96, T-9) 600 1200 In Malaysia ceramic shards at Kampong Sungai Mas in the Bujang Valley date to this time. Brick foundations and a block of shale with a Buddhist mantra inscribed in Sanskrit was also found. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.F) 600 1600 Burma entries under Myanmar. Pagan was the seat of Burma?s greatest dynasty and the site shows the remains of more than 7,000 temples and monuments of this period. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.F) 604 nend Mar 12, Gregory I the Great (64), Pope (590-604), died. In 1997 R.A. Markus authored ?Gregory the Great and His World.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I)(WSJ, 4/12/08, p.W8) 604 nend In Japan a 17 article constitution was promulgated by Prince Shotoku (574-622). It was a Confucian document that focused more on ethics and virtue than on the basic laws by which the state was to be run. [see 702] (www.theosophy.org/tlodocs/teachers/PrinceShotoku.htm) 604 617 King Saebert of Essex reigned in England. St. Mellitus converted him to Christianity. (www.earlybritishkingdoms.com/kids/prittlewell_prince.html) 607 nend Mar 13, The 12th recorded passage of Halley's Comet occurred. (HN, 3/13/98) 607 nend The first envoy from Japan was sent to China. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 609 nend May 13, Pope Boniface I turned Roman Pantheon into Catholic church. (MC, 5/13/02) 610 nend Apr 6, Lailat-ul Qadar: The night that the Koran descended to Earth. Muhammad is believed by his followers to have had a vision of Gabriel. The angel told him to recite in the name of God. Other visions are supposed to have Gabriel lead Muhammad to heaven to meet God, and to Jerusalem to meet Abraham, Moses and Jesus. These visions convinced Mohammad that he was a messenger of God. (ATC, p.59)(MC, 4/6/02) 610 nend Oct 5, Heraclitus' fleet took Constantinople. (MC, 10/5/01) 610 632 A Muslim tradition has it that Mohammed one day found that his favorite wife, Aisha, had purchased some cushions decorated with birds and animals. The prophet proclaimed that only God could bestow life and that pale imitations should be avoided. Thus the hadith, or tradition of the prophet, holds that: The house which contains pictures will not be entered by the angels." (WSJ, 7/22/96, p.A12) 610 632 During Mohammed?s ministry in Mecca and Medina the definition of jihad moved from persuasive proselytism to Muslim war against all infidels. (WSJ, 10/10/01, p.A10) 610 641 Heracles ruled the Byzantine Empire. (ATC, p.69) 611 nend In Cambodia at Angkor Borei the earliest known Khmer inscription dates to this time. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.D) 614 nend Croats settled in the area between the Adriatic Sea and the rivers Sava and Drava. (WSJ, 7/14/99, p.A23) 614 nend Christian Palestine was invaded by the Persians. The 5th century monastery of St. Theodosius east of Beit Sahour near Bethlehem was destroyed by the Persians. The Jews of Jerusalem allied with the Persians during the invasion and entered into the cave beneath the tomb of Christ in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. (SFEC, 12/22/96, p.T3)(WSJ, 4/5/02, p.W12)(SFC, 10/23/06, p.A15) 615 nend May 8, St. Boniface IV ended his reign as Catholic Pope. (MC, 5/8/02) 615 nend May 25, Boniface IV, Pope (608-15), died. (SC, 5/25/02) 615 nend Nov 23, Columbanus, Irish explorer, monastery founder, poet and saint (Poenitentiale), died (aka St. Columba). (MC, 11/23/01) 615 nend Yang Di (Yangdi), a Chinese Sui emperor, announced a 4th attempt to conquer Korea. In response to peasant rebellions in the north, Yangdi moved to the eastern city of Yangzhou. (ON, 5/06, p.1) 615 nend Pakal (12) became the Mayan ruler of Palenque. His reign ended with his death in 683. (SSFC, 12/7/03, p.C10)(WSJ, 9/16/04, p.D12) 617 nend Jun, Chinese general Li Yuan (the Duke of Tang) declared his rebellion and ordered the Tang army to prepare a march against Chang?an (later Xian), capital of China and the world?s largest city. (ON, 5/06, p.2)(Econ, 3/15/08, p.101) 617 nend Dec 12, The Chinese city of Chang?an fell to the Tang army. (ON, 5/06, p.2) 617 1279 The Tang Dynasty unified China. (ATC, p.69) 618 nend Apr, General Li Yuan, the Duke of Tang, claimed the throne of China after receiving word that Emperor Yangdi had been assassinated in the city of Yangzhou. Yuan proclaimed himself Emperor Gaozu, the 1st monarch of the new Tang dynasty. (ON, 5/06, p.3) 618 907 The Tang Dynasty was in China. The marble head of Eleven-headed Avalokiteshvara dates to the Tang period. Porcelain was invented during the T?ang dynasty. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(NH, 7/96, p.32)(WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20)(WSJ,8/28/98, p.W10) 618 907 The area of Tiananmen Square was first cleared. (SFC, 6/25/98, p.A8) 619 nend Li Shimin led his armies against 2 warlords in northern China. (ON, 5/06, p.3) 620 nend Aug 22, This day corresponds to the 27th day of Rajab, 1427, in the Islamic calendar. It commemorates to the night flight of Muhammad on the winged horse Buraq to the farthest mosque, usually identified with Jerusalem, and then to heaven and back. (WSJ, 8/8/06, p.A10)(www.atheists.org/Islam/mohammedanism.html) 620 nend In northern China Gen?l. Li Shimin (~20) attacked Luoyang, which was held by the warlord Wang Shichong. (ON, 5/06, p.3) 620 nend The town of Cholula was founded in central Mexico. It was later said to be the oldest continuously occupied town in all of North America. (SSFC, 2/26/06, p.F10) 620 nend Mohammad gained about a hundred converts including some wealthy Meccan families. This made other Meccans hostile. Mohammad in this year dreamed of being transported from Mecca to the Rock of Mariah in Jerusalem, from which he ascended into heaven and received instructions from God for himself and his followers. (ATC, p.59)(ON, 7/03, p.6) 621 nend Mar, In China a force of 120,000 men from Xia province advanced to rescue the city of Luoyang. (ON, 5/06, p.3) 621 nend May 28, In China Dou Jiande, general of the Xia army, was wounded and captured by the Tang army under Gen?l. Li Shimin at Hulao Pass. 3,000 Xia were killed and 50,000 were taken prisoners. The city of Luoyang soon surrendered. Xia province surrendered in turn. (ON, 5/06, p.4) 622 nend Jul 16, Islamic Era began. Mahomet began his flight from Mecca to Medina (Hegira). (MC, 7/16/02) 622 nend Sep 20, Prophet Mohammed Abu Bakr arrived in Jathrib (Medina). (MC, 9/20/01) 622 nend Sep 24, In the Hegira Muhammed left Mecca for Medina (aka Yathrib) with 75 followers. This event marked the beginning of the Islamic lunar calendar. The new faith was called "Islam," which means submission to Allah. Believers in Islam are called Muslims-- "Those who submit to Allah?s will." In Medina Mohammad tried to unite the Jews and Arabs and initially faced Jerusalem to pray. The Jewish leaders did not accept Mohammad as a prophet and so Mohammad expelled from the city the Jews who opposed him. From then on he commanded the Muslims to face the Kaaba in Mecca when praying. (V.D.-H.K.p.19)(ATC, p.60) 623 658 The first state of the Slavs living on the Middle Danube was Samo's Realm, a tribal confederation existing between 623 and 658. It encompassed the territories of Moravia, Slovakia, Lower Austria, Carantania, Sorbia at the Elbe, and probably also Bohemia, which lies between Sorbia and other parts of the realm. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Moravia) 622 nend The Constitution of Medina was drafted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad about this time. It constituted a formal agreement between Muhammad and all of the significant tribes and families of Yathrib (later known as Medina), including Muslims, Jews, and pagans. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Medina) 624 nend Muslims engaged non-believers for the 1st time at the Battle of Badr (www.islaam.com/Article.aspx?id=128) 624 628 Several Jewish clans in the Arabian peninsula joined forces with an Arab tribe, the Quraysh, to make war on a renegade Qurayshi named Mohammad, who claimed he was a prophet of God. (Econ, 8/14/10, p.68) c 625 nend Raedwald, king of the East Angles and high king of the English peoples, was buried about this time. (Arch, 7/02, p.61) 626 nend Aug 7, Battle at Constantinople: Slavs, Persians and Avars were defeated. Emp. Heraclius repelled the attacks. The attacks began in 625. (PCh, 1992, p.60)(MC, 8/7/02) 626 nend In China Gen?l. Li Shimin foiled an assassination attempt by 2 brothers. He ambushed his older brother, Jianchen, killing him him with a bow and arrow, and became the oldest son and crown prince. Li Yuan abdicated 2 months later and Shimin became the new ruler under the name Emperor Taizong. (ON, 5/06, p.4) 627 nend Byzantine Emperor Heraclius defeated the Persian army and regained Asia Minor, Syria, Jerusalem and Egypt. (ATC, p.45) 628 nend Apr 3, In Persia Kavadh sued for peace with the Byzantines. He handed back Armenia, Byzantine Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine and Egypt. (HN, 4/3/99)(AP, 4/3/99) 628 nend Apr 3, Chosroes II, emperor of Persia (579-628), was murdered by his son. (MC, 4/3/02) 629 nend A Chinese pilgrim reported seeing a 1000-foot reclining Buddha at Bamiyan, Afghanistan. By 2004 the sleeping Buddha had not been seen for several hundred years. [see 632] (SFC, 8/31/04, p.A2) 629 645 Hsuang-Tsang, Chinese pilgrim, journeys over 5,000 miles from China to India and back to collect Buddhist teachings. He recorded fantastic tales of his adventures. (ATC, p.13) 630 nend Mar 21, Heraclius restored the True Cross, which he had recaptured from the Persians. (HN, 3/21/99) 630 nend Mohammad raised an army of 10,000 and took over Mecca (Makkah). He immediately set out to destroy all the idols at Kaaba. The black stone remained embedded in the corner. The area around became the first mosque, or Muslim house of worship. Mohammad returned from Medina and began the Islamic conquest of Arabia. (ATC, p.60)(WSJ, 11/15/01, p.A16) 632 nend Jun 8, Mohammed, the founder of Islam and unifier of Arabia, died. His companions compiled his words and deeds in a work called the Sunna. Here are contained the rules for Islam. The most basic are The Five Pillars of Islam. These are: 1) profession of faith 2) daily prayer 3) giving alms 4) ritual fast during Ramadan 5) Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca. The Sunna also calls for "jihad." The term means struggle, i.e. to do one?s best to resist temptation and overcome evil. Four contenders stood out to succeed Mohammad. They were Abu Bakr, his trusted father-in-law. Umar and Uthman, long-time friends and advisers, and Ali, a cousin and blood relative. Ali was Mohammad?s son-in-law and the father of Mohammad?s grandsons. Abu Bakr was chosen as caliph i.e. successor. (ATC, p.60,63)(HN, 6/8/98)(SFC, 12/15/98, p.A7)(AP, 6/8/03) 632 nend Jun 16, Origin of Persian [Yazdegird] Era. (MC, 6/16/02) 632 nend Hiuan-tsang, an Chinese pilgrim, visited the great Buddhas of Bamiyan, Afghanistan. (WSJ, 12/20/01, p.A13) 633 nend Muhammad?s chief clerk collected Mohammad?s revelations into one work called the Koran (Quran). Loosely translated it means "recitation." "Whoever witnesses the crescent of the month, he must fast the month." (Koran, al Baqarah 2:185) Ramadan begins the day after the crescent of the new moon is sighted and confirmed by 2 witnesses. Muslims must abstain from food and sex during daylight hours for a month to celebrate the revelation of the Koran to Mohammed. The later Sunnah holy text reported the sayings and deeds of Muhammad. The Muslim beard tradition is from the Sunnah. (ATC, p.60)(WSJ, 1/7/97, p.A1)(WSJ, 11/27/01, p.A14) 633 nend Gen Khalid ibn al-Walid sent a letter to the Persian emperor that said: "Submit to our authority and we shall leave you and your land and go against others. If not, you will be conquered against your will by men who love death as you love life." (WSJ, 10/19/01, p.W19) c 633 nend Nikbanou, a 7th century Persian Zoroastrian princess, fled to a mountain refuge at Chak to escape Arab horsemen planting the green pennants of Islam in Iranian soil. (AP, 7/15/04) 633 nend The 4th Synod of Toledo took on the right to confirm elected kings. Jews were obliged to be baptized. The vernacular language, of Latin origin, prevailed over that of the Visigoths. (www.sispain.org/english/history/visigoth.html) 634 nend Aug 22, Abu Bekr Abd Allah (61), [al-Siddik], successor of Mohammed, died. He was a friend, an Arabic merchant, Mohammed?s father-in-law and the first Caliph. Before his death he appointed Mohammed's adviser Omar (Umar) as his successor. (ATC, p.66)(PC, 1992, p.61) 634 nend Sophronius (74), Christian monk, was elected patriarch and political ruler of Jerusalem. (ON, 7/03, p.3) 635 nend Damascus was captured by the Muslims. (ATC, p.78) 636 nend Summer, A Byzantine army arrived in the region of Jerusalem and was defeated by a much smaller Muslim army at the Yarmuk River. With Muslims at the gate Sophronius, head of Jerusalem, requested a meeting with Caliph Omar. (ON, 7/03, p.5) 636 nend Jul 23, Arabs gained control of most of Palestine from Byzantine Empire. (MC, 7/23/02) 636 nend Aug 15, At the Battle at Yarmuk, east of the Sea of Galilee, Islamic forces beat a Byzantine army and gained control of Syria. (PC, 1992, p.61) 636 nend Nov 1, Nicholas Boileau-Despreaux, French poet, was born. He was also a critic and official royal historian and wrote "Lutrin. " (HN, 11/1/99) 637 nend Ctesiphon, a center of Christianity southeast of Baghdad, was taken by Arabs, who renamed it Madain. (SFC, 3/31/03, p.W5) 637 nend Muslim armies conquered Mesopotamia. (ATC, p.78) 638 nend cJan, Sophronius met with Caliph Omar and obtained a set of guarantees and regulations that came to be known as "the Covenant of Omar." (ON, 7/03, p.3) 638 nend Mar 11, Sophronius of Jerusalem, saint, patriarch of Jerusalem, died. (MC, 3/12/02) 638 nend Arabs conquered the city of Hebron. They allowed the Jews to build a synagogue near Abraham?s burial site. (SFC, 12/4/08, p.A27) 640 nend Muslim Arabs invaded Armenia and capture Dvin, its principal town. (CO Enc. / Armenia) 640 nend The Muslim government began minting coins about this time. (ATC, p.83) 641 nend Feb 11, Heraclius (~65), emperor of Byzantium (610-641), died. (MC, 2/11/02) 642 nend Sep 17, Arabs conquered Alexandria and destroyed the great library. Omar, the second caliph, successor of Mohammed, conquered Alexandria, then the capital of world scholarship. (V.D.-H.K.p.103)(MC, 9/17/01) 642 nend The Arabs conquered the Sassanids. (ATC, p.33) 642 nend Pope Theodore I began using the title ?Patriarch of the West.? In 2006 the Vatican took the unusual step of explaining its decision to renounce the title, saying the omission of "patriarch of the West," from the new edition of the Annuario Pontificio, the Vatican's 2,373-page directory of prelates, should benefit relations with the Orthodox Church, not hinder them. (AP, 3/23/06) 644 nend Nov 4, Umar of Arabia, the 2nd Caliph of Islam, was assassinated at Medina and was succeeded as caliph by Uthman. On his deathbed Umar named a council to choose the next caliph. The council appointed Uthman. Uthman continued to expand the Muslim empire. [see Dec 8] (ATC, p.67)(HN, 11/4/98)(MC, 11/4/01) 644 nend Dec 8, Omar I, 2nd caliph of Islam, was murdered. [see Nov 4] (MC, 12/8/01) 645 nend Downfall of the Soga Clan in Japan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 649 nend May 14, Theodore, Greek Pope (642-49), excommunicated by Paul II, died. (MC, 5/14/02) 649 nend Jul 5, St. Martin I began his reign as Pope. (MC, 7/5/02) 650 nend The Khazars? aggressive territorial expansion drove some Bulgars westward. These Bulgars soon founded a kingdom in the southeastern Balkans that became known as Bulgaria. (TJOK, 1999, p.16) c 650 nend An early Mayan classic temple in Copan was closed and covered about this time. Ritual items of flint knives and stingray spines was later discovered. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.28) c 650 nend The first pyramid of the Teotihuacan culture was built in Cholula. Over the next 800 years a nested series of 4 pyramids were constructed. The most important and largest city of pre-Colombian central Mexico, the Nahuatl meaning of Teotihuacan was "Where Men Become Gods" or "The City of Gods." Just north of Mexico City, Teotihuacan was planned at about the beginning of the Christian era and was sacked and burned by invading Toltecs in 650 CE. (SFEC, 11/8/98, p.T10)(HNQ, 4/24/99) 650 700 In northern Peru archeological evidence later indicated that civil strife during this period, which followed some 30 years of drought, led to the demise of the Moche civilization. (PBS, 10/1/06)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moche) 650 750 In Mexico the Teotihuacan culture began declining and was almost abandoned by the end of this period. (SFC, 10/22/98, p.C2) c 650 850 The alliterative epic poem Beowulf was composed at least 100 years before the manuscript was written. It was written in the 8th century. In 1999 Seamus Heaney wrote a new translation of the old English tale of a Scandinavian warrior who kills a trio of monsters including Grendel. In the Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf, the hero of the Geats people, mortally wounds the monster Grendel--who has been terrorizing the court of the king of Danes--by tearing off one of his arms with his bare hands. Based on folk tales known to the Anglo-Saxons prior to their invasion of England, the work is made up primarily of pagan myths and legends. The poem is believed to date from the late seventh or early eighth century and the only surviving text, now in the British Museum, dates from about 1000 A.D. (WUD, 1994, p.140)(WSJ, 2/24/00, p.A16)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R53)(HNQ,1/10/02) 651 nend In Persia Yazdegird III, the last Sassanian king, was murdered. (WSJ, 2/2/00, p.A24) 652 nend Arabs introduced Islam to Afghanistan. (www.afghan-web.com/history/) 654 nend A Saxon monk founded St. Botolph?s Town in England. The name gradually changed to Boston. (SFC, 8/12/00, p.B3) 656 nend In Saudi Arabia Uthman (Othman), the 3rd caliph, was murdered. Under his rule a full, standard text of the Quran was compiled. He had appointed members of his own family as regional governors and caused bitter jealousy among other families. This caused an angry mob of 500 to murder him. This gave Ali an opportunity to claim power. Some claim that Ali plotted Uthman?s murder. Civil war broke out. Muawija, Uthman?s cousin and governor of Syria, challenged Ali?s right to rule. Ali prepared for war but was murdered by an angry former supporter. The followers of Ali became known as Shiites from the Arabic meaning "the party of Ali." Those who believe that the election of the first three caliphs was valid and who claim to follow the Sunna reject the Shiite idea of the Imam, and are called the Sunnis. (ATC, p.67-68)(WSJ, 1/12/08, p.A6) 656 nend The Imam Ali mosque in Najaf marks the grave of Ali, the son-in-law of Mohammed and a central figure in Shiite Islam. (SFC, 4/23/98, p.A16) 657 nend Jun 2, St. Eugene I ended his reign as Catholic Pope. (SC, 6/2/02) 657 nend Jul 26, Mu'awiyan defeated Caliph Ali in the Battle of Siffin in Mesopotamia. (HN, 7/26/98) 658 nend Hirafu Abe went to meet with the Ainu on Hokkaido after he had defeated an indigenous tribe called Emishi in the northeast region of Honshu. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 217) 661 nend Jan 27, Ali ibn Abu Talib, caliph of Islam (656-61), was murdered in Kufa, Iraq. Caliph Ali, son-in-law of Mohammed, was assassinated and his followers (Shiites) broke from the majority Muslim group. A member of the anarchist sect of Kharajites assassinated Ali. This sect believed that there are no verdict?s but God?s. (SFC, 3/16/02,p.A14)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib)(SSFC, 6/30/02,p.M6)(http://tinyurl.com/44dtom) 661 nend Muawija became caliph. He moved the capital from Medina to Damascus. His followers were called the Umayyads. Muawija was one of the soldiers who helped capture Damascus and for 25 years he had served as governor of Syria. Muawija began the practice of appointing his own son as the next caliph, and so the Umayyads ruled for the next 90 years. Muslim forces expanded into North Africa and completely conquered Persia. The Islamic Empire continued to expand into Afghanistan and Pakistan. After the Omayyad Caliphs conquered Damascus, they build the palace at Qasr Al-Kharaneh (in Jordan) as a recreational lodge. (ATC, p.67,78)(SFEC, 4/11/99, p.9) 662 nend Aug 13, Maximus Confessor (b.c580), Greek theologian, died. (MC, 8/13/02) 662 nend By 2004 Simon Martin, Mayan scholar, worked out an almost day-by-day account of events from this year in the plain of Tabasco, Mexico. (Econ, 5/22/04, p.79) 668 nend Jul 15, Constantine II (37), emperor of Byzantium, died. (MC, 7/15/02) 668 1392 In Korea the Silla Kingdom united the peninsula and began the Koryo Dynasty from which Korea derived its name. (SFC, 7/26/97, p.E3) 669 nend Theodore, a native of Tarsus in Cilicia, arrived in England to take over the See of Canterbury under the direction of Pope Vitalian. He was well received everywhere and was the first Archbishop whose authority the whole English Church was willing to acknowledge. (www.britannia.com/bios/abofc/theodore.html) c 670 nend A Japanese inventor based the first design of a folding fan on the structure of a bat?s wing. (SFEC, 8/3/97, Z1 p.2) c 672 nend The Venerable Bede (d.735), Beda Venerabilis, English speaking church historian, was born. (WSJ, 10/22/03, p.D12) 676 nend Cairo was built by the Arabs only 1300 years ago. The name comes from the Egyptian "El Qahir," the name of the planet Mars. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.165)(SFEC, 8/17/97, Z1 p.2) 678 nend Jun 27, St. Agatho began his reign as Catholic Pope. (SC, 6/27/02) 680 nend Oct 10, Imam Hussein, grandson of prophet Mohammed, was beheaded. He was killed by rival Muslim forces on the Karbala plain in modern day Iraq. He then became a saint to Shiite Muslims. Traditionalists and radical guerrillas alike commemorate his martyrdom as the ceremony of Ashura. The 10-day mourning period during the holy month of Muharram commemorates the deaths of Caliph Ali?s male relatives by Sunnis from Iraq. Shiites went on to believe that new leaders should be descendants of Mohammad and Ali. Sunnis went on to vest power in a body of Muslim scholars called the ulema. (SFC, 3/16/02, p.A14)(SFC, 2/24/06,p.A15)(http://countrystudies.us/iraq/15.htm) 681 nend Bulgaria?s 1st kingdom was established. (WPR, 3/04, p.28) 682 nend Aug 17, Leo II, later St. Leo, began his reign as Catholic Pope. (SC, 8/17/02) 682 721 Ah Cacaw (Lord of Cocoa) ruled over Tikal (later Guatemala) during this period. His burial tomb was later found deep inside the 145-foot high Temple of the Great Jaguar. (SFEM, 6/13/99, p.8) 683 nend Pacal, Mayan ruler of Palenque, died. His sarcophagus, found in 1952, has the intricately carved lid later suggested to represent an extra-terrestrial visitor. (SSFC, 5/5/02, p.C5)(WSJ, 9/16/04, p.A1) 683 685 Khazars invaded Transcaucasia and inflicted much damage and stole much booty. The Khazar invaders killed the rulers of Armenia and Georgia. (TJOK, p.159) 684 nend Jun 26, Benedict II (d.685) was consecrated as Pope. (PTA, 1980, p.162) 684 702 Mayan leader Kan Balam II, son of Pakal, ruled over Palenque. (SSFC, 12/7/03, p.C10) 685 nend May 8, St. Benedict II ended his reign as Catholic Pope. (MC, 5/8/02) 685 nend May 21, Battle at Nechtansmere: Picts trounced the Northumbrians. (MC, 5/21/02) 685 nend In China a manual on calligraphy was made. It summarized the aesthetic ideals and theories of Chinese writing. (SFEC, 10/6/96, DB p.37) 685 705 Abd al Malik, Umayyad caliph, influenced the shaping of Islamic culture. He declared Arabic as the official language of the empire and established a common coinage system that was purely Arabic. They had no images but were inscribed with quotations from the Koran. (ATC, p.83) 686 nend Aug 2, John V, 1st Greek-Syrian Pope (685-86), died. (MC, 8/2/02) 687 714 Pepin II united and ruled the Franks. (ATC, p.51) 688 nend North Africa was conquered by the Muslims under Abd al Malik. (ATC, p.83) 691 nend Muslims built the Dome of the Rock mosque in Jerusalem. It contained inscriptions that later were held as the 1st evidence of the Koran. (SFC, 3/2/02, p.A15)(WSJ, 5/20/06, p.P16) 694 nend Nov 9, Spanish King Egica accused Jews of aiding Moslems and sentenced them to slavery. (MC, 11/9/01) c 696 nend Feng Du, a 1,300-year-old Tang dynasty city near the Yangtze River gorges, known as the city of ghosts. (WSJ, 10/8/96, p.A20) c 697 nend The last major earthquake occurred in the Salt Lake City region of Utah about this time. A major quake hits the region about every 1300 years. (SFEC, 4/6/97, p.C13) 697 nend In Ireland an assembly was called at the hill of Tara to put an end to the participation of Irish women in battle. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.11) 699 nend Li Po (d.762), classical Chinese poet, was born. His poems included "Drinking Alone With the Moon." (SFC, 10/30/03, p.A26) 699 nend En no Ozunu appeared in the official Japanese national log of events or the 'Shoku Nihongi.' It is in this year that En was banished from society, following the charge that he "misused his magical powers to control people." It is believed that En No Gyoja was historically known as En no Ozunu. The Japanese ascetic En-no-Gyoja founded the Shugendo religion on Mount Omine (5,640 feet). He blended aspects of tantric Buddhism, Shintoism, Taoism, Confucianism and Japanese shamanism. (SSFC, 10/2/05, p.E4)(http://tinyurl.com/8s4gm) c 700 nend The mound building Caddo culture began flourishing in the Texas and Oklahoma area. It lasted to the mid-18th cent. (AM, Vol. 48, No. 3) c 700 nend Nov 1, The Celts of Ireland, Great Britain and northern France celebrated Oct. 31 to Nov 2 as their New Year from around 1000-500BC. The pagan harvest event incorporated masks to ward off evil ones, as dead relatives were believed to visit families on the first evening. The Catholic holiday of All Saints' Day, set for Nov. 1, was instituted around 700 CE to supplant the Druid holiday and Pope Gregory (731-741) made it official. Halloween was transplanted to the US in the 1840s. [see 835] (WSJ, 10/28/99, p.A24)(WSJ, 10/29/99, p.W17) c 700 nend Abd al Malik issued the first pure Islamic coins. (ATC, p.83) c 700 nend The Chinese gained control over Manchuria from the Koreans about this time. (WSJ, 10/9/95, p.A-1) c 700 nend Trade along the coast of East Africa expanded and promoted the founding of such settlements as Kismayu, Mogadiscio, Gedi, Malindi, Mombasa, Kilwas and others. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.169) c 700 nend In Mexico the Zapotec city of Monte Alban was abandoned about this time. (SFEC, 10/3/99, p.A24) c 700 nend The Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet, was constructed. It became the traditional home of the Dalai Lama. (SSFC, 10/5/03, p.D2) 700 800 King Offa decreed that an earthen barrier be built along the border between Wales and his kingdom of Mercia. Llwybr Clawdd Offa opened as a hiking trail in 1971. (SSFC, 4/7/02, p.C10) 700 800 In Bulgaria the Madara Horseman in Kaspichan was carved into a sandstone cliff. (SFEC, 8/28/98, p.T4) 700 800 The Catholic Church changed its rules on fasting and allowed fish to be eaten on Fridays and during Lent. (NH, 5/96, p.58) c 700 800 Dionysus Exiguus (Dennis the Short), a Catholic monk, created a chronology for Pope St. John I with a calendar that began in the year CE 1. (SFEC,11/16/97, BR p.5) 700 800 In Bhutan the Taktsang monastery was founded by tantric master Padmasambhava, often described as "another Buddha." (SFEC, 2/23/96, p.T5) 700 800 According to Iraqis Muslim forces "liberated" Iraq from the Persians in the 8th century qadissiyah battle. (SFC, 2/1/02, p.A18) 700 800 Escaped slaves called the Zanj took refuge from the early Islamic empire in the marshes of southern Iraq. (SSFC, 12/28/03, p.A6) 700 800 The Tanka (short song) poetry form emerged in Japan about this time. The unrhymed verse formalized to 31 syllables arranged in a 5 line pattern of 5-7-5-7-7. In 2005 it became popular on cell phones. (WSJ, 10/4/05, p.A1) 700 800 In Japan a priest in the 8th century discovered the mineral hot springs at Yamashiro Onsen. (WSJ, 7/19/05, p.A1) 700 800 The village site of Galu, Kenya, produced the world?s oldest crucible steel. (NH, 6/97, p.44) 700 800 The Bonampak site in Chiapas, Mexico, has frescoes painted on the stucco walls of Structure I from this time. They depict war, sacrifice and celebration. The name glyph for Shield Jaguar II, king of nearby Yaxchilan, was recognized. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.F)(AM, May/Jun 97 p.37) 700 800 Invading Slavs assimilated the Thracians in the area of modern Bulgaria and parts of Greece, Romania, Macedonia and Turkey. (SFC, 8/17/05, p.A2) 700 800 Slav tribes settle into the territories of present-day Slovenia, Bosnia, Croatia, Montenegro and Serbia, and assimilated the Illyrian populations of these regions. The Illyrians in the south averted assimilation. (www, Albania, 1998) 700 800 Vikings settled the Faeroe Islands in the 8th century replacing Irish settlers. In 1948 the group of 18 islands, located between Britain and Iceland, became an autonomous region of Denmark. (SSFC, 7/29/07, p.G8)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faroe_Islands) 700 800 Vikings began arriving to the Orkney Islands. (SFEC, 3/23/97, p.T3) 701 nend Sep 8, Sergius I, Syrian and Italian Pope (687-701), died. (MC, 9/8/01) 702 nend Japan's first civil and penal code was promulgated. [see 604CE] (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 705 nend Mar 1, John VII began his reign as Catholic Pope. (SC, 3/1/02) 705 nend Oct 8, Abd al-Malik, caliph of Damascus, died. (MC, 10/8/01) 708 nend Mar 25, Constantine began his reign as Catholic Pope. (HN, 3/24/98) 708 nend In France Bishop Aubert of Avranches had a dream in which Archangel Michael persuaded him to build an oratory dedicated to the saint on the rock off the Normandy coast known as Mont Tombe. Over the years it grew and became known as Mont St. Michel. (WSJ, 10/7/06, p.P18) 709 nend Apr 24, Wilfried (~76), bishop of York, died. (MC, 4/24/02) 709 nend May 25, Aldhelmus (~69) of Ealdhelm, England, abbot, bishop, poet, saint, died. (SC, 5/25/02) 710 nend The Fujiwara clan established the Kasuga Shrine in Nara, Japan. (Hem, 9/04, p.46) 710 784 The Nara Period of Japan. Japan?s 1st permanent capital arose in the Nara basin. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(Hem, 9/04, p.41) 711 nend Apr 14, Childebert III (~27), king of the French, died. (MC, 4/14/02) 711 nend Jul 19, The Muslim troops crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and defeated the Visigoth king Rodrigo at the battle of Guadalete. Berbers under Tarik-ibn Ziyad occupied Northern Spain. The Umayyads with the help of the Berbers in North Africa moved across the Strait of Gibraltar and began the conquest of Spain and Portugal. The word Gibraltar comes from the term Jabal-al-Tarik, which means the hill of Tarik. Gebel-al-Tarik means "Rock of Tarik." (ATC, p.79)(SFEC, 9/29/96, Z1p.2)(www.sispain.org/english/history/visigoth.html) 711 nend Dec 11, Justitianus II (~42), emperor of Byzantium, died. (MC, 12/11/01) 712 nend The publication of Kojiki in Japan, the Record of Ancient Matters. The work was compiled by the court to strengthen its control over various noble lineages. Fictitious rulers were inserted to project the nation?s founding back to 660BC (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.34) 712 nend Muza ben-Nosair completed the Muslim conquest of Spain. The Visigothic period ended. (www.sispain.org/english/history/visigoth.html) 713 nend In China construction began on the Great Buddha of Leshan under the direction of the monk Haitong. It was completed after 90 years. In 2002 a $30 million restoration project aimed to preserve the 233-foot statue, the largest Buddha in the world. (Arch, 9/02, p.19) 715 nend Apr 9, Constantine I, Greek-Syrian Catholic Pope (708-15), died. (HN, 4/9/98)(MC, 4/9/02) 715 nend May 19, St. Gregory II began his reign as Catholic Pope. (HN, 5/19/98) 718 nend The Japanese inn Hoshi Ryokan was founded in Komatsu. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.104)(SFC, 4/14/06, p.D1) 720 nend The Nihon Shoki (the Chronicle of Japan), the oldest recorded Japanese document, was published. It was compiled by the court to strengthen its control over various noble lineages. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.34)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R46) 721 764 Kinich Ahkal Mo' Nab ruled Palenque. (AM, Jul-Aug/99, p.16) c 722 nend In China a 233-foot Buddha was built in Sichuan province. In 2002 a $30 million restoration project was undertaken. (SFC, 7/4/02, p.A12) 727 nend May 30, Hubertus (72), bishop of Tongeren-Maastricht, saint, died. (MC, 5/30/02) 727 nend Houei-tch?ao, a Korean pilgrim, visited the great Buddhas of Bamiyan, Afghanistan. (WSJ, 12/20/01, p.A13) 729 nend Apr 24, Egbertus (89), English bishop, St. Egbert, died in Iona. (MC, 4/24/02) 729 nend Emperor Leo the Isaurian ordered the destruction of an icon of Christ set in the great Bronze Gate in Constantinople. Theodosia led a group of enraged women who killed the officer removing the image. Theodosia was killed in the forum and became a martyr-saint. Her saint?s day was May 29. (Ot, 1993, p.3) 730 nend Khazar commander Barjik led Khazar troops through the Darial Pass to invade Azerbaijan. At the Battle of Ardabil, the Khazars defeated an entire Arab army. The Battle of Ardabil lasted three days, and resulted in the death of a major Arab general named Jarrah. The Khazars then conquered Azerbaijan and Armenia and northern Iraq for a brief time. (TJOK, pages 160-161) 731 nend Feb 11, Gregory II, Greek-Syrian Pope, died. (MC, 2/11/02) 731 741 Gregory III served as Pope. (WUD, 1994, p.621) 732 nend Oct 10, At Tours, France, Charles Martel killed Yemenite general Abd el-Rahman and halted the Muslim invasion of Europe. Islam's westward spread was stopped by the Franks at the Battle of Tours (also known as the Battle of Poitiers). (http://tinyurl.com/o1uj)(HN,10/10/98) 732 nend Pope Gregory III banned horseflesh from Christian tables after he learned that pagans of northern Europe ate it in their religious rites. (SFC, 5/30/98, p.E4) 735 nend May 26, The Venerable Bede (~62), Beda Venerabilis, English speaking church historian, died. (MC, 5/26/02)(WSJ, 10/22/03, p.D12) 737 nend Marwan, an Arab general, captured the Khazar khagan and forced him to pledge support to the Caliphate and convert to Islam. (TJOK, pages 162-163) 738 nend The great Lord 18 Rabbit built a ball court at the Mayan city of Copan. In a surprise attack he was captured and decapitated by Cauac Sky from the city of Quirigia, some 60 km. to the east. In 1998 Michael D. Coe and Justin Kerr published "The Art of the Maya Scribe," a look at the progress made in decoding the Mayan writing system. (Hem, Dec. 94, p.123)(SFEC, 7/5/98, BR p.10) no_source 738 nend Butz Tiliw? or Cauac Sky defeated his overlord, Copan?s 13th ruler, 18 Rabbit. Monuments to this event are at the Quirigua Maya site in Guatemala. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.F) 739 nend Nov 7, Willibrord (81), [Clemens], 1st bishop of Utrecht (695-739) and saint , died. (MC, 11/7/01) 740 nend Tah ak Chaan (Taj Chan Ank) began a 50 year rule over the city of Cancuen in what later became Guatemala. (SFC, 9/9/00, p.A2)(AM, 7/04, p.16) 740 nend The Virupaksha temple in Pattadakal, an early capital of the Chalukyas of southern India, was built by Queen Lokamahadevi about this time to commemorate her husband's victory over the Pallavas. (http://tinyurl.com/s6lck) 741 nend Jun 18, Leo III de Isaurier, Byzantine Emperor (717-41), died. (MC, 6/18/02) 741 nend Oct 22, Charles Martel of Gaul died at Quiezy. His mayoral power was divided between his two sons, Pepin III and Carloman. (HN, 10/22/98) 741 nend The Arab slave trade was one of the elements that sparked the great Berber rebellion in North Africa and Islamic Spain (http://tinyurl.com/2zrltp). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hisham_ibn_Abd_al-Malik)(Econ, 7/7/07,p.79) 742 nend Apr 2, Charlemagne (d.814), Charles I the Great, King of the Franks and first Holy Roman emperor (800-14), was born. His capital was at Aachen (Acquisgrana in Latin). (V.D.-H.K.p.105)(SFEM, 10/12/97, p.46)(HN, 4/2/98) 743 nend Mar 1, Slave export by Christians to heathen areas was prohibited. (SC, 3/1/02) 743 1194 In France five cathedrals were built on the site of Chartres cathedral over this period. (Hem., 10/97, p.83) 744 nend Lords of the Lowland Maya city of Caracol conducted a burning ritual in the cave at Naj Tunich, in the Peten of Guatemala. (AM, 7/97, p.51) 745 nend Some 200,000 Slovenians, settled in a pocket of the eastern slopes of the Alps, were threatened by the Avars and the Bavarians. For safety they adopted Christianity and accepted the protection of the Frankish emperor (SFC, 5/26/96, T-5) 745 840 The Uighur of eastern Turkestan formed an empire in the north that was ended by an invasion of the Kyrgyz peoples. (www.gobiexpeditions.com) 746 nend Jun 12, The estimated date for the dedication of the Mayan Temple 22 in Copan. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.31) 749 nend An earthquake cause great damage in the area of the Sea of Galilee. (SFC, 6/18/02, p.A2) c 750 nend The Anasazi built entire cities into cliffs around the West since at least this time. Before that they were digging pit houses and even earlier, about 350 B.C., were probably living in Colorado caves. Their present name comes from a Navajo word meaning "the ancient ones" or "the ancient enemy." (HNQ, 7/1/01) 750 nend Constantinople, as the center of eastern rule used the Greek language for communication. (V.D.-H.K.p.65) c 750 nend Arab immigrants settled upstream from Soba, the capital of Alwa, and developed a strong new state called Funj. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.170) c 750 nend Teotihuacan, the 1st major urban center of Mesoamerica, fell about this time. It was burned, deserted and its people scattered. It contained the Pyramid of the Moon and the Pyramid of the Sun. (SSFC, 5/6/01, p.T8) c 750 850 The Maya city of La Milpa reached its peak with about 50,000 people. (SFC, 6/23/96, p.A10) 750 1258 Muslim power in Persia was held by the Abbassid caliphs, who claimed lands that stretched from Central Asia to North Africa and Spain. One Abbasid general, Abdullah, invited 80 Umayyad leaders to a banquet where they were killed by Abdullah?s men. Only one Umayyad, Abd al Rahman, was able to escape. He fled all the way to Spain where he united the warring Muslin groups there and built a new Umayyad government. So now the Muslims were split in two groups. The Abbassid dynasty of the Moslem Empire ruled Arabia and the eastern empire. All of the caliphs of this era claim descended from Abbas, the uncle of Mohammed. (AHD, 1971, p.2)(ATC, p.84)(SFC, 4/12/03, p.A14) 750 1375 The Sican culture flourished on Peru's northern desert coast. In 2006 archaeologists unearthed 22 graves containing a trove of Sican artifacts, including the first "tumi" ceremonial knives ever discovered by archaeologists rather than looted by thieves. (AP, 11/22/06) 751 nend During a raid into central Asia, the Abbasids captured some Chinese artisans skilled in paper making. (ATC, p.89) 751 987 The Frankish dynasty of Pepin the Short began the Carolingian period. (AHD, 1971, p.205) 752 nend Mar 23, Pope Stephen II was elected to succeed Pope Zacharias; however, Stephen died 4 days later. (AP, 3/23/97)(PTA, 1980, p.184) 752 nend Mar 26, Pope Stephen II died 4 days after his election. (SS, 3/26/02)(PTA, 1980, p.184) 752 nend Abu Jafar al Mansur, the second Abbasid caliph, moved the capital to Baghdad. (ATC, p.85) c 752 nend Emperor Shomu built a great Buddhist temple and started a collection from the gifts that were brought to its dedication. Rulers for the next 12 centuries added to the collection. (WSJ, 1/13/98, p.A20) 752 nend The dedication of the Great Buddha of Todai Temple in Nara. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 754 nend Jun 5, Friezen murdered bishop Boniface [Winfrid], English saint, archbishop of Dokkum, and over 50 companions. (MC, 6/5/02) 754 nend The Iconoclasts (image smashers) prevailed and religious art was banned in churches by an edict that remained in effect for a century. (WSJ, 3/10/97, p.A16) 756 nend May 15, Abd-al-Rahman was proclaimed the emir of Cordoba, Spain. Abd al Rahman united the Umayyad forces in Spain and made the ancient Roman city of Cordoba his new capital. (ATC, p.95)(HN, 5/15/98) 757 nend Apr 26, Stephen II ended his reign as Catholic Pope. (HN, 4/26/98) 757 nend May 29, St. Paul I (d.767) began his reign as Catholic Pope. (PTA, 1980, p.188)(SC, 5/29/02) 760 nend May 22, The 14th recorded perihelion passage of Halley's Comet occurred. (MC, 5/22/02) 762 nend Jul 30, A Persian astrologer, selected by caliph al-Mansur (the Victorious), selected this day as propitious for breaking ground for the city of Baghdad. Al-Mansur was one of the founders of the Abassid dynasty. (WSJ, 2/14/09, p.W8) 763 nend Tibetan armies occupied the capital of China. (SFEM, 1/24/99, p.6) 763 nend Altar Q depicts Yax Pasah (Yax Pasaj), Copan?s last dynastic ruler, receiving the symbolic baton of office from founder K?inich Yax K?uk? Mo? in this year. (NG, 12/97, p.80)(AM, 3/04, p.43) 764 770 In Japan Empress Shotoku had a million miniature pagodas made in thanks for regaining control of the throne. Sacred text was placed in each one and distributed to the 10 most important temples. (WSJ, 7/27/00, p.A20) 765 nend Dec 31, The coffin of Ho-tse Shen-hui was interred in a stupa built in China. (MC, 12/31/01) 765 790 The Mayan palace of Cancuen, one of the largest in Guatemala, was built by King Taj Chan Ahk. (AP, 4/23/04) 766 787 The Chinese poet Du Fu arrived in Baidi Cheng and was given the means to write poetry by the local warlord. He wrote a third of his life?s work with many poems in the regulated style called lushi. (NH, 7/96, p.32) 768 nend Sep 24, Pepin the Short (54) of Gaul died. His dominions were divided between his sons Charles (Charlemagne) and Carloman. (PC, 1992, p.67) 768 814 Charlemagne becomes king of the Franks and emperor of the former Western Roman Empire. (V.D.-H.K.p.105)(ATC, p.72) 770 nend The Syrian Orthodox Church of St. Thomas (Mar Toma) was built in Mosul (Iraq). (SFC, 12/24/09, p.A3) 771 nend Dec 4, With the death of his brother Carloman, Charlemagne became sole ruler of the Frankish Empire. (HN, 12/4/98) 771 814 Reign of Charlemagne. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 772 nend Mar 1, Po Tjiu-I (Bai Juyi), Chinese poet (d.846), Governor of Hang-tsjow, was born. His work included the narrative poem "Song of the Pipa," which protested the social evils of his day. (WSJ, 3/17/00, p.W2)(SC, 3/1/02) 774 814 Charlemagne became king of the Lombards. (V.D.-H.K.p.68) 776 nend Al-Jahiz (d.868), Muslim theologian and scholar, was born in Basra about this time. He is credited with writing nearly two hundred works, although fewer than one hundred survive today. His most famous work is Al-Hayawan? (The Book of animals), which merges discussions of zoology with philosophy. (Econ, 2/7/09,p.72)(www.enotes.com/classical-medieval-criticism/al-jahiz) 776 795 Chan Muan (Sky Screech Owl) reigned over the Bonampak site in what is now eastern Chiapas, Mexico. The site was abandoned at the end of his reign. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.35) 778 nend Aug 15, At the Battle at Roncesvalles the Basques beat Charlemagne. (PC, 1992, p.67) 779 nend King Trisong Detsen led Tibet. Under his rule the first Buddhist monastery, Samye, was built. It was built under the influence of Padmasambhava (Guru Rimpoche), Tibet?s greatest saint. Padmasambhava was an 8th century sorcerer and saint who converted Tibet to Buddhism. Legend has it that he dictated "sacred geography" texts to his queen consort and then hid them for future discovery. The texts were discovered by 17th century charismatic lamas. (Hem., 4/97, p.72,75)(SFEC,12/14/97, p.T5)(WSJ, 3/11/99, p.A20) 780 nend A group of West Africans called the Soninke took control of Ghana and developed it into a major trading empire. (ATC, p. 113) 781 nend Yakib ben Laith, a Saffarid prince from an eastern Iranian dynasty, stripped the sanctuaries of Bamiyan, Afghanistan, of their metal idols. (WSJ, 12/20/01, p.A13) 783 nend Jul 12, Bertha "with the great feet", wife of French king Pippin III, died. (MC, 7/12/02) 786 nend Feb 4, Harun al-Rashid succeeded his older brother the Abbasid Caliph al-Hadi as Caliph of Baghdad. (HN, 2/4/99) 786 nend Sep 24, Al-Hadi, Arabic caliph of Islam (185-86), died. (MC, 9/24/01) 786 nend Abd al Rahman began construction of the Great Mosque of Cordoba. It was under construction for 200 years. (ATC, p.95) 787 nend Sep 24, The 2nd Council of Nicaea (7th ecumenical council) opened in Asia Minor. (http://www.malaspina.com/site/person_672.asp) 787 nend Oct 23, Byzantine Empress Irene (c. 752-803) attended the final session of the 2nd church council at Nicaea, Bithynia [now Iznik, a city in Anatolia (now part of Turkey)]. The council formally revived the adoration of icons and reunited the Eastern church with that of Rome. (http://www.malaspina.com/site/person_672.asp) c 791 nend Croats established the principalities of Primortska Hrvatska on the Adriatic coast and Posavska Hrvatska in inland Croatia. (WSJ, 7/14/99, p.A23) 792 nend The first paper making factory in the Islamic Empire was built in Baghdad. (ATC, p.89) 793 nend Jun 8, Vikings raided the Northumbrian coast in England. Corfe served as a center of West Saxon resistance to Viking invaders. Vikings plundered the monastery and St. Cuthbert convent at Lindsfarne (HN, 6/8/98)(AM, 7/00, p.64)(PC, 1992, p.68) 794 nend Aug 10, Fastrada (30), 3rd wife of French king Charlemagne, died. (MC, 8/10/02) 794 nend The capital of Japan was moved from Nara to Kyoto and the new Imperial Palace was built there. It remained there until 1868. (Hem., 2/96, p.57-58)(Hem, 9/04, p.41) 794 1185 The Heian Period in Japan. The kimono originated in this period. Prof. Helen McCullough (d.1998) of UC Berkeley and her husband translated "A Tale of Flowering Fortunes," whose notes and appendixes made it an encyclopedia of Heian court life. She published 11 volumes of studies and translations of classical Japanese poetry that included: "The Tale of the Heike" and "The Great Mirror." (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(SFC, 2/7/97, p.D1)(SFC, 4/23/98, p.B4) 795 nend Taj Chan Ahk, the Mayan ruler of Cancuen (Guatemala), died. (SFC, 11/17/05, p.A17) 795 nend Vikings first raided Ireland. (SFEC, 8/1/99, p.T8) 795 1185 The Heian period was a time of elegant and refined rice papers. (SFC, 5/17/97, p.A20) 796 nend Jul 26, Offa, king of Mercia (in central England), died. (MC, 7/26/02) 796 nend Frankfurt, Germany. This 1200 year old city of 650,000 is the hub of Germany?s banking and business community. (SFC, 5/5/96, p.T-7) 796 nend A 600-pound limestone altar was carved to honor a treaty in the Mayan city of Cancuen (Guatemala). It was uncovered in 2001 and soon stolen. It was retrieved in 2003. (USAT, 10/30/03, p.12D)(SFC, 10/30/03, p.A11) 796 821 Anglo Saxon king Coenwulf of Mercia, ruled a kingdom that covered vast swathes of the English midlands and northern counties to the southeast. In 2001 a metal detector enthusiast discovered a gold coin beside the River Ivel in Bedfordshire, southern England. The 4.25 gram coin depicts Anglo Saxon king Coenwulf of Mercia. (AFP, 2/8/06) c 797 nend The 1,200 year-old Book of Kells, an illuminated manuscript of the Gospels, was made by Irish monks. It was later kept in the library of Dublin?s Trinity College. The Book of Kells is a richly decorated copy of the four gospels--Matthew, Mark, Luke and John--produced by Christian monks, possibly in the late 700s on the Scottish isle of Iona or in the Irish town of Kells. Joyce later used it as a model for Ulysses. (SFC, 3/17/97, p.A20)(HNQ, 1/13/99)(SFEM, 5/16/99, p.7) 799 nend Nov 29, Pope Leo III, aided by Charlemagne, returned to Rome. (MC, 11/29/01) 799 nend Imam Musa ibn Jaafar al-Kadhim (55), one of the 12 principle Shiite saints, died from poisoning in Baghdad. (www.shiachat.com/forum/lofiversion/index.php/t52098.html) c 799 878 St. Ignatius Nicetas. He served as the Patriarch of Constantinople from 846-858 and 867-878. (WUD, 1994 p.708) 800 nend Dec 25, Pope Leo III crowned Frankish warrior-king Charlemagne as heir of the Roman emperors at the basilica of St. Peter's at Rome. (V.D.-H.K.p.105)(Econ, 9/4/10, p.56) c 800 nend England?s King Lear lived about this time. Shakespeare wrote his play ?King Lear? in 1606. (www.rsc.org.uk/lear/current/director.html) c 800 nend The inhabitants of the British Isles did not comb their hair until they were taught by the Danes about this time. (SFC, 6/30/96, Z1 p.5) c 800 nend In Egypt an earthquake sent the Nile port cities of Herakleion, Canopus and Menouthis into the Mediterranean Sea. (SFC, 6/8/01, p.A1) c 800 nend The stone image of Fudo Myo-o, a fierce Japanese deity of fire and thunder was carved by a revered priest in Kyoto about this time. It was transferred to Narita about 940. (Hem, 8/95, p.56) 800 nend About this time unidentified conquerors destroyed the Mayan palace at Cancuen (Guatemala) and killed the members of the court. Archeologists in 2005 reported that King Maax, son of Taj Chan Ahk, was found buried in full regalia. (SFC, 11/17/05, p.A17) c 800 nend The height of the Mayan city of Copan. Some 20,000 people lived in the Copan pocket, a fertile section of the Copan River valley in what is now Honduras. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.29) 800 nend The city of Jenne-jeno on the Niger (Mali) grew to a bustling trade center of about 10,000 people. By 1400 the city was abandoned. (ATC, p.111) c 800 nend The first Polynesians come from somewhere in the central Pacific to New Zealand. These people are called the tangata whenua, which means "people of the land," but are more commonly called in English the moa-hunters, for hunting the large grass-eating, ostrich-like bird. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.196) c 800 900 In England Nennius wrote a history in the early 9th century and mentioned King Arthur as a fabulous figure. (WSJ, 3/27/98, p.W10) c 800 900 The Alawi faith was founded in the 9th century by a Muslim, who declared himself the "gateway" to the divine truth and abandoned Islam. (WSJ, 6/12/00, p.A30) 800 900 Buran, the wife of the Caliph of Baghdad, had a lavish wedding. The groom was led to a carpet of woven gold and 1,000 pearls were poured over his head in honor of a poet who had described the surface of a glass of white wine as: "pearls scattered like pebbles on a plain of gold." (SFC, 12/18/96, zz-1 p.8) 800 900 In northern Bangladesh the Buddhist monastic complex at Paharpur was built by the Pala dynasty. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.B) 800 900 In China the 9th cent. poet Chu Chen Pu wrote about the hedgehog. (NH, 7/98, p.54) c 800 900 "The Diamond Sutra,? a 9th century Chinese work, was found in 1900 in a cave in Duhuang by Sir Airel Stein, a British scholar-explorer, and handed over to the British Library. (SFEC, 6/11/00, p.A30) 800 900 Ninth century monks called Bhutan the hidden world."" " (WSJ, 3/6/97, p.A8) 962 1030 An Islamic era in Afghanistan was established with the Ghaznavid Dynasty. (www.afghan-web.com/history/) 962 1140 Under the Ghaznavid Dynasty Afghanistan became the center of Islamic power and civilization. (www.afghan-web.com/history/) 963 nend Mar 15, Romanus II (25), Byzantine emperor (959-63), died. (MC, 3/15/02) 964 nend Benedict V (d.965), succeeded John XII as Catholic Pope. (PTA, 1980, p.236) 964 nend Arab astronomers described the Great Nebula in Andromeda, our closest galaxy. (V.D.-H.K.p.333) 965 nend Mar 1, Leo VIII, Italian (anti-)Pope (963-65), died. (SC, 3/1/02) 965 nend Jul 4, Benedict V, Catholic Pope, died. (PTA, 1980, p.236) 965 nend Part of Khazaria was conquered by the Kievan Rus prince Svyatoslav. (TJOK, pp. 193-194) no_source 967 nend Nov 20, Aboe al-Faradj al-Isfahani, Arabic author (Book of liederen), died. (MC, 11/20/01) 969 nend Oct 28, After a prolonged siege, the Byzantines ended 300 years of Arab rule in Antioch. (HN, 10/28/98) 967 nend Dec 7, Abu Sa'id ibn Aboa al-Chair, Persian mystic, was born. (MC, 12/7/01) 969 nend Dec 10, Nicephorus II Phocas, Byzantine co-Emperor (963-69), was murdered. (MC, 12/10/01) 969 nend Named El Qahira -"the victorious," Cairo gained power from its position beside the Nile. (NG, May 1985, R. Caputo, p.603) 969 nend By this time the Fatimids had conquered most of North Africa and claimed Cairo as their capital. The Shiites gained control of Egypt. (ATC, p.91)(SSFC, 2/8/04, p.M2) 969 1000 Olaf Tryggvesson, Olav I, King of Norway from 995-1000. (WUD, 1994, p.1002) 971 1030 Machmud of Ghazni, ruler of Afghanistan. He made annual invasions to northern India where he pillaged temples, captured slaves, and transported his goods back by elephant. His library had a large collection of erotic manuscripts and he shared his palace with 400 poets. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 972 nend John I Tzimiskes, the Byzantine Emperor at Constantinople (969-976), granted a charter for the Monastic Republic of Holy Mount Athos in Greece. (SSFC, 10/8/06, p.H1)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_I_Tzimisces) 973 nend Jan 19, Benedict VI was consecrated as Catholic Pope. He succeeded John XIII. (PTA, 1980, p.236) 973 nend May 6, Henry II, German King (1002) and Holy Roman Emperor (1014-1024), was born. (HN, 5/6/98)(MC, 5/6/02) 973 nend Otto I, the Great (b.912), German king and Holy Roman emperor (962-73), died. (AHD, 1971, p.931)(MC, 11/23/01) 974 nend Pope Benedict VI was strangled to death by a priest named Stephen under directions of anti-Pope Boniface Franco, who called himself Boniface VII. (PTA, 1980, p.270) 975 nend Jul 25, Thietmar bishop of Merseburg, German chronicler, was born. (SC, 7/25/02) 975 nend Al-Azhar University in Egypt was founded and became the chief center of Arabic literature and Sunni Islamic learning in the world. As of 2008 it was world's second oldest surviving degree granting university. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Azhar_University) 975 1038 St. Stephen of Hungary. His crown was a fusion of Greek and Latin elements. (WSJ, 11/18/96, p.A10) 976 nend Oct 1, Al-Hakam II, the caliph of Cordoba, died. (MC, 10/1/01) 976 nend Nov 14, T'ai tsu, emperor of China and founder of Sung-dynasty, died. (MC, 11/14/01) 976 nend The Great Mosque of Cordoba (Spain) was completed and served as a religious, social and educational center. The largest of the 70 libraries in Cordoba contained 500,000 volumes. 70,000 books a year were hand-copied to satisfy the citizen?s literary appetites. (ATC, p.95,98) 976 1025 The reign of Basil the Bulgar-Slayer, ruler of Byzantium. [see 330CE] (WSJ, 10/14/95, p.A-12) 977 nend The shrine of Imam Ali, a gold-domed mosque, was built in Najaf, Iraq, on the burial site of Imam Ali, son-in-law of the prophet Mohammed. (SFC, 8/30/03, p.A1) 978 nend Mar 18, Edward the Martyr (15), King of Anglo-Saxons (975-78), was murdered. (MC, 3/18/02) 979 nend Apr 14, There was a challenge to throne of King Aethelred II, the Unrede (Unready), of England (979-1016). He attempted to buy peace with from Scandinavian invaders and called for England?s 1st general tax, the Danegeld. Some 140,000 pounds of silver was paid in tribute. (WSJ, 5/24/01, p.A20)(MC, 4/14/02) 979 nend The Isle of Man parliament, the Tynwald Court, was established. (SSFC, 8/13/06, p.G5) 980 983 Eric the Red was banished from Iceland for a murder. He sailed west and for 3 years explored the rocky land that he named Greenland. (HT, 5/97, p.31) 980 1037 Avicenna (Ibn Sina, Afghan scientist), the Muslim philosopher-scientist, was born in Bukhara (Balkh). He wrote "The Book of Healing," a vast philosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and "The Canon of Medicine," an encyclopedia of the medical knowledge of his time. Both works were translated to Latin and exerted great influence on Scholastics in the West. (www.afghan-web.com/history/)(V.D.-H.K.p.115) 981 nend Adherents to the Jainist faith consecrated a 57-foot statue of their most important siant, Bahubali, in the town of Shravana Belgola, India. (Sm, 3/06, p.23) 982 nend Eric the Red (Eiric Rauthornpi), father of Leif Ericson, discovered Greenland. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.24) 983 nend Dec 7, Otto II the Red (~28), German king and emperor (973-83), died in Italy. Otto III [aged 3] took the throne after his father's death. (HN, 12/7/98)(MC, 12/7/01) 984 nend Eric Thorvaldsson, aka Eric the Red, left Iceland and established his 1st settlement on Greenland. (ON, 12/07, p.5)(www.bookrags.com/Erik_the_Red) c 985 nend Montpellier, France, was founded at the intersection of 3 trade and pilgrimage routes. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R22) 985 1014 The Brihadeshwarar temple was built in southeastern India?s Tamil Nadu state. (WSJ, 10/1/04, p.A10) 985 1200 The Chola Kingdom prospered in southern India. Arts flourished and the economy prospered under expanding trade and military conquests. Ganesha, son of Shiva, was the first god invoked at the beginning of a new enterprise. (WSJ, 10/8/99, p.W14)(WSJ, 10/8/99, p.W14) 986 nend Mar 2, Lotharius (44), King of France (954-86), died. (SC, 3/2/02) 986 nend Eric the Red and his followers began to settle Greenland. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.24) 986 nend Bjarni Herjolfsson sailed from Norway to Iceland with cargo for his father, who had moved on to Greenland. Herjjolfsson was blown off course and reached Labrador, which he described as "worthless country." (NG, V184, No. 4, Oct. 1993, p.4)(WSJ, 7/6/04, p.D5) 987 nend May 21, Louis V, last Carolingian King of France (966-987), died. The Carolingian period of Frankish rule from the dynasty of Pepin the Short ended in France with the death of Louis V (20). [see May 22] (PCh, 1992, p.78)(AHD, 1971, p.205)(MC, 5/21/02) 987 nend May 22, Louis V le Faineant (20), the Lazy, king of France (986-87), was allegedly poisoned by his mother. [see May 21] (MC, 5/22/02) 987 nend Jul 3, The count of Paris, Hugh Capet (49), became king of France. Paris soon emerged as the center of French political, cultural and religious life, once again becoming the capital. (PCh, 1992, p.78)(HNQ, 4/18/02)(MC, 7/3/02) 987 nend Dec 30, French King Hugh Capet crowned his son Robert the Compassionate. (MC, 12/30/01) 988 nend May 6, Dirk II, West Frisian count of Holland, died. (MC, 5/6/02) 988 nend May 19, Dunstanus, English archbishop of Canterbury, died. (MC, 5/19/02) 988 nend Prince Vladimir of Kiev accepted Byzantine Orthodoxy. This is the traditional date for the beginning of Russian Christianity. (DVD, Criterion, 1998)(SSFC, 6/24/01, p.A14) 989 1020 Ani, a medieval city-site situated in the Turkish province of Kars, beside the border with Armenia, attained the peak of its power during the long reign of King Gagik I (989-1020). It was the capital of a medieval Armenian kingdom that covered much of present day Armenia and eastern Turkey. Armenian chroniclers such as Yeghishe and Ghazar Parpetsi first mentioned Ani in the 5th century AD. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ani) c 990 nend A set of instructions on chess, the Versus de Scachis (Poem About Chess), emerged in Switzerland. (Arch, 1/05, p.40) 991 nend Aug 11, Danes under Olaf Tryggvason killed Ealdorman Brihtnoth and defeated the Saxons at Maldon. (HN, 8/10/98) 992 nend Constantinople granted Venetian goods lower tariffs than other merchandise. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R50) 992 nend Ghana captured its chief trading rival, the Berber town of Audoghast. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.172) 993 nend The south Indian Cola Empire captured Anuradhapura (Sri Lanka). (Arch, 7/02, p.34) 994 nend Nov 7, Muhammad ibn Hazm, historian, jurist, author of Islamic Spain, was born. (MC, 11/7/01) 994 1035 Life of Canute, later King of England, Denmark and Norway. (AHD,1971, p.198) 995 nend Guido d?Arezzo (d.~1049, Italian monk and musical theorist, was born. He is generally credited with developing current musical notation. (WUD, 1994, p.629)(WSJ, 5/27/97, pB1) 995 1000 In Norway Olaf I was king. (WUD, 1994, p.1002) 995 1027 Heydey of the Fujiwara Clan in Japan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 995 1030 Olaf Haraldsson, aka Saint Olaf, the patron saint of Norway. He was king from 1016-1029. He and a crew of Vikings attacked London and pulled down the London Bridge with ropes. This is remembered in the nursery rhyme "London Bridge is falling down..." (WUD, 1994, p.1002)(SFC, 8/23/97, p.E3) 996 nend May 21, Otto III (16) was crowned the Roman Emperor by his cousin Pope Gregory V. (HN, 5/21/98)(MC, 5/21/02) 996 nend Oct 24, Hugh Capet, king of France (987-96), died at 58. (MC, 10/24/01) c 996 nend In Iran the Astan Ghods Ravazi religious foundation was started. (WSJ, 7/11/96, p.A4) 997 nend St. Adalbert was martyred. He brought Christianity to Bohemia. (SFC, 4/26/97, p.A12) 997 nend The name "Austria" first appeared in a medieval manuscript. (WSJ, 4/16/97, p.A16) c 998 1061 Bao Qingtian (Bao Zheng), Chinese judge of the Song Dynasty, had a reputation for sticking up for the common man. (Econ, 4/23/05, p.43)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bao_Zheng) 999 nend Feb 18, Gregory V, [Bruno] 1st German Pope, died. (MC, 2/18/02) 999 nend Turkish dynasties became the rulers of Transoxania, and area that covered much of what later became Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan. (Econ, 7/26/03, p.46-4 ) 1000 nend Jan 1, Stephen became the first king of Hungary. (SFEC, 8/8/99, p.T5) 1000 nend Oct 9, Leif Ericson discovered "Vinland." [see 1001] (MC, 10/9/01) c 1000 nend A 174-page manuscript was copied onto goatskin parchment in Constantinople from papyrus versions of Archimedes? original calculations and mathematical diagrams. Over the years it was written over. The Archimedes Palimpsest was later discovered and examined using x-ray technology at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. (SFC, 5/23/05, p.A4) c 1000 nend An early Andean culture known as the Huari cultivated crops with complex irrigation systems back to this time. (NH, 10/02, p.62) 1000 nend Gunpowder was invented in China about this time. (V.D.-H.K.p.179) 1000 nend Scientists suspect that the sun was particularly bright for a period of time that is called the Medieval Optimum with global temperatures about 1 to 2 degrees higher than today. (NOHY, 3/90, p.127) c 1000 nend The Sinagua Indians, in what is now Arizona, made granaries in the cliffs along the Verde River some 100 miles north of Phoenix. (SFEC, 9/28/97, p.T6) c 1000 nend The Numic-speaking Shoshone Indians took part in a widespread migration out of the Cosos Mountains on the northwestern edge of the Mojave Desert about this time and populated a large portion of the western US. (PacDis, Summer ?97, p.10) c 1000 nend The Cahokia settlement in Southern Illinois numbered about 30,000. (SFC, 3/20/99, p.B4) c 1000 nend The Mississippian transformation was marked by the rise of agriculture and the appearance of belligerent chiefdoms. The Calusa Indians of southern Florida avoided the Mississippian transformation and maintained their ancient lifeways based on fishing and collecting. (AM, 7/97, p.75) 1000 nend By this time the whole of East and Central Africa was occupied by the Bantu people. Older inhabitants such as the Hottentots and Bushmen were either absorbed or pushed into less desirable places such as the Kalahari. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.169) 1000 nend By about this time the initial Arctic culture had given way to a second eastward flow of a people now known as the Thule. (Evidence from Ellesmere Island in Canadian Arctic). (NG, 6/1988, 762) 1000 nend A divided England, ruled by Ethelred the Unready, was in a state of intermittent warfare with the Vikings, who controlled much of the realm. (SFC, 4/23/01, p.E1) c 1000 nend In England the Vikings established a thriving economy in the town they called Jorvik. It had been founded by the Romans as a fortress and later came to be called York. (SFEC,10/26/97, p.T4) 1000 nend The Loire Valley vineyard Chateau de Goulaine was founded. In 2004 it was considered to be Europe?s oldest and continuous family business (Econ, 12/18/04, p.104) c 1000 nend Cloisters take up brewing at about the turn of the first millennium. The monks were particularly interested in the scientific aspects of brewing, and so it was that at the Brabant Cloister zum Würzen that hops were tried for the very first time. That probably led to the legend that Brabant King Gambrinus was the inventor of beer. He is still remembered today as a great patron of the brewers and a beer lover in his own right. (www.oldworld.ws/okbeerhist.html) 1000 nend The Gypsy people (Romany) migrated from Rajasthan, India, about this time. (Wired, 9/96, p.46)(Econ, 6/21/08, p.35) 1000 nend In Agnone, Italy, the Fonderia Pontificia Marinelli, a bell foundry, was founded about this time. (SFC, 4/14/06, p.D1) 1000 nend Large portions of the island fauna of Madagascar, that once included a lemur the size of bear and the ostrich-like Elephant Bird, was eliminated by the Malagash people of Madagascar. (NOHY, 3/90, p.188) c 1000 nend Graves of rich Curonian warriors from near Kretinga in western Lithuania revealed cremated bones in a tree-trunk coffin, nine fibulae, a leather belt with bronze and amber beads, 3 spears and an iron battle-axe, an iron instrument for striking fire, a sickle, an iron key and bronze scales, a saddle and iron bridle bits along with miniature tools and weapons. (DrEE, 11/23/96, p.3) 1000 nend In Cracow, Poland, the Wawel Castle was built overlooking the Vistula River. (WSJ, 7/13/00, p.A24) c 1000 nend In Siberia the Yakut nation, a Turkish-speaking people, wandered north about this time to avoid the Mongols. (SFC, 1/21/98, Z1 p.4) 1000 nend About this time in the Hadramawt region of Yemen a dam burst near the village of Senna, and the people of the valley fled. In 1997 researchers using DNA studies found that the Lemba, a Bantu speaking people of southern Africa carry markers distinctive of the Cohanim, Jewish priests believed to be descended from Aaron. Lemba oral tradition held that they came to Africa from Senna. Dr. Tudor Parfitt authored "Journey to the Vanished City," a description of his work on the Lemba. (SFEC, 5/9/99, p.A24)(www.answers.com/topic/lemba) 1000 nend The Zapotecs founded and ruled the archeological site of Monte Alban in the Mexican state of Oaxaca for more than a millennium until about this time when the Mixtecs took over. (SFC, 5/5/96, p.T-8) 1000 nend In 1999 Robert Lacey and Danny Danziger published "The Year 1000: What Life Was Like at the Turn of the First Millennium." It focused on life in England and used the Julius Work Calendar as a major source. Other millennium books included "AD 1000: A World on the Brink of Apocalypse," and "The Last Apocalypse: Europe at the Year 1000 AD." (WSJ, 1/29/99, p.W7)(WSJ, 4/6/99, p.B1)(SFEC, 7/25/99, BR p.2) 1000 nend The population at this time was about 200 million people in the world. (WSJ, 12/23/99, p.A18) 1000 1100 There was a Confucian revival in China. The scholar Ch?eng I held that the I Ching was a means of inquiry into any possible matter. (NH, 9/97, p.12) 1000 1100 In 2002 the remains of a longhouse from this time were uncovered in northern Iceland. It was believed to be associated with Snorri Thorfinnson, son of Viking explorers and the 1st European born in the New World. (SFC, 9/16/02, p.A2) 1000 1100 The writer Mahmud of Kashgar recorded a variant of an Uighur story that Alexander the Great during his conquests ordered his doctors to invent a remedy for sick people that was good to eat. In the original story they then came up with pilaf, but Mahmud substituted tutmach (noodles) in a setting of starvation. (SFC, 8/14/96, zz-1 p.2) 1000 1100 Chinese kilns mass produced ceramics for the imperial court. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) c 1000 1100 Tenkaminen reigned as Caliph of Ghana. He exported gold, ivory and salt and kept his wealth in gold. He put glass windows into his palace in Kumbi and kept a menagerie of elephants and giraffes. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1000 1100 From India the sandstone sculpture "Uma Maheshvara" is a variant of the archetypal couple Shiva and Parvati. (SFC, 6/28/97, p.E1) 1000 1100 In southern India an 11th century temple was constructed in Thanjavur. (WSJ, 6/9/97, p.A1) c 1000 1100 A Buddhist shrine was constructed in Uji, Japan. In 1968 the Byodo-In Temple at the foot of the Koolaus Mountains on Oahu, Hawaii, was built as a replica of the 900-year-old shrine. (SFEM, 10/12/97, p.20) 1000 1100 In Laos Wat Phu was last renovated by King Suryavarnam I. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.F) 1000 1100 Marrakech was founded in the 11th century. It was the terminus of a trade route running southward to the Niger River and of another running eastward to Cairo. (NH, 5/96, p.40) 1000 1100 In Mali the desert village of Araouane, 161 miles north of Timbuktu, was first mentioned about this time. It was a wealthy settlement that flourished off the caravans and drew water from 150-foot wells. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.84) c 1000 1200 The 11th or 12th century document "De Mirabilibus Brittanniae" (the Wonders of Britain) was written by Radulfi de Diceto Lundoniensis. (AM, 9/01, p.42) 1000 1250 Early post classic period of the Maya. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.B) 1000 1300 Bantu people called the Shona build the Great Zimbabwe, which means "Houses of Stone." This grand city became Zimbabwe?s capital and trade center. (ATC, p.135) c 1000 1400 Angkor Thom, capital of the Khmer empire, reached its apogee during this period. It included the religious monument of Angkor Wat. In 2007 new technology indicated that the city covered an area over 115 square miles at its peak and used sophisticated technology for managing and harvesting water. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.A)(SFEC, 7/26/98, p.T6)(SFC, 8/14/07, p.A18) c 1000 14000 The Mapungubwe kingdom thrived in South Africa. It was rediscovered by archeologists in the 1930s. (Arch, 1/05, p.10) 1001 nend Otto III was ousted. He had moved his thrown from Germany to Rome and fancied himself Holy Roman Emperor. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R54) c 1001 nend Norse sagas claim that Leif Ericson and a band of 35 men sailed for western lands based on an account by the Viking Bjarni Herjulfsson, who had sighted land after being blown off course. They found a land they called Vinland and built houses but returned to Greenland before the winter. (HT, 5/97, p.31) 1002 nend Jun 6, German king Henry II, the Saint, was crowned. (MC, 6/6/02) 1002 nend Jun 21, Pope Leo IX was born. He brought the conflict between Rome and the eastern Church to a head in 1054, ending with the Patriarch of Constantinople being excommunicated and the creation of the Schism. (Camelot, 6/21/99) 1002 nend Aug 2, Abu Amir Mohammed ibn Abd Allah ibn Mohammed ibn Abi Amir (64) died. (MC, 8/2/02) 1002 nend Nov 13, English king Ethelred II launched a massacre of Danish settlers. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethelred_the_Unready) 1002 nend Thorer Eastman (d.1002), a Norwegian sea captain, was blown off course on a trading voyage from Iceland to Greenland. He and his wife, Gudrid, along with a crew of 13 became stranded on a rock near the coast of Newfoundland for weeks until they were rescued by Leif Eriksson, who was on his way home to Greenland from North America with a cargo of timber. That fall an epidemic swept Greenland and Eastman died. (ON, 12/07, p.4) 1002 1019 In Japan Lady Murasaki Shikibu wrote her classic court novel "The Tale of Genji." The novel "Genji Monogatari" (Genji the Shining One) was later considered the world's 1st novel. The long work explored the imperial court of the Heian period through the life and many loves of Genji, son of the emperor's favorite concubine. Arthur Waley made an English translation in 6 installments between 1925 and 1933. Edward Seidensticker made a translation in 1976. Royall Tyler made a new translation in 2001. In 2000 Liza Dalby authored her novel "The Tale of Murasaki." (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(WSJ, 2/5/98, p.A20)(WSJ, 1/11/99,p.R34)(WSJ, 7/5/00, p.A20)(WSJ, 11/16/01, p.W14)(SFEC, 7/16/00, BR p.3) c 1002 1066 Edward the Confessor, English king (1042-1066), saint and founder of Westminster Abbey. (WUD, 1994, p.454) 1003 nend May 12, Gerbert, French scholar, died in Rome. (SC, Internet, 5/12/97) 1003 nend The church of Maria di Criptu was built in the village of Fossa in the Grand Sassi mountains of central Italy. (SFC, 7/26/00, Z1 p.1) 1004 nend The San Nilo abbey was founded atop a Roman villa in the Alban Hills. (SSFC, 11/10/02, p.C6) c 1004 nend In 2004 archaeologists in western Norway found the remains of a harbor complex built by the Vikings about this time, at the ancient harbor complex at Faanestangen, near the west coast city of Trondheim, some 250 miles north of Oslo. (AP, 3/6/04) 1005 nend Leaf Ericson?s brother, Thorvald, had arrived in Vinland but was killed by native Indians and his Viking companions returned to Greenland. A 3-year settlement was begun a few years later when Thorfin Karlsefni established a base with around 100 men and women at the L?Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland. (HT, 5/97, p.33)(ON, 12/07, p.5) 1005 nend Gudrid Thorbjarnardottir and Thorstein Erikson set sail to the New World to recover the body of Thorvald Erikson and to start a new colony. They failed to catch easterly winds and spent the winter in northwest Greenland. That winter Thorstein died. (ON, 12/07, p.5) 1006 nend Thorfinn Karlsefni arrived in Greenland from Iceland and married Gudrid Thorbjarnardottir. She soon talked him into leading an expedition to the New World. (ON, 12/07, p.5) 1007 nend Thorfinn Karlsefni and Gudrid Thorbjarnardottir embarked with a 3-ship expedition to the new World. Snorri Thorfinnson, son of Gudrid Thorbjarnardottir and Thorfinn Karlsefni, was born in Vinland (probably Newfoundland), the 1st European born in the New World. The family later returned east and settled in Iceland. (SFC, 9/16/02, p.A2)(ON, 12/07, p.5) 1005 nend Kazan, the capital of the Russian province of Tatarstan, was founded on the Volga River. In 2005 the city celebrated a millennial anniversary. (AP, 8/26/05) 1006 nend May 1, A supernova was observed by Chinese and Egyptians in constellation Lupus. (MC, 5/1/02) 1008 nend The Univ. of Bologna (Italy) was founded. It was later recognized as the oldest university in Europe. (Econ, 4/25/09, p.57) 1008 nend The earliest known water-powered wool-processing plant was operated at Ludi near Milan. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1009 nend Feb 14, Lithuania was 1st mentioned in relation to an announcement of the death of St. Bruno. [see Mar 9] (LHC, 2/14/03) 1009 nend Mar 9, Lithuania?s name (Lituae) was first mentioned in Quedlinburg?s annals: "St. Bruno, an archbishop and monk, who was called Boniface, was struck in the head by Pagans during the 11th year of his conversion at the Russian and Lithuanian border (in confinio Rusciae et Lituae), and along with 18 of his followers, entered heaven on March 9th" (Feb 14 is also cited in other sources). (DrEE, 10/12/96, p.2)(Book of the Millennium. Kaunas: Krastotvarka, 1999. Vol. 1: The State, p. 10, series "Acquaintance with Lithuania") http://www.krastotvarka.lt (DrEE, 10/12/96, p.2) 1009 nend In Jerusalem the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was burned by Muslims under Caliph Hakim of Egypt. (WSJ, 5/7/01, p.A20)(WSJ, 1/27/07, p.W13) 1010 nend May 3, Ansfried (~69), 9th bishop of Utrecht (995-1010), saint, died. (MC, 5/3/02) 1010 nend Thorfinn Karlsefni and Gudrid Thorbjarnardottir returned from the New World to Greenland and then moved to Iceland the following year, where they raised a large family. (ON, 12/07, p.5) 1010 nend Abolqasem Firdawsi (Ferdowsi), a Persian poet, completed the ?Shahnameh,? or ?Book of Kings.? It is an epic of more than 50,000 rhyming couplets weaving the history of ancient shahs with myth and legend. One might call it the Iliad of Persia. Over the centuries shahs have had the poem copied and illustrated by the best artists of the day. In 2006 Dick Harris made an abridged translation to English in prose. (WSJ, p. A-18, 10/13/94)(WSJ, 3/7/06, p.D8) 1010 nend King Ly Thai To decided to move Vietnam's capital 62 miles (100 km) north to Hanoi, then called Thang Long. (AP, 10/10/10) 1012 nend The Arabian trade with Europe abruptly ceased and no more Cufic coins streamed into Europe. (VilNews, 12/17/10) 1013 nend The last Viking attempt to settle Vinland was made. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.25) 1014 nend Feb 3, Sweyn Forkbeard (b.960), Danish-born Viking king of England (1013-14), died. (www.nndb.com/people/718/000093439/) 1014 nend Feb 14, Pope Benedict VIII crowned Henry II, German King (1002), as Roman German emperor (1014-1024). (HN, 5/6/98)(MC, 5/6/02)(MC, 2/14/02) 1014 nend Apr 23, The Battle of Contarf ended Danish rule in Ireland but a Dane killed Irish King Brian Boru (87). (PCh, 1992, p.80)(MC, 4/23/02) 1014 nend Oct 6, The Byzantine Emperor Basil II (958-1025) earned the title "Slayer of Bulgars" after he ordered the blinding of 15,000 Bulgarian troops. Basil II was godfather to Russia?s Prince Vladimir. (HN, 10/6/98)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil_II)(Econ, 2/16/08,p.60) 1015 nend Sep 12, Lambert I with the Beard, count of Leuven, died in battle at about 65. (MC, 9/12/01) 1015 nend After converting to Christianity in France, Olaf Haraldsson returned to Norway and promptly conquered land held by Denmark, Sweden and Norwegian lords. (HNQ, 11/30/00) 1016 nend Apr 23, Ethelred II "the Unready", king of England (979-1016), died. (MC, 4/23/02) 1016 nend Oct 18, Danes defeated the Saxons at Battle of Assandun (Ashingdon). (MC, 10/18/01) 1016 nend Nov 30, Edmund II (27), Ironsides, King of Saxons, died. (MC, 11/30/01) 1016 1029 In Norway Olaf Haraldsson served as king. He later became Saint Olaf, the patron saint of Norway. (WUD, 1994, p.1002) 1016 nend Canute, Prince of Denmark became King of England as Canute I. (AHD, 1971, p.198) 1017 nend Oct 28, Henry III, Roman Catholic German emperor (1046-56), was born. (MC, 10/28/01) 1017 nend In China a hermit introduced the prime minister to "variolation," an inoculation using germs from smallpox survivors. (NW, 10/14/02, p.47) 1017 nend The south Indian Cola Empire transferred the capital of Sri Lanka to Polonnaruva which then served as the capital of Sri Lanka until 1300. It was a fortified citadel surrounded by Hindu and Buddhist religious complexes. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.D)(Arch, 7/02, p.34) 1017 1144 A Romanesque nave was added to the abbey Mont St. Michel off the coast of Normandy, France. (WSJ, 10/7/06, p.P18) 1018 nend By this year Basil II had annexed Bulgaria. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1019 nend Canute, King of England, became also King of Denmark as Canute II or Canute the Great. (AHD, 1971, p.198) 1019 nend Machmud of Ghazni, a kingdom in central Asia, invaded India and took so many captives that the prices of slaves plummeted for several years. He invade India annually for 25 years. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R4) 1019 20 BabaTaher, Persian poet, died. (WSJ, 1/25/00, p.A18) 1023 nend In China a government agency was formed to print paper money. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1024 nend Apr 7, Pope Benedict VIII died. (PTA, 1980, p.288) 1024 nend Jul 13, Henry II, the Monk, German King (1002-24), died. (MC, 7/13/02) 1024 nend Sep 4, Conrad II (the Sailor) was chosen as German king. (MC, 9/4/01) 1024 nend Olaf Haraldsson introduced a religious code in his efforts to convert the Norwegians to Christianity. (HNQ, 11/30/00) 1025 nend Dec 15, Basil II was succeeded as emperor [by] Constantine VIII, his brother and co-ruler. (HN, 12/15/98) 1026 nend Mar 23, Koenraad II (Conrad II) crowned himself king of Italy. (SS, 3/23/02) 1027 nend Mar 26, John XIX crowned Conrad II the Salier Roman German emperor. (SS, 3/26/02) 1028 nend Canute the Great (d.1035) became also King of Norway. (AHD, 1971, p.198) 1028 nend Olaf Haraldsson was forced to flee Norway by Canute, king of England and Denmark, Olaf returned to reconquer Norway, but was defeated and killed at the Battle of Stiklestad in 1030. (HNQ, 11/30/00) 1029 1094 Al-Mustansir, ruler of most of North Africa. He was the wealthiest of the Fatimid caliphs and was based in Cairo. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1030 nend Jul 29, The patron saint of Norway, King Olaf the Second, was killed in the Battle of Stiklestad. Olaf Haraldsson was born a pagan and lived as a warrior for most of his years going on to become the patron saint of Norway. The son of Harald I, Oaf?s early career was spent outside Norway fighting the Danes and English among others. (HNQ, 11/30/00)(AP, 7/29/01) 1030 nend In Afghanistan Mahmud Ghazni died. Conflicts between various Ghaznavid rulers arose and as a result the empire started to crumple. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1030 nend In China a landslide on the Yangtze River cut off navigation for 21 years. (NH, 7/96, p.32) 1030 nend Fan Kuan (b.960), Chinese artist, died. His work included ?Travelers and Streams and Mountains.? (WSJ, 10/29/08, p.D9) 1030 nend The city of Tartu in Estonia was founded. (Hem, 4/96, p.24) 1030 1093 In China Shen Kua was an engineer and high official Chinese astronomer. In his1086 work "Dream Pool Essays," Shen Kua made the first reference to the magnetic compass. The work also gave the first account of relief maps and an explanation of the origin of fossils, along with other scientific observations. Shen Kua wrote his essays after being banished from office after an army under his command lost 60,000 killed in a battle with Khitan tribes. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14)(HNQ, 4/22/99) 1031 nend Oct 19, Abbot Humbertus van Echternach opened the grave of Saint Willibrord. (MC, 10/19/01) 1031 nend Olaf II, aka Olaf Haraldsson (d.1030) of Norway, was named a saint. (HNQ, 11/30/00) 1032 nend Feb 2, Conrad II claimed the thrown of France. (HN, 2/2/99) 1033 nend An enormous pilgrimage to Jerusalem marked the 1000th anniversary of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. (SFC, 1/6/97, p.A3) 1034 nend Apr 11, Romanus III Argyrus, Byzantine emperor (1028-34), was assassinated by his wife. (MC, 4/11/02) 1035 nend Nov 12, King Canute (b.994) died. He was king of Denmark, England and Norway. (HN, 11/12/98) 1032 nend Theophylactus, the nephew of Pope John XIX, became Pope Benedict IX. (PTA, 1980, p.292) 1036 nend The Romans drove Pope Benedict IX out of Rome. (PTA, 1980, p.292) 1036 1056 Henry III ruled the Holy Roman Empire, which extended from Hamburg and Bremen in the north to the instep of Italy to the south, Burgundy in the west, and Hungary and Poland to the east. (V.D.-H.K.p.111) 1038 nend King Stephen of Hungary died. (SFC, 8/7/99, p.A8T5) 1040 nend Mar 7, Harold I, King of England (1035-40), died. (MC, 3/7/02) 1040 nend Aug 15, In Scotland Donnchad led an army into Moray, where he was killed by Mac Bethad at Pitgaveny near Elgin. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macbeth_of_Scotland) 1040 1057 Macbeth ruled over Scotland. He succeeded King Duncan. (WSJ, 5/23/96, p.B-1) 1040 1100 Eruptions at Sunset Crater, Az., are believed to have lasted over this period. (NH, 6/97, p.56)(AM, 3/04, p.50) 1040 1275 In Arizona as many as 12 families occupied the White House of Canyon de Chelly. (SSFC, 1/7/01, p.T10) 1041 nend In China Bi Sheng devised the first movable-type printing system with clay characters. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1042 1066 Edward the Confessor (b.1002) served as King of England. Monks penned the manuscript "The Life of King Edward the Confessor" and in 1998 it was put on a WWW page: www.lib.cam.ac.uk/MSS/Ee3.59 (WUD, 1994, p.454) 1043 nend Apr 3, Edward the Confessor was crowned king of England. (MC, 4/3/02) 1044 nend The Romans drove Pope Benedict IX out of Rome for a 2nd time. John, bishop of Sabina, was set up as Pope Sylvester III, but Benedict?s family base from Tusculum fought their way back into Rome and restored Benedict. (PTA, 1980, p.292) 1045 nend Pope Benedict IX abdicated and, for a large sum of money, turned the papacy over to his godfather, archpriest John Gratian, who became Pope Gregory VI. (PTA, 1980, p.292) 1045 nend Richard of Aversa, a nephew of Rainulf of Aversa, came from Normandy to southern Italy in 1045 with 40 knights. (HNQ, 7/17/00) 1045 1066 In Norway King Harold Hardready reigned. (DrEE, 11/23/96, p.3) 1046 nend Sep 24, In Hungary Gerard Sagredo (b.980), an Italian bishop from Venice (also known as Gellert or Gerhard), was placed on a 2-wheel cart, hauled to a hilltop and rolled down the later named Gellert Hill, and still being alive at the bottom was beaten to death. He operated in the Kingdom of Hungary (specifically in Budapest), and educated Saint Emeric of Hungary, the son of Saint Stephen of Hungary). Gellert played a major role in converting Hungary to Christianity. He was canonized in 1083 along with St. Stephen and St. Emeric and became one of the patron saints of Hungary. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_Sagredo) 1046 nend Dec, Pope Gregory VI abdicated. As Benedict IX, Sylvester III, and Gregory VI claimed the papal throne, all were deposed by Henry III in the Synod of Sutri. Henry selected Clement II. Clement then crowned Henry and his wife as emperor and empress. (PTA, 1980, p.294)(V.D.-H.K.p.111) 1046 nend Dec 25, Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, was enthroned as Pope Clement II. (PTA, 1980, p.296) 1046 nend Synod of Sutri where three men claimed the papal throne, but were all deposed by Henry III, who selected Clement II. Clement then crowned Henry and his wife as emperor and empress. (V.D.-H.K.p.111) 1047 nend Oct 9, Pope Clement II died. (PTA, 1980, p.296) 1047 nend Oct 25, Magnus I Godhi, king of Norway and Denmark (1035-47), died. (MC, 10/25/01) 1047 nend Pope Gregory VI died. (PTA, 1980, p.294) 1047 nend In France construction began on the Abbaye-aux-Dames near the town of Saintes. (SFEC, 6/15/97, p.T8) 1048 nend Dec 13, Al-Biruni (74), Arabic royal astrologer, died. (MC, 12/13/01) 1049 nend King Svein ruled in Denmark. (DrEE, 11/23/96, p.3) 1049 1051 Snorre Sturleson wrote the "Heimskringla." http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Heimskringla/ (DrEE, 11/23/96, p.3)(TB-Com, 10/11/00) no_source 1050 nend Nov 11, Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, was born. (HN, 11/11/98) 1050 nend An Anasazi trade center in New Mexico offered pottery, turquoise and buffalo meat. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1050 nend Arabs brought their decimal system to Spain. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) c 1050 nend In 2004 some 280 silver coins, that probably originated from a trade journey by Gotlanders to the area around the river Elbe in Germany around 1050, were found on the Swedish island of Gotland. (AP, 3/1/04) 1051 nend King Magnus ruled in Denmark. (DrEE, 11/23/96, p.3) 1053 nend Jun 18, In Italy Richard of Aversa helped win the Battle of Civitate, inflicting a decisive defeat over the papal army, which had joined Byzantium in an alliance against the Normans. (www.fanaticus.org/DBA/battles/civitate.html) 1054 nend Mar 12, Pope Leo IX escaped captivity and returned to Rome. (MC, 3/12/02) 1054 nend Jul 4, Chinese and Arabian observers first documented the massive supernova of the Crab Nebula created thousands of years ago and consisting of a huge expanding cloud of gas and dust 6,000 light-years from Earth. The great nova, as Oriental astronomers described it, was six times brighter than Venus and was only outshone by the sun and moon. For 23 days the nova could be observed in broad daylight. An entry in the Records of the Royal Observatory of Peking reads: "In the first year of the period Chihha, the fifth moon, the day Chi-chou, a great star appeared approximately several inches southeast of T?ien-Kuan (i.e. Zeta Tauri). After more than a year it gradually became invisible." In 1999 the Chandra X-Ray Telescope observed a ring around the heart of the Crab Nebula which continued to generate energy of more than 100,000 suns. (LSA., p.29)(TNG, p.96)(SCTS, p.183)(IB, Internet, 12/7/98)(SFC,9/30/99, p.A7) 1054 nend Jul, The Council of Florence in 1445 established this date for the Great Schism between the Eastern and Western (Orthodox and Catholic). An official date was needed so that talks could begin on reunion. (WSJ, 7/16/97, p.A23) 1054 nend The Roman and Orthodox Churches split decisively. [see 330AD] The Orthodox Church did not accept the papal authority from Rome. Christians in southern Albania were left under the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople and those in the north under the pope in Rome. The Orthodox Church maintained the tradition of married priests. (WSJ, 11/14/95, p. A-12)(WP, 6/29/96, p.B7)(www, Albania, 1998)(SFC,3/16/02, p.A3) 1055 nend The Seljuks under Tughril Beg ousted the Buyids (Buwayhids) in Baghdad. The nomadic Turks from Central Asia, descended from a warrior named Seljuk, took control of the government and continued governing the empire in the tradition of Islamic law. (www.mongabay.com/reference/country_studies/iraq/HISTORY.html) 1056 nend Apr 22, Supernova Crab nebula was last seen by the naked eye. (MC, 4/22/02) 1057 nend Jul 10, Lady Godiva rode naked on horseback throughout Coventry on a dare from her husband, the Earl of Mercia, who abolished taxation in this year. (MC, 7/10/02) 1057 nend Aug 15, Macbeth, the King of Scotland, was mortally wounded at the Battle of Lumphanan, by Malcolm Canmore, the eldest son of King Duncan I, who was killed by Macbeth 17 years earlier. (AP, 8/15/07)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macbeth_of_Scotland) 1057 nend Aug 31, Leofric, count of Mercia and husband of Lady Godiva, died. His wife, the Countess Godgifu (Godiva), had founded a Benedictine priory on a hill overlooking the River Sowe, and the town of Coventry grew up around it. The priory probably ran a market that would have formed the nucleus of the growing town. Such a market would bring fees and taxes to the priory and the Earl while flooding the district with goods and money. Godiva may well have ruled the settlement between Leofric?s death and her own in 1066. (HNC, 12/2/00)(MC, 8/31/01) 1057 nend King Anawratha, founder of the first Burmese empire, conquered the Mon kingdom to the south and introduced Theravada Buddhism to the Burmese people. He and his heirs oversaw building projects and Bagan (Pagan) became a center of Buddhist learning. (WSJ, 1/23/09, p.W12) 1057 nend In Italy Richard of Aversa seized Capua. (HNQ, 7/17/00) 1058 nend Nov 28, Kazimierz I Restaurator (b.1015), grand duke of Poland (1034-58), died. He succeeded in reuniting the central Polish lands under the hegemony of the Holy Roman Empire, but he was never crowned king. (MC, 11/28/01)(www.infoplease.com) 1058 nend Despite protests from the cardinals Count Gregory of Tusculum led the selection of John, bishop of Velletri, as Pope Benedict X. (PTA, 1980, p.306) 1058 1111 Al-Ghazali (Algazal), Islamic scholar. (WSJ, 7/7/99, p.A23) 1059 nend May 23, Henri I crowned his son King Philip I of France. (MC, 5/23/02) 1059 nend A council gathered at Lateran and declared that the election of Benedict X was invalid. The council enthroned Gerard of Burgundy as Pope Nicholas II. A synod at Rome followed and set decrees for papal elections that rested election powers with the cardinal-bishops. (PTA, 1980, p.306) 1059 nend Richard of Aversa and his brother-in-law, Robert Guiscard, met with Pope Nicholas II. The Norman chiefs swore allegiance to the Pope in return for papal recognition for their conquests, whereupon Richard was invested as prince of Capua. (HNQ, 7/17/00) 1060 nend Aug 4, Henry I (52), King of France (1027-60), died. (MC, 8/4/02) 1060 nend England minted a coin shaped like a four-leaf clover. Users broke off each leaf as needed as a separate piece of currency. (SFC, 6/30/96, Z 1 p.5)(SFEC, 8/1/99, Z1 p.8) 1060 nend Rashi, the great Talmudist, studied in Worms. (NH, 9/96, p.24) 1061 nend Apr 24, Halley's Comet inspired an English monk to predict that England would be destroyed. (MC, 4/24/02) 1061 nend Jul, Pope Nicholas II died in Florence. (PTA, 1980, p.306) 1062 nend Marrakech [Marakesh], the Arab name for Morocco, was built as a fortified city by the first Berber dynasty, the Almoravids. It was the terminus of a trade route running southward to the Niger River and of another running eastward to Cairo. (NH, 5/96, p.40)(SFEC, 7/25/99, p.T10) 1065 nend Apr 12, Pilgrims under bishop Gunther of Bamberg reached Jerusalem. (MC, 4/12/02) 1064 nend Jun 9, Coimbra, Portugal, fell to Ferdinand, the King of Castile. (HN 6/9/98) 1065 nend Apr 16, The Norman Robert Guiscard took Bari, ending five centuries of Byzantine rule in southern Italy. (HN, 4/16/98) 1065 nend Dec 28, Westminster Abbey opened in London. (MC, 12/28/01) 1066 nend Jan 5, Edward the Confessor, king of England (1043-66), died. (MC, 1/5/02) 1066 nend Jan 6, (Harald) Harold Godwinson, Earl of Wessex, was crowned King of England. (TLC, BTCW, 6/25/95)(HN, 1/6/99) 1066 nend Feb 28, Westminster Abbey opened. (HN, 2/28/98) 1066 nend Mar 23, The 18th recorded perihelion passage of Halley's Comet. Haley?s Comet was seen and soon after depicted on the Bayeux Tapestry. The 230-foot tapestry was created by craftsmen working for a Norman Bishop to depict the 1066 Norman invasion. In 2005 Andrew Bridgeford authored ?1066: The Hidden History in the Bayeux Tapestry.? (SS, 3/23/02)(NH, 7/98, p.78)(WSJ, 4/22/05, p.W6) 1066 nend Sep 21, At the Battle at Fulford Norway king Harald III Hardrada beat the British militia. (MC, 9/21/01) 1066 nend Sep 25, King Harold Godwinson II marched north and attacked the Vikings at the Battle of Stampford Bridge in Yorkshire. The King of Norway was killed and Harold?s forces destroyed the Vikings who returned to Norway in 24 of their 300 ships. Marching north to face a Norwegian invasion force commanded by King Harald Sigurdsson, aka Hardraade, and by his usurper brother, Tostig, Harold Godwinson defended his crown at Stamford Bridge, resulting in a Saxon victory and the deaths of both Harald and Tostig. Soon afterward, however, Harold had to march south to face another invading contender for his throne, Duke William the Bastard of Normandy, who defeated and killed Harold at Hastings on October 14, and took the English crown as William the Conqueror. (TLC, 6/25/95) 1066 nend Sep 25, Harald III Hardrada (51), king of Norway and England (1047-66), died in battle. Herald was later laid to rest in Waltham Abbey. (MC, 9/25/01)(AP, 1/3/03) 1066 nend Sep 28, William the Conqueror invaded England to claim the English throne. (AP, 9/28/97)(HN, 9/28/98) 1066 nend Sep, Duke William of Normandy sailed with 12,000 men to capture the English crown. His fleet encountered a severe storm that disrupted his landing. (TLC, Battles That Changed the World, 6/25/95) 1066 nend Sep, Harold Hardrata, King of Norway, sailed south with 10,000 men in 300 ships to attack England. (TLC, Battles That Changed the World, 6/25/95) 1066 nend Oct 2, The Normans landed in southern England and King Harold was forced to march his men south to face the Normans. (TLC, Battles That Changed the World, 6/25/95) 1066 nend Oct 14, King Harold and his army locked into a massive shield wall and faced Duke William, William the Conqueror, and his mounted knights near the town of Hastings, Battle of Hastings. Duke William planned a three point attack plan that included a) heavy archery b) attack by foot soldiers c) attack by mounted knights at any weak point of defense. The bloody battle gave the name Sen Lac Hill to the battle site. The Normans won out after Harold was killed by a fluke arrow. This placed William on the throne of England. http://members.tripod.com/~Battle_of_Hastings/Contents.html (TLC, Battles That Changed the World, 6/25/95)(AP, 10/14/97)(HN,10/14/98) 1066 nend Dec 25, William the Conqueror (d.1087), Duke William of Normandy, was crowned king of England. Under the reign of William I the construction of Windsor Castle began. http://members.tripod.com/~Battle_of_Hastings/Contents.html (TLC, 6/25/95)(SFC, 5/25/96, p.A12)(AP, 12/25/97)(HN, 12/25/98) 1066 nend Edith Svanneshals was the beautiful mistress of the ill-starred Harold Godwinsson, king of the Anglo-Saxons and loser at Hastings. No picture of her exists. Her last name means "swan's throat." (EHC, 5/12/98) 1066 nend The Channel Islands, 35 miles off the coast of France, became possessions of the English Crown when the Normans conquered England. (SFC, 8/10/96, p.A10) 1066 nend In England prior to 1066, hunting was virtually unrestricted. The Forest Laws, strictly enforced by English kings starting in the 11th century, placed restrictions on hunting, making it the sole privilege of the nobility. Unauthorized slayers of the king?s deer were often put to death. The Game Act of 1831, enacted under William IV, extended hunting rights to anyone who obtained a license. (HNQ, 3/3/00) 1066 nend The Countess Godgifu (Godiva) died. She had founded a Benedictine priory on a hill overlooking the River Sowe, and the town of Coventry grew up around it. (HNC, 12/2/00) 1067 nend Mar 25, William the Conqueror ordered the 1st Doomsday Survey of England. (MC, 3/25/02) 1067 nend In Belorus Minsk was founded. (SFC, 7/5/97, p.C2) 1067 nend Chepstow Castle was built in Wales to protect a strategic crossing of the River Wye and for the defense of the Wye Valley near the English border by the troops of William the Conqueror. (SFEC, 5/25/97, p.T5)(SFEC, 5/10/98, p.T4) 1068 nend Historian al-Bakri wrote his "Book of the Roads and Kingdoms." He described Ghana in the Western Sudan from information given him by merchants and others. (ATC, p.113)(Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.171) 1070 nend Jun 4, Roquefort cheese was accidentally discovered in a cave near Roquefort, France, when a shepherd found a lunch he had forgotten several days before. (HN, 6/4/01) 1070 nend In Egypt a famine forced Al-Mustansir to send the women of Cairo to Baghdad to escape starvation. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1070 nend The 8 gates of Marrakech, Morocco, were built. (SSFC, 12/18/05, p.F5) 1070 nend Bergen was founded on the southwest coast of Norway. (SSFC, 6/5/05, p.F7) 1071 nend Aug 26, Turks defeated the Byzantine army under Emperor Romanus IV at Manzikert (Malaz Kard), Eastern Turkey. Romanus was taken prisoner. (PCh, 1992, p.85)(Ot, 1993, p.4) 1072 nend Jan 10, Robert Guiscard and his brother Roger took Palermo in Sicily. (HN, 1/10/99) 1072 nend Oct 6, Sancho II, king of Castilia (1065-72), was murdered. (MC, 10/6/01) 1073 nend Sep 30, Pope Alexander II, born as Anselmo da Baggio, began serving as Pope. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Alexander_II) 1073 nend Apr 21, Pope Alexander II, born as Anselmo da Baggio, died. He had begun serving as Pope in 1061. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Alexander_II) 1073 nend Apr 22, Gregory VII, St. Hildebrand, became Pope. He was later driven from Rome and died in exile in 1085. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VII)(WSJ, 3/10/99, p.A22) 1073 nend Dec 20, Domingo, Spanish monastery founder, abbot, saint, died. (MC, 12/20/01) 1074 nend Pope Gregory VII summoned a council in the Lateran palace, which condemned simony and confirmed celibacy for the Church's clergy. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VII) 1075 nend Feb 16, Ordericus Vitalis, French monk, historian, poet, was born. (MC, 2/16/02) 1075 nend The Jiaozhi (Vietnam) launched a war against China, with a force of some 100,000 surrounding Yongzhou (the southern region of Nanning). It was captured after a siege of 42 days. (www.international-relations.com/cm4-1/Nanningwb.htm) 1075 nend The 3rd Cathedral at Santiago de Compostela in Spain was built on the site of the tomb of St. James. There had been a Cathedral on the site since the 9th century. (SFC, 9/22/96, p.T5) 1076 nend Feb 14, Pope Gregory VII excommunicated Henry IV. (MC, 2/14/02) 1076 nend Feb 22, Godfried III, with the Hump, duke of Lower Lorraine, was murdered. [see Feb 26] (MC, 2/22/02) 1076 nend Feb 26, Godfried III with the Hump, duke of Netherlands-Lutheran, was murdered. [see Feb 24] (SC, 2/26/02) 1076 nend The Al Moravids, a group of Muslim warriors who lived in the Sahara, set out to conquer Ghana. They captured Koumbi in this year but gave it back up to the Soninke in 1087. The Muslim religious reform Almoravid movement under Abu Bakr recaptured Audoghast and then all of Ghana. (ATC, p.117)(Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.172) 1076 nend The Danish King Svein Estrithson died. (DrEE, 1/4/97, p.3) 1077 nend Jan 28, Pope Gregory VII pardoned German emperor Henry IV at Canossa in northern Italy. Henry had insisted that he reserved the right to "invest" bishops and other clergymen, despite the papal decree, but became penitent when faced with permanent excommunication. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walk_to_Canossa)(Econ, 5/9/09, p.88) 1077 nend Apr 24, Geza I, King of Hungary (1074-7), died. (MC, 4/24/02) 1077 nend Windsor Castle was erected by William the Conqueror to monitor travel on the Thames River. (USAT, 11/19/97, p.2D) 1077 1090 The "heavenly clockwork," a mechanical water clock of Su Sung, was housed in a pagoda 5 stories high. (AM, 3/04, p.44) 1078 nend William the Conqueror began work on the Tower of London. Henry III ordered it whitewashed in 1240. (NG, V184, No. 4, Oct. 1993, p.41)(Hem, 9/04, p.28) 1079 nend May 9, Stanislaus, Polish bishop of Cracow, was murdered. (MC, 5/9/02) 1079 nend Peter Abelard (d.1142) was born in Brittany. He later became a great medieval scholar in Paris. Around 1117 he secretly married Heloise, niece of the Canon Fulbert of the Cathedral of Notre Dame. The Canon Fulbert hired gangsters who waylaid and castrated Abelard. His most famous theological work, "Sic et Non" (Yes and No), consisted of a collection of apparent contradictions drawn from various sources, together with commentaries showing how to resolve the contradictions and providing rules for resolving others. He also wrote "Scito te Ipsum" (Know Thyself), which advanced the notion that sin consists not in deeds, which in themselves are neither good nor bad, but only in intentions. In 2005 James Barge authored ?Heloise and Abelard: A New Biography.? (V.D.-H.K.p.116)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R22)(WSJ, 2/11/05, p.W6) 1080 nend The Knights of St. John (the Hospitallers) were founded in Jerusalem about this time to care for the sick. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller) 1081 nend Albania and Albanians were mentioned for the first time in a historical record by a Byzantine emperor. (www, Albania, 1998) 1081 1151 Abbot Suger of St. Denis, France. He was the 1st great patron of the arts in the current millennium. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R53) 1083 nend Jun 3, Henry IV of Germany stormed Rome capturing St. Peter's Basilica. (MC, 6/3/02) 1084 nend Mar 31, Anti-pope Clemens crowned German emperor Hendrik IV. (MC, 3/31/02) 1085 nend May 25, Alfonso VI, Spanish Christian ruler, took Toledo, Spain, from the Moslems. (ATC, p.100)(HN, 5/25/99) 1085 nend May 25, Gregory VII [Ildebrando], Pope (1073-85), died. (SC, 5/25/02) 1085 nend Oct 8, San Marcos monastery in Venice started. (MC, 10/8/01) 1085 nend William the Conqueror ordered the Doomsday survey of English manor's production capacity in order to collect taxes. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1086 nend Jul 10, Knut IV, the Saint, king of Denmark (1080-86), was murdered. (MC, 7/10/02) 1086 nend Aug 1, English barons submitted to William the Conqueror. (MC, 8/1/02) 1086 nend In China Shen Kua (1030-1093) gave an account of a magnetic compass for navigation in his work "Dream Pool Essays." The work also gave the first account of relief maps and an explanation of the origin of fossils, along with other scientific observations. Shen Kua wrote his essays after being banished from office after an army under his command lost 60,000 killed in a battle with Khitan tribes. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14)(HNQ, 4/22/99) 1086 nend In France St. Bruno founded the austere Carthusian order of monks in Grenoble. The silent order?s mother house in La Grand Chartreuse, France, later maintained support by the sale of its Chartreuse liqueur. (WUD, 1994, p.227)(SFC, 2/24/98, p.A22) 1087 nend Sep 9, William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy and King of England, died in Rouen while conducting a war which began when the French king made fun of him for being fat. (HN, 9/9/00) 1087 nend The Soninke of Ghana recaptured their capital, Koumbi, from the Al Moravids. They tried to re-establish their empire but a number of their states had adopted Islam and others broke away to form separate kingdoms. (ATC, p.117) 1087 nend At Myra (Demre), Turkey, merchants from the Italian port of Bari reportedly stole the bones of St. Nicholas. (WSJ, 8/31/98, p.B1) 1088 nend Cristodoulos persuaded the Byzantine emperor to let him develop the Greek island of Patmos as an independent monastic state. (WSJ, 6/28/02, p.AW8) 1089 nend May 28, Lanfrance, Archbishop of Canterbury, died. (MC, 5/28/02) 1089 1125 David the Builder, a king who increased Georgia's wealth and prestige after, at age 16, taking the reins of a country beset by attackers. (AP, 1/25/04)(Internet) 1090 nend Bernard of Clairvaux. He was known as "doctor mellifluus" for the honeyed sweetness of his style. It was Bernard who got the pope to silence Abelard. He said of Abelard: "This man presumes to be able to comprehend by human reason the entirety of God." Bernard had a simple favorite prayer: "Whence arises the love of God? From God. And what is the nature of this love? To love without measure." He wrote a letter to kings and popes on the monsters decorating churches: "What is the meaning of these unclean monkeys, these savage lions, and monstrous creatures?... Almighty God! If we do not blush for such absurdities we should at least regret what we have spent on them." (V.D.-H.K.p.117)(Hem, 4/96, p.51) 1090 nend Guo Xi (b.~1001), Chinese artist of the song Dynasty, died about this time. (SFC, 6/28/08, p.E1) 1091 nend The Norman conquest of Saracen-held Sicily provided access to Arabic manuscripts that showed a place-notated decimal system that forms the basis of modern mathematics. (I&I, Penzias, p.47) 1091 nend A trading deal was made between Mahdiyah, near Tunis, and Genoa. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R50) 1093 nend Aug 12, In England the foundation stone for Durham Cathedral was laid down. The main chapel was completed in 1175. It served as the seat of the Bishop and the church of the Benedictine monastery of Durham. (SSFC, 12/14/08,p.E4)(www.sacred-destinations.com/england/durham-cathedral.htm) 1093 nend Trade guilds were noted in England. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1094 nend Jun 15, Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar [El Cid] occupied Valencia on the Moren. (MC, 6/15/02) 1094 nend Oct 8, St. Mark?s Basilica in Venice was dedicated. Remains believed to have belonged to St Mark, the Evangelist, were buried there. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Marco_di_Venezia) 1094 nend The Islamic terrorist organization Nizari Ismailiyun, a Shiite politico-religious sect, was founded by Hasan-e Sabah. He and his followers captured the hill fortress of Almaut in northern Iran, which became their base of operations. (www.jihadwatch.org/dhimmiwatch/archives/006664.php) 1095 nend Nov 26, Pope Urban urged the faithful to wrest the Holy Land from the Muslims, heralding start of Crusades. (AP, 11/26/02) 1095 nend Nov 27, In Clermont, France, Pope Urbana II made an appeal for warriors to relieve Jerusalem, defeat the Turks and recapture the Holy Sepulchre from the Muslims. He was responding to false rumors of atrocities in the Holy Land. The first Crusade sparked a renewal of trade between Europe and Asia. Urban declared to the assembled that Europe was "too narrow for your large population" and urged them to take up swords against the Saracens who defiled "that land that floweth with milk an honey," thus inspiring the Crusaders. Peter, a disheveled former soldier, seized the moment, preaching the "People?s Crusade" and quickly gathering a following of more than 20,000 Crusaders, including Walter, a French Knight. (V.D.-H.K.p.109)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49)(HN, 11/27/99)(HN, 6/26/98) 1095 1099 The 1st Crusade. (WSJ, 1/4/02, p.A11) 1096 nend May 18, Crusaders massacred the Jews of Worms. Before embarking on the First Crusade to wrest the Holy Land from Muslim Turks, Count Emich von Leiningen and his army swept through their own German homeland, murdering thousands of Jews, whom they had declared "murderers of Christ." When Emich arrived in the town of Worms in May, the town's Roman Catholic Bishop tried to protect the Jewish population, but the Crusaders overran his palace and slaughtered some 500 people who had taken shelter there. Another 300 were killed over the next two days. The graves of the massacre victims can still be seen at the Jewish Cemetery at Worms. (HNPD, 5/12/99)(SC, 5/18/02) 1096 nend Jun 25, The 1st Crusaders slaughtered the Jews of Werelinghofen, Germany. (MC, 6/25/02) 1096 nend Jun 26, Peter the Hermit?s crusaders forced their way across Sava, Hungary. Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless (also known as Peter of Amiens and Walter Sansavoir) were two of the leaders of the "Crusade of the Poor People" in 1096-1097, an ill-fated prelude to the several campaigns waged in the Holy Lands between 1096 and 1270 that are commonly referred to as the Crusades. (HN, 6/26/98) 1096 nend Jul 12, Crusaders under Peter the Hermit reach Sofia in Hungary. (HN, 7/12/99) 1096 nend Aug 1, The crusaders under Peter the Hermit reached Constantinople. Anna Comnena, a 13 year-old Christian in Constantinople, watched as the crusaders marched into the city. (ATC, p.18)(HN, 8/1/98) 1096 nend Oct 21, Seljuk Turks under Sultan Kilidj Arslan of Nicea slaughtered thousands of German crusaders at Chivitot. (HN, 10/21/99)(MC, 10/21/01) c 1096 nend The Church of the Holy Sepulcher was built in Jerusalem on the traditional site of the burial and resurrection of Jesus Christ. In 1997 renovation was completed with a new 115-foot dome, designed by Fresno architect Ara Normart. (SFC, 1/3/97, p.A18) 1096 nend In France Saint-Eutrope?s church was consecrated in the town of Saintes, the ancient capital of the Saintonge. (SFEC, 6/15/97, p.T8) 1096 1291 European Christians fought Arab Muslims for control of Jerusalem and the Holy Land. In 2000 Evan S. Connell authored "Deus Lo Volt," a history of the Crusades that included the 12th century accounts by pilgrims Geoffrey de Villehardouin and Jean de Joinville that had been earlier published as "Chronicles of the Crusades." (ATC, p.160)(WSJ, 6/9/00, p.W8) 1097 nend Jun 30, The Crusaders defeated the Turks at Dorylaeum. (HN, 6/30/98) 1097 nend Jul 1, The 1st Crusaders defeated Sultan Kilidj Arslan of Nicea. (MC, 7/1/02) 1097 nend Oct 20, The 1st Crusaders arrived in Antioch. (MC, 10/20/01) c 1097 nend The pilgrimage routes of France (chemins de pelerinage) were begun. Their 900th anniversary was celebrated in 1997. (SFEC, 6/15/97, p.T8) 1081 nend Jan 8, Henry V, Roman German king, emperor (1098/1111-25), was born. (MC, 1/8/02) 1098 nend Jun 3, Christian Crusaders of the First Crusade seized Antioch, Turkey. (HN, 6/3/99) 1098 nend Feb 10, Crusaders defeated Prince Redwan of Aleppo at Antioch. (MC, 2/10/02) 1098 nend Dec 12, The 1st Crusaders captured and plundered Mara, Syria. (MC, 12/12/01) 1099 nend Jan 13, Crusaders set fire to Mara, Syria. (MC, 1/13/02) 1099 nend Apr 14, Conrad, bishop of Utrecht, was stabbed to death. (MC, 4/14/02) 1099 nend Jun 5, Knights and their families on the First Crusade witnessed an eclipse of the moon and interpreted it as a sign from God that they would recapture Jerusalem. (HN, 6/5/99) 1099 nend Jul 8, In Jerusalem 15,000 starving Christian soldiers marched around barefoot while the Muslim defenders mocked them from the battlements. (HN, 5/23/99) 1099 nend Jun 12, Crusade leaders visited the Mount of Olives where they met a hermit who urged them to assault Jerusalem. (HN, 6/12/99) 1099 nend Jul 13, The Crusaders launched their final assault on Muslims in Jerusalem. (HN, 7/13/99) 1099 nend Jul 15, Jerusalem fell to the crusaders following a 7 week siege. A massacre of the city's Muslim and Jewish population followed with the dead numbered at about 3,000. (V.D.-H.K.p.109)(HN, 7/15/98)(SSFC, 4/13/03, p.E3) 1099 nend Jul 16, Crusaders herded the Jews of Jerusalem into a synagogue and set it afire. (MC, 7/16/02) 1099 nend Aug 12, At the Battle of Ascalon 1,000 Crusaders, led by Godfrey of Bouillon, routed an Egyptian relief column heading for Jerusalem. The Norman Godfrey, elected King of Jerusalem, had assumed the title Defender of the Holy Sepulcher. Disease starvation by this time reduced the Crusaders to 60,000, down from an initial 300,000, and most of the survivors left for home. (HN, 8/12/99)(PC, 1992, p.88) 1099 nend The Aleppo Codex, owned by Jewish community in Jerusalem, was seized by Crusaders who sacked the city. It was then ransomed and made its way to Cairo, Egypt. (AP, 9/27/08) 1100 nend Aug 2, William II (44), [Rufus], king of England, was shot dead in New Forest. (MC, 8/2/02) c 1100 nend St. Cono was born in Teggiano in southern Italy. He became a Benedictine monk and went on to perform numerous miracles. His remains were later embedded in a statue in the church of Santa Maria Maggiore. (WSJ, 11/10/98, p.A1) 1100 nend The Tower of London took in its 1st prisoner. (Hem, 9/04, p.28) c 1100 nend Timbuktu was founded about this time as a seasonal Tuareg nomad camp around a well that was maintained by a group of slaves under an old woman, Buktu, "the place of Buktu." Tuareg is a derisive Arab term meaning abandoned by the gods. Natives prefer to be know as Kel Tamashek people. (AM, 11/00, p.51)(SSFC, 4/11/04, p.D6)(SFC, 10/30/04, p.E1) 1100 nend In the Netherlands Wittem Castle in Limburg dates to this time. (SFEC, 1/31/99, p.T13) c 1100 nend In Spain the town of Santo Domingo de la Calzada was founded by a man known as St. Dominic of the Walkway. (SFEC, 6/15/97, p.T5) 1100 nend By the 1100s the Chinese began to use the magnetic compass. (ATC, p.11) 1100 nend By this time East African traders in Kilwa controlled the export of gold and ivory from the southern kingdoms. Kilwa was the most prosperous of the east African city-states. (ATC, p.143) 1100 nend Statue (moai) building began about this time on Easter Island and continued to the 1700s. (SSFC, 9/18/05, p.E14) 1100 nend A volcano erupted about this time in the area of Flagstaff, Arizona. (SSFC, 7/23/06, p.G4) 1100 nend s Troubadour musicians organized in southern France. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1100 nend s Bushmills Distillery in Northern Ireland began producing whiskey. (SFEC, 1/10/99, p.T8) c 1100 1154 Geoffrey of Monmouth, English chronicler. The Welsh cleric claimed that Merlin used magic to bring the stones of Stonehenge from Ireland. (WUD, 1994, p.592)(AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.12) 1100 1200 The 16-foot scroll titled ?Qingming Shanghe Tu? (Qingming Festival on the River) was created in the 12th century. It was believed to have been painted by Zhang Zeduan, an artist of the Song Dynasty. (SFC, 9/14/05, p.E2)(www.ibiblio.org/ulysses/gec/painting/qingming/) 1100 1200 Muhammed ibn-Musa al-Khwarizmi, Arab mathematician and astronomer, wrote ?hisab al-jabr w? al muqabalah? (the science of reduction and comparison) in the 9th cent. The work dealt with solving equations. It was the first time that algebra was discussed as a separate branch of mathematics. In the 12th century it was translated into Latin as ?Ludus algebrae et almucgrabalaeque.? (Alg, 1990, p.87) c 1100 1200 Shihab el-Din was an anti-Crusader cleric. He was believed to be buried in Nazareth next to the Basilica of the Annunciation. A cornerstone for a mosque was laid at the site in 1999. (SFC, 11/24/99, p.A16) c 1100 1200 Judah Halevi was a Jewish poet who lived in Muslim Spain in the 12th century. He wrote ?City of the Great King, for thee my soul is longing.? (WSJ, 12/12/00, p.A24) 1100 1200 Chretien de Troyes of France in the 12th century introduced Camelot into the Arthurian legend and placed Lancelot in the saga along with the quest for the Holy Grail. (WSJ, 3/27/98, p.W10) c 1100 1200 Albigenses were members of the Catharistic sect that arose in southern France in the 11th century. [see 1244] (WUD, 1994 p.34) 1100 1200 In France the Abbot Suger was busy embellishing the abbey of St. Denis. (WSJ, 3/28/97, p.A16) 1100 1200 In Cambodia the Khmer empire reached its peak under King Jajavarman II in the 12th century. (SFEC, 7/26/98, p.T7) 1100 1200 The German Stammheim Missal was made. It told stories from Creation to the crucifixion of Christ. In 1997 it was acquired by the J. Paul Getty Museum. (SFC, 4/26/97, p.E3) 1100 1200 Berlin was founded amid the sandy plains and swamps of Brandenburg. In 1998 Alexandra Richie published ?Faust?s Metropolis: A History of Berlin.? (WSJ, 5/1/98, p.W5) 1100 1200 In Germany the Oberburg Castle was built in the 12th century by the Knights of Leyen. (SFEC, 4/30/00, p.T8) 1100 1200 Two 12th century castles along the Rhine were owned, according to legend, by the brothers Conrad and Heinrich of Boppard. They came to blows over a woman, Hildegarde, and the ruins of the castles were named the Warring Brothers. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.T5) c 1100 1200 The Festung Ehrenbreitsen, Europe?s largest fortress, was built at the convergence of the Mosel and Rhine Rivers. (SFEC, 4/30/00, p.T1) 1100 1200 In India the bronze sculpture ?Shiva Nataraya? depicted the Hindu god of creation and destruction doing the dance that sustains the universe. (SFC, 6/28/97, p.E1) 1100 1200 In India the comic man-elephant ?Ganesha? sculpture was carved in schist. (SFC, 6/28/97, p.E1) 1100 1200 In Ireland Cistercian monks established an abbey on Clare Island. (SFEC, 4/12/98, p.T8) 1100 1200 In Limerick, Ireland a 12th century cathedral was built. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.T11) c 1100 1200 In Japan Nichiren Daishonin, the son of a fisherman in Awa, established a new sect of Buddhism. In 1930 the Soka Gakkai (value-creation society) was founded in Tokyo based on his teachings. (WSJ, 4/23/99, B1) 1100 1200 The Norse visited Ellesmere Island in the Canadian Arctic as early as the 12th century and traded with the Thule, evidenced by chain mail. boat rivets, knife blades, and other artifacts turned up near Bache Peninsula. (NG, 6/1988, p.763) 1100 1200 Norwegian Chronicles mentioned a stave church in the village of Vaga. (WSJ, 8/27/96, p.A12) 1100 1200 Era of the 12 century Persian poet Nizami of Ganja. (SFC, 5/19/96, p.C-13) 1100 1200 Serbs occupied parts of northern and eastern Albanian inhabited lands. (www, Albania, 1998) c 1100 1200 San Isidro, a Spanish farmer, later became the patron saint of Madrid. (WSJ, 11/18/97, p.A20) 1100 1200 In Turkey Constantinople was devastated by fires in the 12th century. (SFC, 7/27/98, p.A8) 1100 1200 The 12th century book ?Gyuschi? was a compilation of Tibetan medicine that described the making and applications of medications extracted from herbs, roots and minerals often served as hot teas. (SFC, 2/20/98, p.C4) 1100 1300 About this period volcanic ash and molten rock sprayed the area of the Wupatki Basin near Flagstaff, Arizona for as long as 200 years. (SSFC, 7/23/06, p.G5) 1100 1400 The official stave churches of Norway were mostly built during this period. (WSJ, 8/27/96, p.A12) 1101 nend William IX, the Duke of Aquitaine, returned from the Crusades and composed songs about his adventures, thus becoming the first troubadour. He was excommunicated for licentious acts, but his lyrics led to the "courtly love" genre. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1101 1125 Huizong ruled over China. He was a calligrapher, painter and Confucian advocate of embracing antiquity. He broadened the scope of Imperial collecting to embrace bronze ritual objects as well as old paintings and calligraphy. (SFEC, 10/6/96, DB p.36) 1102 nend In England the Westminster Council outlawed ?the selling of men like brute animals.? (ON, 12/08, p.8) 1102 nend Coats were forced to enter into a union with Hungary and to recognize the Hungarian king as their own. (WSJ, 7/14/99, p.A23) 1103 nend Aug 24, Magnus III Berbein, [Blootbeen], King of Norway (1093-1103), died. (MC, 8/24/02) 1105 nend Nov 24, Rabbi Nathan ben Yehiel of Rome completed a Talmudic dictionary. (MC, 11/24/01) 1106 nend Aug 7, Henry IV (54), Holy Roman Emperor (1056/84-1105), died. (MC, 8/7/02) 1106 nend Sep 28, King Henry I of England defeated his brother Robert Curthose of Normandy at the Battle of Tinchebrai and reunited England and Normandy. Robert remained a prisoner until he died in 1134. (HN, 9/28/98)(PC, 1992, p.90) 1107 nend China printed money in 3 colors to thwart counterfeiters. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1107 nend Mi Fu (b.1051), Chinese calligrapher of the Northern Song period, died. (SFC, 5/14/03, p.D3)(SFC, 7/1/06, p.E1) 1107 1205 Enrico Dandolo, ruler of Venice. He was blind and spearheaded the 4th Crusade. He funded an army to capture Constantinople and after the "rape of Constantinople" pocketed some of the city's riches. He stole 4 bronze horses and placed them over the entry to the Cathedral of San Marco. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1109 nend Apr 21, Anselmus, philosopher, archbishop of Canterbury, died. (MC, 4/21/02) 1109 nend Apr 28, Hugo van Cluny, 6th abbot of Cluny, saint, died. (MC, 4/28/02) 1109 nend Jul 12, Crusaders captured harbor city of Tripoli. (MC, 7/12/02) 1110 nend May 13, Crusaders marched into Beirut causing a bloodbath. (MC, 5/13/02) 1110 nend Dec 4, Syria harbor city of Saida (Sidon) surrendered to the Crusaders. (MC, 12/4/01) 1111 nend Feb 12, Henry V of Germany presented himself to Pope Paschal II for coronation along with treaty terms that commanded the clergy to restore fiefs of the crown to Henry. The pope refused to crown and Henry left Rome taking the pope with him. When Paschal was unable to get help, he confirmed Henry?s right of investiture and crowned him. (PCh, 1992, p.91) 1113 nend Aug 24, Geoffrey Plantagenet, conquered Normandy, was born in France. (MC, 8/24/02) 1114 nend Trade fairs were held at Champagne, France, at the crossing of roads from Flanders, Germany, Italy and Provence. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1117 nend Dec 21, Thomas Becket (d.1170), archbishop of Canterbury, was born. His close friend Henry II of England later ordered his martyrdom. (MC, 12/21/01) c 1117 nend Abelard (1079-1142), master of a school in Paris, impregnated Heloise, his single female student. [See 1079] (WSJ, 2/11/05, p.W6) 1118 nend Apr 2, Boudouin I of Bologne and Edessa, 1st crusader, king of Jerusalem, died. (MC, 4/2/02) 1118 nend Apr 7, Pope Gelasius II excommunicated Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor. (MC, 4/7/02) 1118 nend Dec 18, Afonso the Battler, the Christian King of Aragon captured Saragossa, Spain, a major blow to Muslim Spain. (HN, 12/18/98) 1118 nend The military order of the Poor Knights of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon was founded in Jerusalem to protect pilgrims in the Holy Land following the First Crusade. The Knights Templar were founded to protect pilgrims in the Holy Land during the second Crusade. (AHD, 1971, p.724)(AP, 10/12/07) 1118 nend Seborga became the provenance of nine Knight Templars returning from the crusades. (SFEC, 3/30/97, p.T7) 1120 nend Nov 25, Countess of Perche, bastard daughter of English king Henry I, drowned along with William (17), English crown prince and son of Henry I. (MC, 11/25/01) 1121 nend Mar 2, Dirk VI became count of Holland. (SC, 3/2/02) 1122 nend Mar 2, Floris II, the fat one, count of Holland, died. (SC, 3/2/02) 1123 nend In the film ?The Visitors? The noble Sir Godefroy of this time is transformed to 1996 France to do battle with short order cooks, rescue bag ladies and learn modern etiquette in order to find the descendant of his betrothed sweetheart's descendant, the Duchess Frenegonde. (SFC, 7/16/96, p.E1) 1123 nend Omar Khayyam, Persian poet and mathematician, died. (WUD, 1994, p.1005) 1124 nend Apr 27, Alexander I, king of Scotland (1107-24), died. (MC, 4/27/02) 1124 nend May 6, Balak, Emir of Aleppo (Syria), was murdered. (MC, 5/6/02) 1124 nend Jul 7, Tyre [Tyrus] surrendered to the Crusaders. (MC, 7/7/02) 1124 nend The quality of English silver coins improved after mint masters caught adulterating coins had their right hands cut off. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1125 nend May 25, Hendrik V, last Salische German king, died. (SC, 5/25/02) 1125 nend Sinaguan people built a 5-story limestone dwelling, later known as Montezuma Castle, near Sedona, Az. (SSFC, 7/6/03, p.C9) 1126 nend Nov 26, Al-Borsoki, emir of Aleppo-Mosoel (Syria), was assassinated. (MC, 11/26/01) 1126 nend A drought that lasted 1-2 centuries, as measured from tree rings in the Sierra Nevada, was centered on this time. It coincided with a Medieval warm period when Vikings navigated the waters surrounding Greenland. A 2nd drought centered at 1340AD. (NH, 9/96, p.38) 1126 1198 Averroes (Ibn Rushd), Arab philosopher and commentator who translated Aristotle from the original Greek to Arabic, which was then translated to Latin. He wrote a major reinterpretation of Plato's Republic. He lamented the fact that Islam had not adopted Plato's view of women as the equal of men and had thus failed to give them civic equality. (V.D.-H.K.p.117)(WSJ, 7/7/99, p.A23) 1127 nend Mar 2, Charles the Good, Count of Flanders, was murdered. Flemish towns (Ghent, Bruges and Ypres) forced the selection of Thierry of Alsace as the new count despite Louis VI?s choice of the son of Normandy?s Robert Curthose. (PCh, 1992, p.92)(SC, 3/2/02) 1127 1279 In 2007 Chinese archeologists raised a merchant ship loaded with porcelain and other rare antiques to the surface in a specially built basket. The 100-foot Nanhai No. 1, discovered in 1987, sank off the south China coast during the Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279). (AP, 12/21/07) 1128 nend Jun 24, Afonso I of Portugal defeated the army of his mother Theresa. (MC, 6/24/02) 1128 nend The Royal High School in Scotland was founded by a group of Edinburgh Friars. (SFC, 4/22/98, p.A10) 1129 nend Aug 21, The warrior Yoritomo was made Shogun without equal in Japan. (HN, 8/21/98) 1130 nend Feb 14, Jewish Cardinal Pietro Pierleone was elected as anti-pope Anacletus II. (MC, 2/14/02) 1130 nend The Knights of St. John (the Hospitallers) became a military order some 60 years after having been founded in Jerusalem to care for the sick. (Arch, 9/02, p.27) 1130 nend China?s Master-of-the-Nets Garden in Suzhou was built about this time. (SSFC, 6/25/06, p.A16) 1130 nend The first travel book was written by a French priest about travel on the Camino de Santiago (the road of St. James) in northern Spain. (SFEC, 6/15/97, p.T5) 1130 nend The French church at the abbey at Cluny was completed and measured over 400 feet long. (SFEC, 11/21/99, p.T4) 1130 1150 Tree growth rings revealed that a drought occurred in the southwest US. This period corresponded with the abandonment of Anasazi dwelling sites in Arizona. (Hem., 5/97, p.79) 1130 1200 Chu codified Confucian thought. (SFEC, 11/28/99, Z1 p.5) 1131 nend Mar 1, Stephen II, King of Hungary (1116-31), died. (SC, 3/1/02) 1131 nend Oct 25, Louis VII the Young, King of France, was crowned. (MC, 10/25/01) 1132 nend In China invaders established what became known as the southern Song dynasty in Hangzhou. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R51) 1133 nend Mar 25, Henry II, King of England (1154-1189) , was born. (HN, 3/24/98) 1133 nend Jun 4, In Rome Pope Innocentius II crowned German King Lothair II as emperor at the Church of the Lateran. (MC, 6/4/02)(PCh, 1992, p.92) 1133 1193 Rashid Al-Din Sinan, also known as "The Old Man of the Mountain," was a leader of the Assassins. He used the Syrian Masyaf castle as a base for spreading the beliefs of the Nizari Ismaili sect of Islam to which he and his followers belonged. (www.iis.ac.uk/view_article.asp?ContentID=104843)(Reuters, 7/13/07) 1135 nend Dec 1, Henry I Beauclerc of England died and the crown was passed to his nephew Stephen of Bloise. He had decreed that the standard linear measure of one foot be a third the length of his arm which was 36 inches. He was the 1st English king able to read. (HN, 12/1/98)(SFEC, 2/14/99, Z1 p.8)(MC, 12/1/01) 1135 nend Dec 22, Stephen of Blois was crowned the king of England. (HN, 12/22/98) 1135 nend Maimonides (d.1204), Jewish scholar, philosopher and rabbi was born in Spain. He analyzed linkages between wealth and charity and created a ladder of giving with each rung representing a higher degree of virtue. The most virtuous way to give was to help a stranger by offering him a loan or job so that he would no longer need help. The lowest rung was to make a grudging donation. (WUD, 1994, p.864)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14)(WSJ, 10/5/01, p.W17) 1136 nend The people of Novgorod, Russia, expelled their prince, assigned by Kiev, and transferred his power to the local nobility and merchant class who formed a sort of city council known as the vieche. (AM, 11/00, p.32) 1138 nend May 29, Anti-Pope Victor IV (Gregorio) overthrew self for Innocentius II. (SC, 5/29/02) 1139 nend Apr 20, The Second Lateran Council opened in Rome. The crossbow was outlawed in the 12th century, at least against Christians, by the second Lateran council (the 10th ecumenical council), called by Pope Innocent II. Capable of piercing chain mail from a range of up to 1,000 feet, this formidable missile weapon remained a fixture of technically-advanced European armies throughout the Middle Ages. Although it was used after the introduction of firearms, it was eventually succeeded by the harquebus?a primitive gun?in the late 15th century. The council attempted universal enforcement of priestly celibacy in the Roman Catholic Church. (HN, 4/20/98)(HN, 4/20/98)(HNQ, 12/5/00)(SFC, 3/16/02, p.A3) 1138 nend Aug 22, English defeated Scots at Cowton Moor. Banners of various saints were carried into battle which led to its being called Battle of the Standard. (MC, 8/22/02) 1139 nend Incendiary weapons that burned people to death were banned by the countries of northern Europe as ?too murderous.? The practice was resumed the next century. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.57) 1140 nend Gratian wrote the illuminated ?Decretum,? a standard treatise on canon law in Bologna about this time. He wrote three volumes on the subject which were lavishly illustrated. The three volumes were later published by the Vatican in 1975. (WSJ, 7/13/95, p.A-12) 1140 nend Ghorid leaders from central Afghanistan captured and burned Ghazni, then moved on to conquer India. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1140 nend Somerled first appeared in historical chronicles as the regulus, or King, of Kintyre (Cinn Tìre) when he marries Raghnailt the daughter of Olaf (or Amhlaibh), King of Mann and the Scottish Isles. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerled) 1141 nend Jan 31, Pope Innocent II authorized Bishop Henry of Moravia to preach Catholicism in Prussia. (LHC, 1/31/03) 1141 nend Sep 8, Battle of Samarkand (Uzbekistan): Yelutashi defeated Islams. (MC, 9/8/01) 1141 nend Dec 29, Yue Fei, Chinese general, was executed. (MC, 12/29/01) 1141 nend The Barone Ricasoli family founded a wine and oil firm and produced Chianti wine. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42)(SFC, 4/14/06, p.D1) 1142 nend Apr 21, Pierre Abelard (62), French philosopher (priestly lover of Heloise), died. (MC, 4/21/02) 1144 nend Mar 8, Celestine II [Guido], Italian Pope (1143-44), died in battle. (MC, 3/8/02) 1144 nend The Saracens recaptured the crusader?s castles along the Palestine coast. (V.D.-H.K.p.109) 1144 nend In Syria the Knights Hospitallers began expanding a fortress 90 miles northwest of Damascus. It became known as The Crac des Chevaliers. The Mamelukes captured it in 1271 and converted the chapel into a mosque. (WSJ, 1/31/09, p.W12) 1146 nend Aug 30, European leaders outlawed the crossbow with the intention to end war for all time. [see 1139] (MC, 8/30/01) 1146 nend Sep 14, Zangi of the Near East was murdered. The Sultan Nur ad-Din, his son, pursued the conquest of Edessa (NW Mesopotamia). (HN, 9/14/98) 1146 nend France?s warrior-abbot Bernard of Clairvaux built the La Cordelle chapel in northern Burgundy. (SFCM, 10/7/07, p.18) 1147 nend Oct 25, At the Battle at Doryleum Arabs beat Konrad III's crusaders. Conrad III of Germany and Louis VII of France had assembled 500,000 men for the 2nd Crusade. Most of the men were lost to starvation, disease and battle wounds. (PCh, 1992, p.94)(MC, 10/25/01) 1147 nend Moscow was founded by Prince Yuri Dolgoruky, a ruler of the northeastern Rus. He built the first fortress, or Kremlin, along the Moscow River. (SFC, 11/12/96, p.A14)(AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.27,28) 1148 nend Jul 23, Crusaders of the 2nd Crusade attacked Damascus. (MC, 7/23/02)(V.D.-H.K.p.109) 1149 nend In Jerusalem the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, rebuilt by the Crusaders, was consecrated. (Arch, 9/02, p.28) 1150 nend Mar 26, Tichborne family of Hampshire, England, started tradition of giving a gallon of flour to each resident to keep deathbed promise. (SS, 3/26/02) c 1150 nend The original Hopi territory in the southwest encompassed some 225,000 sq. miles around villages established about this time. (SFC, 1/3/97, p.A26) c 1150 nend A group of Anasazi villages in southwest Colorado were suddenly abandoned during a period of severe drought. In 2000 evidence showed that a raiding party had swept through the area, killed the inhabitants and ate their flesh. (SFC, 9/6/00, p.A3) 1150 nend Adelard of Bath (b.1080), Englishman, died. He had traveled widely and translated the Arabic version of Euclid's "Elements" into Latin as well as several Arabic books on astronomy. (SSFC, 2/8/04, p.M2) c 1150 nend Suryavarman II, Khmer ruler, died about this time. He commissioned the building of Angkor Wat, possibly the largest religious monument in the world. He traded elephant tusks, rhinoceros horns and kingfisher feathers for gold. The feathers were prized in China for bridal attire. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1150 nend The municipality of Genoa raised 400 lira by granting to investors the tax revenue raised from stallholders in the marketplace over a term of 29 years. This became the first recorded public bond. (Econ, 1/10/09, p.74) 1151 nend Sep 7, Geoffrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou and duke of Normandy, died at 38. (MC, 9/7/01) 1151 nend In Iceland the first known fire and plague insurance was offered. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1152 nend Mar 4, Frederick Barbarossa was chosen as emperor and united the two factions, which emerged in Germany after the death of Henry V. (HN, 3/4/99) 1153 nend Mar 23, Treaty of Konstanz between Frederik I "Barbarossa" and Pope Eugene III. (SS, 3/23/02) 1153 nend May 23, David I (~68), king of Scotland (1124-53), died. (MC, 5/23/02) 1153 nend May 24, Malcolm IV became king of Scotland. (MC, 5/24/02) 1153 nend Aug 20, Bernard de Clairvaux, French saint, died. (MC, 8/20/02) 1153 nend A wandering Arab holy man converted the king of the Buddhist islanders of the Maldives. (WSJ, 7/22/96, p.A12) 1153 nend A chicken restaurant, the world's oldest existing eatery, opened in Kai-Feng, China. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1153 nend Anna Komnene (b.1083), Byzantine princess and scholar, died. She was a daughter of the Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos and Irene Doukaina. She is one of the first known female historians, having written the Alexiad. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Komnene) 1154 nend Feb 26, Rogier II Guiscard (60), King of Sicily (1101-54), died. William the bad succeeded his father, Roger the II. (SC, 2/26/02)(HN, 2/26/99) 1154 nend Oct 25, King Steven of England (1135-54), died. (MC, 10/25/01) 1154 nend Dec 19, Henry II of the Angevin dynasty was crowned King of England. (HN, 12/19/98)(WSJ, 3/10/99, p.A22) 1154 nend Sir Thomas Becket was given the high office of Chancellor to the King, Henry II. (HN, 9/3/98) 1155 nend Jun 18, German-born Frederick I, Barbarossa, was crowned emperor of Rome by Pope Adrian IV. (HN, 6/18/98)(MC, 6/18/02) 1155 nend A map of western China was printed and is the oldest known printed map. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1156 nend May 28, Battle at Brindisi: King William of Sicily beat a Byzantine fleet. (MC, 5/28/02) 1156 nend The first foreign exchange contracts were issued and allowed the repayment of Genoese pounds debt with Byzantine bezants. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1157 nend Sep 8, Richard I, [Richard the Lion Hearted], King of England (1189-99), was born. (MC, 9/8/01) 1157 nend The Bank of Venice issued the first government bonds to raise funds for was with Constantinople. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1158 nend Aug 31, Sancho III, King of Castilia, died. (MC, 8/31/01) 1158 nend Nov 11, Emperor Frederik I Barbarossa declared himself ruler of North Italy. (MC, 11/11/01) 1159 nend Sep 1, Adrian IV, [Nicole Breakspear], only English pope (1154-59), died. (MC, 9/1/02) 1159 nend John of Salisbury authored a religious book called ?The Metalogicon.? It included the phrase: ""We are like dwarfs sitting on the shoulders of giants. We see more, and things that are more distant, than they did, not because our sight is superior or because we are taller than they, but because they raise us up, and by their great stature add to ours." In 2003 Robert Merton's book ?On the Shoulders of Giants? quotes Bernard of Chartres as saying in about 1130: "We are like dwarfs standing [or sitting] upon the shoulders of giants, and so able to see more and see farther than the ancients." (www.aerospaceweb.org/question/history/q0162b.shtml) 1160 nend Feb 3, Emperor Frederick Barbarossa hurtled prisoners, including children, at the Italian city of Crema, forcing its surrender. (HN, 2/3/99) 1160 nend May 18, Erik IX Helgi, [The Saint] King of Sweden, died. (SC, 5/18/02) 1160 nend Jul 21, Peterus Lombardus, Italian theologian, bishop of Paris, died. (MC, 7/21/02) 1160 nend Dec 6, Jean Bodel's "Jeu de St Nicholas," premiered in Arras, France. (MC, 12/6/01) 1160 1216 Giovanni Lotario de' Conti, served as Pope Innocent III from 1198-1216. (WUD, 1994, p.733)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1160 1225 Ma Yuan, an academic painter, made his Southern Song masterpiece ?Banquet by Lantern Light.? (SFEC, 10/6/96, DB p.37) 1162 nend This date was given by Marco Polo for the Tartars settling around the area south of Lake Baikal and forming a city called Karakoram. (TMPV, P.80) 1162 nend A man in Constantinople fashioned sail-like wings from fabric into pleats and folds. He plummeted from the top of a tower and died. (NPub, 2002, p.2) 1164 nend Jan 27, Abraham ibn Ezra, poet, philosopher, died. (MC, 1/27/02) 1164 nend Apr 20, Victor IV, [Ottaviano Montecello], Italian antipope (1159-64), died. (MC, 4/20/02) 1164 nend Apr 22, Raynald of Dassel named Guido di Crema as anti-pope Paschalis III. (MC, 4/22/02) 1164 nend Somerled, military and political leader of the Scottish Isles, assembled an army to repel the Stuarts. He advanced to the centre of the their territory at Renfrew, where a great battle was fought. Much confusion surrounds the manner of the battle, and indeed whether a battle occurred at all, but what is certain is that Somerled was assassinated, after which his army retreated from the area. DNA evidence later suggested that Somerled was of Viking descent. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerled)(AM, 7/05, p.14) 1165 nend Jul 28, Ibn al-'Arabi, Muslim mystic, philosopher, was born. (SC, 7/28/02) 1165 nend Aug 21, Philip II Augustus, 1st great Capetian king of France (1179-1223), was born. (SC, 8/21/02) 1165 nend Nov 23, Pope Alexander III returned from exile to Rome (MC, 11/23/01) 1165 nend Dec 9, Malcom IV (24), king of Scotland (1153-65), died. (MC, 12/9/01) 1166 nend El-Idrisi (b.1099), a Muslim geographer, died. The Arab geographer Idrisi claimed that Indians preferred iron from East Africa over their own because of its malleability. (SSFC, 9/2/07, p.A18)(NH, 6/97, p.44) 1167 nend Feb 27, Robert of Melun, English philosopher, bishop of Hereford, died. (MC, 2/27/02) 1167 nend Aug 14, Raynald van Dassel, archbishop of Cologne, died. (MC, 8/14/02) 1167 nend Dec 1, Northern Italian towns formed the Lombardi League. (MC, 12/1/01) 1167 nend Dec 24, John "Lackland" Plantagenet, King of England (1199-1216), was born. (HN, 12/24/98)(MC, 12/24/01) 1167 nend Sweden?s King Charles VII was assassinated after ruling for 6 years. Charles VII was the first Swedish king with the name Charles. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_VII_of_Sweden) 1167 1227 Genghis Khan was born in the Hentiyn Nuruu mountains north of Ulan Bator in the early 1160's (it has been argued between 1162 and 1167, but recently agreement has been made for 1167), the son of the Kiyat-Borjigid chieftain Yisugei. His given name was Temujin, "the ironsmith," and he seized control over much of 5 million square miles that covered China, Iran, Iraq, Burma, Vietnam, and most of Korea and Russia. His efforts in Vietnam were not successful. "In Search of Genghis Khan" is a book by Tim Severin. He was succeeded by his son Ogedai, who was succeeded by Guyuk. Ogedai ignored numerous pleas from his brother Chaghatai to cut down on his drinking and died of alcoholism as did Guyuk. [see 1167] (WSJ, 1/11/99,p.R6)(www.royalalbertamuseum.ca/vexhibit/genghis/biog.htm) 1168 nend Sep 20, Paschal III, [Guido di Crema], Italian anti-Pope, died. (MC, 9/20/01) 1169 nend Mar 23, Shirkuh, Kurd General, vizier of Cairo, Saladin's uncle, died. (SS, 3/23/02) 1169 nend May 1, The Norman invasion of Ireland, a two-stage process, began when a force of loosely associated Norman knights landed near Bannow, County Wexford. This was at the request of Dermot MacMurrough (Diarmait Mac Murchada), the ousted King of Leinster, who sought their help in regaining his kingdom. Stage 2 began in 1171 with the arrival of Henry II. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarmait_Mac_Murchada) 1169 nend Dec, Owain Gwynedd, ruler of North Wales in the twelfth century, died. He had nineteen children, six of whom were legitimate. MADOC, one of the bastard sons, was born in a castle at Dolwyddelan, a village at the head of the Lledr valley between Betws-y-Coed and Blaenau Ffestiniog. The brothers fought amongst themselves for the right to rule Gwynedd. MADOC, although being brave and adventurous, was a man of peace. He and his brother, Riryd, left the quay on the Afon (River) Ganol at Aber-Kerrik-Gwynan, on the North Wales Coast (now Rhos-on-Sea) in two ships, the Gorn Gwynant and the Pedr Sant. They sailed west, leaving the coast of Ireland 'farre north' and landed in Mobile Bay, in what we now know as Alabama in the USA. (www.madoc1170.com/home.htm) 1169 1181 The heyday of the Kiyomori Clan in Japan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 1170 nend Dec 29, Thomas Becket (b.1117), St. Thomas archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered in Canterbury Cathedral in England. Barons had heard Henry II cry out, "Will no one rid me of this meddlesome priest?" (HFA, '96, p.20)(AP, 12/29/97)(HN, 12/29/98)(MC, 1/29/02) c 1170 nend Leonardo Fibonacci, Italian mathematician, was born. It is believed Fibonacci discovered the relationship of what are now referred to as Fibonacci numbers while studying the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt and by investigating how fast rabbits could breed in ideal circumstances. Suppose a newborn pair of rabbits, one male, one female, is put in a field. Rabbits are able to mate at the age of one month so at the end of its second month a female can produce another pair of rabbits. Suppose our rabbits never die and the female always produces one new pair (one male, one female) every month from the second month on. The puzzle Fibonacci posed was: How many pairs will there be in one year? At the end of the first month, they mate, but there is still one only 1 pair. At the end of the second month the female produces a new pair, so now there are 2 pairs of rabbits in the field. At the end of the third month, the original female produces a second pair, making 3 pairs in all in the field. At the end of the fourth month, the original female has produced yet another new pair, the female born two months ago produces her first pair also, making 5 pairs. The number of pairs of rabbits in the field at the start of each month is 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ... The next number in the Fibonacci sequence is arrived at by adding the previous two values together. Thus, to get the next value after 34 add 21 to 34 and arrive at 55. As you can see, Fibonacci numbers are a sequence of numbers in which each successive number is the sum of the two previous numbers: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, etc. Now, if you take any two adjacent values and divide each one by their sum, a peculiar thing occurs, the values converge to 38.2% and 61.8%. These numbers also possess an intriguing number of natural interrelationships, such as the fact that any given number is approximately 1.618 times the preceding number and any given number is approximately 0.618 times the following number. The booklet Understanding Fibonacci Numbers by Edward Dobson contains a good discussion of these interrelationships. (BMTI, 8/2/00) c 1170 nend Hua was chief of Hana, in what is now the Hawaiian Islands. (SFEM, 3/16/97, p.46) 1170 nend Madoc, a Welsh prince, is reputed to have discovered America. Many believe that he and his followers initially settled in the Georgia/Tennessee/ Kentucky area, eventually moving to the Upper Missouri, where they were assimilated into a tribe of the Mandans. New evidence is also emerging about a small band of Madoc's followers who remained in the Ohio area and are called ?White Madoc.? (www.madoc1170.com/home.htm) 1170 1221 Domingo de Guzman, a Spanish monk founded the Dominicans, also called mendicants, for they abjured great abbeys and cloisters in favor of a life of utmost simplicity and poverty. The Order of St. Dominic was fashioned to minister to the educated classes in the new towns. (V.D.-H.K.p.108)(CU, 6/87) 1171 nend May 1, Dermot MacMurrough (b.1110), last Irish King of Leinster, died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarmait_Mac_Murchada) 1171 nend Oct 18, Henry II (1133-1189) arrived in Ireland from France with an army and declared himself "Lord of Ireland". All of the Normans, along with many Irish princes, took oaths of homage to Henry by November, and he left after six months. He never returned, but in 1177 he named his youngest son, Prince John, as Lord of Ireland. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_II_of_England) c 1171 nend Benjamin ben Jonah, a Spanish Jew, returned to his home in Tudela and published an account of his 6-year journey to Constantinople, Cyprus, Palestine, Damascus, Persia and Egypt: ?The Travels of Benjamin of Tudela.? (WSJ, 8/8/02, p.D10) 1172 nend Mar 4, Stephan III, King of Hungary (1162-72), died. (SC, 3/4/02) 1172 1216 Shota Rustaveli, a Georgian poet, lived about this time. He is considered by many to be one of the greatest representatives of the literature of the medieval world. His literary work included ?The Knight in the Panther's Skin? ("Vepkhistkaosani" in Georgian), the Georgian national epic poem. (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9064497) 1173 nend Feb 21, Pope Alexander III canonized Thomas Becket (1117-1170) of Canterbury. (MC, 2/21/02) 1173 nend The first stone of the Tower of Pisa was laid. It began tilting in 1174 and became known as the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Work halted for nearly a century as Pisa warred with Florence. (WSJ, 2/16/99, p.A1)(SSFC, 10/19/03, p.C3) 1174 nend Jul 11, Amalric I, king of Jerusalem, died. (ON, 6/07, p.5) 1174 nend Jul 15, Baldwin (13), son of Amalric I, was crowned Baldwin IV, king of Jerusalem. (ON, 6/07, p.5) 1174 nend Nureddin, the ruler of Syria died. Saladin, the vizier of Egypt, married Nureddin?s widow and assumed control of both state. (ON, 6/07, p.5) 1174 nend The earliest known English horse races were held. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1176 nend May 22, There was a murder attempt by "Assassins" (hashish-smoking mountain killers) on Saladin near Aleppo. (MC, 5/22/02) 1176 nend May 29, Lombard League defeated Frederick Barbarossa at Battle of Legnano. (SC, 5/29/02) 1177 nend Aug 2, Philip of Flanders arrived in Acre. A Christian army under the joint command of Philip of Flanders and Raymond of Tripoli marched west to campaign against the Muslims around Tripoli. (ON, 6/07, p.5)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_of_Flanders) 1177 nend Nov 18, Saladin marched north from Egypt with 26,000 light cavalry intent on capturing the Kingdom of Jerusalem. (ON, 6/07, p.5)(www.historyofwar.org/articles/battles_ramleh.html) 1177 nend Nov 25, Baldwin of Jerusalem and his armored knights encountered the Muslim army of Saladin below the castle of Montgisard and defeated them in a surprise attack. (ON, 6/07, p.6) 1177 nend Lal Shahbaz Qalandar (d.1274) was born as Seyyed Shah Hussain Marandi in Marand (near the city of Tabriz) in Azerbaijan (at this time a part of Iran). He is also known as Shaikh Hussain Marandi. He migrated to Sindh and settled in Sehwan and was buried there. He was a Sufi in the regions that lie in the Sindh province of Pakistan. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahbaz_Qalander) 1178 nend Aug 29, Anti-Pope Callistus III gave pope title to Alexander III. (MC, 8/29/01) 1178 nend Jun 18, 5 Canterbury monks reported an explosion on moon (only known observation). This is the proposed time of origin of lunar crater Giordano Bruno. (MC, 6/18/02) 1178 nend Jul 30, Frederick I (Barbarossa), Holy Roman Emperor, was crowned King of Burgundy. (MC, 7/30/02) 1178 nend A Chinese colored scroll from this time depicted Buddhist guardians washing their clothes in a mountain stream. Buddha (d.483BCE) was said to have entrusted 16 disciples with the task of guarding the faith. (SFC, 12/5/03, p.D7) 1178 nend English raiders attacked the Irish town of Clonmacnoise but spared the churches. (SFEC, 8/1/99, p.T8) 1178 nend The wise King Giorgi III of Georgia had his daughter, Tamara (19), crowned as his co-ruler to provide an orderly succession. (www.undelete.org/woa/woa01-18.html) 1179 nend Sep 17, Hildegard van Bingen, mystic and composer (Ordo Virtutum), died at 81. The abbess Hildegard concocted the Lingua Ignota, an artificial language. Her work included the morality play ?Ordo Virtutum.? (WSJ, 6/20/96, p.A16)(Wired, 8/96, p.84)(WSJ, 7/30/98, p.A16)(MC,9/17/01) 1179 nend Pope Alexander III established The Apostolic Penitentiary, or Tribunal of Conscience, for sins considered so heinous by the Catholic Church that only the Pope can grant absolution to those who perpetrate them. (www.bishop-accountability.org/AbuseTracker/)(AP, 1/14/09) 1180 nend Aug 11, Guillaume de Sens, French master builder (Canterbury), died. (MC, 8/11/02) 1180 nend The Kingdom of Jerusalem under Baldwin IV reached a truce with Egypt under Saladin. (ON, 6/07, p.6) 1180 nend In Montpellier, France, a medical school was founded. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R22) 1180 1185 War between the Taira and Minamoto clans in Japan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 1181 nend Aug 4, A supernova was seen in Cassiopeia. Chinese and Japanese astronomers observed a supernova. The star 3C58 was later identified as the heart of the explosion in the constellation Cassiopeia. In 2002 it was thought to be composed of quarks. (MC, 8/4/02)(SFC, 4/11/02, p.A2) 1182 nend Francis of Assisi was born as Guiovanni di Bernardone (d.1226), the son of a rich Umbrian cloth merchant. He later created an Order to minister to the poor and destitute clustered in the slums outside the walled towns. (V.D.-H.K.p.108)(CU, 6/87)(SFC, 10/4/99, p.A21) 1182 nend In Constantinople a mob massacred the Latins who ruled as agents of the regent Maria of Antioch. They killed the city officials and proclaimed an uncle of Alexius II Comnenus co-emperor to rule as Andronicus I Comnenus together with his nephew. (PCh, 1992, p.98) 1183 nend James Goldman wrote his 1966 play "The Lion in Winter," set in 1183 England. The 1968 film ?The Lion in Winter? focused on Henry II and his estranged wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, and their battle over succession. The 1834 opera by Gaetano Donizetti, ?Rosmonda d?Inghilterra,? was the story of Rosamond Clifford, who was put in a tower by her lover King Henry II, and offered death by dagger or poison by Queen Eleanor. (SFC, 10/30/98, p.D4)(WSJ, 11/10/98, p.A20)(WSJ, 3/17/99, p.A24) 1184 nend Jun 15, King Magnus of Norway was defeated by his rival, Sverre. (HN, 6/15/98) 1185 nend Mar, Baldwin IV (23), king of Jerusalem, succombed to his leprosy. (ON, 6/07,p.6)(http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9356429/Baldwin-IV) 1185 nend Sep 12, Andronicus I Comnenus, Byzantine emperor (1183-85), was lynched. (MC, 9/12/01) 1185 nend The Bishopric of Livonia was founded by Meinhard of Germany. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1185 1333 The Kamakura Period of Japan. A sect known as Pure Land Buddhism began to enjoy great popularity. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(SFC, 3/14/03, p.D1) 1186 nend In Cambodia the temple monastery of Ta Prohm at Angkor was consecrated. Inscriptions say that 79,365 servants were required to for its upkeep. It was paid by funds from over 3,000 villages. (SFEC, 7/26/98, p.T7) 1186 nend Zara (present-day Zadar, Croatia), previously part of the Venetian republic, rebelled against Venice and allied itself with Hungary, posing competition to Venice?s maritime trade. (HNQ, 1/23/01) 1187 nend Jul 4, In the Battle of Hittin (Tiberias) Saladin defeated Reynaud of Chatillon. Salah al Din, who ruled from his imperial seat in ancient Syria, defeated Christian armies of the Crusaders and forced their retreat from the Holy Land. The battle was depicted in a mosaic that was found and restored for the palace of Pres, Hafez Assad of Syria. Saladin personally executed Crusader Reynaud of Chatillon (b.1124/5). Reynaud of Chatillon, Lord of Kerak, Jordan, had violated twice violated a tenuous truce and earlier this year attacked a caravan of pilgrims returning from Mecca. (WSJ, 9/30/96, p.A1)(Econ, 5/30/09,p.24)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raynald_of_Chatillon) 1187 nend Sep 5, Louis VIII, [Coeur-de-Lion] king of France (1223-26), was born. (MC, 9/5/01) 1187 nend Oct 2, Sultan Saladin captured Jerusalem from Crusaders. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saladin) 1189 nend Jan 21, Philip Augustus, Henry II of England and Frederick Barbarossa assembled the troops for the Third Crusade. (V.D.-H.K.p.109)(HN, 1/21/99) 1189 nend Feb 6, Riots of Lynn in Norfolk spread to Norwich, England. (MC, 2/6/02) 1189 nend May 11, Emperor Frederik I Barbarossa and 100,000 crusaders departed Regensburg. (MC, 5/11/02) 1189 nend Jul 6, Henry II (56), King of England (1154-89), died. (SFC, 10/30/98, p.D4)(MC, 7/6/02) 1189 nend Sep 3, After the death of Henry II, Richard Lionheart, King Richard I, was crowned king of England in Westminster. (AP, 9/3/97)(HN, 9/3/98) 1189 nend Sep 3, Jacob of Orleans, Rabbi, was killed in the London anti Jewish riot in which 30 Jews were massacred. (MC, 9/3/01) 1189 nend Giraldus Cambrensis authored "History of the Conquest of Ireland." (ON, SC, p.1) 1189 nend The first lord mayor was elected in London. (WSJ,3/13/95, p.A-1) 1189 nend Temiijin (27) became the acknowledged leader of the Mongols and was named Genghis Khan (King of Everything). (SSFC, 3/27/05, p.F4) 1190 nend Mar 16, The Crusades began the massacre of Jews in York, England. The Jewish population of York fled to Clifford?s Tower overlooking the rivers Ouse and Foss during an anti-Jewish riot. A crazed friar set fire to the tower and rather than be captured, the inhabitants committed mass suicide, (SFEC,10/26/97, p.T5)(HN, 3/16/99) 1190 nend Mar 17, Crusaders completed the massacre of Jews of York, England. (MC, 3/17/02) 1190 nend Mar 18, Crusaders killed 57 Jews in Bury St. Edmonds, England. (MC, 3/18/02) 1190 nend Jun 10, Frederick I van Hohenstaufen, Barbarossa (1123-1190), king of Germany and Italy and the Holy Roman Empire, drowned crossing the Saleph River while leading an army of the Third Crusade. Frederick struggled to extend German influence throughout Europe, maneuvering both politically and militarily. He clashed with the pope, the powerful Lombards and fellow Germans among others throughout the years. He joined the Third Crusade in the Spring of 1189 in their efforts to free Jerusalem from Saladin's army (WUD, 1994, p.565)(HN, 6/10/98)(HNQ, 2/3/01) 1190 nend Matthaeus Platerius, a teaching physician at the School of Salerno, wrote his manuscript ?Circa Instans,? a Latin work on the medicinal properties of plants. (WSJ, 7/7/98, p.A14) 1190 nend The Louvre Museum in Paris was built as a fortress. (SFC, 6/16/96, T-5) 1190 nend Emo of Friesland entered Oxford and was later remembered as Oxford?s first recorded foreign student. (Econ, 8/7/10, p.13) 1191 nend Apr 14, Giacinto Bobo (85) became Pope Coelestinus III. (MC, 4/14/02) 1191 nend May 12, Richard the Lionheart married (Bernegaria) Berengaria of Navarre in Limassol, Cyprus. (NH, 4/97, p.62)(EofA, p.161) 1191 nend Jul 12, Richard Coeur de Lion and Crusaders defeated the Saracens at Acre. (MC, 7/12/02) 1191 nend Aug 20, Crusader King Richard I (1157-1199), Coeur de Lion (the "Lionheart"), executed some 2,700-3,000 Muslim prisoners in Acre (Akko). (MC, 8/20/02) 1191 nend Zen Buddhism, guided by the Dao (The Way) arrived to Japan from China. (Hem., 2/96, p.58) 1191 nend In Cambodia Preah Khan was dedicated on what is thought to be the site where the Khmer defeated their eastern neighbors the Cham. The central temple was dedicated by Jayavarman VII to his father, King Dharanindravavarman II, in the name of Lokesvara, a god who embodies the compassionate qualities of the Buddha. The temple covers 140 acres. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.E)(Arch, 5/04, p.64) 1192 nend Sep 2, Sultan Saladin and King Richard the Lion Hearted signed a cease fire. (MC, 9/2/01) 1192 nend Oct 9, Richard Coeur de Lion left Jerusalem in disguise. [see Sep 21, 1192] (MC, 10/9/01) 1192 nend Dec 20, English King Richard I the Lion Hearted was captured in Austria on his return from the Third Crusade. An entire year?s supply of wool from the Cistercian and two other monasteries in England was promised as ransom for the King. It was never paid in full. (NG, 5.1988, pp. 569)(http://tinyurl.com/33kall) 1192 nend The Order of the Teutonic Knights of St. Mary's Hospital in Jerusalem established their headquarters in Acre. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teutonic_Knights) 1192 nend The founding of the Kamakura Shogunate in Japan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 1192 nend Enrico Dandolo (85) was elected doge of Venice. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1193 nend Mar 4, Saladin [Salah ed-Din]) Yusuf ibn Ayyub (52), Kurdish sultan of Egypt and Syria (1175-1193), died. Saladin led the Muslims against the Crusaders. (SSFC, 9/29/02, p.M6)(PC, 1992, p.100)(AP, 3/4/04) 1193 nend In 1779 The German playwright, Gotthold Lessing, wrote a play that was set at this time in Jerusalem. [see 1779, Lessing] (WSJ,11/24/95, p.A-6) 1193 nend The Nalanda Buddhist learning center in Bihar state was sacked by Turkic Muslim invaders under Bakhtiyar Khalji, a milestone in the decline of Buddhism in India. Khalji was a member of the Muslim Turkic Khilji, or the Khalaj tribe as it is known in Iran and Afghanistan. no_source 1193 nend In Tibet the Karma Kargyu sect preceded the Geluk sect of the Dalai Lama. It introduced the idea of religious succession by reincarnation when a great lama used it to predict his own rebirth. (SFEM, 12/20/98, p.18) 1194 nend Feb 4, Richard I, King of England, was freed from captivity in Austria with the payment of Leopold VI's ransom of 100,000 (HN, 2/4/99)(ON, 8/07, p.9) 1194 nend Feb 20, Tancredo of Lecce, King of Sicily, died. (MC, 2/20/02) 1194 nend Mar 13, Richard I, King of England, landed at Sandwich and immediately prepared to march north to recover his castles. (ON, 8/07, p.9) 1194 nend Mar 27, The Archbishop of Canterbury, on behalf of King Richard I, talked with the rebels inside the castle at Nottingham, who soon surrendered. (ON, 8/07, p.10) 1194 nend May 5, Kazimierz II, the Justified, grand duke of Poland (1177-94), died. (MC, 5/5/02) 1194 nend Dec 26, Frederick II, German Emperor (1212-1250) and King of Sicily, was born in Lesi, Italy. (HN, 12/26/98)(MC, 12/26/01) 1194 nend Dec 27, Frederick II, German Emperor, was born. (HN, 12/27/98) 1194 nend The French cathedral at Chartres was mostly destroyed by fire. The Sancta Camisia relic survived intact and the cathedral was rebuilt in 29 years. In 2008 Leo Hollis authored ?Universe of Stone: Chartres Cathedral and the Triumph of the Modern Mind.? (Hem., 10/97, p.86)(Econ, 6/7/08, p.97) 1195 1270 Rabbi Moshe ben Nahman (Nahmanides) was a Catalan kabbalist. (SFEC, 10/25/98, BR p.6) 1196 nend The Chateau Gaillard in Normandy was built by Richard the Lionhearted, Duke of Normandy, to protect his domain from Philip Augustus, King of France. (AMNH, DT, 1998) 1197 nend Dec 4, Crusaders wounded Rabbi Elezar ben Judah. (MC, 12/4/01) 1197 nend Sep 29, Emperor Henry VI died in Messina, Sicily. (HN, 9/29/98) c 1197 nend The sacred cross of Lalibela dates to this time. It was believed to belong to King Lalibela of Ethiopia who ordered "on command of God and with the help of angels" the construction of a holy city hewn from rock. In 1997 it was reported lost. (SDUT, 6/6/97, p.E4) 1198 nend Jan 8, Lotario de Conti di Sengi became Pope Innocent III (d.1216). He raised the papacy to an acme of papal prestige and power, and Christian Europe came close to being a unified theocracy with no internal contradictions. He oversaw 2 crusades and established fees for indulgences to fatten the Church's treasury. He hired Italian merchant bankers to manage papal funds and sanctioned the new Franciscan and Dominican orders. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Innocent_III)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1198 nend The German Bishop Bertold shipped up the Baltic with armed forces and attacked the native people of Livonia. The attack was repulsed. (Ist. L.H., 1948, p.39-40)(TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1198 nend The Fourth Crusade was funded by Enrico Dandolo, doge of Venice. (V.D.-H.K.p.109) 1198 nend Fleeing from the Turks, a group of Armenian nobles and their followers settled in Byzantine Cilicia where they established a state know as Lesser or Little Armenia. In this year the area attained the status of kingdom and survived to 1375. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia) 1198 nend The Giralda bell tower in Seville, Spain, was built as a Muslim minaret. (SSFC, 8/15/10, p.M5) 1199 nend Apr 6, Richard I "the Lion-hearted" (41), King of England (1189-99), died. Richard was killed by an arrow at the siege of the castle of Chaluz in France. (HN, 4/6/99)(MC, 4/6/02) 1199 nend Sep 30, Rambam (Maimonides) authorized Samuel Ibn Tibbon to translate ?Guide of Perplexed? from Arabic into Hebrew. (MC, 9/30/01) 1199 nend Prince John (d.1216) was crowned King of England. (ON, 7/04, p.1) 1200 nend Jul 1, Sunglasses were invented in China. (MC, 7/1/02) c 1200 nend In China the painting ?Reading the I Ching in the Pine Shade? was made. (NH, 9/97, p.) c 1200 nend Condesa de Dia was a female troubadour of this time. Her songs included ?Of things I?d rather keep in silence I must sing.? (WSJ, 5/14/97, p.A20) 1200 nend Bishop Albert, the head of a group of pilgrim knights, led 23 ships of armed soldiers up the Baltic to Livonian lands at the mouth of the Dauguva River. (Ist. L.H., 1948, p.39-40) c 1200 nend Buttons were invented as a decoration to embellish hemlines, collars and the sides of sleeves. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R40) 1200 nend The Anasazi in southwest Colorado began building their cliff dwellings. Population was thriving. They were making corrugated pottery and handsomely decorated black and white pottery. (HN, 2/11/97) c 1200 nend A drought hit the southwest (USA) around the Coso Mountains about this time. Shamanism and rain-making grew in importance and helped men counterbalance the importance of women engaged in food gathering when hunting declined. (PacDis, Summer ?97, p.15) 1200 nend In Germany ?The Nibelungenlied? (the Song of the Nibelungs) was written about this time. The epic poem of some 10,000 lines was based on tales that reached back to the 5th century destruction of the Burgundian kingdom by the Huns. In 2006 Burton Raffel wrote an English translation ?Das Nibelungenlied.? (WSJ, 10/28/06, p.P13) 1200 nend The Inca Empire conquered the area of Bolivia around this time and remained in control until arrival of Spaniards. (AP, 12/17/05) 1200 nend In 2007 Mexican archeologists discovered the ruins of an Aztec pyramid in the heart of Mexico City that dated to about this time. (Reuters, 12/27/07) c 1200 nend Polynesians settled the 14 Cook Islands that included Rarotonga. (SFEC, 1/5/97, p.T5) c 1200 nend The Sorbs, a Slavic people, settled in areas that later became Germany. They spoke a language similar to Czech. (SFC, 11/8/00, p.B2) c 1200 nend In Tibet the Rakhor nunnery was established. In 1997 Chinese authorities ordered the nuns to leave and everything except the main assembly hall was destroyed. (SFC, 1/29/99, p.E9) 1200 nend s Persia introduced polo to Arabia, China and India. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1200 1250 The Longbow was developed from a Welsh bow that had been used against the English. During the numerous skirmishes with the Welsh, the English had witnessed the power of this weapon. An arrow from this weapon had a maximum range of 400 yards, could penetrate four inches of wood at closer range, and could kill an armored knight at 200 yards. The British would use it to destroy a French army at Crecy in 1346. This would be the world's premiere weapon until the development of cannon (artillery) circa 1450. (www.archers.org/default.asp?section=History&page=longbow) 1200 1258 Jean Buridan, a scholar whose theory of the earth was absorbed and defended by Leonardo da Vinci. (NH, 5/97, p.59) 1200 1280 Albertus Magnus, the teacher of Thomas Aquinas. He wrote extensively on the form and behavior of the earth. ?The Book of Secrets of Albertus Magnus? was edited by Michael R. Best and Frank H. Brightman in 1974. He and Aquinas created a synthesis of Aristotelian thought and Catholic theology. (NH, 5/97, p.59)(AM, 5-6/97, p.10)(NH, 10/98, p.4) c 1200 1300 A mural at Massa Marittima, Italy, dating to the 13th century, depicts a spidery tree with 25 penises and testicles hanging in the branches. "It's a message from the Guelphs, telling people that if the Ghibellines are allowed power they will bring with them heresy, sexual perversion, civic strife and witchcraft." (Reuters, 12/7/04) 1200 1300 Moses de Leon, a Spanish Jewish mystic, wrote the "Zohar," in Aramaic. It was a mystical interpretation of the Torah disguised as a novel. The Zohar consists of mystical interpretations and commentaries of the Pentateuch, the first 5 books of the Old Testament. It became the major text of Jewish mysticism that came to be called the Kabbalah, as developed a few centuries later by Isaac Luria in Palestine. In 2003 a new translation was made by Daniel C. Matt, as part of a 12-volume new edition of the Kabbalah. (WUD, 1994, p.1662)(WSJ, 5/22/98, p.W11)(SFC, 12/16/03, p.D1) c 1200 1300 Nichiren was 13th-century Japanese monk and reformer. He founded a Buddhist school and wrote: ?When great evil occurs, great good will follow.? (WSJ, 3/28/02, p.A20) c 1200 1300 Cesky Krumlov, 100 miles south of Prague, was founded on the Vltava River on the main trading route between Bavaria and Italy. (SSFC, 7/21/02, p.C5) 1200 1300 The Danes built a castle at Narva, Estonia. (WSJ, 1/25/99, p.A1) 1200 1300 The Mont Orgueil Castle on the east coast of island of Jersey in the English Channel was built to withstand any French attack. (Sky, 4/97, p.28) c 1200 1300 In France the Abbey of Royaumont was established. (SFC, 9/8/97, p.D5) 1200 1300 In France the abbey on Mont St. Michel was established. In 1998 it was planned to remove the sand around the rocky island off the Normandy coast and re-establish its maritime character. (SFEC, 5/10/98, p.T3) 1200 1330 A Mayan city in Peten state (Guatemala), the ?El Pajaral? site, dated to the post-classic period of this time. The ruins were found in 2000. (SFC, 5/15/00, p.A13) 1200 1300 In Germany the Mauseturm, Tower of Mice, was built downriver from Rudesheim on an islet on the Rhine in the 13th century. It was named after the plight of the 9th century Archbishop Hatto of Mainz. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.T4) 1200 1300 Burg Reichenstein, downstream from Assmannshausen on the Rhine, was the stronghold of the 13th century robber-knight Philip von Hohenfels who ?robbed ladies, imprisoned the clergy, mistreated vassals and plundered merchants.? (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.T4) c 1200 1300 St. Gertrude, a German nun, was an important Catholic mystic. (WSJ, 12/26/97, p.A9) 1200 1300 In Limerick, Ireland, a 13th century castle was built overlooking the Shannon River. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.T11) 1200 1300 Rival Italian political factions and families collided in the 13th century at Montaperti, the "hill of death". (HN, 5/14/98) 1200 1300 On the coast of Kenya the great palace and main mosque at Gede (Gedi) were built. (NH, 6/97, p.41) 1200 1300 In Thailand the site at Prang Ku was probably one of 108 hospital sites built by the Khmer king Jayavarman VII. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.G) c 1200 1300 Sidi Bou Said was a 13th century Sufi holy man. A town 12 miles from Tunis was named after him. It was closed to non-Muslims until the 1820s. (SSFC, 8/4/02, p.C12) 1200 1400 Timbuktu, a major trading center in the Malian Empire, reached a population of some 100,000 during this period. (WSJ, 2/1/06, p.D12) 1200 1400 Stone birds from Great Zimbabwe were made in this period and later displayed as part of an African Art exhibit by the London Royal Academy 1995. (WSJ, 11/16/95, p.A-18) 1200 1450 As many as 18,000 people in the iron-age center of Great Zimbabwe. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.72) 1200 1500 Bhaktapur, Nepal, rose to dominate the entire Kathmandu Valley region culturally and politically. (SSFC, 9/21/03, p.C8) c 1200 1500 In 2005 researchers using mitochondrial DNA estimated that 3-6 individuals founded the Mlabri hunter gatherers of Northern Thailand about this time. (Econ, 4/16/05, p.71) 1201 nend Jul 5, An earthquake in Syria and upper Egypt killed some 1.1 million people. (www.geohaz.org/member/news/signif.htm) 1201 nend Oct 9, Robert de Sorbon, founder of Sorbonne University, Paris, was born. (MC, 10/9/01) 1201 nend The Germans founded the city of Riga in Livonia, now Latvia, and built a castle under the direction of Bishop Albert. (Ist. L.H., 1948, p.39-40) 1202 nend Apr 28, King Philip II threw out John-without-Country, from France. (MC, 4/28/02) 1202 nend Nov, The Fourth Crusade sacked Zara. The leaders of the Fourth Crusade agreed to sack Zara (present-day Zadar, Croatia)--a rival of Venice--as payment for transportation the Venetians supplied the crusaders. Zara, previously part of the Venetian republic, had rebelled against Venice in 1186 and since allied itself with Hungary, posing competition to Venice?s maritime trade. Unable to raise enough funds to pay to their Venetian contractors, the crusaders agreed to lay siege to the city despite letters from Pope Innocent III forbidding such an action and threatening excommunication. The fleet set sail in October of 1202, reaching Zara in Nov. Zara--the first Christian city to be assaulted by crusaders--surrendered after just two weeks. The army then wintered in the city and planned an attack on the Byzantine capital of Constantinople the following year. (HNQ, 1/23/01) 1202 nend King John of England proclaimed the 1st food law, the Assize of Bread. It prohibited the adulteration of bread with ground peas. (Econ Sp, 12/13/03, p.15) 1202 nend The English again attacked the Irish town and monastery at Clonmacnoise. (SFEC, 8/1/99, p.T8) 1202 nend Assisi fought against Perugia in the Battle of Collestrada. St. Francis faced his first test in life as a soldier in this battle. (SSFC, 3/25/01, BR p.6) 1202 nend The Hindu-Arabic numbering system was introduced to the West by Italian mathematician Fibonacci (Leonardo of Pisa). The Fibonacci series is a sequence of numbers where each new number is the sum of the previous two. Fibonacci wrote ?Liber abaci? describing how algebraic methods developed in India and how they could be used in business and commerce. (WSJ, 10/21/96, p.A18)(WSJ, 12/9/96, p.B8)(Econ, 5/15/04, p.80)(SFC,8/25/08, p.A10) 1202 nend Court jesters made their debut in Europe. [see 1549] (WSJ, 9/2/99, p.A12) 1203 nend The Fourth Crusade murdered 100,000 Orthodox Christians. (WSJ, 7/16/97, p.A23) 1203 nend Arthur of Brittany, a political rival of King John of England, died while being held prisoner in one of John?s dungeons. (ON, 7/04, p.1) 1203 nend King Sumanguru, ruler of a break-away Ghanian kingdom, overthrew the Soninke king and took over Koumbi. At about the same time a new kingdom to the east called Mali and ruled by Mandinke, was gaining power. (ATC, p.113) 1204 nend Apr 1, Eleanor of Aquitaine (81), wife of Louis VII and Henry II, died. In 1950 Amy Kelly authored ?Eleanor of Aquitaine and the Four Kings.? (www.britannica.com/eb/article-9032256/Eleanor-of-Aquitaine)(WSJ,5/12/07, p.P10) 1204 nend Apr 9, The Venetians began their assault on Constantinople. no_source 1204 nend Apr 12, The Fourth Crusade, led by Boniface of Montferrat, sacked Constantinople. Constantinople fell to a combined force of Franks and Venetians. The 4th Crusade failed to reach Palestine but sacked the Byzantine Christian capital of Constantinople. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.)(NH, 9/96, p.22)(HN, 4/12/98) 1204 nend Dec 13, Maimonides (b.1135), Spanish-born Jewish scholar, died in Cairo. His books included the ?Mishnah Torah,? the single most important Jewish book after the Bible and Talmud, and ?Guide for the Perplexed.? In 2005 Sherwin B. Nuland authored ?Maimonides.? (www.newadvent.org/cathen/09540b.htm)(SSFC, 10/23/05, p.M1) 1204 nend Frankish knights established the principality of Achaia in southern Greece. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.54) 1204 nend France won back Normandy but the people of the isle of Jersey chose to remain loyal to England. The Chateau Gaillard of Richard the Lionhearted was defeated and partly dismantled as punishment. (Sky, 4/97, p.28)(AMNH, DT, 1998) 1204 nend Venice won control over most of Albania, but Byzantines regained control of the southern portion and established the Despotate of Epirus. (www, Albania, 1998) 1204 nend The rule of Venice over Crete dates to this year, when the Republic was awarded 3/8 of the Eastern Roman Empire for its role in supporting the Fourth Crusade. (http://romeartlover.tripod.com/Creta.html) 1204 1205 Georgia?s Queen Tamara marched with her men to the rousing victory over the Turks at the Battle of Basiani where she is hailed with the cry, "Our King Tamara." (www.undelete.org/woa/woa01-18.html) 1205 nend Jun 19, Pope Innocent III fired Adolf I as archbishop of Cologne. (MC, 6/19/02) 1205 nend Jul 15, Pope Innocent III decreed that the Jews were doomed to perpetual servitude and subjugation due to crucifixion of Jesus. (MC, 7/15/02) 1206 nend The city of Dresden, Germany, was founded. (SFEC, 7/27/97, p.T6) 1206 nend Francesco di Pietro di Bernardone, later Francis of Assisi, renounced his worldly possessions. (SFC, 10/4/99, p.A21) 1206 nend Genghis Khan declared himself ?the ruler of those who live in felt tents.? (SFEM, 10/12/97, p.27) 1206 1226 Genghis Khan unified the Mongols and over the next twenty years conquered northern China and all of Asia west to the Caucasus. The Mongols numbered about 2 million and his army about 130,000. (V.D.-H.K.p.169)(SFEM, 10/12/97, p.27) 1207 nend Sep 4, Boniface of Montferrat, leader of the 4th Crusade, was ambushed and killed by the Bulgarians. (Nationmaster.com) 1207 nend Sep 8, Sancho II, king of Portugal, was born. (MC, 9/8/01) 1207 nend Sep 30, Jalal ud-din Rumi (Jelaluddin Rumi, d.1273), Persian poet and mystic was born in the area of Balkh, Afghanistan. He later fled the Mongol invasions with his family to Konya (Iconium), Anatolia. His work ?Mathwani? (Spiritual Couplets) filled 6 volumes and had a great impact on Islamic civilization. He founded the Mevlevi order of Sufis, later known as the ?whirling dervishes.? In 1998 a film was made about the Sufi poet?s influence on the 20th century. In 1998 Kabir Helminski edited ?The Rumi Collection? with translation by Robert Bly and others. His work also included the ?Shams I-Tabriz? in which he dismissed the terminology of Jew, Christian and Muslim as ?false distinctions.? The poet Rumi was also known as Mowlana. (SFC, 7/9/96, p.B5)(SFEC, 9/20/98, DB p.50)(SFEC, 10/25/98, BRp.6)(WSJ, 9/7/01, p.A14)(SSFC, 10/28/01, p.B7)(SSFC, 4/1/07, p.E3) 1207 nend Oct 1, Henry III, king of England (1216-72), was born. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1207) 1208 nend Feb 24, Francis of Assisi (26) decided to become a priest in Portiuncula, Italy. (MC, 2/24/02) 1208 nend Mar 24, King John of England opposed Innocent III on his nomination for archbishop of Canterbury. (HN, 3/24/99) 1209 nend King John of England was excommunicated by Pope Innocent III. (HN, 10/19/98) 1209 nend England?s Cambridge University was established. (AFP, 10/11/06) 1209 nend The Delhi Sultanate established Muslim rule in northern India. (AM, 7/04, p.51) 1209 nend In Kinnitty, Ireland, the Kinnitty Castle was built. It was later converted to a hotel. (WSJ, 2/27/98, p.B8) 1209 nend Pope Innocent III urged a crusade against the Albigensians. They were ascetic communitarians of southern France who viewed the clergy and secular rulers as corrupt. A war resulted that effectively destroyed the Provencal civilization of southern France. (NH, 9/96, p.20) 1209 nend The Franciscan brotherhood received papal approval. (SFC, 7/23/99, p.C8) 1210 nend Oct 18, Pope Innocent III excommunicated German emperor Otto IV. (MC, 10/18/01) 1210 nend Nov 1, King John of England began imprisoning Jews. (MC, 11/1/01) 1210 nend Francis founded the Franciscans, and demanded that his followers subsist entirely on what they can beg while preaching. (V.D.-H.K.p.108) 1211 nend St. Francis reportedly landed on the Isola Maggiore, an island on Lake Trasimeno. (SFEM, 10/12/97, p.48) 1211 nend In Latvia construction began on Riga?s Lutheran Cathedral. (SSFC, 7/22/07, p.G5) 1211 1228 Vaulted halls called ?La Marveille? were added to the abbey of Mont St. Michel off the coast of Normandy, France. (WSJ, 10/7/06, p.P18) 1212 nend Jan 18, Queen Tamara of Georgia in Transcaucasia died after a 24-year reign during which her soldiers proclaim her "our King." (www.undelete.org/woa/woa01-18.html) 1212 nend Jul 16, Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa marked the end of Muslim power in Spain. (MC, 7/16/02) 1212 nend Jul 17, Moslems were crushed in the Spanish crusade. (HN, 7/17/98) 1212 nend Aug 25, Children's crusaders under Nicolas (10) reached Genoa. (MC, 8/25/02) 1212 nend Stephen, a shepherd boy from Cloyes-sur-le-Loir, France, had a vision of Jesus and set out to deliver a letter to the King of France. He gathered 30,000 children who went to Marseilles with plans to ship to the Holy Land and conquer the Muslims with love instead of arms. They got shipped to North Africa and were sold in the Muslim slave markets. (V.D.-H.K.p.110) no_source 1213 nend May 15, King John submitted to the Pope, offering to make England and Ireland papal fiefs. Pope Innocent III lifted the interdict of 1208. He named Stephen Langton Archbishop of Canterbury. (HN, 5/15/99)(MC, 5/15/02) 1213 nend Sep 12, Simon de Montfort defeated Raymond of Toulouse and Peter II of Aragon at Muret, France. (HN, 9/12/98) 1214 nend Apr 25, Louis IX, king of France (1226-1270), was born. (HN, 4/25/02) 1214 nend Jul 27, At the Battle of Bouvines in France, Philip Augustus of France defeated John of England. (HN, 7/27/98) 1214 nend ?-1294? Roger Bacon, English philosopher and scientist. He was imprisoned for alchemy in 1284. (WUD, 1994, p.109)(HC, 1/9/98) 1215 nend Jan 6, King John met with disgruntled barons of northern England who demanded that taxes be lowered. (ON, 7/04, p.1) 1215 nend Apr 19-26, During Easter week English barons assembled an army of some 2,000 men near London and demanded that King John address their call for tax relief. (ON, 7/04, p.1) 1215 nend May 3, English barons led their forces on an attack of Northampton Castle. Loyalists to King John successfully defended the castle and the rebels returned to London. (ON, 7/04, p.2) 1215 nend May 12, English barons served an ultimatum on King John (known as "Lack land"). (MC, 5/12/02) 1215 nend June 15, The Magna Carta ("the Great Charter") was adopted and sealed by King John, son of Henry II, at Runnymede, England, granting his barons more liberty. King John signed the Magna Carta, which asserted the supremacy of the law over the king, at Runnymede, England. Commercial clauses protected merchants from unjust tolls. (CFA, '96, p.48)(HFA, '96, p.32)(AP, 6/15/97)(HN, 6/15/98)(WSJ,1/11/99, p.R49) 1215 nend Aug 24, Pope Innocent III, following a request from King John, declared the Magna Carta invalid. The barons of England soon retaliated by inviting King Philip of France to come to England. Philip accepted the offer. (MC, 8/24/02)(ON, 7/04, p.2) 1215 1216 King John avoided rebel forces in the south but marched his army across the countryside subduing adversaries in the north, east and west. Scottish and Welsh armies raided the English borders. (ON, 7/04, p.2) 1215 1250 Frederick II became emperor and renewed conflicts with the papacy. [see Nov 22, 1220, 1250] (V.D.-H.K. p.111) 1215 1294 Kublai Khan founded the Yuan dynasty and reunited China for the first time since the fall of the T?angs in 907. He was the grandson of Genghis Khan and established the Yuan dynasty in China. He built a court of gilded cane at Tatu (later Beijing) that inspired Marco Polo and Coleridge. He enforced the use of paper money and had ships built to carry 1,000 men. (V.D.-H.K.p.169)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1216 nend Jun 16, Pope Innocent III died. In 2003 John C. Moore authored ?Pope Innocent III.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Innocent_III)(WSJ, 4/12/08, p.W8) 1216 nend Jul 11, Hendrik of Constantinople, emperor of Constantinople (1206-16), died. (MC, 7/11/02) 1216 nend Oct 19, John, King of England (1199-1216) died at Newark at age 49. He signed the Magna Carta and was excommunicated in 1209. King John was succeeded by his nine-year-old son Henry. The Royal Menagerie was begun during the reign of King John. (HN, 10/19/98)(SFEC, 10/10/99, p.T3) 1216 nend Oct 28, Henry III of England (9) was crowned. Regents led him to agree to the demands made by the barons at Runnymede. Prince Louis, repudiated by the barons, returned to France. (HN, 10/28/98)(ON, 7/04, p.2) 1217 nend Feb 18, Alexander Neckum de Sancto Albano (59), English encyclopedist, died. (MC, 2/18/02) 1217 nend Aug 24, Eustace "the Monk", French buccaneer, was killed in battle. (MC, 8/24/02) 1218 nend May 19, Otto IV (36), Holy Roman Emperor, died. (PC, 1992, p.106) 1218 nend Aug 31, Al-Malik ab-Adil, Saphadin, Saif al-Din, brother of Saladin, died. (MC, 8/31/01) 1218 nend The university at Salamanca, Spain, was founded by King Alfonso IX. (SSFC, 6/8/03, p.C8) 1218 nend Simon IV de Montfort (b.1160), Norman knight and leader of the crusade against the Albigenses (1202-1204), died at the siege of Toulouse. (WUD, 1994, p.928) 1219 nend Jan 16, Floods followed a storm in Northern Netherlands and thousands were killed. (MC, 1/16/02) 1219 nend Nov 5, The port of Damietta (in the Nile delta of Egypt) fell to the Crusaders after a siege. (WUD, 1994, p.365)(HN, 11/5/98) 1219 nend St. Francis d?Assisi journeyed to Egypt and met with the sultan to work for peace. (SSFC, 9/29/02, p.D2) 1219 1221 Genghis Khan invaded Afghanistan. Destruction of irrigation systems by Genghis Khan turned fertile soil into permanent deserts. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1220 nend Apr 15, Adolf I, archbishop of Cologne, died. (MC, 4/15/02) 1220 nend May 30, Alexander Nevski, Russian ruler (1252-63), was born. (MC, 5/30/02) 1220 nend Nov 22, After promising to go to the aid of the Fifth Crusade within nine months, German King Frederick II was crowned emperor by Pope Honorius III. (HN, 11/22/98)(PCh, 1992, p.106) 1220 nend Construction began on the English Cathedral of Salisbury. It was inaugurated in 1258. (MC, 9/20/01)(Econ, 12/20/03, p.29) 1220 nend In France the main structure of Chartres cathedral was completed. In 2008 Philip Ball authored ?Universe of Stone: A Biography of Chartres Cathedral.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedral_of_Chartres)(WSJ, 7/5/08, p.W9) c 1220 nend Genghis Khan made Karakorum his capital. (SSFC, 3/27/05, p.F4) 1220 nend Klosters, Switzerland, a future ski center, has roots to this date. (Hem, Dec. 94, p.76) 1221 nend Aug 6, St. Dominic, Italian founder of the Dominicans religious order, died. (MC, 8/6/02) 1221 nend Nov 23, Alfonso X (the Wise, d.1284), king of Castile & Leon (1252-84), was born. Also known as Alfonso the Wise, he served as king of Castile from 1252-1284. His manuscript ?Cantigas de Santa Maria? is one of the most important of the period. (WUD, 1994, p.36)(WSJ, 5/14/97, p.A20)(MC, 11/23/01) 1221 nend In France the Chateau de Bagnols castle was built. Guichard, Lord of Oingt, built the first three of its 5 round towers. It was restored in the 1990s by English publishing mogul Paul Hamlyn and his wife Helen. (SFEM, 10/4/98, p.6) 1221 nend Emperor Frederick II issued a law that declared that violence could be committed against jesters without punishment. (SFC,12/897, p.A17) 1221 nend In Russia Nizhny Novgorod was founded. (USAT, 10/9/98, p.12A) 1221 nend Genghis Khan razed the city of Bamiyan, Afghanistan, and exterminated its inhabitants. (WSJ, 11/16/01, p.W12) 1221 nend Genghis Khan is said to have killed 1,748,000 people at Nishapur in just one hour. (SFC, 5/25/96, p.B4) 1222 nend A group of professors broke free from the Univ. of Bologna, under the control of the Catholic Church, and created the Univ. of Padua, independent of Catholic constraints. (SSFC, 3/25/07, p.G3) 1223 nend Jul 14, Philip II Augustus (57), King of France (1180-1223), died. Louis VIII succeeded his father. (HN, 7/14/98)(MC, 7/14/02) 1223 nend Dec 25, St. Francis of Assisi assembled one of the first Nativity scenes, in Greccio, Italy. (AP, 12/25/97) c 1224 nend /25-1274 Thomas Aquinas born in Aquino between Rome and Naples. He was a pupil of the Benedictines in the monastery of Monte Cassino. After nine years Emperor Frederic II temporarily disbanded the monks at Cassino and Thomas went to Naples to study and joined the Dominicans. He tried to reconcile theology with the emerging economic conditions of his time. (V.D.-H.K.p.119)(NH, 10/98, p.4)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R20) 1225 nend Nov 7, Engelbert I (40), the Saint, archbishop of Cologne, was murdered. (MC, 11/7/01) 1226 nend Oct 3, St. Francis of Assisi (b.1182), founder of the Franciscan order, died. He was canonized in 1228 and entombed in the St. Francis Basilica in 1230. In 1983 Olivier Messiaen premiered his opera ?Saint Francis d?Assise.? In 2001 Adrian House authored ?Francis of Assisi: A Revolutionary Life;? Valerie Martin authored ?Salvation: Scenes From the Life of St. Francis.? In 2002 Donald Spoto authored ?Reluctant Saint: The Life of Francis of Assisi.? [see Oct 4] (AP, 10/3/97)(SFEC, 7/25/99, DB p.32)(SSFC, 3/25/01, BR p.1,6)(SSFC,9/29/02, p.D2)(SFC, 10/3/02, p.A19) 1226 nend Oct 4, St. Francis of Assisi, founder of the Franciscans and one of history's most famous nature lovers, died. [see Oct 3] (MC, 10/4/01) 1226 nend Nov 8, Louis VIII (39), the Lion, King of France (1223-26), died. He was succeeded by Louis IX. (HN, 11/6/98)(MC, 11/8/01) 1226 nend Following Prussian attacks on Polish lands, the Catholic Poles invited German religious-military orders to attack Prussia. (H of L, 1931, p.25)(TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1226 nend The last mega hurricane struck the gulf coast of Alabama. The mega hurricane seems to happen on average every 600 years. (SFEC, 9/15/96, p.A10) 1226 1270 Era of King Louis IX. In France, the urban middle-class became a new, economic factor, and King Louis IX tried to control his vassals through his policy of increased centralization. It was the era in which the crusades were winding down, and the embassies of Franciscans and Dominicans to the courts of Mongolian princes were beginning. (http://www.let.ruu.nl/C+L/voorbij/vincent/txt/albrecht.htm) 1227 nend In Spain construction of the Gothic Cathedral in Toledo was begun. (SFEC, 3/22/98, p.T11) 1227 nend Aug 18, Genghis Khan (Chinggis), Mongol conqueror, died in his sleep at his camp, during his siege of Ningxia, the capital of the rebellious Chinese kingdom of Xi Xia. Subotai was one of Genghis Khan's ablest lieutenants, and went on to distinguish himself after the khan's death. In Khan's lifetime he and his warriors had conquered the majority of the civilized world, ruling an empire that stretched from Poland down to Iran in the west, and from Russia's Arctic shores down to Vietnam in the east. Russian archaeologist Peter Kozloff uncovered the tomb of Genghis Khan in the Gobi Desert in 1927. In 2006 Zhu Yaoting, a Beijing academic, authored a biography of Genghis Khan. (AP, 8/18/97)(HN, 10/29/98)(Econ, 12/23/06, p.61) 1227 nend In the Polish Kulm region there was a struggle with Prussia over land. The Poles called in the German Knights of the Cross (aka Teutonic Knights) for help in exchange for the lands of Kulm. The Knights arrived and began to fight Prussia in wars that lasted some 60 years. (Ist. L.H., 1948, p. 41) 1227 nend Roman Emperor Frederick II was first excommunicated by the Catholic Pope because his growing empire threatened the independence of the papal states. [see 1239] (AP, 5/5/06) 1227 1234 The Madrassa al Mustansirija was constructed in Baghdad by the Caliph al Mustansir. It became world epicenter of medical sciences and also taught theology, mathematics, jurisprudence, astrology and other subjects. (WSJ, 9/20/08, p.W14) 1228 nend The Basilica di San Francesco was constructed in Assisi, Italy. (WSJ, 3/25/99, p.A24) 1228 nend St. Francis of Assisi, founder of the Franciscan order, was canonized. (AP, 10/3/97) 1229 nend Mar 18, German emperor Frederick II crowned himself king of Jerusalem. (MC, 3/18/02) 1229 nend Apr 14, A scribe name John completed a religious text that overwrote a manuscript attributed to Archimedes that had been copied by a scribe in the 10th century. In 2006 scientists attempted to read the final pages of the Archimedes palimpsest, which contained text from his ?Method of Mechanical Theorems.? (Econ, 7/22/06, p.76) 1229 1241 Ugoodei, Genghis? successor, reigned Mongolia over this period. (www.gobiexpeditions.com) 1230 nend Mindaugas began to rule over Lithuania. Mindaugas found resistance amongst some local rulers who called in German military orders for assistance. Mindaugas hosted the German magistrate who said that the only way to save Lithuania would be to convert to Catholicism and pass western territory over to the German Order. (H of L, 1931, p.29) 1230 1253 King Wenceslas I reigned over Bohemia. His sister, St. Agnes, was canonized in 1989. Both are buried in the Convent of St. Agnes in Prague. (SFC, 4/14/96, T-12) 1231 nend Guo Shoujing (d.1314), Chinese astronomer, was born. He developed water clocks with temperature compensation and escapements to provide high resolution time accuracy for astronomical observations, a ?pinhole camera? to sharpen shadows cast by the sun and moon, mathematical tools for polynomial generation and interpolation, and other inventions for measurements. (www.1421.tv/pages/evidence/content.asp?EvidenceID=420) 1231 1322 The illustrated text of the Chinese Dharani Sutra of Great Splendor was created. (SFC, 8/21/03, p.E2) 1232 1316 Ramon Llull proposed an artificial language that used 4 figures and 9 letters called his Ars magna. It was proposed as the perfect tool for Christian missionaries. (Wired, 8/96, p.84) 1233 nend The Inquisition began and lasted into the 19th century. (SFC, 10/30/98, p.A16) 1233 nend The Japanese royal family began to stain their teeth black in a fashion statement. (WSJ, 9/2/99, p.A12) 1234 nend Ugoodei attacked and overcame the Chin (Juchen) dynasty of China. (www.gobiexpeditions.com) 1235 nend Jan 2, Emperor Joseph II ordered the Jews of Galicia, Austria, to adopt family names. (MC, 1/2/02) 1235 nend Sep 5, Henry I, duke of Brabant, died. Brabant was a duchy later divided between Netherlands and Belgium. (WUD, 1994 p.177)(MC, 9/5/01) 1235 nend Henry III received 3 leopards from Frederick II, the Holy Roman Emperor. They became part of the Royal Menagerie housed in the Tower of London. (SFEC, 10/10/99, p.T3) 1235 nend In China a murder was solved when field men were told to lay down their rice sickles and flies landed on only one. (SFEC, 9/28/97, Z1 p.2) 1235 nend The king of Mali, Sundiata, defeated Sumanguru at the battle of Kirina. From then on Mali replaced Ghana as the major power in West Africa. Sundiata established his capital at Niana on the upper Niger. (ATC, p.113,118) 1235 1315 Raimon Llull, a Mallorcan Catholic Franciscan poet. He declared that his ecstatic Christian spirituality drew from the example of Sufis like Rumi. (SFEC, 10/25/98, BR p.6) 1236 nend Jan 14, Henry III married Eleanor of Provence. (HN, 1/14/99) 1236 nend Jun 29, Ferdinand III of Castile and Leon took Cordoba in Spain. Cordoba, Spain, fell to Christian forces. The last Islamic kingdom left in Spain is that of the Berbers in Granada. (ATC, p.100)(HN, 6/29/98) 1236 nend Aug 22, The German Master Volkwin of Riga had prepared a large force of his Knights of the Sword to attack Lithuania. The Lithuanians learned of the planned attack and called for forces across the land to repulse the Germans. The Germans were lured to a marsh near the town of Siauliai and were severely beaten. Only a tenth of their forces were said to escape back to Riga. (Ist. L.H., 1948, p. 41)(TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1236 nend Dec 23, Philippus Cancellarius, French theologian and poet (Summa Cum Laude), died. (MC, 12/23/01) 1236 nend Queen Rusudani (41), the daughter of Queen Tamara, fled Georgia as the unstoppable Mongol hordes ravished the area. She had been proclaimed "King" at the death of her brother. (www.undelete.org/woa/woa01-18.html) 1237 nend Feb 13, Jordanus of Saxon, 2nd father-general of Dominicans, drowned. (MC, 2/13/02) 1237 nend Mar 23, Jan of Brienne, King of Jerusalem, Emperor of Constantinople, died. (SS, 3/23/02) 1237 nend The Bishop of Riga sent a request to Rome that the Pope unite the German Knights of the Sword and Knights of the Cross into one order. The Pope agreed and the two orders agreed to fight under one magistrate. (Ist. L.H., 1948, p. 41) 1237 nend The Knights of the Sword ended their activities in Livonia. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) no_source 1237 1238 Batu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan, invaded Russia. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.28) 1237 1240 Mongols conquered Russian lands. (DVD, Criterion, 1998) 1238 nend Feb 3, The Mongols took over Vladimir, Russia. (HN, 2/3/99) 1238 nend Sep 28, James of Aragon retook Valencia, Spain, from the Arabs. (HN, 9/28/98) 1238 nend The Knights of the Sword merged with the German Knights of the Cross. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1238 nend Mindaugas is mentioned for the 1st time. He ruled to 1263. (H of L, 1931, p.29)(TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1239 nend Jun 17, Edward I (Longshanks), king of England (1272-1307), was born. He became king of England following the death of his father Henry III. Edward I has been called "the English Justinian" because of his legal reforms, but is usually known as one of the foremost military men of the medieval world. His rule strengthened the authority of the crown and England?s influence over her neighbors. While successfully subduing Wales he died while attempting to conquer Scotland. (HN, 6/17/00)(HNQ, 2/1/01) 1239 nend Roman Emperor Frederick II was excommunicated a 2nd time because his growing empire threatened the independence of the papal states. (AP, 5/5/06) 1240 nend Apr 11, Llywelyn ab Iorwerth the Great, monarch of Wales (1194-1240), died. (MC, 4/11/02) 1240 nend Nov 26, Edmund Van Abingdon, archbishop of Canterbury and Saint, died. (MC, 11/26/01) 1240 nend Dec 6, Mongols under Batu Khan occupied and destroyed Kiev. (MC, 12/6/01) 1240 nend A chronicle of the life of Genghis Khan and his successors: ?The Secret Life of the Mongols,? was written about this time. A Chinese version was discovered by a Russian diplomat in the early 1800s. In 1982 Francis Woodman Cleaves produced a modern version. (www.ezlink.com/~culturev/secret.html)(SSFC, 5/22/05, p.C3) 1240 nend Henry III ordered the Tower of London to be whitewashed. (Hem, 9/04, p.28) c 1240 1302 Giovanni Cimabue, Italian painter and mosaicist. In 1998 a collection of his work was published with text by Luciano Bellosi. Cimabue was a teacher of Giotto. Many of his creations were damaged by a 1966 flood in the Church of Santa Croce in Florence. (WUD, 1994, p.266)(WSJ, 12/3/98, p.W4) 1240 1630 The site of Thulamela in Kruger Nat?l. Park in northeastern South Africa had graves containing people with gold ornaments. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.71) 1241 nend Apr 9, In the Battle of Liegnitz, Silesia, Mongol armies defeated the Poles and Germans. In this year the Mongols defeated the Germans and invaded Poland and Hungary. The death of their leader Ughetai (Ogedei) forced them to withdraw from Europe. (HN, 4/9/98)(TOH) 1241 nend May 25, 1st attack on Jewish community of Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany. (SC, 5/25/02) 1241 nend A trumpeter in Krakow, Poland, was shot through the throat by an archer as he warned the city of a fast-approaching Mongol army. (SSFC, 12/28/03, p.C6) 1241 nend The Great Khan Ogedei died after completing the Mongol conquest of China and Korea. In April the Mongols routed the armies of Poles, Germans, and Hungarians, at Liegnitz and Mohi, within easy distance of Vienna. Only the death of Ogedei stopped their advance into Europe. (V.D.-H.K.p.169) 1242 nend Feb 12, Henry VII, Roman Catholic German king (1220-35), committed suicide. (MC, 2/12/02) 1242 nend Apr 5, Russian troops repelled an invasion attempt by Teutonic Knights. Alexander Nevsky of Novgorod defeated Teutonic Knights (HN, 4/5/99)(MC, 4/5/02) 1242 nend Jun 6, 24 wagonloads of Talmudic books were burned in Paris. (MC, 6/6/02) 1242 nend In Italy the city wall of Montagnana were built. (AMNHDT, 5/98) 1242 nend Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, established his ?Golden Horde? at Sarai on the Lower Volga. (TOH) 1243 nend Jun 26, The Seljuk Turkish army in Asia Minor was wiped out by the Mongols. (HN, 6/26/98) 1243 nend A Charter granted permission for a fair at the monastery of St. Michael at Glastonbury Tor. (Local Inscription, 2000) 1243 1254 Pope Innocent IV. He established canon law that recognized communities such as cathedral chapters and monasteries as legal individuals. (WSJ, 12/23/99, p.A18) 1244 nend Aug 23, Turks expelled the crusaders under Frederick II from Jerusalem. (HN, 8/23/98) 1244 nend Oct 17, The Sixth Crusade ended when an Egyptian-Khwarismian force almost annihilated the Frankish army at Gaza. (HN, 10/17/98) 1244 nend The Cathars, a group of Catholic heretics, settled at Montsegur, France, in the Ariege region. They were besieged for more than a year and chose to burn at the stake rather than submit. Occitania was the ancient name for this region. (SFEC, 12/8/96, p.T1) 1244 nend Sheikh Abu el Haggag, Tunisian born Sufi, died in Luxor, Egypt. His family was from Mecca and traced its lineage to Mohammed. He founded a Sufi mosque in Luxor and is buried there. An annual celebration in Luxor, called the moulid, celebrates his birthday. Egyptologists believe this event is related to the ancient Opet Festival from the 18th Dynasty. (Arch, 7/02, p.36) 1244 1248 Mevlana Jalaluddin Rumi met Shams of Tabriz, a wandering dervish, and the two became mystical companions for 4 years until Shams disappeared. Rumi called his own writings ?The Works of Shams of Tabriz.? (SFEC, 10/25/98, BR p.6) 1245 nend Jul 27, Frederick II of France was deposed by a council at Lyons, which found him guilty of sacrilege. (HN, 7/27/98) 1245 nend Thomas Aquinas was sent to Paris where he enrolled as a student of Albertus Magnus to study theology, philosophy, and history. In 1974 Michael R. Best and Frank H. Brightman edited ?The Book of secrets of Albertus Magnus,? which contained a recipe for Greek Fire. (V.D.-H.K.p.119)(AM, May/Jun 97 p.10) 1245 nend John of Plano Carpini was a Franciscan monk who set out on the instructions of Pope Innocent IV to gather intelligence. He was met by Mongol horseman and was brought to witness the enthronement of Guyuk Khan. He experienced a sudden hailstorm followed by a flash flood that killed 160 people. (SFC, 4/14/96, T-10)(SFEM, 10/12/97, p.22) 1245 nend The Rheinfels Castle above St. Goar was erected by Count Diether III of Katzenelbogen to enforce a new toll on the Rhine. His family was responsible for many of the Rhine castles. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.T5) 1245 nend In Flanders cottage weavers went on strike against cloth merchants. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1246 nend May 22, Henry Raspe was elected anti-king by the Rhenish prelates in France. (HN, 5/22/98) 1246 nend The Spanish island of Mallorca was occupied by the Arabs and reconquered by the Catalans 750 years ago. (SFC, Z-1, 4/28/96, p.6) 1247 nend Nov 22, Robin Hood died according to the 1400 ballad "A Lytell Geste of Robyn Hode." The legend of Robin Hood is believed to extend into antiquity. (MC, 11/22/01)(SFC, 2/17/04, p.A2) 1247 nend Zen monk Yishan Yining (d.1317), calligrapher and poet, was born in China. (WSJ, 1/8/02, p.A16) 1248 nend May 15, Archbishop Konrad von Hochstaden laid the cornerstone for Köln (Cologne) cathedral. [see Aug 14] (MC, 5/15/02) 1248 nend Aug 14, Construction of Cologne Cathedral began. [see May 15] (MC, 8/14/02) 1248 nend Nov 23, Seville, France surrendered to Ferdinand III of Castile after a two-year siege. (HN, 11/23/98) 1248 nend Sainte Chapelle in Paris was completed and commissioned by Louis IX to contain what was believed to be Christ?s crown of thorns. (Hem. 1/95, p. 78) 1248 nend In Wales Carreg Cennen, a castle on a hilltop above Trapp, was built as a Welsh stronghold. (SFEC, 5/10/98, p.T4) 1249 nend Feb 7, The Christburg Peace Treaty forced the Prussians to recognize the rule of the Teutonic Knights. Within about 50 years the Teutonic Knights and Knights of the Cross had overcome most of Prussia and established German as the dominant culture and language. The German orders then turned to Lithuania. (H of L, 1931, p.25)(LHC, 2/7/03) 1249 nend Oxford?s first college, University College, was founded by William of Durham. (The oldest part of the existing buildings dates from 1634). (Econ, 5/21/05, p.16)(http://tinyurl.com/c6eny) 1249 1254 A civil war was fought in Lithuania. Mindaugas, the feudal ruler of Lithuania found resistance amongst some local rulers who called in German military orders for assistance. Mindaugas hosted the German magistrate who said that the only way to save Lithuania would be to convert to Catholicism and pass western territory over to the German Order. (H of L, 1931, p.29)(TB-Com, 10/11/00)(TB-Com, 10/11/00) no_source 1250 nend Feb 8-1250 Feb 11, The Battle of Al Mansurah was fought between crusaders led by Louis IX, King of France, and Ayyubid forces led by Emir Fakhr-ad-Din Yussuf, Faris ad-Din Aktai and Baibars al-Bunduqdari. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Al_Mansurah) 1250 nend Apr 6, Louis IX (1214-1270), King of France, lost the Battle of Fariskur, Egypt, and was captured by Muslim forces . (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Al_Mansurah) 1250 nend Apr 15, Pope Innocent III refused Jews of Cordova, Spain, permission to build a synagogue. (MC, 4/15/02) 1250 nend Apr 30, King Louis IX of France was ransomed for one million dollars. The Mamluk dynasty exacted 240 tons of silver for his release. (HN, 4/30/98)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R4) 1250 nend May 2, Toeransa, sultan of Egypt, was murdered. (MC, 5/2/02) 1250 nend Dec 13, Frederick II (55), German Emperor (1212-1250), died. (MC, 12/13/01) 1250 nend Nicolo and Mafeo Polo embarked on their own cargo ship for Constantinople. (TMPV, P.4)(This date is questionable and is given as 1260 in otherversions) 1250 nend China began manufacturing guns. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1250 nend The Mamelukes, a military class initially composed of slaves, seized control of the Egyptian Sultanate and ruled until 1517. (WUD, 1994, p.869) 1250 nend The Anasazi in southwest Colorado fought a battle against unknown enemies. Number of kivas built greatly increased. Quality of workmanship in building decreased. People began to leave. (HN, 2/11/97) c 1250 nend The Tsama Pueblo in New Mexico contained 1100 rooms and was occupied to the mid-1500s. (AM, adv. circular, p.2) 1250 nend Florence, Italy, became a major center for commerce and industry. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) c 1250 nend A supernova 650 light-years away should have been visible to observers on Earth according to scientists who analyzed evidence in 1998. (SFC, 11/12/98, p.A12) 1250 1350 The 1999 book by Lauren Arnold: "Princely Gifts and Papal Treasures: The Franciscan Mission to China and Its Influence on the Art of the West 1250-1350" covered this period. (WSJ, 12/16/99, p.A20) 1250 1382 The Bahri Mamluks ruled Egypt. (SSFC, 7/24/11, p.F7) 1250 1400 In the Upper Xingu region of Brazil's Mato Grosso state thousands of people occupied 19 settlements in 2 clusters over this period according to archeological findings in 2003. (Econ, 9/20/03, p.76) 1250 1540 Late postclassic period of the Maya. (AM, May/Jun 97 suppl. p.B) 1251 nend The Polo brothers resided for a year in the dominions of the Western Tartar chief Berca, who dwelt in the cities of Bolgara and Assara. A war soon developed between Berca and Alau, chief of the Eastern Tartars. This war was won by Alau and the brothers were forced to travel east in order to skirt unsafe roads. (TMPV, P.5)(This date is questionable and is given as 1261 in otherversions) 1251 nend In Lithuania Mindaugas accepted Christianity with his wife, 2 sons, about 600 of his nobility and many of his people. An envoy was then sent to Rome to request the Pope?s formal approval for coronation which was granted. The German Order then worked closely with Mindaugas in establishing the first Bishopric in Lithuania and were in turn granted lands in western Lithuania (Zemaiciuose). Pope Innocent IV authorized Mindaugas to be crowned King. (H of L, 1931, p.30,32)(XXIA, 7/21/99) c 1251 1254 The Polo brothers traveled to Persia and arrived at the province of Bokhara ruled by Prince Barak. They remained there for three years. (This date is questionable and is given as 1261-64 in other versions). (TMPV, P.6) 1252 nend Apr 6, Peter of Verona (45), [Peter Martyr], Italian inquisitor died. (MC, 4/6/02) 1252 nend The new "Round Table" jousting tournament appeared in England. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1253 nend Jul 6, Mindaugas was crowned as King of Lithuania. (www.itar-tass.com/eng/level2.html?NewsID=12845046&PageNum=0) 1253 nend Jul 23, Jews were expelled from Vienne, France, by order of Pope Innocent III. (MC, 7/23/02) 1253 nend A Franciscan friar journeyed to China to see the Great Khan. (WSJ, 9/4/98, p.W12) 1253 1260 Ata-Malik Juvaini (b.1226) authored ?The History of the World Conqueror,? an account of the life of Genghis Khan and his successors. Juvaini, in service to the Mongol governors, drew on the recollections of his father and grandfather. In 1997 J.A. Boyle published an English translation. (www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2082/is_3_61/ai_55426809) 1254 nend Mar 12, Mindaugas granted Christian, Lithuania?s 1st Bishop, lands in Samogitia. (LHC, 3/12/03) 1254 1324 Marco Polo was born in Venice. (V.D.-H.K.p.169) 1255 nend Mar 6, Pope Alexander IV permitted Mindaugas to crown his son as king of Lithuania. (LHC, 3/6/03) c 1255 nend Duccio di Buoninsegna (d.1319), Sienese painter, was born. (Econ, 1/17/04, p.75) 1255 nend Konigsberg (Kaliningrad) was founded on the Baltic Sea by the Bohemian King Otakar II, who came to help Teutonic Knights during their conquest of Prussia disguised as the Christianization effort called the Northern Crusades. It was annexed by Russia in 1945. (Econ, 5/14/05, p.55)(www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Konigsberg) c 1255 nend The Polo brothers met an ambassador of Alau on his way to see the supreme chief of the Tartars, Kublai. The ambassador offered to take the brothers to meet the grand khan and the Polo?s accepted. (This date is questionable and is given as 1265 in other versions). (TMPV, P.7) 1256 nend Thomas Aquinas received his license to teach. He became involved in the current questions of doctrine on two basic issues. He sided with the Nominalists as opposed to the Realists on the question of "universals". The second issue was based on Aristotle's notion of nature. Aquinas saw a distinction between spirit and nature but also a unity. (V.D.-H.K.p.121) 1256 nend Kublai-khan began his reign as the sixth grand khan, ruler of the Tartars. [see 1259] (TMPV, p.108) 1256 nend France banned gambling with dice. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1258 nend Feb 10, Huegu (Hulega Khan), a Mongol leader and grandson of Genghis Khan, seized Baghdad following a 4-day assault. Mongol invaders from Central Asia took over Baghdad and ended the Abbasid-Seljuk Empire. They included Uzbeks, Kazaks, Georgians and other groups. Some 200 to 800 thousand people were killed and looting lasted 17 days. (ATC, p.91)(AP, 2/10/99)(SFC, 4/12/03, p.A1) 1258 nend Mar 26, Floris the Guardian, count-regent of Holland, died. (SS, 3/26/02) 1258 nend Sep 20, The Cathedral of Salisbury, begun in 1220, was inaugurated. (MC, 9/20/01)(Econ, 12/20/03, p.29) 1259 nend Aug 11, Mongke, Mongol great-khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, died. (MC, 8/11/02) 1259 nend Sep 27, Ezzeline III da Romano, gentleman of Verona, "cruel monster", died. (MC, 9/27/01) 1259 1282 Michael VIII Palaeologus governed over Byzantium from Constantinople. [see 330AD] (WSJ, 11/14/95, p. A-12) 1259 1294 The great Kublai Khan, a grandson of Genghis, reigned. (www.gobiexpeditions.com) 1260 nend Mar 1, Hulagu Khan, grandson of Genghis, conquered Damascus. (SC, 3/1/02) 1260 nend Sep 3, Mamelukes under Sultan Qutuz defeated Mongols and Crusaders at Ain Jalut. (HN, 9/3/98) 1260 nend Sep 4, At the Battle of Montaperto in Italy, the Tuscan Ghibellines, who supported the emperor, defeated the Florentine Guelfs, who supported papal power. (HN, 9/4/98) 1260 nend Oct 23,Koetoez, Turkish sultan of Egypt, was murdered. (MC, 10/23/01) 1260 nend The people of western Lithuania (Zemaiciai) attacked the German Order of the Cross at a battle near Durbe Lake. This forced Mindaugas to turn against the Germans but he was not able to gain the full trust of the western Lithuanians. (H of L, 1931, p.32)(TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1260 1274 A large scale Prussian uprising took place against the Knights of the Cross. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1260 1294 The Mongol Empire under Kublai Khan reached its height. (ATC, p.160) 1260 1348 Siena flourished as a univ. town and center for banking, trading, and art. (SFEC, 6/29/97, p.T11) 1260 1368 The Yuan Dynasty ruled in China. The Yuan Dynasty was founded by Kublai Khan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(SFC, 6/25/98, p.A8) 1260 1368 In China musical productions known as Zaju became popular during the Yuan Dynasty. Zaju, an early form of opera, combined music, dance, song and speech into 4-act dramas with complex plots and characters. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1260 1390 Carbon-14 dating techniques in 1988 determined that the cloth of the Shroud of Turin dated to this period. E.T. Hall (d.2001 at 77) of Oxford Univ. led the testing, which was later held in question. In 1978 Walter C. McCrone (d.2002), chemical analyst, determined that the image was painted on the cloth some 1300 years after the crucifixion of Christ. (SFEC, 2/1/98, p.A24)(SFC, 8/22/01, p.D2)(SFC, 7/29/02,p.B5)(www.tqnyc.org/NYC063363/) 1260 1555 In 2004 Diana Norman covered this period in her book: "Painting in the Late Medieval and Renaissance Siena." (Econ, 1/17/04, p.75) 1261 nend Feb 3, Samogitian fighters defeated the Livonian Knights of the Cross at Lielvarde. (LHC, 2/3/03) 1261 nend May 25, Alexander IV [Rinaldo dei conti di Segni], Pope (1254-61), died. (SC, 5/25/02) 1261 nend Aug 15, Constantinople fell to Michael VIII of Nicea and his army. (HN, 8/15/98) 1261 nend Oct 9, Dionysius, the Justified, king of Portugal (1279-1325), was born. (MC, 10/9/01) 1261 nend A great quarrel arose between king Alau, lord of the Tartars of the East, and Berca, king of the Tartars of the West based on a border dispute. A great battle was waged in which Alau was the victor. (TMPV, pp. 336-340) 1262 nend After a long and bloody conflict between the various families and clans, the Icelanders accepted the rule of the Norwegian kingdom. (DrEE, 1/4/97, p.4) 1263 nend Feb 9, A Lithuania army under Treniota defeated the Livonian Knights of the Cross. (LHC, 2/9/03) 1263 nend Aug 19, King James I of Aragon censored Hebrew writing. (MC, 8/19/02) 1263 nend Oct 2, At Largs, King Alexander III of Scotland repelled an amphibious invasion by King Haakon IV of Norway. (HN, 10/2/98) 1263 nend Nov 14, Alexander Nevski (43), Russian ruler (1252-63), died. (MC, 11/14/01) 1263 nend In Lithuania King Mindaugas was assassinated along with his 2 sons by Duke Treniota. (H of L, 1931, p.32)(TB-Com, 10/11/00) no_source 1263 nend In a Spanish court Rabbi Moses ben Nachman defended the legitimacy of Judaism against Pablo Christiani, a converted Jew, who argued for Christianity. The trial was set up by King James I of Aragon to please the pope. In 1982 Hyam Maccoby wrote "Judaism on Trial" and turned in into a play, "The Disputation" in 1999. (WSJ, 3/23/99, p.A20) 1263 1264 In Lithuania Treniota served as Grand Duke. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) no_source 1264 nend May 14, The Baron's War was fought in England. King Henry III was captured by his brother in law Earl of Leicester Simon de Montfort at the Battle of Lewes in England. (HN, 5/14/99)(PC, 1992, p.113) 1264 nend Aug 5, Anti-Jewish riots broke out in Arnstadt, Germany. (MC, 8/5/02) c 1264 nend Vincent of Beauvais and the Speculum Maius: the compiling and adapting techniques of a thirteenth-century Dominican. (http://www.let.ruu.nl/C+L/voorbij/vincent/txt/albrecht.htm) 1264 nend Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, moved his capital from Karakorum to what later became Beijing. Karakorum was all but abandoned and eventually destroyed by Manchurian invaders over the next century. (SSFC, 3/27/05, p.F4) 1264 nend According to Marco Polo, Kublai Khan in this year sent a large body of troops to attack Japan, then known as the island of Zipangu. The two officers in charge, named Abbacatan and Vonsancin, failed to cooperate and the adventure failed. (TMPV, P.255) 1264 1267 In Lithuania Vaisalgas (Vaiselga) served as Grand Duke. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) no_source 1265 nend Jan 20, The 1st English Parliament was called into session by Earl of Leicester. (MC, 1/20/02) 1265 nend Jan 23, The 1st English Parliament formally convened. (MC, 1/23/02) 1265 nend May 9, Dante Alighieri, Italian poet (Divine Comedy), was born. (WUD, 1994 p.367)(MC, 5/9/02) 1265 nend Aug 4, King Henry III in the Battle at Evesham put down a revolt of English barons lead by Simon de Montfort. Montfort, the English earl of Leicester, died in the battle. (HN, 8/4/98)(MC, 8/4/02) 1265 nend The coastal settlement of Caesarea (Palestine) was razed to the ground. (Econ, 4/24/04, p.83) 1265 1308 Duns Scotus, the Franciscan "subtle doctor." He stated that God is absolutely free, and absolute freedom means being free of reason's necessity, as well as of all else. This was in opposition to Aquinas' statement that what is logically necessary must necessarily be so. (V.D.-H.K.p.123) 1265 1321 Dante Alighieri, author of the Divine Comedy. His original surname was Durante. He died on Sept. 14. (V.D.-H.K.p.124)(AHD, 1971, p.335) 1266 nend Feb 26, Charles d?Anjou, king of the two Sicilies, defeated Manfred (33), in the Battle of Benevento. Manfred, the bastard son of Emperor Frederik II, king of Sicily, was killed. (PCh, 1992, p.114)(SC, 2/26/02) 1266 nend St. Thomas Aquinas penned his "Summa Theologica," in which he attempted to reconcile theology with economic conditions. He argued that reason could operate within faith. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14)(WSJ, 6/22/99, p.A22) 1266 nend King Kaidu of Great Turkey, a nephew of the grand khan, rebelled against the grand Kahn and numerous battles were fought. Kaidu eventually withdrew to Samarkand. Kaidu is also said to have had a very strong and valiant daughter, Aigiarm, who declared not to marry until she met a man who could conquer her by force. (TMPV, pp. 317-323) 1267 nend Feb 9, Synod of Breslau ordered Jews of Silesia to wear special caps. (MC, 2/9/02) 1267 nend May 10, Vienna's Catholic church ordered all Jews to wear distinctive garb. (MC, 5/10/02) 1267 nend Jul 26, The Inquisition formed in Rome under Pope Clement IV. (MC, 7/26/02) 1267 nend Sep 1, Ramban (Nachmanides) arrived in Jerusalem to establish a Jewish community. (SC, 9/1/02) 1267 nend Nov 26, Gozzolini Silvester, Italian hermit and Saint, died. (MC, 11/26/01) 1267 nend Giotto (d.1337), Italian painter, was born about this time. (V.D.-H.K.p.128)(WSJ, 11/113/00,p.A24)(www.mediacult.com/art/giotto/chrono.html) 1267 1269 In Lithuania Shvarno served as Grand Duke. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1268 nend Jan 21, Pope Clement IV gave permission to Poland?s King Premislus II to take over Lithuania and establish Catholicism. (LHC, 1/18/03) 1268 nend Oct 19, Konradin von Hohenstaufen, duke of Zwaben, was beheaded. [see Oct 20] (MC, 10/19/01) 1268 nend Oct 20, Konradijn Hohenstaufen, son of Koenraad IV, was beheaded in Naples. [see Oct 19] (MC, 10/20/01) 1268 nend According to Marco Polo, Kublai Khan in this year sent a large force of infantry and cavalry to conquer the country named Ziamba, (Viet-Nam). His forces were under the leadership of general Sogatu. The king of Ziamba, Accambale, was advanced in years but resisted from his strongholds. The Tartars laid waste to the open country and then accepted to withdraw in return for a yearly tribute of elephants and sweet-scented wood. (TMPV, P.260) 1269 nend Apr, The Polo brothers arrived at Acre. (TMPV, P.10) 1269 nend Jun 19, King Louis IX of France decreed all Jews must wear a badge of shame. (MC, 6/19/02) 1269 nend The capital of Morocco was moved north to Fez after the Almohad dynasty fell. (SFEC, 7/25/99, p.T11) 1269 nend Nicolo Polo returned to Venice from Asia and his visit with Kublai Khan at Shang-tu, Coleridge?s Xanadu. He carried letters from the Khan asking that the pope provide 100 intelligent men, ?acquainted with the seven arts.? Pope Clement IV had recently died and Nicolo waited for a successor. (V.D.-H.K.p.170) 1269 nend The Prince Facfur ruled the province of Manji in a peaceful and prosperous manner. He maintained at his court a thousand beautiful women, in whose society he took delight. (TMPV, P.10) 1269 1281 In Lithuania Traidenis served as Grand Duke. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1269 1271 The Polo brothers waited two years in Venice for a new pope and then departed for Acre and then to Jerusalem with the young Marco Polo. The Polos continue their journey and reach Armenia. The legate of Jerusalem was elected Pope and assumed the name Gregory X. (TMPV, P.12) 1269 1354 Huang Kung-Wang, Chinese artist. He painted the 20-foot-long hand-scroll "Dwelling in the Fu-Ch'un Mountains." The work is part of the traveling exhibit from the National Palace Museum, Taipei in 1995. (WSJ, 12/29/95, p.A-11) 1270 nend Feb 16, In the Karusa Ice war in Estonia, Lithuanian forces defeated the Livonian Knights of the Cross. (LHC, 2/16/03) 1270 nend Aug 25, King Louis IX (56), King of France (1226-70), died on The Eighth Crusade, which was decimated by the Plague. (PCh, 1992, p.114)(V.D.-H.K.p.110)(MC, 8/25/02) 1270 nend Oct 30, The seventh crusade was ended by the treaty of Barbary. (HN, 10/30/98) 1270 nend Mongol hordes sacked Babylon and ended 1,500 years of rule over Eastern Jewry by the high Mesopotamian priest known as the Exxilarch. (WSJ, 6/30/03, p.A1) 1271 nend Aug, Jacob d?Ancona, an Italian-Jewish trader, arrived at the harbor of Zaitun in southeast China, 4-years before Marco Polo arrived. He wrote a manuscript that surfaced in 1997, translated by David Selbourne, a British scholar. Jacob described printing with movable wooden type, paper money, free daily newspapers, mass-circulation booklets, use of gunpowder, the practice of foot-binding, and tea-drinking. He also noted a lot of pornography and a liberated female sexuality. He described a foreign community with some 2,000 Jews and a great number of Muslims as well as Africans and Europeans and the oncoming threat of a Mongol invasion. The book was titled ?The City of Light? and covered Jacob?s travels from 1270-1273 through China, Syria, the Persian Gulf and India. (SFEC, 9/21/97, p.A23)(SFC, 10/1/97, p.A12) 1271 nend Sep 17, Wenceslas II, king of Bohemia & Poland (1278-1305), was born. (www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Wenceslas-II-of-Bohemia) 1271 nend Nov 16, Henry III (b.1207), king of England (1216-71), died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_III_of_England) 1271 nend Nicolo and Marco Polo obtained letters from the papal legate in Palestine, who was soon elected as Gregory X. The Khan?s request for 100 intelligent men could not be filled and the Polos departed Acre with two friars who soon turned back. The Polos continued on their own. (V.D.-H.K.p.171) 1271 nend The Polos were called back to Acre where the new Pope assigned two friars, Fra Nicolo da Vicenza and Fra Guielmo da Tripoli, to accompany them to visit the grand khan. They reached Armenia and heard that the soldan of Babylonia, named Bundokdari, had invaded Armenian territory. The friars feared for their lives and returned home. (TMPV, P.12) 1271 1274 The Polos spent three and a half years traveling to the residence of the grand khan at Cle-men-fu. The grand khan was pleased with Marco Polo and employed him for the next seventeen years as a personal representative of the khan in state matters. (TMPV, P.12) 1271 1368 ?The Yuan Dynasty? by James Cahill is the 2nd section of Wu Hung?s 1997 ?The Origins of Chinese Painting.? The period is marked by the emergence of the literati-amateur movement. (WSJ, 1/2/98, p.6) 1272 nend Feb 24, Jacob, an Italian-Jewish trader, departed in haste from Zaitun, China. [see 1271] (SFEC, 9/21/97, p.A23) 1272 nend Apr 17, Zita (Cita), Italian maid, saint, died at about age 59. (MC, 4/17/02) 1272 nend Nov 21, Edward I was proclaimed King of England. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_I_of_England) 1272 nend Kublai-khan sent an army to the countries of Vochang and Karazan. The King of Mien and Bangala, in India, opposed the advance of the Tartars and a major battle was fought, wherein the Tartars were victorious. (TMPV, P.192)(Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 1272 nend Forces of the King of Naples occupied Durrës and established the Kingdom of Arbëria, the first Albanian kingdom since the fall of Illyria. (www, Albania, 1998) 1273 nend Oct 1, Rudolf of Hapsburg was elected emperor in Germany. (HN, 10/1/98) 1273 nend Marco Polo crossed Afghan Turkistan. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1273 nend Kublai-khan assigned his general, Chin-san Bay-an, the ?Hundred-eyed,? to invade the province of Manji under Prince Facfur. Facfur fled under attack and his queen was sent to Kublai-khan, who supported her in dignity. (TMPV, P.211) 1273 1291 Rudolf I, King of Germany and emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. He founded the Hapsburg dynasty. (WUD, 1994, p.1251) 1274 nend Mar 7, Thomas Aquinas (48), Italian theologian, saint, died. (MC, 3/7/02) 1274 nend May 7, The Second Council of Lyons opened in France to regulate the election of the pope. (HN, 5/7/99) 1274 nend Jul 11, Robert the Bruce, King of Scotland (1306-1329), was born in Turnberry, Scotland. (HN, 7/11/01)(MC, 7/11/02) 1274 nend Upon Edward?s succession to the English throne, he demanded Llywelyn ap Gruffydd pay homage to him before he recognized him as Prince of Wales. (HNQ, 7/14/00) 1274 nend Thomas Aquinas was summoned before a council at Lyons to answer for his opinions. He was publicly chastised but not condemned. (V.D.-H.K.p.122) 1274 nend The first Mongol invasion of Japan. [see 1264] (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 1274 nend Lal Shahbaz Qalandar (b.1177), born as Seyyed Shah Hussain Marandi in Marand (near the city of Tabriz) in Azerbaijan (then part of Iran), died. He had migrated to Sindh and settled in Sehwan and was buried there. He is also known as Shaikh Hussain Marandi. He was a Sufi in the regions that lie in the Sindh province of Pakistan. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahbaz_Qalander) c 1274 nend Nadruva, Prussia, was the home of the pagan spiritual leader Krivis, who was dear to the Baltic people. (H of L, 1931, p.25)(TB-Com, 10/11/00)(Petras Dusburgietis. Prusijoszemes kronika. Vilnius, 1985, p. 87) 1274 1277 The Knights of the Cross overcame the Prussian towns of Nadruva and Skalva. (Petras Dusburgietis. Prusijos zemes kronika (Chronicle of thePrussian Lands). Vilnius, 1985, p. 189-196) 1275 nend May 23, King Edward I of England ordered a cessation to the persecution of French Jews. (MC, 5/23/02) 1275 nend In England there was an earthquake at Glastonbury. (Local Inscription, 2000) 1275 1292 Marco Polo left Italy for China. He lived there during the reign of Kubla Khan and learned about pasta, sherbet, and paper currency. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1275 1325 The Henderson Site in New Mexico, USA, was occupied by about a 100 people in a village with about 50 large rooms. The Indians occupying the site were in between the Plains hunters and the Pueblo farmers and showed evidence of both cultures. They grew corn and regularly ate dog. After the corn harvest they abandoned their village each year to hunt bison. The site is being excavated by a team from the Univ. of Mich. (MT, 12/94, p.2-3) 1276 nend Nov, Edward decided to force Llywelyn ap Gruffydd into submission in November of 1276. Edward was aided by Llywelyn?s brother Daffydd ap Gruffydd and Prince Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn of Powys?both of whom Llywelyn had expelled for plotting his assassination. (HNQ, 7/14/00) 1276 nend A 25-year drought began in the Four Corner region. (HN, 2/11/97)(AM, 9/01, p.44) 1276 1299 Tree growth rings revealed that another drought occurred in the southwest US. This period corresponded with the abandonment of Anasazi dwelling sites in Arizona. (Hem., 5/97, p.79) 1277 nend King Edward of England invaded Wales. Edward was aided by Llywelyn ap Gruffydd?s brother Daffydd ap Gruffydd and Prince Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn of Powys?both of whom Llywelyn had expelled for plotting his assassination. (HN, 2/17/99)(HNQ, 7/14/00) c 1277 nend Invaders from central Asia conquered China. (ATC, p.73) 1278 nend May 10, Jews of England were imprisoned on charges of coining. [see Nov 17] (MC, 5/10/02) 1278 nend Nov 17, In England 680 Jews were arrested for counterfeiting coins. 293 were hanged. [see May 10] (MC, 11/17/01) 1278 nend Work resumed on the Leaning Tower of Pisa, whose tilt had shifted from north to south. By 1995 it was 5.5 degrees off plumb. (SSFC, 10/19/03, p.C3) 1278 nend Nestorian Christians under the governor, Mar-sachis, appointed by the grand-khan for three years, built three Nestorian Churches in the city of Chan-ghian-fu, in the province of Manji. (TMPV, P.220) 1278 nend The co-principality of Andorra was created after long-running ownership disputes between the Bishops of Seu and the Counts of Foix. They agreed to recognize each other as co-princes of Andorra. (Hem., 3/97, p.74) 1278 nend In Wales Carreg Cennen, a castle on a hilltop above Trapp, fell to English hands. (SFEC, 5/10/98, p.T4) 1278 1477 In 2004 Tim Hyman covered this period in his book: "Sienese Painting: "The Art of a City-Republic." (Econ, 1/17/04, p.75) 1279 nend Mar 5, Lithuanians overcame Livonian forces at Aizkraukle. (LHC, 3/5/03) 1279 nend In Germany the castle across the Rhine from Assmannshausen was first mentioned. It was restored by architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel in the 19th century and named Rheinstein. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.T4) 1279 1368 The Yuan, or Mongol, dynasty in China (1279-1368) was established by the great Kublai Khan (reigned 1259-94), a grandson of Genghis. (www.gobiexpeditions.com) 1280 nend Nov 15, Albertus Magnus (87), German leader and bishop Regensburg, died. (MC, 11/15/01) 1280 nend Liu Guandao, court painter, depicted the Mongol ruler Kubilai Khan hunting on a sandy, windswept landscape. (SFEC, 10/6/96, DB p.37) 1280 nend Marco Polo visited the country of Ziamba (Viet-Nam). He noted that the king had 326 children, and that it was the custom for all young women to be proved by the king before being given in marriage. Marco noted the bounty of elephants, lignum-aloes, and black ebony. (TMPV, P.261) 1280 nend St. Julien-le-Pauvre was built in Paris. It became a barn during the French revolution and is now a Greek Orthodox church. (SFC, 9/1/96, T8) 1280 nend German merchants formed the Hanseatic League to facilitate trade. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1280 nend In Germany a spinning wheel invented in China was demonstrated in Speyer. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1280 nend About this time someone near Pisa, Italy, riveted 2 small magnifying lenses to form the 1st optical device that could be worn on the bridge of the nose. (WSJ, 4/6/06, p.A12)(www.antiquespectacles.com) 1280 nend In the Netherlands Muiden Castle, 10 miles east of Amsterdam, dates to this time. (SFEC, 1/31/99, p.T13) 1280 1354 Wu Chen, Chinese painter and master of calligraphy. He also mastered the play of void and presence at the heart of Chinese ink painting. (SFC, 10/14/96, p.B3) 1281 nend Aug 14, During the second Mongol attempt to conquer Japan, Kublai Khan's invading fleet disappeared in typhoon off of Japan. A Mongol army of 45,000 from Korea had joined an armada with 120,000 men from southern China landing at Hakozaki Bay. The typhoon destroyed their fleet leaving them to death or slavery. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214)(EWH, 4th ed., p.369)(MC, 8/14/02) 1281 nend Osman I came to power at the age of 23 and began a steady campaign against the Byzantines until his death in 1324. He managed to capture many Byzantine fortresses, most notably Bursa, consolidating Ottoman power in the region. Generally regarded as the founder of the Ottoman Turkish state, Osman I (also known as Osman Gazi) led ongoing campaigns against the Byzantines in the 13th and early 14th centuries AD. Part of the migration of Turkic tribes into Anatolia, Osman was the son of Ertugrul, who had established a principality in present-day Sögüt, Turkey. (HNQ, 2/19/01) 1281 1285 In Lithuania Daumantas served as Grand Duke. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1282 nend Mar 30, Furious inhabitants of Palermo attacked French occupation force in the "Sicilian Vespers." The Mafia appeared in Sicily to revolt against French rule after a drunken soldier attacked a young woman on her wedding day. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42)(MC, 3/30/02) 1282 nend Mar 31, The great massacre of the French in Sicily, "The Sicilian Vespers," came to an end. [see Aug 31,1303] (HN, 3/31/99) 1282 nend Apr 28, Villagers in Palermo led a revolt against French rule in Sicily. (HN, 4/28/98) 1282 nend Andronicus II Papaeologus became ruler over Byzantium. [see 330AD] (WSJ, 11/14/95, p. A-12) 1283 nend In Germany the Marksburg Castle was built by the Katzenelbogans to defend the silver and lead mines of Braubach. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.T5) 1284 nend Apr 25, Edward II, king of England (1307-1327), was born. (HN, 4/25/02) 1284 nend Jun 26, The Pied Piper lured away 130 children of Hamelin (Hameln, Germany). Robert Browning used this event for his poem "The Pied Piper of Hamelin" (1842). (MC, 6/26/02) 1284 nend In England the eldest son of Edward I became the Prince of Wales. (SFC, 7/23/97, p.A10) 1285 nend Mar 24, Lithuanian Grand Duke Daumantas (1281-1285) died. (LHC, 3/24/03) 1285 nend May 10, Philip IV (Fair) succeeded Philip III as King of Spain. (HN, 5/10/99) 1285 nend Oct 5, Philippe III, the Stout, King of France (1270-85), died. (MC, 10/5/01) 1285 nend Oct 12, 180 Jews refused baptism in Munich, Germany, and were set on fire. (MC, 10/12/01) 1286 nend Nov 22, Erik V Klipping (b.1249), king of Denmark, was murdered. (Internet) 1286 nend Emperor Rudolph I abrogated the political freedom of Jews and imposed on them special taxes. Rabbi Meir Ben Baruch (aka Maharam), head of the Jewish community in Rothenburg, tried to lead group of Jews to Palestine but was arrested and confined in an Alsatian fortress. He refused to be freed for ransom and died in prison. The Jews of Rothenburg were then re-expelled to a ghetto beyond the city walls. (NH, 9/96, p.24) 1286 nend Tartar Chief Nayan, kinsman of Kublai, attempted to gain independence from the grand-khan, and a war ensued. (TMPV, P.108) 1286 nend Arghun, son of Abaga - lord of the east, engaged and defeated the army of Kaidu under Kaidu?s brother, Barac, in the plain of the Arbor Secco by the river Ion. Abaga died shortly after and Arghun was force to fight his uncle, the Acomat Soldan, who claimed succession. Arghun was initially defeated and captured, but escaped with the help of the Tartar baron Boga. They gathered forces and slew the melik Soldan, who was in charge of Acomat?s army. Later Acomat was captured and slain. (TMPV, pp.325-334) 1287 nend Dec 14, The Zuider Zee seawall collapsed with the loss of 50,000 lives. (MC, 12/14/01) 1287 nend The forces of Kublai Khan overran Burma. The royal city of Bagan was abandoned under threat from Kublai Khan in the 13th century. The brick temple of Ananda Pahto is in Bagan. More than 4,400 pagodas and 3,000 other religious structures of bricks and stones were built in Bagan, Myanmar's former capital, during a 243-year period from the 11th to 13th centuries, the result of extraordinary Buddhist fervor. (SFEC, 10/22/00, p.T9)(DC, 10/10/98)(AP, 12/1/03) 1288 nend Feb 29, Scotland made it legal for women to propose to men. The Scottish Parliament passed a Leap Year Act whereby women could propose to men. The tradition had begun in 5th century Ireland. (SFEC, 6/8/97, Z1 p.6)(SFC, 2/29/00, p.A1) 1288 nend Apr 24, Jews of Yroyes France were accused of ritual murder. (MC, 4/24/02) 1288 nend Sep 29, Maud de Brabant (b.1224) died in Belgium. (www.peterwestern.f9.co.uk/maximilia/pafg60.htm) 1288 nend Kublai Khan was described by Marco Polo as being 85 years old and having reigned for 42 years. This would put his rule to begin in 1246. (TMPV, P.108) 1288 nend Marco Polo related that the Christian King of Abascia (or Abyssinia) in Middle India decided to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem but was dissuaded by his advisors. In his place he sent a bishop, who upon returning through Aden was picked up by the soldan of Aden and urged to become a Mohametan. The bishop refused and was forcefully circumcised. This later led to a war in which the Abyssinian king took the city of Aden and gave it up to pillage. (TMPV, P.255) 1288 nend In Sweden a charter recognized the sale of a stake in the Stora Kopparberg copper mine to Bishop Petrus of Vasteras for his parish. In the 1970's Stora sold its mining operations to focus on forest products and power. In 1998 it merged to become Stora Enso, a paper-packaging and timber firm. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42)(Econ, 12/18/04, p.105) 1289 nend Apr 29, Qala'un, the Sultan of Egypt, captured Tripoli. (HN, 4/29/98) 1289 nend Oct 4, Louis X, the Stubborn, king of France (1314-16), was born. (MC, 10/4/01) 1289 nend Eyeglasses were first recorded in Florence by a man named di Popozo. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R21) 1290 nend Jul 12, Jews were expelled from England by order of King Edward I. (MC, 7/12/02) 1290 nend Aug 16, Charles of Valois married Margaret of Anjou. (MC, 8/16/02) 1290 nend Oct 9, Last of 16,000 English Jews, expelled by King Edward I, left. The country was on the verge of bankruptcy. The debt to Jewish bankers was written off and all Jews were expelled from England. The Medicis and other northern Italian bankers were invited as a replacement. (SFEC, 6/22/97, BR p.3)(MC, 10/9/01) 1290 nend William of Ockham (d.1349), English Franciscan scholastic philosopher, was born. He became known for the maxim called Occam?s Razor (Ockham?s razor): "Entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem." (Entries should not be multiplied unnecessarily). A modern version of this principle of logic might be: "The simpler, the better." [see 1349] (V.D.-H.K.p.123)(WUD, 1994 p.996)(AP, 2/4/99) 1290 nend The Ottoman Empire began. (SSFC, 10/14/01, p.A3) c 1290 1361 Philippe de Vitry, French music theorist, composer and poet. (WUD, 1994, p.1598)(SFC, 2/15/99, p.E7) 1291 nend Feb 8, Afonso IV, King of Portugal (1325-57), was born. (MC, 2/8/02) 1291 nend Mar 5, Sa'ad al'Da'ulah, Jewish grand vizier of Persia, was assassinated. (MC, 3/5/02) 1291 nend May 10, Scottish nobles grudgingly recognized the authority of English king Edward I. (MC, 5/10/02) 1291 nend May 18, Acre, the last major stronghold of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, fell to the hands of Al-Ashraf Khalil and his forces from Egypt and Syria after a siege of 43 days. It had been in the hands of the Franks for 100 years. Egyptian Mamelukes (Mamluks) occupied Akko (Acre). The crusaders were driven out of Palestine. Khalil, al-Ashraf Salah ad-Din, the Mamluk King, conquered Akko and put an end to the Crusader?s rule in the Holy Land. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Acre_%281291%29)(Arch, 7/02,p.19) 1291 nend Aug 1, The Everlasting League formed and became the basis of Swiss Confederation. The people of the 3 small cantons (Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden) formed a co-operative pact called the Bundesbrief following the death of Habsburg Emp. Rudolf I. (Econ, 2/14/04, Survey p.6) 1291 nend The Catholic Franciscan order arrived in Bosnia. (SFC, 4/15/97, p.A10) 1291 nend A law made by the Doge ordered that all glass furnaces be moved from Venice to Murano. (www.henokiens.com/index_barovier_gb.php) 1291 1295 In Lithuania Butvydas served as Grand Duke. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1292 nend Dec 9, Sa'di, great Persian poet (Orchard, Rose Garden), died. (MC, 12/9/01) 1292 nend The Polos began their return journey to Europe. They accompanied a Mongol princess who was to marry Arghun Khan, ruler of Persia. The Polos arrived at the island of Java and then sailed for eighteen months in the Indian Seas to reach king Arghun. They learned that Arghun?s kingdom was being administered by Ki-akato, and that the Mongol princess should be delivered to Kasan, son of Arghun, then on the borders of Persia at the arbor secco. (V.D.-H.K.p.171)(TMPV, P.12) c 1292 nend A ?No Loitering? sign was engraved on rock at an ancient cemetery near Mill River, Mass., in the Phoenician language called Iberian Punic some 200 years before Columbus made his 1492 trip. (SFC, 10/17/98, p.E5) 1293 nend The Polos arrived in Persia and found that Arghun Khan had died. His son Mahmud Ghazan now ruled Persia and married the princess. The Polos soon reached Trebizond on the southern coast of the Black Sea and were welcomed by a band of robbers who stripped them of most of their riches. Years later (1298) Marco Polo published in Venice ?Il Milione,? The Travels of Marco Polo. (V.D.-H.K.p.171)(WSJ, 9/4/98, p.W12) 1294 nend Feb 12, Kublai Khan, the conqueror of Asia, died at the age of 80. (HN, 2/12/99) 1294 nend May 3, Jan I, duke of Brabant, Limburg, poet, died. (MC, 5/3/02) 1294 nend Jun 30, Jews were expelled from Bern, Switzerland. (MC, 6/30/02) 1294 nend Jul 5, Pietro di Murrone, a pious hermit, was elected as Pope Celestine V. He was so besieged by the political, social and religious challenges of the position that just five months later, on December 13, he became the first pope to resign, for which he was imprisoned by his successor, Boniface VIII. He died in the castle of Fumone, May 19, 1296. (SFEC, 10/22/00, p.A20)(www.newadvent.org/cathen/03479b.htm) 1294 nend When Arghun died by probable poisoning after six years of rule, he was succeeded by his uncle, Ki-akato, who was able to seize power because the son of Arghun, Kasan, was far away. After two years Ki-akato was poisoned and his uncle, Baidu, a Christian, seized power. Kasan then assembled an army and marched against Baidu. Kasan was victorious and gained control over the Eastern Tartars. (TMPV, pp. 334-336) 1294 nend The Polos received news of the death of Kublai, the grand khan. (TMPV, P.19) 1294 nend The Great Geysir was discovered in Iceland and gave rise to the community named Geysir. Geyser became the generic name for all water spouts. (SSFC, 7/17/05, p.D6) 1294 nend In Bologna two-thirds of the citizens were listed as guild members or their relatives. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1295 nend Marco Polo narrated his travels to master Rustigielo, a citizen of Pisa, from a prison in Genoa. (TMPV, P.4) 1295 nend Jacobellus Barovier, founder of a glass-making family, was born. His sons, Antonio and Bartolomeo in 1348 registered as "fioliare" (glassmakers) in Murano, across the lagoon from Venice, Italy. The Barovier firm merged with the Murano-based Toso firm in the 1930s. no_source 11 nend /24/07, p.73) no_source 1295 nend Vytenis began to rule over Lithuania. In response to German castle construction along the shores of the Nemunas River, Vytenis began constructing castles of wood in addition to those at: Junigeda, Bisena, Kolainis, Medvegalis, and Putenikis. He also reorganized the army and ruled to 1316. (H of L, 1931, p.32)(Ist. L.H., 1948, p. 41)(TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1295 nend Trieste became a Free Imperial City. (www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Rotunda/2209/Trieste.html) 1296 nend Apr 27, England?s King Edward I defeated the Scots at the Battle of Dunbar. He deposed King John and exiled him to France. (HN, 4/27/99) 1296 nend May 19, Pietro di Murrone, former Pope Celestine V, died in the castle of Fumone, where he was imprisoned by his successor, Boniface VIII. (SFEC, 10/22/00, p.A20)(www.newadvent.org/cathen/03479b.htm) 1296 nend Aug 10, John the Blind, King of Bohemia, Count of Luxembourg, was born. (MC, 8/10/02) 1296 nend King Edward I of England stole the 458-pound Stone at Scone from Scotland. It was returned to Scotland in 1996. (SFC, 11/16/96, p.A11) 1297 nend Jan 7, Francois Grimaldi (Francois the Crafty) of Genoa disguised himself as a monk and appeared at the fortress on the Rock of Monaco. Once inside he called his reinforcements and seized the place. (SFC, 1/8/97, p.C1)(Econ, 12/24/05, p.84) 1297 nend Sep 11, Scots under William Wallace ?Braveheart? defeated the English army at Stirling Bridge, Scotland. The 1995 epic film Braveheart dramatized the life of 13th-century Scot William Wallace. While many Scots and others praised the film for reviving the legend of the Scottish hero, just as many people criticized the film for its numerous historical inaccuracies. For instance, the Battle of Stirling Bridge is an excellent example of Wallace?s military genius and what led him to being knighted in the film and real life. However, in the film, the battle takes place on an open field. (Reportedly, when a local asked actor/director Mel Gibson why the battle was being filmed with such an obvious discrepancy, Gibson explained that the bridge got in the way. The local responded, "Aye. That?s what the English found!") In addition, one of the film?s most intriguing twists is pure Hollywood invention. A calendar puts the lie to the tale of Wallace?s affair with Princess Isabella, wife of Prince Edward II, and his fathering of her child. Isabella and Edward II married in 1307, two years after Wallace?s execution. Her son, Edward III, was born in the years that followed. (WSJ, 9/9/97, p.A1)(HN, 9/11/98)(HNQ, 3/19/01) 1297 nend Sep 11, Hugh de Cressingham, English treasurer, died in battle. (MC, 9/11/01) c 1297 nend In Hawaii a temple was built near the Kilauea Volcano that is believed to have been used for human sacrifice. The Waha?ula Heiau temple near Volcanoes National Park was one of the first temples built on the islands, supposedly by a foreigner, who brought brutal religious rituals to the islands. (SFC, 8/12/97, p.A3)(SFEC, 9/7/97, p.T8) 1297 nend The people of Riga rose against the Teutonic Knights. The local Bishop asked Vytenis to help and the Knights were pushed back. This opened a northern trade route for Vytenis for weapons and supplies. (Ist. L.H., 1948, p. 50) 1298 nend Mar 30, Duke Vytenis joined with Riga and its archbishop against the Livonian order. (LHC, 3/30/03) 1298 nend Jun 24, Rindfleish Persecutions: Jews of Ifhauben, Austria, were massacred. (MC, 6/24/02) 1298 nend Jul 2, An army under Albert of Austria defeated and killed Adolf of Nassua near Worms, Germany. (HN, 7/2/98) 1298 nend Jul 22, King Edward I combined bowmen and cavalry to defeat William Wallace's Scots at Falkirk. (HN, 7/22/98) 1298 nend Jul 23, Jews were massacred at Wurzburg, Germany. (MC, 7/23/02) 1298 nend Oct 19, Rindfleish: 140 Jews of Heilbron Germany were murdered. (MC, 10/19/01) 1298 nend Tamerlane plundered Delhi, India. (SFEC, 5/21/00, p.T8) 1298 nend The ?Travels of Marco Polo? was published. (WSJ, 9/4/98, p.W12) 1299 nend The Count of Holland gained control of the County of Zeeland, which had been under contention between Holland and Flanders. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeeland) 1300 nend Jan 1, A Jubilee Year, the symbolic moment for Dante's Divine Comedy. It marked the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Renaissance. Pope Boniface VIII had issued a Papal Bull that declared a Rome Holy Year, "Giubileo." The event was such a success that papal gendarmes had to execute several dozen people to bring the crowds under control. Pope Bonifacius VIII introduced Jubilee indulgences. (V.D.-H.K.p.123)(WSJ, 4/2/97, p.A12)(WSJ, 1/13/00, p.A1) c 1300 nend Women?s corsets were first developed about this time. See the discussion by Marilyn Yalom in her 1997 book: "History of the Breast." (SFEC, 2/9/97, z1 p.3) c 1300 nend The Panum Crater at Mono Lake, Ca., erupted about this time. (SFEC, 5/31/98, p.T4) c 1300 nend The Anasazi Indian culture of the American southwest, 15 to 20 thousand people, disappeared from the Four Corners region about this time. All the Anasazi were gone from Mesa Verde. They probably moved south and broke up into present-day Pueblo tribes. Anasazi means enemy ancestors in Navajo. (SFC, 5/19/96, T-1)(HN, 2/11/97)(AM, 9/01, p.44) c 1300 nend The 18-acre Hatalacva Pueblo in Arizona contains the rare Tuzigoot Phase Southern Sinagua pueblo of this time. (AM, adv. circular, p.2) c 1300 nend The Mississippian people, the largest pre-Columbian culture north of Mexico, built the earthen city of Cahokia about this time. The site, discovered in southwestern Illinois, probably served as a religious center and may have had a population of up to 80,000. The Mississippians arose around 800 AD and remained a powerful influence until about the time of the first European explorers. The loose-knit theocracy held sway over much of present-day Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, Ohio and, not surprisingly, Mississippi. They also had settlements extending sporadically into the upper Midwest and across the western plains. The largest of the earthen mounds at Cahokia, called Monks Mound, is 700 feet wide, 100 feet tall and 1000 feet long--representing a colossal public works program and a government stable enough to order the construction. (HNQ, 1/29/01) 1300 nend A drought pervaded the southwest of North America. (Sm, 3/06, p.74) 1300 nend Florence was established as the banker of Europe, and its coin, the florin, became the first international currency. Its citizens sought ... a splendor of art and architecture belonging to all the people that would make their city the envy of people everywhere... The Medici family was most prominent here. (V.D.-H.K.p.156) 1300 nend A Jewish merchant ransomed the body of Rabbi Meir, imprisoned in 1284, and buried him in Worms. (NH, 9/96, p.24) 1300 nend The Oude Kerk church in Amsterdam dates to this time. (SSFC, 1/7/01, p.T9) c 1300 nend In Tibet the Jonang Buddhist monastery was established. In 1997 Chinese authorities closed down the 700-year old monastery and sent the monks home after they refused to denounce the Dalai Lama. (SFC, 1/29/99, p.E9) 1300 nend s England recruited Flemish weavers with promises of "good beer, good food, good bed and good bedfellow." (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1300 nend Paris, with its population between 200,000 and 300,000, was at this time the largest city in the world. (HNQ, 4/18/02) c 1300 nend s In Scotland the Dunrobin Castle in the northern Highlands dates top the early 1300s. (SFEM, 1/31/99, p.6) 1300 1307 The Gladzor Gospels, Armenian illuminated manuscripts whose images are the work of five artists, T'oros Taronets being the only one whose name is known. These gospels are a defining document of the medieval Armenian church's doctrinal independence. (SF Chronicle, 5/12/1994, p. E-5) 1300 1358 Jean Buridan, Parisian theologian, attempted to resolve the problem with Aristotle?s law of motion with the idea of impetus, i.e. that a moving body does not need to be continuously pushed to stay in motion due to its impetus provided by a violent motion upon it. no_source 1300 1377 Guillaume de Machaut, French poet and composer. (WUD, 1994, p.629)(SFC, 2/15/99, p.E7) 1300 1400 Odoric of Pordenone spent 3 years in China in the 14th century. (NH, 10/98, p.69) 1300 1400 In China Kublai Khan made Beijing the imperial capital in the 14th century. (AMNHDT, 5/98) 1300 1400 In Cameroon the kingdom of Foumban began in the 14th century. (WSJ, 9/23/06, p.A1) 1300 1400 In Egypt the nose of the Sphinx was lost in the 14th century. (SFC, 5/26/98, p.A8) 1300 1400 In the 14th century "The Dunmow Flitch" prize was awarded in Dunmow, Essex, England, to any couple who could come after a year of marriage and truthfully swear that they never quarreled and did not regret the marriage and would do it over again. (SFC, 12/26/96, p.C16) 1300 1400 In Europe the Brethren of the Free Spirit (aka Beghards) flaunted both moral law and church doctrine because they believed that their exalted station as saved Christians raised them above the ranks of ordinary mortals. The heresy was termed Antinomianism. (WSJ, 1/28/98, p.A19) 1300 1400 The Kebra Negast, a 14th cent. Ethiopian text, claims that the Queen of Sheba came from Ethiopia to see Solomon and that he tricked her into sleeping with him and bearing him a son. (WSJ, 5/2/97, p.A6) 1300 1400 The "Chronicle of the Morea" is a 14th century history of southern Greece. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.58) 1300 1400 A family in Deruta, Italy, began producing majolica pottery. In 2008 the Grazia majolica factory was the 13th oldest family business in the world. (SFC, 3/5/08, p.G5) 1300 1400 In Portugal a spiritual retreat for monks was built in Redondo. It later became the Hotel Convento de Sao Paolo. (SFEC, 4/26/98, p.T6) 1300 1400 In Russia the Danilov Monastery was built 3 miles south of the Kremlin by Prince Daniel, founder of Moscow?s 14th century dynasty. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.36) 1300 1400 Vodka is believed to have originated in the 14th century in the grain-growing region that now embraces Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, and western Russia. It also has a long tradition in Scandinavia. The first written record of vodka in Poland dates from 1405 in the Sandomierz Court Registry. (WSJ, 2/10/06, p.A14)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodka) 1300 1400 In Romania the Sihastra Monastery was founded in the 14th century. (SFC, 12/7/98, p.A25) 1300 1400 Krusevac, Serbia, was the capital of an empire that included Yugoslavia, Albania and Greece. (SFEC, 4/25/99, p.A28) c 1300 1400 In the early 14th century the Gottscheers settled in the Carniola region of what later became Slovenia. The Germanic people were sent there to till the land and pay taxes to the Carinthian counts of Ortenburg and to serve as a forward guard for the Holy Roman Empire. (SFC, 6/16/99, p.A12) 1300 1600 Tombs with decorated pillars called phallic pillars by the locals are widespread among the Oromo of Somalia and Kenya, where they symbolize manhood and indicate interred men. (NH, 6/97, p.45) 1300 1700 In Thailand kilns at Intrakil date from the Lanna kingdom of this time. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.G) 1300 nend c1700 The period of the Renaissance. The 1998 book "The Scholar in His Study: Ownership and Experience in Renaissance Italy" by Dora Thornton covered this period. In 1970 Prof. Charles Trinkaus authored the 2-volume work "In Our Image and Likeness: Humanity and Divinity in Italian Humanist Thought." In 1985 Claude Palisca (d.2001) authored "Humanism in Italian Renaissance Musical Thought." (SFEC, 2/15/98, BR p.8)(SFC, 9/27/99, p.A26)(SFC, 1/23/01, p.C2) 1300 1850 Historical records and scientific data on oxygen isotope ratios of Viking teeth indicate a period of cooling temperatures called a Little Ice Age of Northern Europe. (LSA, Spring 1995, p.32) 1301 nend Feb 7, Edward of Caernarion (later Edward II) became the 1st prince of Wales. (MC, 2/7/02) 1301 nend Jul 4, Battle at Breukelen: Holland vs. Lichtenberg. (Maggio) 1302 nend Jan 27, Dante became a Florentine political exile. (MC, 1/27/02) 1302 nend Mar 11, Romeo and Juliet were married on this day, according to Shakespeare. (HN, 3/11/98)(MC, 3/11/02) 1302 nend May 18, The weaver Peter de Coningk led a massacre of the Flemish oligarchs at the French garrison (Brugse Metten). (HN, 5/18/99)(SC, 5/18/02) 1302 nend Jul 11, An army of French knights, led by the Count of Artois, was routed by Flemish pikemen. (HN, 7/11/98) 1303 nend May 20, France returned Gascony to England?s Edward I. (HN, 5/20/98)(PC, 1992 ed, p121) 1303 nend Aug 31, The War of Vespers in Sicily ended with an agreement between Charles of Valois, who invaded the country, and Frederick, the ruler of Sicily. (HN, 8/31/98) 1303 nend Sep 8, Anagni: French king Philip IV captured Pope Boniface VIII. (MC, 9/8/01) 1303 nend In Egypt the Pharos Lighthouse at Alexandria was toppled by an earthquake. (SFEC, 4/5/98, Par p.20) 1303 nend Enrico Scrovegni?s Padova (Padua) Chapel, begun in 1300, was completed. Giotto began painting a fresco cycle there with scenes from the Old and New Testaments. The decorations were completed in 1305. (SFC,11/18/97, p.E7)(http://tinyurl.com/ylnhxa) 1303 nend The Baltic Sea froze over. The event is described by Barbara Tuchman in her book "A Distant Mirror." (NOHY, 3/90, p.127) 1303 nend Filippo di Amedeo de Peruzzi, Florentine banker, died. He had established bank branches in Naples, Paris and London and underwrote business ventures across Europe. The family went bankrupt when Edward III of England defaulted on his debts after losing the Hundred Years War. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1304 nend Jul 20, Francisco Petrarch (d.1374), Italian poet and scholar, founder of Renaissance Humanism, was born in Arezzo. He was educated at Avignon and saw himself as a Florentine, Italian, and man of the world. He was a poet and autodidact who never stopped studying until his death. (V.D.-H.K.p.131)(HN, 7/20/98) 1304 nend The Hotel Pilgrim Haus was founded in Soest, Germany. (SFC, 4/14/06, p.D1) 1305 nend Aug 23, Scottish patriot William Wallace was hanged, drawn, beheaded, and quartered in London. (HN, 8/23/98)(SFEC, 4/11/99, Z1 p.8) 1305 nend The House of Taxis operated a courier messenger service for rich European clients. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1305 nend Giotto (1267-1337) finished a cycle of frescoes, telling the story of Jesus and Mary, inside Enrico Scrovegni?s new chapel in Padua. (SFC, 11/17/01, p.D4)(WSJ, 11/18/06, p.P16) 1306 nend Mar 25, Robert the Bruce (1274-1329) was crowned king of Scotland as the successor to King John. (HN, 7/11/01)(ON, 2/08, p.6) 1306 nend Jul 22, King Phillip the Fair ordered the expulsion of Jews from France. They returned to Montpellier in 1319, having been recalled by King Sancho, who protected them in 1320 against the fury of the Pastoureaux. no_source 1306 nend Aug 8, King Wenceslas of Poland was murdered. (HN, 8/8/98) 1306 nend Pierre Dubois, a counselor for the Duke of Burgundy, called for a European federation. (Econ, 1/3/04, p.39) 1306 nend English forces defeated Scottish forces under Robert Bruce at Methven near Perth. Bruce escaped to Rathlin Island. (ON, 2/08, p.6) 1306 1307 The Baltic Sea froze over again. The event is described by Barbara Tuchman in her book "A Distant Mirror." (NOHY, 3/90, p.127) 1307 nend May 10, Forces under Robert Bruce of Scotland defeated the English at Loudoun Hill. Over the next few years Bruce gained control over much of the Scottish countryside. (ON, 2/08, p.6) 1307 nend Jul 7, Edward I (b.1239), King (Longshanks) of England (1272-1307), died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_I_of_England) 1307 nend Oct 13, French king Philip IV convicted the Knights Templar of heresy. Members of the Knights of Templar were arrested throughout France, imprisoned and tortured by the order of the King Philip the Fair. (HN, 10/13/98)(MC, 10/13/01) 1307 nend Nov 18, William Tell shot an apple off his son's head. (MC, 11/18/01) 1307 nend Edward II ascended the English throne and had his former tutor, Piers Gaston, brought back to England and made him the Earl of Cornwall. (www.stonewallsociety.com/famouspeople/king.htm) 1307 nend Mansa Musa (d.1337), Mali?s greatest ruler, succeeded to the throne. He commissioned grand mosques. (ATC, p.119)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R4,6) 1307 nend Poland tried to gain back the Kulm territory but in their struggle with the Teutonic Knights they lost Pomerania and their access to the Baltic. (Ist. L.H., 1948, p. 69) 1308 nend Feb 25, Edward II was crowned King of England. (AP, 2/25/07) 1308 nend May 1, King Albert [of Austria] was murdered by his nephew John, because he refused his share of the Habsburg lands. (HN, 5/1/99) 1308 nend Nov 8, John Duns Scotus (42), Scottish-born theologian and philosopher, died in Germany. Scotus and his adherents came under attack by critics in the 16th century, giving rise to the term "dunce." (AP, 11/8/08)(www.catholic-forum.com/saints/saintj55.htm) 1308 nend Princess Isabella (12) married England?s King Edward II (23). In 2005 Alison Weir authored ?Isabella: She-Wolf of France, Queen of England. (Econ, 9/10/05, p.81) 1308 nend The "Parchment of Chinon" contained the decision by Pope Clement V to save the Templars and their order. The document was misplaced for centuries in the archives and found again by researchers in 2001. In 2007 it was published as part of the Vatican?s secret archive documents about the trial of the Knights Templar. (AP, 10/12/07) c 1308 1385 Wang Meng, Chinese artist, his work included "Temple at Mount Taibai." (WSJ, 1/2/98, p.6) 1308 1708 The Gonzagas ruled over Mantua, Italy. (WSJ, 10/10/02, p.D10) 1309 nend Apr 30, Kazimierz III de Great, King of Poland (1333-70), was born. (MC, 4/30/02) 1309 1377 Babylonian Captivity during which the popes left Rome and took up residence at Avignon under the wing of the king of France. (V.D.-H.K.p.106) 1310 nend May 12, Fifty-four Knights Templar were burned at the stake as heretics in France. They had been established during the Crusades to protect pilgrims traveling to the Holy Land, but came into increasing conflict with Rome until Pope Clement V officially dissolved them in 1312 at the Council of Vienna. (SC, Internet, 5/12/97) 1310 nend May 20, Shoes began to be made for both right and left feet. (MC, 5/20/02) 1310 nend English forces under Edward II crossed into Scotland to regain control of the territory. (ON, 2/08, p.6) 1310 nend In Korea a hanging silk scroll was painted with an image of Avalokiteshvara. (SFC, 10/14/03, p.D1) 1312 nend Jun 19, Piers Gaveston, earl of Cornwall, was beheaded. (MC, 6/19/02) 1312 nend Nov 13, Edward III, King of England (1327-77), was born. He later raped the countess of Salisbury. (WUD, 1994 p.454)(HN, 11/13/98)(MC, 11/13/01) 1312 nend The Knights Templar were suppressed by Pope Clement at the Council of Vienna. Pressured by King Philip of France, Pope Clement reversed his 1308 decision and suppressed the order. (AHD, 1971, p.724)(SC, Internet, 5/12/97)(AP, 10/12/07) 1312 nend Scots under Robert Bruce attacked Perth, held by the English, and gained control of the city and castle. (ON, 2/08, p.6) 1313 1375 Giovanni Boccaccio, Florentine writer born in Paris. He learned classical Latin and studied classical Greek under Leonzio Pilato, who had spent some time in Byzantium where Greek works were still available. He traveled with Petrarch around southern Europe looking for ancient books and discovered a number of Cicero's letters. Boccaccio wrote all of his major works in Italian, including IL Filostroto (the source of Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde) and the Decameron. (V.D.-H.K.p.133) 1313 1905 The four ancient Confucian texts, Ssu Shu, or "Four Books," were used as subject matter for official Chinese civil service exams in China. The volumes reputedly contain direct quotations from Confucius. (HNPD, 6/27/99) 1314 nend Mar 18, In France Jacques de Molay (b.1244), Grand Master of the Templars, was burned at the stake along with his aides. Surviving monks fled, with some absorbed by other orders. (AP, 10/12/07)(www.templarhistory.com/demolay.html) 1314 nend Apr 20, Clement V, [Bertrand Got], pope (1305-14) who moved papacy to Avignon, died. (MC, 4/20/02) 1314 nend Jun 24, King Robert I (Robert the Bruce) of Scotland with 6,000 men and 500 horses routed English King Edward II with his army of 20,000 at Bannockburn. Bruce secured Scotland?s independence from England and ruled until his death in 1329. A film "The Bruce" was made in 1995 on a $500,000 budget. (AP,6/24/97)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Bannockburn)(ON, 2/08, p.7) 1314 nend Nov 29, Philippe IV, the Handsome, King of France (1285-1314), died. (MC, 11/29/01) 1314 nend England banned football (soccer) for being too violent. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1315 nend Nov 15, Swiss soldiers ambushed and slaughtered invading Austrians in the Battle of Morgarten. The Bundesbrief prevailed over a Habsburg army. Voluntary agreements among the cantons led to the formation of the Willensnation, a nation created by acts of free will by a diverse people. (HN, 11/15/98)(Econ, 2/14/04, p.6) 1315 nend In France Parisian bakers were found guilty of mixing flour with animal droppings during the Great Famine. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1315 nend Louis X, Philip's brother and successor, allowed Jews back into France for financial considerations. Jews were often expelled because of pressure from the Church, economic or political considerations, only to be readmitted at a later date. (www.jewishhistory.org.il/history.php?startyear=1310&endyear=1319) 1315 nend Italian immigrants in France began the Western silk industry. (SFC, 3/11/00, p.B4) 1315 nend The Church of the Holy Virgin was built in Musutiste, Kosovo. In 1999 returning Albanians blew up the church in retaliation for the Serb destruction of their mosque. (SFC, 9/7/99, p.A12) 1315 1316 England experienced a great famine brought on by too much water. (K.I.-365D, p.154) 1316 nend Mar 2, Robert II the Steward, King of Scotland (1371-90), was born. (SC, 3/2/02) 1316 nend May 14, Charles IV (d.1378), later King of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor, was born in the House of Luxembourg. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_emperor_Charles_IV) 1316 nend Jun 4, Louis X (26), King of France (1314-16), died. (MC, 6/4/02) 1316 nend Nov 15, Jean I became king of France, and died 4 days later. (MC, 11/15/01) 1316 nend In Lithuania Grand Duke Vytenis died at Skirsnemune while destroying castles built by the Knights of the Cross. Gediminas, brother of Vytenis, took over rule. He wrote a letter to the Pope that requested an end to attacks by the German orders. The Pope responded in accord but the Germans continued their pressure. (H of L, 1931, p.33,34) 1316 1341 In Lithuania Grand Duke Gediminas pushed back the German orders and extended his territory to the east into Russia. He invited foreign crafts, trades people and engineers. Under his rule, Vilnius became the capital with 2 new castles and the southern and eastern border of Lithuania was extended to include Smolensk, Kiev and Minsk. His rule did not interfere with local languages, religious beliefs or rights. Gediminas wed one daughter to the Prince of Moscow, another to the son of the Polish King and a third to the Prince of Mozur. (Ist. L.H., 1948, p. 52) 1316 1390 Albert of Saxony (aka Albertuccio or little Al), German Scholastic philosopher and physicist. (NH, 5/97, p.59) 1317 nend Feb 3, Pope John XXII, under guidance from Gnesen Archbishop Borislav, offered Catholicism to Lithuania. (LHC, 2/3/03) 1317 nend Apr 20, Agnes van Montepulciano, Italian mystic, saint, died. (MC, 4/20/02) 1319 nend Apr 26, Jean II, the Good, king of France (1350-64), was born. (MC, 4/26/02) 1319 nend May 8, Haakon V, King of Norway (1299-1319), died. (MC, 5/8/02) 1319 nend Ani, capital of Armenia, was devastated by an earthquake. (Econ, 6/17/06, p.59) 1320 nend Oct 12, Michael IX Paleologi, emperor of Byzantine (1295-1320), died. (MC, 10/12/01) 1321 nend Sep 14, Dante Alighieri, author of the "Divine Comedy," died of malaria just hours after finishing writing "Paradiso." The poem was completed in Italian rather than Latin. It helped make Italian the dominant linguistic force in European literature for the next few centuries. In 2006 Barbara Reynolds authored ?Dante: The Poet, the Political Thinker, the Man.? (www.newadvent.org/cathen/04628a.htm)(WSJ, 3/26/99, p.W2)(Econ,12/2/06, p.84) 1322 nend Jun 24, Jews were expelled from France for a 3rd time. (MC, 6/24/02) 1322 nend Arabian writers recorded ideas about artificial insemination. (SFC, 3/21/98, p.E3) 1322 nend The Baltic froze over and a cold spell pervaded Europe. (K.I.-365D, p.154) 1323 nend Oct 16, Amadeus V the Great, count of Flanders and Savoy, died at 74. (MC, 10/16/01) 1324 nend Jan 8, Marco Polo, Venetian explorer, governor of Nanking, died. (MC, 1/8/02) 1324 nend Feb 10, The pope officially chastised the Knights of the Cross for ill treatment of Catholics and for pushing pagans away from Christianity. (LHC, 2/10/03) 1324 nend Feb 26, Dino Compagni, Italian silk seller, poet, chronicler, died. (SC, 2/26/02) 1324 nend Mar 5, David II Bruce, king of Scotland (1331-71), was born. (MC, 3/5/02) 1324 1325 Mansa Musa (Kankan Moussa), king of Mali, made the 3,500 mile pilgrimage to Mecca with gold valued at $115 million in 1999 prices. He traveled with a very large retinue that included 80 camels and 500 slaves. An Arab chronicler said he was surrounded by over 10,000 of his subjects. (ATC, p.119)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6)(SSFC, 4/11/04, p.D6) 1325 nend The Aztecs founded Tenochtitlan, later known as Mexico City, about this time. (www.utexas.edu/utpress/excerpts/expedmus.html) 1325 nend Ibn Battuta (20), a Muslim, left his home in Tangier to journey to Mecca. He traveled in Arabia, Asia, Africa, and Spain and recorded many exciting adventures. His travels lasted some 29 years were described in his book ?The Rihla.? In 1986 Ross E. Dunn authored ?The Adventures of Ibn Battuta? based on The Rihla. (ATC, p.13)(SSFC, 11/13/05, p.F3) 1325 1382 Nicholos of Oresme, Parisian theologian agreed with Jean Buridan concerning the problem of Aristotelian motion and its resolution: i.e. that a moving body does not need to be continuously pushed to stay in motion due to its impetus provided by a violent motion upon it. (V.D.-H.K.p.193) 1326 nend Mar 5, Louis I (the Great), King of Hungary (1342-1382) and Poland (1370-1382), was born. (HN, 3/5/98)(MC, 3/5/02) 1326 nend Osman I (1299-1326) captured Bursa in north-western Anatolia after a 10 year siege. Osman I (also known as Osman Gazi) is generally regarded as the founder of the Ottoman Turkish state. (WUD, 1994 p.1018)(Ot, 1993, p.5) 1326 nend Richard de Bas, a paper manufacturer, was founded in Ambert d?Auvergne, France. (SFC, 4/14/06, p.D1) 1327 nend Jan 7, Edward II of England was deposed. [see Jan 20, Feb 1] (HN, 1/7/99) 1327 nend Jan 20, Edward II of England was deposed by his eldest son, Edward III. [see Jan 7, Feb 1] (HN, 1/20/99) 1327 nend Jan 25, King Edward III inherited the British throne. [see Jan 7,20] (MC, 1/25/02) 1327 nend Feb 1, Edward III was crowned King of England. [see Jan 7,20] (HN, 2/1/99) 1327 nend Apr 6, Petrarch met Laura de Sade in a church at Avignon, and was inspired for the rest of his life. He wrote his finest poems about her beauty and loveliness... and about his later recognition that he had loved her wrongly, placing her person ahead of her spirit. This event has been taken to mark the beginning of the Renaissance (V.D.-H.K.p.131)(MC, 4/6/02) no_source 1327 nend Sep 21, Edward II of England, a homosexual, was murdered by order of his wife, Queen Isabella and Baron Robert Mortimer. (HN, 9/21/98)(www.stonewallsociety.com/famouspeople/king.htm) 1327 nend In Germany the Pfalzgrafenstein castle was built on the Rhine near the village of Bacharach. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.T5) 1328 nend Feb 1, Charles IV, the Handsome, King of France (1322-28), died. (MC, 2/1/02) 1328 nend May 26, William of Ockham was forced to flee from Avignon by Pope John XXII. (HN, 5/26/98) 1328 nend May 27, French king Philip VI Valois was crowned. (MC, 5/27/02) 1328 nend In Italy a monastery and church of St. Francis was built on the Isola Maggiore on Lake Trasimeno. In the 19th century it was converted into a castle by a Marquis for his wife Isabella. (SFEM, 10/12/97, p.48) 1328 nend Moscow became the seat of the Russian Orthodox metropolitanate. Peter the Metropolitan moved from the capital Vladimir to Moscow. (DVD, Criterion, 1998)(AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.37) 1328 nend Taqi ad-Din Ahmad ibn Taymiyyah (b.1263), a Sunni Islamic scholar born in Harran, located in what is now Turkey, died. He lived during the troubled times of the Mongol invasions. As a member of the school founded by Ibn Hanbal, he sought the return of Islam to its sources: the Qur'an and the Sunnah. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyyah)(Econ, 7/14/07, p.30) 1328 1384 John Wycliffe, English theologian and biblical translator. He was posthumously declared a heretic and his body was exhumed for burning in 1428. (WSJ, 4/4/01, p.A18) 1329 nend Jun 7, Robert Bruce (b.1274), King of Scotland (1306-1329), died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_I_of_Scotland) 1329 nend In Korea a foundry was used to print books with metal type. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1330 nend Mar 23, Riga surrendered to the Livonian Order. (LHC, 3/23/03) 1330 nend Jun 15, Edward the Black Prince, the eldest son of Edward III and Prince of Wales (1343-1376), was born. He was the first Duke created in England, the Duke of Cornwall. (HN, 6/15/99)(MC, 6/15/02) 1330 nend Aug 25, Anti-Pope Nicolaas V overthrew himself. (MC, 8/25/02) c 1330 nend In Japan retired Emp. Go-Fushimi authored a plea to the god of the Kamo shrine for help in gaining the thrown for his son, Prince Tokihito. Tokihito got to reign after a short delay when Go-Daigo refused to step down. Two years later Go-Daigo got the thrown back. (SFC,12/15/97, p.E3) 1331 nend Ibn Battuta, Arab traveler and scholar, visited Kilwa. He described Kilwa as "one of the most beautiful and well-constructed towns in the world." (ATC, p.143) 1331 nend Na Prous Boneta was burned at the stake as a female heretic one hundred years before Joan of Arc. (WSJ, 1/23/96, p.A-12) 1331 nend Bernard Gui, Inquisitor in Toulouse, died. He authored ?Practica Inquisitionis Heretice Pravitatis? (Conduct of the Inquisition into Heretical Wickedness), a manual for Inquisitors in which he listed heretics including Cathars, Waldensians, Beghards, Jews and witches. (WSJ, 1/18/08, p.W10)(www.languedoc-france.info/121207_guicathars.htm) 1332 nend Feb 13, Andronicus II Palaeologus, Byzantine emperor (1282-1328), monk, died. (MC, 2/13/02) 1332 nend May 27, Ibn Khaldun (d.1406), Arab historian, was born in Tunis. He was also a social scientist and political activist and developed theories on economics and politics. He authored the "Muqaddimah" (introduction to history), that gave an in-depth analysis of the cyclical nature of the rise, maturation and decline of political regimes and economies. (HN, 5/27/98)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R20) 1332 nend Aug 12, Battle of Dupplin Moor; Scottish dynastic battle. (SC, 8/12/02) 1332 nend Mansa Musa, King of Mali, died. His successors were not able to protect Mali?s vast territory and Berber nomads began attacking caravan routes in the desert and threatened to take Timbuktu. People from the southern rain forests attacked the southern boundary and to the west the Sohghai of the middle Niger River began to revolt. (ATC, p.120) 1332 1370 Descendants of earlier Ghorid rulers reasserted control over Afghanistan. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1333 nend Mar 2, Wladyslaw IV, the Short One, Great, duke, king of Poland, died. (SC, 3/2/02) 1333 nend Nov 4, In Florence, Italy, the Arno River flooded causing some 3,000 deaths. (Econ, 11/1/08, p.97) 1333 nend The Kamakura Shogunate of Japan fell. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 1333 nend The Black Death erupted in China. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R54) 1333 1573 The Ashikaga (or Muromachi) Period of Japan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 1334 nend Aug 30, Pedro, the Cruel, King of Castilia & Leon, was born. (MC, 8/30/01) 1334 nend Emperor Godaigo of Japan temporarily regained power. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 1334 nend Heinrich II of Hesse (Germany) commissioned an illuminated manuscript called The Willehalm Codex. (SSFC, 5/2/04, p.M2) 1335 nend In Macedonia the Orthodox church of St. Atanasie and the Holy Virgin in Lesok was begun. A monastery was added that played a role in Christian resistance to the Ottoman Empire. (SFC, 8/22/01, p.A10) 1336 nend Feb 25, The Knights of the Cross sieged the Pilenai Castle in Samogitia. The defenders burned all their goods and committed suicide. (LHC, 2/25/03) 1336 1405 Timur (aka Timur Lang or Timur Lenk or Tamerlane because of a lame leg) was a Tartar conqueror of a vast empire from southern Russia to Mongolia and southward to India, Persia, and Mesopotamia. After his death the empire fell apart. Prince Timur is a national hero of Uzbekistan. (V.D.-H.K.p.169)(WUD, 1994, p.1451)(WSJ, 7/3/97, p.A4) 1337 nend Jan 8, Giotto (b.c.1267), Italian artist, died. His frescoes showed a new realism and vitality. Art historians later held that the Renaissance dawned in Florence with Giotto's paintings. He cracked the formal stylization of Byzantine painting and reinvented the ancient art of creating depth on a flat surface. In 2000 art historians found evidence that Pietro Cavallini re-introduced depth in his paintings in Rome around 1190. (V.D.-H.K.p.128)(WSJ, 11/113/00,p.A24)(www.mediacult.com/art/giotto/chrono.html) 1337 nend Jan 21, Charles V, the Wise, king of France (1364-80), was born. (MC, 1/21/02) 1337 1453 The Hundred Years War was a series of wars between England and France in which England lost all possessions in France except Calais. (WUD, 1994, p.693) 1338 nend The founding of the Ashikaga Shogunate in Japan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215) 1340 nend Jun 24, The English fleet defeated the French fleet at Sluys, off the Flemish coast. (HN, 6/24/98) 1340 nend Nov 28, In the Battle of Salado, Spain, the last Moor invasion was driven back. (MC, 11/28/01) 1340 nend Nov 30, John, Duke de Berry, captain of Paris and art collector, was born. (MC, 11/30/01) 1340 nend Double-entry bookkeeping was invented in Italy about this time. [see 1458] (WSJ, 11/10/99, p.A20) 1340 nend A drought that lasted 1-2 centuries as measured from tree rings in the Sierra Nevada was centered on this time. It coincides with a Medieval warm period when Vikings navigated the waters surrounding Greenland. An earlier drought centered at 1126AD. (NH, 9/96, p.38) c 1340 1400 Geoffrey Chaucer, English poet. [see 1343] (WUD, 1994, p.250)(WSJ, 9/18/00, p.A36) 1341 nend Apr 8, Francesco Petrarch was crowned poet laureate on the Capitol in Rome. He had arranged two invitations to be crowned, one in Paris and the other in Rome (1340-1341). He chose Rome. (V.D.-H.K.p.131)(MC, 4/8/02) 1341 nend Jun 19, Juliana van Falconieri, Italian saint, Swedish tenor, died. (MC, 6/19/02) 1341 nend German Knights of the Cross negotiated acquisition of Tallinn from Denmark and took over all of Estonia. (Ist. L.H., 1948, p. 61) 1341 1345 In Lithuania Jaunutis served as Grand Duke. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1342 nend Sep 26, John I, ruler of Poland, died. (MC, 9/26/01) 1342 nend In China a tombstone in Yangchou marked the death of an Italian girl named Katerina. (SFEC, 9/21/97, p.A23) 1343 nend The Peruzzi Bank, Europe's biggest, collapsed following risky loans to English kings. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) c 1343 1400 Geoffrey Chaucer, English poet. [see 1340] (WUD, 1994, p.250)(WSJ, 9/18/00, p.A36) 1345 nend Mar 20, A conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter and Mars was thought to be the "cause of plague epidemic." (MC, 3/20/02) 1345 nend Jul 17, Jacob Van Artevelde, [Manner Man], Flemish broker, was lynched. (MC, 7/17/02) 1345 nend Oct 31, Ferdinand I, the wise one, king of Portugal (built navy), was born. (MC, 10/31/01) 1345 nend The Frisian victory over the Dutch on the beach at Warns was their last before the Dutch took over. (WSJ, 5/13/98, p.A20) 1345 nend The Kramerbrucke merchant bridge was built over the Gera River at Erfurt, Thuringia, Germ. (Hem., Nov.'95, p.114) 1345 nend A Florentine wool worker was hanged for holding a public meeting to organize colleagues. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1345 1377 In Lithuania Algirdas served as Grand Duke. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1346 nend Apr 16, King Stefanus IX of Serbia proclaimed himself czar of Greece. (MC, 4/16/02) 1346 nend May, Edward III of England called for a fleet of 1000 ships and an army of 10,000 knights and soldiers to assemble at Portsmouth for an attack on his distant cousin, Philip VI of France. (ON, 9/00, p.1) 1346 nend Jul 12, Edward III landed his army on the Normandy beaches unopposed. (ON, 9/00, p.1) 1346 nend Jul 18, Edward III divided his army into 3 groups and began a march on Paris. (ON, 9/00, p.2) 1346 nend Aug 16, Philip VI offered Edward III sovereignty over Aquitaine in return for peace. Edward rejected the offer and learned that Philip had raised an army of 36,000 that included 15,000 Genoese crossbowmen. Edward marched toward Flanders in order to meet with allies. (ON, 9/00, p.2) 1346 nend Aug 25, Edward III of England defeated Philip VI's army at the Battle of Crecy in France. The English overcame the French at the Battle of Crecy. The longbow proved instrumental in the victory as French knights on horseback outnumbered the British 3 to 1. At the end of the battle 1,542 French lords and knights were killed along with 20,000 soldiers. The English lost 2 knights and 80 men. [see Aug 26] (WSJ, 8/3/98, p.A12)(HN, 8/25/98) 1346 nend Aug 26, During the Hundred Years War, King Edward III's 9,000-man English army annihilated a French force of 27,000 under King Philip VI at the Battle of Crecy in Normandy. The battle is regarded as one of the most decisive in history. [see Aug 25] (PC, 1992, p.128)(WSJ, 11/4/04, p.D10) 1346 nend Sep 3, Edward III of England began the siege of Calais, along the coast of France. (HN, 9/3/98) 1346 nend Sep 28, Edward III and Philip VI signed a temporary truce. Their hostilities marked the beginning of the Hundred Years War, which only ended in 1453. (ON, 9/00, p.2) 1346 nend Oct 17, English forces defeated the Scots under David II during the Battle of Neville's Cross, Scotland. (HN, 10/17/98) 1346 nend Nov 26, Charles of Luxembourg was crowned German king. He succeeded his father John of Luxemburg as King of Bohemia and Count of Luxembourg. (PC, 1992 ed, p.128) 1347 nend May 20, Cola di Rienzo took the title of tribune in Rome. (HN, 5/20/98) 1347 nend Aug 3, Six burghers of the surrounded French city of Calais surrendered to Edward III of England in hopes of relieving the siege. (HN, 8/3/98) 1347 nend Aug 4, English troops conquered Ft. Calais. After an 11 month siege, French Calais fell to England's King Edward III. English rule lasted for more than two centuries. (WSJ, 11/6/95, p. A-1)(MC, 8/4/02) 1347 nend Oct, Sailors from Genoa arrived in Messina, Sicily. Plague had broken out earlier among the troops of the Kipchak Khan, who was besieging the Black Sea port of Kaffa. He catapulted dead bodies over the city walls. When Italian trading vessels in the harbor returned to Genoa, the carried the plague to Europe. The plague, an infectious fever caused by the bacillus Yersinia pestis, appears in several varieties: bubonic (which involves swelling of the lymph glands), pneumonic (which involves the lungs) and septicemia (which involves severe infection in the bloodstream). (SFEM, 10/12/97, p.31)(HNQ, 1/20/01)(SSFC, 3/6/05, p.B4) 1347 nend Nov 20, Roman tribune Cola di Rienzi defeated nobles. Stefano Colonna, Roman senator, died in battle (SPQR). (MC, 11/20/01) 1347 nend Dec 3, Pope Clemens VI declared Roman tribune, Cola di Rienzi, a heretic. (MC, 12/3/01) 1347 nend Charles IV (1316-1378) of the House of Luxembourg was crowned King of Bohemia. (WSJ, 10/19/05, p.D17) 1347 1350 The Black Death: A Genoese trading post in the Crimea was besieged by an army of Kipchaks from Hungary and Mongols from the East. The latter brought with them a new form of plague, Yersinia pestis. Infected dead bodies were catapulted into the Genoese town. One Genoese ship managed to escape and brought the disease to Messina, Sicily. The disease quickly became an epidemic. It moved over the next few years to northern Italy, North Africa, France, Spain, Austria, Hungary, Switzerland, Germany, the Low countries, England, Scandinavia and the Baltic. There were lesser outbreaks in many cities for the next twenty years. An estimated 25 million died in Europe and economic depression followed. In 2005 John Kelly authored ?The Great Mortality: An Intimate History of the Black Death, the Most Devastating Plague of All Time.? (NG, 5/88, p.678)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42)(SSFC, 3/6/05, p.B1)(SFC,10/13/11, p.A6) 1347 1354 John VI Cantacuzenus ruled over Byzantium. He then abdicated and became and monk and went on to deal with Rome over the unification of Christendom. [see 330 AD] (WSJ, 11/14/95, p. A-12) 1348 nend Feb 2, The Knights of the Cross defeated a Lithuanian army at Streva. (LHC, 2/2/03) 1348 nend Apr 6, Laura, the arch love of Petrarch died of the plague. Boccaccio retired from plague-stricken Florence, and in a country residence began to write the Decameron. (V.D.-H.K.p.131-132) 1348 nend Apr 7, Prague Univ., the 1st in central Europe, was started by Charles IV. (MC, 4/7/02) 1348 nend Apr 23, King Edward III of England established the Order of the Garter, the first English order of knighthood. (AP, 4/23/97)(HN, 4/23/99)(www.royal.gov.uk/output/page490.asp) 1348 nend Sep 21, Jews in Zurich Switzerland were accused of poisoning wells. (MC, 9/21/01) 1348 nend Nov 15, Rudolph of Oron claimed Jews confessed to poisoning wells. (MC, 11/15/01) 1348 nend The Black Plague struck the Mediterranean Basin. (SSFC, 11/13/05, p.F3) 1348 nend Accused of being a cause of the plague, the Jews in France were dragged from their houses and burned. Pogroms occurred throughout Europe. When the plague subsided, few Jews were left in Germany or the Low Countries. (NG, 5/88, p.681) 1348 nend Plague arrived at Montpellier, France, in the spring and killed an estimated two-thirds of the 50,000 inhabitants. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R22) 1348 nend The population of Siena, Italy, dropped from 97,000 to 45,000 in a few months due to the Black Plague. (SSFC, 3/6/05, p.B1) 1348 nend Ambrogio Lorenzetti (b.1290), Sienese painter, died. His work included the 3 murals titled ?War,? ?Peace? and ?Good Government,? in the Chamber of Peace of Siena?s town hall. (WSJ, 12/1/07, p.W14) 1349 nend Jan 9, In Basel, Switzerland, 700 Jews were burned alive in their houses. (MC, 1/9/02) 1349 nend Feb 13, Jews were expelled from Burgsdorf, Switzerland. (MC, 2/13/02) 1349 nend Feb 14, 2,000 Jews were burned at the stake in Strasbourg, Germany. (HN, 2/14/98) 1349 nend Feb 22, Jews were expelled from Zurich, Switzerland. (HN, 2/22/98) 1349 nend Mar 21, Some 3,000 Jews were killed in Black Death riots in Efurt, Germany. (MC, 3/21/02) 1349 nend Apr 30, Jewish community at Radolszell, Germany, was exterminated. (MC, 4/30/02) 1349 nend May 28, 60 Jews were murdered in Breslau, Silesia. (MC, 5/28/02) 1349 nend Aug 24, Some 6,000 Jews, blamed for the Bubonic Plague, were killed in Mainz. (MC, 8/24/02) 1349 nend Aug 24, Jews of Cologne Germany set themselves on fire to avoid baptism. (MC, 8/24/02) 1349 nend Sep 10, The Jews who survived a massacre in Constance, Germany, were burned to death. (MC, 9/10/01) 1349 nend Nov 1, Duke of Brabant ordered the execution of all Jews in Brussels. He accused them of poisoning the wells. (MC, 11/1/01) 1349 nend Nov 29, Jews of Augsburg, Germany, were massacred. (MC, 11/29/01) 1349 nend Dec 5, 500 Jews of Nuremberg were massacred during Black Death riots. (MC, 12/5/01) 1349 nend Nearly all the Jews of Worms were murdered on false accusations that they brought on the plague by poisoning the wells. (NH, 9/96, p.24) 1349 nend William of Ockham (b.1290), English Franciscan scholastic philosopher, died. He proclaimed that the only real things are singular entities like an apple or man, and that universals have no existence whatever; they are mere names. The divine and nature each has its own validity, but the one is vastly more important that the other, with the one determining salvation, and the other the mere comfort of the body during its life. [see 1290] (V.D.-H.K.p.123)(WUD, 1994 p.996)(AP, 2/4/99) 1349 1830 The eldest son of the king of France was referred to as the dauphine, as an honor to the Dauphine province after its cession to France. (WUD, 1994, p.369) 1350 nend Mar 27, Alfonso XI of Castile (38) died of the black death while besieging Gibraltar. (HN, 3/27/99)(PCh, 1992, p.130) 1350 nend Aug 22, Philips VI, of Valois, King of France (1328-50), died. (MC, 8/22/02) 1350 nend Aug 22, John II, also known as John the Good, succeeded Philip VI as king of France. (HN, 8/22/98) 1350 nend Sargis Pitsak, Armenian artist, produced illuminated manuscripts of the bible. Color picture "Souls Ascending the Heavenly Ladder to Christ," featured in: ( SF Chronicle, 5/12/1994, p. E-1) 1350 nend The Fremont Indians, who had lived in Utah?s Range Creek Canyon since about 200, disappeared from the archeological record. (WSJ, 1/31/06, p.B6)(Sm, 3/06, p.74) c 1350 nend At Powers Fort, Missouri, there was a Mississippian cultural-civic-ceremonial center consisting of a small village and four mounds. (AM, Vol. 48, No. 3) 1350 nend Maori ancestors arrived at New Zealand on seven legendary canoes from Hawaii, the mother-island of the east Polynesians. (NG, Aug., 1974, C. McCarry, p.196) 1350 nend Boccaccio met Petrarch in Florence. (V.D.-H.K.p.132) 1350 nend The leaning tower of Pisa was constructed. [see 1173] (SFC, 8/13/98, p.C5) 1350 nend In Northumberland, England, Langley Castle was built with 7-foot thick walls on a wooded estate. (WSJ, 2/27/98, p.B8) 1351 nend The east African Kingdom of Dongala became hemmed in by Muslim states such as Kordofan and Darfur and was forced to surrender to Egypt its territory north of the third cataract. Axum was harried by the Muslims of Funj and the people retreated into the mountains and developed into the isolated Christian kingdom of Ethiopia. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.170) 1351 nend In England the Statute of Treasons was passed under which anyone who violated the wife of the heir to the throne was guilty of high treason. (WSJ, 5/23/96, p.A-10) 1351 1767 The port city of Ayutthaya (Thailand) was one of the capitals of the kingdom of Siam until the Burmese invaded, sacked the city and left it in ruins. The capital was then moved to Bangkok. Prior to this Phananchoeng was the capital. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.G)(WSJ, 4/21/05, p.D7) 1352 nend May 5, Ruprecht, Roman catholic German king, was born. (MC, 5/5/02) 1352 nend Dec 18, Etienne Aubert was elected as Pope Innocentius VI. (MC, 12/18/01) 1352 nend The Black Death by this year had killed 25 million people in Europe alone. (NG, 5/88, p.678) 1352 nend Ibn Battuta decided to cross the Sahara Desert. The journey took two months to complete the 1,200 miles. (ATC, p.112) 1352 nend The gothic Cathedral of Our Lady was begun in Antwerp, Belgium. It was completed in the 16th century. (Hem., 7/95, p.27) 1353 nend King Fangum is believed to have established the Kingdom of Lan Xang (Million Elephants), the forerunner of the modern Laos state that was abolished during the communist revolution of 1975. (AP, 1/6/03) 1353 nend In Laos Luang Prabang was founded. It was the royal capital of the kingdom of Laos and a center of Laotian Buddhism and court arts. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.E) 1353 nend Ibn Battuta spent a few months in Mali and left a full description of his experiences. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.170) 1354 1720 Catalan conquerors ruled over Sardinia. (SFEC, 1/30/00, p.T5) 1355 nend May 7, 1,200 Jews of Toledo, Spain, were killed by Count Henry of Trastamara. (MC, 5/7/02) 1355 nend Nov 1, During the Hundred Years? War (1337-1457) an English invasion army under Black Prince Edward (25) landed at Calais. (DoW, 1999, p.213)(PC, 1992 ed, p.131) 1355 nend Dec 20, Stephen Urosh IV of Serbia died while marching to attack Constantinople. (HN, 12/20/98) 1355 nend Charles IV, King of Bohemia, was crowned King of the Holy Roman Empire. (WSJ, 10/19/05, p.D17) 1356 nend Sep 19, In a landmark battle of the Hundred Years' War, English Prince Edward defeated the French at Poitiers. Jean de Clermont, French marshal, died in battle. (HN, 9/19/98)(MC, 9/19/01) 1357 nend Apr 22, Johan I, King of Portugal (1383-1433), was born. (MC, 4/22/02) 1357 nend May 28, Afonso IV (66), King of Portugal (1325-57), died. (MC, 5/28/02) 1357 nend The 1999 novel "Timeline" by Michael Crichton catapults its characters to Medieval France and the 20th year of the Hundred Years War. (WSJ, 11/19/99, p.W6) 1358 nend Jun 10, French Boer leader Guillaume Cale was captured. (MC, 6/10/02) c 1359 nend c1460 Owain Glyndwr (Owen Glendower) of Wales, leader of a bloody revolt against Henry IV in 1400. The event was marked by a comet. (SFEC, 6/22/97, p.D2) 1360 nend Mar 15, French invasion army landed on English south coast and conquered Winchel. (MC, 3/15/02) 1360 nend Jul 25, Jews were expelled from Breslau, Silesia. (SC, 7/25/02) 1360 nend Oct 25, Louis, founder of house of Anjou, was born. (MC, 10/25/01) 1360 nend s The Flagellants of Thuringia engage in self mortification and refused to work. (www.ccel.org/s/schaff/encyc/encyc04/htm/0341=325.htm) 1360 1754 Hanseatic traders brought prosperity to Bergen, Norway. (SSFC, 6/5/05, p.F7) 1361 nend Feb 26, Wenceslas of Bohemia, Holy Roman Catholic German emperor (1378-1400), was born. (SC, 2/26/02) 1361 nend Mar 21, Grand duke Kestutis was captured by the Knights of the Cross. (LHC, 3/21/03) 1361 nend England enacted its first Corn Laws. They barred the export of corn in order to keep local grain supplies cheap. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R50) 1361 nend The Ottomans under Orhan crossed into Europe and captured Adrianople (Edirne), the 2nd major city of Byzantium. Murat I (Orhan) moved the Ottoman capital to Edirne in 1366. (Ot, 1993, p.5)(http://www.osmanli700.gen.tr/english/sultans.html) 1361 1363 Plague broke out again in Europe. (HN, 1/20/01) 1362 1363 A 202-pound stone with runic inscriptions, found in 1888 by Olaf and Edward Ohman, Swedish immigrant farmers in Kensington, Minn., seemed to describe how a party of Vikings had returned there after an exploratory survey, and found ten men left behind "red with blood and dead." Ever since the discovery, scholars have debated the stone?s authenticity. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.25)(HNQ, 6/4/01) 1364 nend May 20, Sir Henry Percy (d.1403), [Harry Hotspur], British soldier, politician, and rebel leader, was born. (WUD, 1994, p.1069)(MC, 5/20/02) 1364 nend King Charles V (1337-1381) began his rule of France. (HNQ, 7/14/01)(WUD, 1994 p.249) 1364 nend In Cracow, Poland, the Jagiellonian University was founded. [see 1400] (PG-Comm) 1365 nend The University of Vienna was founded by Duke Rudolph IV. (StuAus, April '95, p.2,17) 1365 nend A tax document lists the feudal property of Niccolo Acciaiuoli, head of a Florentine banking family. It included the castle of Agios Vasilios overlooking the road from Corinth to Argos in southern Greece. The territory had reverted to the Florentine family when the Franks defaulted on loans. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.55) 1365 nend Basel, Switzerland, was wrecked by an earthquake. (AP, 8/4/07) 1366 nend Oct 12, King Frederick III of Sicily forbade decorations on synagogues. (MC, 10/12/01) 1366 nend Wang Meng painted "Dwelling in the Qingbian Mountains." (SFC, 4/4/98, p.C1) 1366 nend Records indicate that cheese was weighed in Alkmaar [Netherlands] at this time. (SFEC, 6/7/98, p.T10) 1367 nend Jan 6, Richard II, son of Edward the Black Prince, was born in Bordeaux. He served as king of England from 1377-1399. (HN, 1/6/99)(MC, 1/6/02) 1367 nend Apr 3, Birth of Henry Bolingbroke, aka Henry of Lancaster and later Henry IV, King of England (1399-1413) in Lincolnshire. (MWH, 1994) 1367 nend Apr 3, John of Gaunt and Edward the Black Prince won the Battle of Najara, in Spain. (HN, 4/3/99) 1368 nend Feb 3, Charles VI, King of France (1380-1422), was born. (MC, 2/3/02) 1368 nend Feb 14-1368 Feb 15, Sigismund (d.1437), son of Charles IV, was born in Nuremberg, Germany. He served as Holy Roman Emperor from 1433-1437. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigismund%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor) 1368 nend Tamerlane lost control of China as the Mings took over local power. The Ming dynasty overthrew Mongol rule and slammed shut the Jade Gate to caravan traffic to Central Asia. (V.D.-H.K.p.172)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) c 1368 1600 For several centuries after 1368 the Mongols were confined to their original homeland in the steppes, their energies mostly absorbed by internal rivalries. (www.gobiexpeditions.com) 1368 1644 The period of the Ming Dynasty in China. Classical Chinese furniture refers to furniture made during the Ming and early Ching (1644-1912). During the Ming Dynasty the Great Wall of China was extended and renovated with watch towers and canons. (AAM, 3/96, p.9)(WSJ, 9/19/96,p.A18)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China) 1368 1644 The Ming Dynasty by Yang Xin is the 3rd section of Wu Hung?s 1997 "The Origins of Chinese Painting." The period is marked by the emergence of the literati-amateur movement. (WSJ, 1/2/98, p.6) 1368 1644 China extended its hegemony over the Ryukyu Islands legitimating 3 kings in exchange for submission to the Ming emperor. (NW, 9/10/01, p.48) 1369 nend Mar 23, Pedro the Cruel, King and tyrant of Castile and Leon, was murdered. Enrique, the illegitimate son of Alfonso XI of Castile, killed his half brother Pedro I in the Castilian civil war and became King Enrique I "the Bastard" of Castile. (SS, 3/23/02)(Reuters, 12/23/06) 1369 nend Hongwu, the first Ming emperor, established an imperial kiln at Jungdezhen in south-central China. It became a famous porcelain center. (SFEC, 10/6/96, DB p.37) 1369 nend The goldsmith firm of Torrini Firenze was founded in Florence, Italy. (SFC, 4/14/06, p.D1) 1369 1371 Plague broke out again in Europe. (HN, 1/20/01) 1369 1405 Timur (aka Timur Lang or Timur Lenk or Tamerlane, so-named because of a lame leg) ruled from Samarkand. (WUD, 1994, p.1451) 1369 1424 Muzio Sforza, father of Francesco, Italian condotierre (leader of a private band of mercenary soldiers). (WUD, 1994, p.1308) 1370 nend Apr 11, Frederick I the Warlike, elector of Saxony, was born. (HN, 4/11/98) 1370 nend Apr 22, The first stone of the Bastille was laid by order of King Charles V (1364-1380). The original design of the Bastille was merely a fortified gate, but it was later turned into a fortress by Charles VI. It began to be used as a prison in the 17th century. Following the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, it was demolished. (HNQ, 7/14/01) 1370 nend May 22, Jews were expelled (massacred) from Brussels, Belgium. (MC, 5/22/02) 1370 nend Nov 5, Kazimierz III ("The Great"), king of Poland (1333-70), died at 61. (MC, 11/5/01) 1370 nend Andrei Rublev, Russian icon painter, was born about this time. (DVD, Criterion, 1998) 1370 nend Spain?s Prince Sancho de Castile (7) died. Spaniards for a long time believed Prince his uncle poisoned him to become king. In 2006 studies of the boy's mummified body showed the boy died of natural causes. (Reuters, 12/23/06) 1370 1404 Timour-i-Lang (Tamerlane) ruled over Afghanistan. Afghan resistance was active. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1371 nend Feb 22, David II Bruce (46), king of Scotland (1331-1371), died. (MC, 2/22/02) 1371 nend May 28, John, the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, warrior, was born in Burgundy, France. (MC, 5/28/02) 1371 nend Dec 4, Reinald III (38), ("The Fat,") duke of Gelre (1343-61), died. (MC, 12/4/01) 1371 nend The queen of France sent the Queen of England several dolls dressed in the latest French fashion. The outfits were copied by English dressmakers and costumed dolls from France went wherever French ships sailed. They were called mannequins. (SFC, 6/28/97, p.E3) 1371 nend Ubaid Zakani, Persian writer, died. His work included ?Mush va Gorbeh? (Mouse and Cat), a match for Rabelais when it comes to mocking religion. (WSJ, 2/8/06, p.A16)(www.britannica.com/eb/article-13737) 1371 1435 Cheng Ho, eunuch admiral of the Ming dynasty, explored the Indian Ocean. no_source 1372 nend Sep 21, Frederik I van Hohenzollern, monarch of Brandenburg (1417-40), was born. (MC, 9/21/01) 1372 nend The 1st Ryukyuan emissaries reached Nanjing and presented tribute to the Ming emperor. (NW, 9/10/01, p.56) 1373 nend Jul 23, Birgitta of Sweden, Swedish saint, died. (MC, 7/23/02) 1373 nend Boccaccio began a course of public readings of the divine Comedy in the church of Santo Stefano in Florence. He accompanied the readings with commentaries, explaining to his largely illiterate audience of common people the meaning and relevance of what Dante had written. He encountered raging attacks of the learned against his program of bringing Dante to the attention and understanding of the common people. (V.D.-H.K.p.133) no_source 1374 1375 Plague broke out again in Europe. (HN, 1/20/01) 1373 1415 Jan Huss, Czech populist reformer. He challenged Church doctrine. (WSJ, 4/4/01, p.A18) 1374 nend Jul 18, Francesco Petrarch (69), Italian poet (Italia Mia), died. (SSFC, 7/25/04, p.E3) 1375 nend Dec 21, Giovanni Boccaccio, Italian poet (Vita di Dante), died at his home in Certaldo. (V.D.-H.K.p.133)(MC, 12/21/01) 1376 nend Apr 28, English parliament demanded the supervision on royal outlay. (MC, 4/28/02) 1376 nend Jun 8, Edward (b.1330), the "Black Prince" of Wales, son of King Edward III of England and Queen Philippa of Hainault, died at Westminster Palace, Middlesex. (www.britannia.com/bios/royals/blckprnc.html) 1376 nend Jul 22, The rats were piped out of Hamelin, Germany. (HFA, '96, p.34) 1377 nend Feb 3, There was a mass execution of population of Cesena, Italy. (MC, 2/3/02) 1377 nend Jun 21, Edward III (b.1312), King of England (1322-1377), died. Richard II, who was still a child, succeeded his father. In 1966 H.J. Hewitt authored "The Organization of War Under Edward III." In 1978 Richard Barber authored "Edward, Prince of Wales and Aquitaine." In 1980 Michael Prestwich authored "The Three Edwards: War and State in England 1272-1377." Lines of his 3rd and 4th sons, houses Lancaster and York engaged in the Wars of the Roses. In 2006 Ian Mortimer authored ?The Perfect King: The Life of Edward III, Father of the English Nation.? (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6)(ON, 9/00, p.2)(AM, 7/01, p.69)(HN,6/21/98)(Econ, 4/15/06, p.84) c 1377 1446 Filippo Brunelleschi, Italian architect. He designed the dome of the Florence Cathedral. (WUD, 1994, p.190)(WSJ, 6/6/96, p.A12) 1378 nend Mar 27, Gregory XI, [Pierre R the Beaufort], last French Pope (1370-78), died. (MC, 3/27/02) 1378 nend Aug 9, Cardinals declared pope Urbanus VI lawless (anti-Christian, devil). (MC, 8/9/02) 1378 nend Sep 20, The election of Robert of Geneva as anti-pope by discontented cardinals created a great schism in the Catholic church. (HN, 9/20/98) 1378 nend Nov 29, Charles IV (b.1316), King of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor, died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_emperor_Charles_IV) 1378 nend Dec 18, Charles V denounced the treachery of John IV of Brittany and confiscated his duchy. (HN, 12/18/98) 1378 nend Dec 31, Callistus III, [Alfonso the Borgia], Pope (1455-58), was born. (MC, 12/31/01) 1378 nend Wenceslaus IV (1361-1419), son of Charles IV, became King of Bohemia following the death of his father. He served as Holy Roman Emperor until 1400, when he was deposed in favor of Rupert III. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wenceslaus%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor) 1378 nend Wool workers in Florence revolted after being hit with production quotas. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R27) 1378 nend The last bishop on Greenland died. No replacement was sent. (AM, 7/00, p.66) 1378 1417 The Great Western Schism split the Roman Catholic Church and involved 2 anti-popes at its height. (CU, 6/87) 1379 1390 Khwaja Shams ud-Din Hafiz (b.c1310-1326), Persian poet, died. (SSFC, 10/23/05, p.E3)(www.thesongsofhafiz.com/) 1380 nend Feb 11, Gianfrancesco Poggio Bracciolini, Italian humanist, was born. (MC, 2/11/02) 1380 nend Jul 24, Giovanni da Capistrano, Italian monk, was born. He liberated Belgrade from the Turks and was later canonized a saint as San Juan de Capistrano. His name was applied to the southern California mission, best known for its annual convocation of swallows. (MC, 7/24/02) 1380 nend Sep 8, Bernardinus of Siena, Italian saint, was born. (MC, 9/8/01) 1380 nend Sep 8, Prince Dmitrii of Moscow defeated the Mongols at Kulikovo Field. This marked the beginning of the decline of Mongol control over Russian lands. (DVD, Criterion,1998)(http://fanaticus.org/dba/battles/Kulikovo/index.html) 1380 nend Nov 14, King Charles VI of France was crowned at age 12. (MC, 11/14/01) 1380 nend Nov 16, French King Charles VI declared no taxes forever. (MC, 11/16/01) 1380 nend In England Henry Of Lancaster at 13 married Mary de Bohun, daughter and co-heiress of Humphrey, the last Earl of Hereford. (MWH, 1994) 1380 nend In France the rule of King Charles V (1337-1381) ended. (HNQ, 7/14/01)(WUD, 1994 p.249) 1380 nend Iceland fell under Danish control. (HNQ, 4/28/00) c 1380 1471 Thomas a Kempis, German monk and author: "Would to God that we might spend a single day really well." "Verily, when the day of judgment comes, we shall not be asked what we have read, but what we have done." (AP, 1/28/98)(AP, 7/28/00) 1381 nend May 30, English peasant uprising began in Essex. (MC, 5/30/02) 1381 nend Jun 14, The Peasant?s Revolt, led by Wat Tyler, climaxed when rebels marched on Jordan, plundered, burned and captured the Tower of London and killed the Archbishop of Canterbury. The revolt was a response to a statute intended to hold down wages during a labor shortage. The peasant demands also included access to privately owned land. (HN, 6/14/98)(SFC, 6/20/99, p.A7) 1381 nend Jun 15, The English peasant revolt was crushed in London and Wat Tyler, the rebel leader, was beheaded. (HN, 6/15/98)(MC, 6/15/02) 1381 nend When the peasant?s revolt subsided England?s King Richard II (14) reneged on his promises to the peasants, rounded up the surviving ringleaders and had them executed. (Econ, 11/26/05, p.96) 1382 nend Mar 1, French Maillotin rose up against taxes. (SC, 3/1/02) 1382 nend Mar 15, Conservative "Popolo Grasso" regained power in Florence, Italy. (MC, 3/15/02) 1382 nend May 5, In the Battle of Beverhoutsveld, Belgium, the population beat a drunken army. (MC, 5/5/02) 1382 nend Sep 10, Louis I, the Great, King of Hungary and Poland, died. Mary (1372-1395), daughter of Louis I, became queen of Hungary. (PC, 1992 ed, p.135)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_of_Hungary) 1382 nend Nov 27, The French nobility, led by Olivier de Clisson, crushed the Flemish rebels at Flanders. (HN, 11/27/98) 1382 nend John Wycliffe?s heresy hearing was interrupted by an earthquake that toppled the tower of Canterbury Cathedral. (WSJ, 12/31/04, p.W6) 1382 nend The Bahri Mamluks, rulers of Egypt, were succeeded by the Burji dynasty, another group of Mamluks. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahri_dynasty) 1382 nend Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) arrived in Cairo following a turbulent political career in Tunis. He is best known for his Muqaddimah (known as Prolegomenon in English), which was discovered, evaluated and fully appreciated first by 19th century European scholarship. (SSFC, 7/24/11, p.F7)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun) 1383 nend Sep 4, Amadeus VIII, duke of Savoye, and the last antipope (Felix V (1439-48), was born. (MC, 9/4/01) c 1383 nend c1436 Masolino, Italian artist. He worked with Masaccio on "Saints Jerome and John the Baptist," part of an altarpiece for Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome. (WSJ, 9/27/01, p.A16) 1384 nend Jan 30, Vytautas handed over Samogitia to the Knights of the Cross and promised to serve as a vassal to the order following receipt of Trakai. (LHC, 1/30/03) 1384 nend Sep 2, Louis I, duke of Anjou and king of Naples (Battle of Poitiers), died. (MC, 9/2/01) 1384 nend Oct 16, The Polish princess Hedwig was crowned King Jadwiga (d.1399) at age 10. She was crowned as king to make it clear that she was a ruler, not a consort. (SFC, 6/9/97, p.A10)(SSFC, 10/2/11,p.N4)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jadwiga_of_Poland) 1384 nend Dec 31, John Wycliffe, English religious reformer and bible translator, died. (MC, 12/31/01) 1385 nend Jan 18, A Lithuanian delegation under Skirgaila arrived in Cracow to ask for the hand of Jadvyga on behalf of Jogaila. (LHC, 1/18/03) 1385 nend Apr 12, Willem van Oostervant wed Margaretha (10), Philip the Stout's daughter (Flanders). (MC, 4/12/02) 1385 nend Aug 14, Jogaila and his brothers signed a treaty with Poland at Krievos Castle. Here he agreed to convert to Christianity and to seek the conversion of all of Lithuania and that then Lithuania and Poland would unite. The treaty also included an agreement to free all captive Catholics and to help Poland regain all the land it had lost to the German Knights. Vytautas urged Jogaila to go to Poland and leave Lithuania to be ruled by himself. (H of L, 1931, p.48)(Ist. L.H., 1948, p. 68) 1385 nend Aug 14, Portuguese defeated Castilians at Aljubarrota and gained independence. John of Portugal defeated John of Castile. (PCh, 1992, p.136)(HN, 8/15/98)(MC, 8/14/02) 1385 nend The Albanian ruler of Durrës invited Ottoman forces to intervene against a rival. (www, Albania, 1998) 1385 nend In Italy Giovanni di Pietro Antinori branched from his family?s lucrative silk and wool business to join the Florentine wine makers guild. By 2008 the family business had vineyards in Hungary, Chile and California?s Napa Valley. (SFC, 4/14/06, p.D1)(WSJ, 4/5/08, p.A6) 1386 nend Feb 2, Jogaila was elected King of Poland. (LHC, 2/2/03) 1386 nend Feb 15, Duke Philip the Stout formed the Council of Flanders. (MC, 2/15/02) 1386 nend Feb 15, Christianity was introduced to Lithuania when Grand Duke Jogaila and Vytautas underwent a token Baptism at the cathedral in Cracow. Jogaila had married Queen Jadvyga (12) and was crowned King in Poland. Together they began to rule from Cracow over Lithuania and Poland. Jogaila submitted to restrictions that no major decisions could be made without the authorization of the Polish nobility. (Dr, 7/96, V1#1, p.5)(Ist. L.H., 1948, p. 69)(DrEE, 11/9/96, p.6) 1386 nend Mar 4, Jogaila was crowned King of Poland. (LHC, 3/4/03) 1386 nend The Duomo Cathedral was begun in Milan. The Milanese boast that it took 500 years to build. (SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T11) 1386 nend The Univ. of Heidelberg, the oldest in Germany, was founded. (SFEC, 9/26/99, p.T8) 1386 nend The counts of Habsburg tried to reach their goals by military force but were again defeated by Swiss forces at the battle of Sempach. no_source 1386 nend Sigismund (1368-1437), son of Charles IV, became King of Hungary by his marriage to Queen Mary of Hungary (1372-1395). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigismund%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor) 1386 nend The Earl of Suffolk, Michael de la Pole, was the first person to be impeached along modern lines of procedure. (WSJ, 1/25/99, p.A19) 1387 nend Feb 17, Jogaila founded the archdiocese of Vilnius and provided land for the Bishop?s headquarters. (LHC, 2/17/03) 1387 nend Feb 22, Jogaila issued a proclamation for all Lithuanians to accept Catholicism. (LHC, 2/22/03) 1387 nend Mar 22, Jogaila gave Vilnius the rights of Magdeburg. Vilnius became the 1st self-governed Lithuanian city. (LHC, 3/22/03) 1387 nend Jul 22, French Ackerman (c57), Ghent rebel, leader of Reisers, was murdered. (MC, 7/22/02) 1387 nend Aug 9, Henry V, British king famous for his victory at Agincourt, France, was born. [see Aug 29] (HN, 8/9/98) 1387 nend Aug 29, Henry V, king of England (1413-22) / France (1416-19), was born. [see Aug 9] (MC, 8/29/01) 1387 nend The Italian painter Fra Angelico (d.1455), Giovanni da Fiesole, was born about this time. His work included the "Annunciation." The 1997 book "Fra Angelico" by John T. Spike was hailed as the art book of the year. (WUD, 1994, p.57)(SFEC,12/797, Par p.6) 1387 nend Henry of Lancaster supported his uncle Thomas, Duke of Gloucester, in an attack on the government of Richard II. (MWH, 1994) 1387 1388 Henry of Lancaster was a participant in the "Merciless" Parliament. (MWH, 1994) 1387 1412 In Denmark Queen Margrete I ruled. (SFC, 11/8/00, p.B7) 1387 1455 Fra Angelico, Giovanni da Fiesole, Italian painter. His work included the "Annunciation." The 1997 book "Fra Angelico" by John T. Spike was hailed as the art book of the year. (WUD, 1994, p.57)(SFEC,12/797, Par p.6) 1387 1456 Janos Hunyadi, Hungarian soldier and national hero. He was the father of Matthias Corvinus. (WUD, 1994, p.693,1672) 1388 nend Mar 12, Pope Urban VI authorized Poznan?s Bishop Dobrogost to establish a Vilnius archdiocese. (LHC, 3/12/03) 1388 nend The counts of Habsburg tried to reach their goals by military force but were again defeated by Swiss forces at the battle of Naefels. no_source 1389 nend Jan 10, Jogaila authorized the Bishops of Vilnius to build churches and urged believers to donate 10% for their upkeep. (LHC, 1/10/03) 1389 nend Mar 31, Everhard Tserclaes, sheriff of Brussels, was murdered. (MC, 3/31/02) 1389 nend Jun 15, Ottoman Turks crushed Serbia in the Battle of Kosovo. The Serbs were defeated by the invading Turkish Ottoman army at the Battle of Kosovo Polje, the "Field of Blackbirds." In the battle, the Serb prince Lazar was captured by the Turks and beheaded. The Battle of Kosovo, in which the Serbs chose death rather than surrender, remains a permanent symbol in the Serbian national consciousness. Lazar's bones were placed in the monastery at Gracanica in Kosovo. Albanians joined a Serbian-led Balkan army that was defeated by Ottoman forces at the Battle of Kosova. [see Jun 28] (SFC, 12/29/96, BR p.7)(SFC, 3/3/98, p.A8)(WSJ, 5/5/98, p.A20)(HN,6/15/98)(HNQ, 3/25/99)(WSJ, 3/25/99, p.A17)(www, Albania, 1998) 1389 nend Jun 28, The Serbs were defeated in the Battle of Kosovo at the Field of the Blackbirds. Sultan Murad, the Ottoman leader was killed in the battlefield by the wounded son-in-law of King Lazar. Serbs say that Albanians aided the Turkish invaders. Historical evidence shows that both forces were multinational and that Serbs and Albanian fought on both sides. [see Jun 15] In 1999 Ismail Kadare, Albanian author, wrote "Elegy for Kosovo," in which he retells the story of the battle. Bosnian King Tvrtko and other Balkan princes along with Albanians fought under the command of Serbian Prince Lazar. (WSJ, 5/7/99, p.A1,18)(SFEC, 7/23/00, BR p.7) 1389 nend Serbs, defeated by the Ottoman Turks, moved from Kosovo to the Krajina region of Croatia. (WSJ, 4/22/99, A12) 1389 nend A French bishop advised the Pope that the Shroud of Turin, that had materialized in the village of Lirey a generation earlier, was a fraud. (WSJ, 4/10/98, p.W6) 1389 nend Henry of Lancaster rejoined King Richard II. (MWH, 1994) 1389 1464 Cosimo de Medici, Florentine merchant banker. The Medici family served as the world-wide tithe and tax collector for the Catholic Church. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1390 nend Jul 1, A French and Genovese armada sailed out against Barbary pirates. (MC, 7/1/02) c 1390 nend Jacques de Baerze made his statuette "Corpus Christi." It was key work in the transition from medieval art to realism. (WSJ, 4/9/99, p.W16) 1390 nend Henry of Lancaster (later Henry IV) departed England on a Crusade to Lithuania and then to Jerusalem. (MWH, 1994) 1390 nend Plague broke out again in Europe. (HN, 1/20/01) 1391 nend Mar 15, A Jew-hating monk in Seville, Spain, stirred up a mob to attack Jews. (MC, 3/15/02) 1391 nend Jun 4, A mob led by Ferrand Martinez surrounded and set fire to the Jewish quarter of Seville, Spain. The surviving Jews were sold into slavery. (MC, 6/4/02) 1391 nend Aug 5, Castilian sailors in Barcelona, Spain set fire to a Jewish ghetto, killing 100 people and setting off four days of violence against the Jews. (HN, 8/5/98) 1391 nend Aug 24, Jews of Palma Majorca, Spain, were massacred. (MC, 8/24/02) 1391 nend Oct 30, Eduard, [Dom Duarte], King of Portugal (1433-38) and author, was born. (MC, 10/30/01) 1391 nend China's Bureau of Imperial Supplies produced 2-foot by 3-foot sheets of toilet paper for use by the emperor. (WSJ, 9/10/03, p.B1) 1391 1425 Manuel II Palaeologus ruled the Byzantine empire. (Econ, 9/23/06, p.59) c 1392 nend Sir Jean Froissart authored "The Chronicles of England, France and Scotland." (ON, 4/00, p.6) 1392 nend The University at Erfurt on the Gera River was founded. Erfurt is the capital of the state of Thuringia and Martin Luther later studied there. (Hem., Nov.'95, p.114) 1392 nend The Chosun Dynasty was established. In 2005 Yi Ku (73), the son of Korea's last crown prince, died alone of a heart attack in Japan. He was the last member of the Chosun dynasty that ruled Korea from 1392 until 1910. (SFC, 5/9/01, p.C18)(AP, 7/24/05) 1392 1910 The Choson Dynasty ruled over Korea. [the article is about pojagi, Korean wrapping cloth] (Hem., Oct. '95, p.72)(WSJ, 8/13/96, p.A9) 1393 nend Henry of Lancaster returned to England as a hero. (MWH, 1994) 1394 nend Mar 4, Prince Henry the Navigator (d.1460), Portuguese explorer and sponsor of Portuguese voyages of discovery, was born. [see 1420] (HN, 3/4/98)(WSJ, 1/28/00, p.A18) 1394 nend Sep 17, In France King Charles VI decreed as an irrevocable law and statute that thenceforth no Jew should dwell in his domains. The decree was not immediately enforced, a respite being granted to the Jews in order that they might sell their property and pay their debts. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France) 1394 nend Nov 3, Jews were expelled from France by Charles VI. The order, signed on Yom Kippur, was enforced on November 3. Jews continued to live in Lyons and papal possessions such as Pugnon. [see Sep 17, 1394] (www.wzo.org.il/doingzionism/resources/view.asp?id=261) 1394 nend Mary de Bohun, wife of Henry of Lancaster, died. She and Henry had 4 sons and 2 daughters. (MWH, 1994) 1394 nend Tamerlane conquered all of Afghanistan. (WSJ, 11/16/01, p.W12) 1394 nend Seoul, Korea, was founded. The city celebrated its 600th anniversary in 1994. (MC, 11/29/01) 1395 nend Tamerlane burnt Astrakhan to the ground. Astrakhan is situated in the Volga Delta, a fertile area that formerly contained the capitals of Khazaria and the Golden Horde. Astrakhan itself was first mentioned by travelers in the early 13th century as Xacitarxan. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrakhan) 1395 nend In Russia the ikon of Our Lady of Vladimir was brought to Moscow and placed in the Kremlin?s Assumption Cathedral for protection against the Mongol invaders under Tamerlane. A monastery, know as Stretenskii, was built on the spot where the Muscovites met the delegation from Vladimir. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.38) 1395 1455 Pisanello, an artist who painted with scrupulous realism. (SFEC, 2/21/99, BR p.8) 1395 1456 Jacques Coeur, financial adviser to Charles VII of France. He ran a variety of businesses and sold luxury goods. He bankrolled Charles' war in 1449 with nearly a ton of gold. His gothic mansion at Bourges had the family motto etched in stone: "To valiant hearts nothing is impossible." (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1396 nend Apr 30, Crusaders and the Earl of Nevers departed from Dijon. (MC, 4/30/02) 1396 nend Jul 31, Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, Brabant, Limburg, count, was born. (MC, 7/31/02) 1396 nend Sep 25, A Christian crusade, led jointly by John the Fearless of Nevers and King Sigismund of Hungary, ended in disaster at the hands of Sultan Bajezid I's Ottoman army at Nicopolis. (HN, 9/25/98)(PCh, 1992, p.137) 1396 nend Sep 26, Sultan Bajezid I beheaded several hundred crusaders. (MC, 9/26/01) c 1396 nend The tabla, a 600-year-old invention, was evolved from Arabian drums to accompany a fusion of Islamic Qawali singing and Dhrupad music composed for Sanskrit couplets usually recited in temples. (SFC, 5/19/96,Mag, p.25) c 1396 nend The kirana style of Hindustani music began. (SFC, 6/18/96, p.A17) 1397 nend Jan 13, John of Gaunt married Katherine Rouet. (HN, 1/13/99) 1397 nend Jun 20, The Union of Kalmar united Denmark, Sweden, and Norway under one monarch. The alliance grew out of the dynastic ties of the Scandinavian countries of Denmark, Norway and Sweden in response to rising German influence in the Baltic. The union lasted from 1397 to 1523. (HN, 6/20/98)(HNQ, 7/22/00) 1397 nend Jan 26, Vytautas signed a treaty with the Knights of the Cross but Samogitia was not included. (LHC, 1/26/03) 1397 nend Aug 16, Albrecht II von Habsburg, king of Bohemia, Hungary and Germany, was born. (MC, 8/16/02) 1397 nend In England Henry of Lancaster was made Duke of Hereford and then banished from the realm for a presumed conspiracy to murder the Duke of Gloucester. (MWH, 1994) 1397 nend Spaten's roots date back to this time. The company name comes from Munich brewing family Spaeth, which bought a 225 year-old brewery in 1622 ran the firm for seven generations. (http://spatenusa.com/timeline.html) 1397 1475 Paolo Uccello, Italian painter. He painted battle scenes whose tilting spears put linear perspective to dazzling use. (WUD, 1994, p.1534)(WSJ, 6/6/96, p.A12) 1398 nend In South Korea a wooden structure at the top of the Namdaemun gate formed part of a wall that encircled the Seoul. The two-tiered wooden structure was renovated in the 1960s, when it was declared South Korea's top national treasure. In 2008 a fire destroyed the 610-year-old structure. (AP, 2/11/08) 1399 nend Aug 19, King Richard II of England surrendered to his cousin Henry Bolingbroke (Henry IV). Henry of Lancaster returned to England to claim his inherited lands. He marched with an army into Briston and captured Richard II and claimed the throne. [see Sep 29] (MC, 8/19/02)(PC, 1992, p.138) 1399 nend Sep 29, Richard II (1367-1400) of England signed his "Cession and Renunciation." His cousin, Henry of Lancaster, declared himself king under the name Henry IV. Richard had earlier introduced the lace handkerchief, triple-taxed the citizenry and stole the estates of his relatives. [see Sep 30, Oct 13] (HN, 9/29/98)(SFEC, 10/29/00, Z1 p.2) 1399 nend Sep 30, British Parliament accepted Richard II's "Cession and Renunciation." [see Sep 29] (HN, 9/30/98) 1399 nend Oct 13, Henry IV of England was crowned. (HN, 10/13/98) 1399 nend Oct, Richard II was imprisoned at Pontefract Castle, where he died 4 months later. [See Feb 14,1400] (MWH, 1994)(HN, 10/13/98) 1399 nend Dec 17, Tamerlane's Mongols destroyed the army of Mahmud Tughluk, Sultan of Delhi, at Panipat. (HN, 12/17/98) 1399 nend Guillame Dufay (d.1474), composer, was born. (WSJ, 1/2/02, p.A15) 1399 nend Chersonesos in the southern Crimean peninsula, the Byzantine world?s largest trading outpost, was sacked by the Mongols. (SFC,12/19/97, p.F6) c 1399 nend In Poland Queen Hedwig died in childbirth at age 25. (SFC, 6/9/97, p.A10) 1399 1413 The reign of Henry IV of England (1367-1413). He was the first king of the House of Lancaster. During his reign insurrections occurred under Owen Glendower (c1359-c1460) with followers in Wales and the Percy Family in Northumberland (1403). (WUD, 1994, p.1671) c 1400 nend Johann Gutenberg (Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg d.1468), was born in Mainz. He was the inventor of movable, metal type, a stamping mold for casting type, the alloy of lead, tin, and antimony for the cast letters, the printing press itself, and a printing ink with an oil base. The first books were printed around 1450 on rag paper. (V.D.-H.K.p.153-154)(SFC, 2/15/97, p.D1)(WSJ, 9/14/00, p.A24) 1400 nend Feb 14, Richard II (33), deposed king of England (1377-99), was murdered in Pontefract Castle in Yorkshire. (HN, 2/14/99)(MC, 2/14/02) 1400 nend Oct 25, Geoffrey Chaucer, author (Canterbury Tales), died in London. (AP, 10/25/97)(WSJ, 9/18/00, p.A36) c 1400 nend ?The Edifying Book of Erotic Chess,? in effect a manual of seduction, was published. (Econ, 7/10/04, p.76) c 1400 nend The first gold balls were made of stitched leather which was soaked and filled with feathers. (SFEC, 6/14/98, p.A12) c 1400 nend The Ahwahneechee, a Southern Sierra Miwok band, first began to inhabit Yosemite in California. (SFEC, 5/18/97, Z1 p.4) c 1400 nend In Washington state the 6 yard deep Electron Mudflow came down from Mount Rainier where the town of Orting was later established. (SFEC, 7/12/98, p.A22) 1400 nend From about this time Dubai became a major crossing point on int?l. trading routes in silk, pearls, spices and gold. (WSJ, 6/20/06, p.C12) 1400 nend Plague broke out again in Europe. (HN, 1/20/01) 1400 nend Mali (Africa) was under attack from all four sides and gradually weakened in power. (ATC, p.120) 1400 nend In Cracow, Poland, the Jagiellonian University was re-founded with funds and a permanent income by the royal couple. [see 1364] (WSJ, 7/13/00, p.A24)(PG-Comm) c 1400 nend The Toraja people came to Sulawesi (later part of Indonesia) by boat from a island to the southwest and settled on the banks of the Sa?dan River. (SFEC, 6/11/00, p.T8) c 1400 nend In Wales Owain Glyndwr (Owen Glendower c1359-c1460) led the warriors of Gwynned in a bloody revolt against Henry IV. The event was marked by a comet. (SFEC, 6/22/97, p.D2) c 1400 nend Stone buildings were erected at Zimbabwe in central Africa and continued to be enlarged until about 1830. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.169) 1400 nend s Kongo?s king, the Mani-Kongo, ruled six provinces and about two million people. The capital of the Kongo was Mbanza, built on a fertile plateau 100 miles east of the coast and 50 miles south of the Congo River in southwest Africa. (ATC, p.150) c 1400 1425 Yong Le, the 3rd Ming emperor, created a permanent imperial residence in Beijing. Work was done by some 200,000 laborers and in time became the 8,886-room complex called the "Forbidden City." (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R36) 1400 1450 http://www.donsweb.com/History/Timeline/12--1400-1450ad.htm no_source 1400 1464 Roger Van Der Weyden, Flemish painter. (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.1624) c 1400 1471 Sir Thomas Malory, English author. His work included "Le Morte Darthur." (WUD, 1994, p.868) c 1400 1474 Guillaume Dufay [Du Fay], Flemish composer. His work included the "Ecclesie militantis," which has four texts going simultaneously. (WUD, 1994, p.440)(WSJ, 7/29/97, p.A12) 1400 1500 The 15th cent Urbino Bible was produced. (WSJ, 7/12/96, p.A9) 1400 1500 In China a Shang Xi 15th cent. painting portrayed "The Xuande Emperor on an Outing." (WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20) 1400 1500 Europeans began producing ethereal sounds from wine glasses containing liquids. (SFEC,12/28/97, DB p.17) 1400 1500 In 2005 Tim Parks authored ?Medici Money: Banking, Metaphysics, and Art in Fifteenth Century Florence.? (Econ, 4/23/05, p.81) c 1400 1500 The 15th century German "Housebook" was produced. It taught the rules and etiquette of jousting, and contained remedies, cooking recipes, information on love and horoscopes. (SFEC, 1/10/99, p.T3) c 1400 1500 In Germany Cardinal Nikolaus Cusanus, philosopher, founded a religious and charitable institution complete with vineyard at Kues, across from Bernkastel on the Mosel River. (SFEC, 4/30/00, p.T8) 1400 1500 The Vietnamese from the north pushed the Chams south and opened the port of Hoi An to foreign traders. (SFEC, 4/26/98, p.T4) 1400 1500 Porcelain from this period was recovered from a sunken ship in the South China Sea in 1999. 10% of the 150,000 pieces were kept by the Vietnamese government and the rest was scheduled for auction on eBay. (WSJ, 6/22/00, p.W10) 1400 1500 The city of Bagerhat was founded in southern Bangladesh by Ulugh Khan-i-Jahan as a Muslim colony. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.B) 1400 1500 In the Philippines Vigan historic town on Luzon was established by Chinese traders by this time. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.F) 1400 1500 Giovanni Spinetti of Venice built the first small piano called the spinet. (SFEC, 4/20/97, Z1 p.5) 1400 1600 Researchers in 1997 announced that sometime in this period the Sauvignon Franc grape crossed with Sauvignon Blanc grape to produce the Cabernet Sauvignon grape. (SFC, 6/4/97, Z1 p.4) 1400 1600 Hoi An, Vietnam, flourished at the end of the 2nd Cham (Vijaya) Empire of this time. It attracted Japanese, then Portuguese, Dutch and Chinese merchants. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.H) 1400 1850 This was a frigid period in Europe and came to be called the Little Ice Age. (NG, 7/04, p.28) 1401 nend Jan 9, In Marienburg some 80 Lithuanian barons were baptized to Catholicism. (LHC, 1/9/03) 1401 nend Jan 18, In Lithuania Vytautas and the country?s dukes submitted documents to Poland that Vytautas would rule Lithuania as a vassal to Poland and return the country to Poland upon his death. (LHC, 1/18/03) 1401 nend Feb 19, William Sawtree, 1st English religious martyr, was burned in London. (MC, 2/19/02) 1401 nend Mar 13, The 1st Samogitian uprising supported by Vytautas took place against the German knights. (LHC, 3/13/03) 1401 nend Jul 9, Timur Lenk, Mongol monarch, destroyed Baghdad. (MC, 7/9/02) 1401 nend In England King Henry IV passed the medieval statute De Heretico Comburendo. (MWH, 1994) 1401 1428 Tomasso di Giovanni, Italian artist, also known as Masaccio. His only know documented work is the Pisa altarpiece of 1426. (WSJ, 9/27/01, p.A16) 1402 nend Mar 2, In Marienburg Svitrigaila crossed over to the Knights of the Cross and promised to uphold the Salyn treaty that was broken by Vytautas. (LHC, 3/1/03) 1402 nend Jul 20, In the Battle of Angora the Mongols, led by Tamerlane "the Terrible," defeated the Ottoman Turks and captured Sultan Bayezid I. The Turks eventually regained control of the city and it remained a part of the Ottoman Empire for the next five centuries. Around 2,000 BCE the site of the present day city was a Hittite village known as Ancyra. It was conquered in 333 BC by Macedonians led by Alexander the Great. Because of its central Anatolian Plateau location on the Ankara River, it became an important commercial center. Angora?s name was changed to Ankara in 1930. (HN, 7/20/98)(Ot, 1993, p.6)(HNQ, 4/15/02) 1402 nend Sep 3, Gian Galeazzo Visconti, duke and tyrant of Milan (1395-1402), died at 51. (MC, 9/3/01) 1402 nend The English Bedlam institution, a former monastery whose named derived from Bethlehem, began to house the poor and incurably mad. From 1728-1853 it was presided over by a family of doctors all descended from James Monro. On 2003 Jonathan Andrews and Andrew Scull published their 2-volume study: "Undertaker of the Mind" and "Customers and patrons of the mad-Trade," based on Monro?s Case Book. (WSJ, 1/29/03, p.D10) 1402 nend In Scotland the Duke of Rothesay, son of King Robert III and heir apparent, died under mysterious circumstances while in the custody of Robert Stewart, the 1st Duke of Albany. Stewart had built Duane Castle at the end of the 14th century. (SSFC, 11/23/03, p.C6) 1403 nend Feb 22, Charles VII, King of France (1422-1461), was born. (HN, 2/22/98)(MC, 2/22/02) 1403 nend Jul 21, Henry IV defeated the Percys in the Battle of Shrewsbury in England. Henry IV fought down an insurrection from Henry Percy, the Earl of Northumberland and Ralph Neville, the Earl of Westmorland, the same men who had helped him overthrow Richard II. Henry Percy (39), [Harry Hotspur] was killed in the battle. (WUD, 1994, p.1671)(MWH, 1994)(HN, 7/21/98) 1403 nend Gjergj Kastrioti (d.1468) was born. He became the Albanian leader known as Skanderbeg. (www, Albania, 1998)(HNQ, 10/5/98) 1403 1413 The Ottoman Empire fell into 11 years of civil war between the 4 sons of Beyazid. http://www.osmanli700.gen.tr/english/sultans.html no_source 1403 nend ?-1482 Giovanni di Paolo, painter. He painted "Expulsion from Paradise." (AAP, 1964) 1404 nend Feb 9, Constantine XI Dragases, last Byzantine Emperor, was born. (MC, 2/9/02) 1404 nend Feb 18, Leon Battista Alberti (d.1472), Italian humanist, architect (Della Pittura), was born in Genoa, the illegitimate son of a Florentine merchant. (WSJ, 11/30/00, p.A20)(MC, 2/18/02) 1404 nend Sep 27, William of Wykeham, chancellor and Bishop of Winchester, died. (MC, 9/27/01) 1404 nend In Wales Owain Glyndwr convened a parliament in Macchynlleth. (SFEC, 6/22/97, p.D2) 1404 1423 China controlled the price of tea and was able to increase its stock of horses from 20,000 to 1,600,000. (WSJ, 8/15/00, p.A24) 1405 nend Feb 14, Timur, aka Tamerlane (b.1336), crippled Mongol monarch, died in Kazakhstan. In 2004 Justin Marozzi authored ?Tamerlane: Sword of Islam, Conqueror of the World.? (V.D.-H.K.p.172)(http://au.encarta.msn.com)(Econ, 8/28/04, p.76) 1405 nend Andrei Rublev, Russian icon painter, painted the iconostasis of the Cathedral of the Gospel with Theophan the Greek; this was the 1st work executed in the classical Russian style, distinguished from the Byzantine by its great height and width and organization of multiple, varied icons along axes. (DVD, Criterion, 1998) 1405 nend Admiral Zheng He, a Muslim eunuch, led a Ming dynasty fleet with 28,000 men through Southeast Asia to India and on to Africa and the Middle East. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R51)(WSJ, 11/18/06, p.P11) 1406 nend Apr 4, Robert III, King of Scotland (1390-1406), died. (MC, 4/4/02) 1406 nend In Beijing the Palace of Heavenly Purity, later renamed the People?s Cultural Palace, was built. (SFC,12/22/97, p.E7) 1406 nend The Signoria of Florence decreed that the city?s 12 guilds had 10 years to fulfill their obligations to decorate an exterior niche of the Orsanmichele guild center. (WSJ, 12/22/05, p.D8) 1407 nend Oct 26, Mobs attacked the Jewish community of Cracow. (MC, 10/26/01) 1408 nend Feb 14, Vytautas gave self-rule status to Kaunas, which was 1st mentioned in the summer of 1361. (LHC, 2/14/03) 1408 nend Feb 19, Henry IV led a victory in the Battle of Brabham Moor that marked the end of domestic threats. The revolt of Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland, against King Henry IV, ended with his defeat and death at Bramham Moor. (MWH, 1994)(HN, 2/19/98) 1408 nend Sep 22, Johannes VII Palaeologus, Byzantine Emperor (1376-77, 90/1404-8), died. (MC, 9/22/01) 1408 nend A law was enacted making it illegal to translate any part of the scriptures into English. It was declared a capital offense to possess an English Bible. (WSJ, 12/22/94, A-20)(WSJ, 4/4/01, p.A18) 1408 nend A marriage at the Hvalsey Church in the East Settlement was the last record of the Norse in Greenland. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.25)(AM, 7/00, p.66) 1409 nend Jan 9, Rene' d'Anjou (d.1480) was born the son and 3rd child of Duke Louis II of Anjou and Yolande of Aragon at Angers in the Maine-and-Loire region of western France. King René, poet and wine lover, demonstrated how all our leaders ought to be. (http://www.guice.org/reneharr.html)(WSJ, 2/13/04, p.A12) 1410 nend May 18, Ruprecht, Roman Catholics German king, died. (SC, 5/18/02) 1410 nend Jul 15, Lithuanian-Polish forces defeated the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Tannenberg, Prussia, thereby halting the Knights? eastward expansion along the Baltic and hastening their decline. Vytautas and Jogaila with hired mercenaries from Belarus along with Tartars and Czechs defeated the Teutonic Knights between Grunvald (Zalgiriai) and Tannenberg southeast of Malburg. Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen and many of his nobles were killed. The war officially ended with the Treaty of Thorn in which the Knights gave up Zemaitija to Vytautas. (COE)(H of L, 1931, p.52)(DrEE, 11/9/96, p.6) 1410 nend Andrei Rublev, Russian icon painter, painted the icon ?The Old Testament Trinity,? which showed Abraham?s 3 angels. This is the only work known to be entirely his own. (DVD, Criterion, 1998) c 1410 nend The French "Book of the Chase" depicted hunting dogs and snares. (SFEM, 4/6/97, p.16) 1411 nend Feb 1, Lithuania, Poland and the Knights of the Cross signed the Torun Peace Treaty. Samogitia was returned to Lithuania. The Teutonic Knights had regrouped and gone to battle against Vytautas and Jogaila. Peace was signed at Torun and western Lithuania was returned, but not Klaipeda (Memel). (Ist. L.H., 1948, p. 71)(LHC, 1/31/03) 1411 1437 Sigismund became the Holy Roman Emperor. [see 1433] (WUD, 1994, p.1325) 1412 nend Jan 6, According to tradition, French heroine Joan of Arc was born Jeanette d'Arc, in the French village of Domrémy. When she was 12 years old, she began hearing what she believed were voices of saints, sending her messages from God. When she was 17, the voices told her to leave her village and save Orléans. Joan convinced the dauphin that she could lead French troops in resistance against their English invaders, and she was given a force of several hundred men to command, whom she led to victory at Orléans in 1429. Wearing her white enameled armor suit, she continued to fight against the English. Joan was captured by Burgundians and then burned at the stake by the English on May 30, 1431, for the offenses of witchcraft, heresy and wearing male clothing. The Roman Catholic Church recognized Joan of Arc as a saint in 1920. (CFA, '96,Vol 179, p.38)(AP, 1/6/98)(HNPD, 1/6/99) 1413 nend Mar 20, Henry IV (b.1367), King of England (1399-1413), died in the house of the Abbot of Westminster. He was succeeded by Henry V (b.1387). (AP,3/20/97)(www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/henry_iv_king.shtml) 1413 nend Iceland used dried fish for money. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1414 nend Feb 19, Thomas Arundel, archbishop of Canterbury, chancellor of England, died. (MC, 2/19/02) 1414 nend Nov 16, A council of bishops opened in Constance Germany under Emp. Sigismund. When the council of Constance opened, Christians owed obedience to three different popes: Gregory XII of the Roman party, Benedict XIII of the Avignon party, and John XXIII, who had been elected after the death of Alexander V. John XXIII and Benedict XIII were deposed by the council, and Gregory XII voluntarily resigned. Then Martin V was elected pope on 11 November 1417 and he was regarded as the legitimate pontiff by the church as a whole. (www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/CONSTANC.HTM)(WUD, 1994 p.313) 1415 nend Jun 13, Henry the Navigator, the prince of Portugal, embarked on an expedition to Africa. This marked the beginning of Portuguese dominance of West Africa. (HN, 6/13/98) 1415 nend Jul 4, Angelo Correr became Pope Gregory XII. (Maggio) 1415 nend Jul 6, Jan Huss, Bohemian (Czech) religious reformer, was burned as a heretic at the stake at Constance, Germany. He had spoken out against Church corruption. (NH, 9/96, p.23)(HN, 7/6/98) 1415 nend Aug 13, King Henry V of England took his army across the English Channel and laid siege on Port Harfleur. (ON, 6/08, p.9) 1415 nend Sep 21, Frederick III, German Emperor (1440-1493), was born in Innsbruck Austria. (MC, 9/21/01) 1415 nend Oct 25, An English army under Henry V defeated the French at Agincourt, France. The French had out numbered Henry?s troops, but Welsh longbows turned the tide of the battle. The French force was under the command of the constable Charles I d?Albret. Charles I d?Albret, son of Arnaud-Amanieu d?Albret, came from a line of nobles who were often celebrated warriors. His ancestors had fought in the First Crusade (1096-99) and his father had fought in the Hundred Years War himself--first for the English before joining the side of France. Charles? own exploits in the ongoing conflict came to an end at the Battle of Agincourt. The decisive victory for the outnumbered English saw the death of not only Charles, but a dozen other high-ranking nobles as well. But Charles? fate did not end the Albrets as his descendants went on to become kings of Navarre, and later, France. In 2005 Juliet Barker authored ?Agincourt: The King, the Campaign, and the Battle.? (MH, 12/96)(HN, 10/25/98)(Econ, 10/22/05, p.88)(ON, 6/08, p.10) 1415 nend Oct 25, Edward (b.1373), duke of York, died at the Battle of Agincourt. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_of_Norwich,_2nd_Duke_of_York) 1416 nend Feb 6, A Samogitian complaint against the Knights of the Cross was read at the Catholic Church Council at Constance. (LHC, 2/6/03) 1416 nend Apr 2, Ferdinand I (52) the Justified, king of Aragon and Sicily, died. (MC, 4/2/02) 1416 nend May 7, Monk Nicolaas Serrurier was arrested for heresy at Tournay. (MC, 5/7/02) 1416 nend May 30, Jerome of Prague was burned as a heretic by the Church. (HN, 5/30/98) 1416 nend Jun 15, St. Francesco de Paolo, was born. (HT, 6/15/00) 1416 nend Jun 15, Joannes Argyropoulos, Greek scholar, was born. (HT, 6/15/00) 1416 nend Nanni di Banco, guild member of the Masters of Stone and Wood, installed his ?Four Crowned Martyr Saints? at the Orsanmichele guild center in Florence. (WSJ, 12/22/05, p.D8) 1416 nend The Drepung Loseling Monastery was founded in Lhasa, Tibet, as a center for Buddhist teaching. It was the home for early Dalai Lamas and a place where multiphonic singing was nurtured. (SFC, 10/10/96, p.E1) 1416 1469 Piero de Medici, son of Cosimo de Medici. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1417 nend Feb 23, Pietro Barbo, later Pope Paul II (1464-1471), was born in Venice. (PTA, 1980, p.418) 1417 nend Nov 11, Martin V was elected pope and was regarded as the legitimate pontiff by the church as a whole. (www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/CONSTANC.HTM) 1418 nend Feb 25, At the Constance church synod the Orthodox Metropolitan of Kiev and Lithuania, Gregory Camblak, proposed a union between the Orthodox and Catholic church. (LHC, 2/25/03) 1418 nend In China a book was published about this time titled ?The Marvelous Visions of the Star Raft.? It documented some of the exploits of Admiral Zheng He, who roamed the oceans from 1405-1435. (Econ, 1/14/06, p.80) 1418 nend In 2006 Liu Gang, a Beijing lawyer and amateur map collector, unveiled a map that proclaimed to be a 1763 copy of an older Chinese map dating to 1418. The map showed the world in 2 hemispheres, but its authenticity was questioned. (SSFC, 1/22/06, p.A9)(Econ, 1/14/06, p.80) 1418 nend In Florence Brunelleschi and Ghiberti submitted plans for the dome of the Cathedral of St. Mary of the Flower. The cathedral had been under construction for 125 years and was designed to be capped by the largest dome since the golden age of ancient Rome. (ON, 9/00, p.6) 1418 nend The Gawhar Shad Mosque in Meshed, Iran was completed by the wife of Shah Rukh. (NG, Sept 1939, Baroness Ravensdale, p.353) 1418 nend The Church Council at Constance, Germany, begun in 1414, ended. (WUD, 1994 p.313) 1419 nend Jul 30, Anti-Catholic Hussites, followers of executed reformer Jan Hus, stormed the town hall in Prague and threw 3 Catholic consuls and 7 citizens out the window. This episode has been called "The Defenestration in Prague." The out-the-window gentlemen all landed safely in a manure pile. (NH, 9/96, p.23)(MC, 7/30/02) 1419 nend Aug 16, Wenceslas (b.1361), son of Charles IV and King of Germany, died. He served as King Wenceslas IV of Bohemia (1363) and King of the Romans (1376). (www.arts.gla.ac.uk/Slavonic/Czech_Hist5.html) 1419 nend Aug 16, Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor, became king of Bohemia following the death of Wenceslaus IV, but was ejected by the Hussites due to the execution of Jan Huss. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigismund%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor) 1419 nend Sep 10, John the Fearless (48), Burgundy and French warrior, was murdered at Montereau, France, by supporters of the dauphine. (HN, 9/10/98)(MC, 9/10/01) 1419 nend Dec 11, Heretic Nicolaas Serrurier was exiled from Florence. (MC, 12/11/01) 1419 nend The marble Fonte Gaia in Siena was sculpted by Jacopo della Quercia. (WSJ, 4/29/03, D5) 1419 nend An English army under Henry V captured the duchy of Normandy. (ON, 6/08, p.11) 1419 nend Prince Henry (d.1460), as governor of Portugal?s southernmost province, attracted shipbuilders, cartographers and other nautical experts. His patronage was instrumental in stimulating European exploration in the first half of the 15th century. (HN, 6/21/01) 1420 nend Mar 1, Pope Martinus I called for a crusade against the Hussieten (Bohemia). (SC, 3/1/02) 1420 nend May 21, King Charles VI of France signed the Treaty of Troyes. It recognized all the territorial gains of King Henry V, gave Henry the daughter of Charles, Catherine of Valois, in marriage, and acknowledged Henry as the legitimate heir to the French throne. (ON, 6/08, p.11) 1420 nend Jul 14, Jan Zizka (1360?-1424) led the Taborites in Battle at Vitkov Zizka's hill (Prague). The Taborites beat forces under Sigismund, the pro-Catholic King of Hungary and Bohemia. This was part of the Hussite Wars (1419-1436). (http://user.intop.net/~jhollis/janzizka.htm) 1420 nend Jul, The Hussites agreed on the Four Articles of Prague, which were promulgated in the Latin, Czech, and German languages. In summery they stated: 1) Freedom to preach the Word of God. 2) Celebration of the Lord's Supper in both kinds (bread and wine to priests and laity alike). 3) No profane power for the clergy. And 4) The same law for laity and priests. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hussite) 1420 nend Dec 1, Henry V, King of England and de facto ruler of France, entered Paris. no_source 1420 nend Siennese artist Giovanni di Paolo painted a tiny gold-ground triptych. (SFEC, 1/11/98, p.D7) 1420 nend The main character of Janacek?s opera "The Excursions of Mr. Broucek" was cast into a setting of religious wars from this time and forced to fight with the Hussite fanatics in Prague. (WSJ, 6/13/96, p.A12) c 1420 nend Francesco di Antonio, Florentine artist, painted "St. John the Baptist" and "St. Anthony Abbot." The panels later made their way to St. Philip?s in the Hills parish in Tucson, Ariz. (WSJ, 8/9/96, p.A8) 1420 nend Brewers in Bavaria about this time discovered a way to brew beer in the winter beginning the lager revolution. (Econ, 8/27/11, p.71) 1420 nend Prince Henry the Navigator (b.1394) gathered cartographers, navigators and shipbuilders in a fortress in Sagres, Portugal, to invent navigation technology to reach India, China and the Americas. He later sailed south of the Canary Islands to the great eastward curve of West Africa at Sierra Leone. The search for Prester John as an ally against the Muslims helped inspire his explorations. Henry began dispatching expeditions from the nearby port of Lagos. Although dubbed "Henry the Navigator" by English writers, he never embarked on the voyages of exploration he himself sponsored. Nevertheless, the prince helped advance European cartography and the accuracy of navigation tools as well as spurring maritime commerce. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14)(HN, 3/4/98)(WSJ, 1/28/00, p.A18)(HNQ, 6/21/01) 1420 nend Portuguese sailors and soldiers begin fighting the natives of the Canary Islands, 800 miles southwest of the southern tip of Portugal. (V.D.-H.K.p.173) 1420 nend Scotland's Duke of Albany died. The governorship of Scotland and Doune Castle passed to his son, Murdoch. (SSFC, 11/23/03, p.C6) 1420 1433 Time of the Hussite wars in Bohemia. (WUD, 1994, p.1671) 1420 1480 The Portuguese explored the west coast of Africa along the Gold Coast, so named because here could be found plenty of gold to buy pepper. (V.D.-H.K.p.173) 1420 1492 Piero della Francesca, painter, born in Borgo Sansepolcro, but trained in Florence. In Urbino under the patronage of Federico da Montefeltro, he produced some of his best works including the "Flagellation," the "Resurrection" and "St. Apollonia." His paintings incorporated the new aspect of perspective and earthly matters dominate over religious feeling. (V.D.-H.K.p.130)(AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.563) 1420 1500 The Paston Letters comprise 1,000 documents involving an English family over this period. The collection is held by the Univ. of Michigan and is being made electronically available under the Humanities Text Initiative (HTI) program that was begun in 1989. (MT, 6/96, p.8,9) 1421 nend Mar, Admiral Zheng He of the Ming dynasty embarked on a voyage that took him to the east coast of Africa. In 2002 an amateur historian proposed that he continued his voyage around the world. [see 1431] (SSFC, 3/17/02, p.A3) 1421 nend May 11, Jews were expelled from Styria, Austria. (MC, 5/11/02) 1421 nend May 23, Jews of Austria were imprisoned and expelled. (MC, 5/23/02) 1421 nend May 26, Mohammed I, Ottoman sultan (1413-21), died. (MC, 5/26/02) 1421 nend Nov 18-1421 Nov 19, In the St. Elizabeth flood the Southern sea flooded 72 villages killing some 10,000 in Netherlands. (www.rijksmuseum.nl/aria/aria_assets/SK-A-3147-B?lang=en) 1421 nend Dec 6, Henry VI, the youngest king of England, was born. He acceded the thrown at 269 days of age. (HN, 12/6/02)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England) 1421 nend In Florence the first recorded patent was granted for a barge with hoisting gear used to transport marble. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1421 nend In Vienna a medieval synagogue burned with its Jewish occupants. Its remains were found in 1996 in the Judenplaz during preparation work for the installation of a new statue for the Holocaust Memorial project. (WSJ, 11/7/96, p.A18) 1422 nend Mar 30, Ketsugan, a Zen teacher, performed exorcisms to free the Aizoji temple. (MC, 3/30/02) 1422 nend Aug 13, William Caxton (d.1491), 1st English printer, was born. (http://en.thinkexist.com/birthday/August_13/)(WSJ, 5/12/05, p.D8) 1422 nend Aug 31, Henry V (b.1387), King of England (1413-22) and France (1416-19), died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_V_of_England) 1422 nend Sep 6, Sultan Murat II ended a vain siege of Constantinople. (HN, 9/6/98) 1422 nend Oct 21, Charles VI, King of France (1380-1422), died at 54. (MC, 10/21/01) 1422 1482 Federico da Montefeltro, a distinguished warrior and scholar, commissioned 2 intarsia studiolas (1478-1483). A history of Federico and his studiola is in the 6/6/96 issue of "The Bulletin," the NY Met museum?s newsletter for members (WSJ, 6/6/96, p.A12) 1423 nend Mar 30, Lithuania and Poland reached an agreement at Kezmark with Emperor Sigismund, who agreed to recall Sigismund Kaributa from Poland. (LHC, 3/30/03) 1423 nend May 23, Benedict XIII, [Pedro the Luna], Spanish Pope (1394-1423), died. He had been elected by the Avignon cardinals during the Great Western Schism. (MC, 5/23/02)(PTA, 1980, p.402) 1423 nend Ghiberti?s sculpture of St. Matthew was installed at the Orsanmichele guild center in Florence. (WSJ, 12/22/05, p.D8) 1424 nend Oct 11, Jan Zizka (b.c1370), Czech army leader (Hussite), died of plague. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Zizka) 1424 nend Dec 6, Don Alfonso V of Aragon granted Barcelona the right to exclude Jews. (MC, 12/6/01) 1424 nend Masolino sculpted his Pieta. (WSJ, 1/20/02, p.D8) 1424 nend A Portuguese navigation chart showed a land called Antilia in the vicinity of the West Indies. (SFEC, 5/28/00, Z1 p.2) 1424 nend James I returned from exile and was crowned King of Scotland. He tried but failed to ban golf. He wanted his troops to practice more archery. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34)(SSFC, 11/23/03, p.C6) 1425 nend Feb 27, Moscow's Grand Duke Vasilii died and his brother-in-law, Vytautas, became guardian of his son, Vasilii, and daughter, Sophia. (LHC, 2/27/03) 1425 nend Jul 21, Manuel Palaeologus, Byzantine Emperor (1391-1425), writer, died. He ended his days after signing a humiliating peace with the Ottoman Turks. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_II_Palaeologus)(Econ, 9/23/06,p.59) 1425 nend Aug 25, Countess Jacoba of Bavaria escaped from jail. (chblue.com, 8/25/01) 1425 nend Robert Campin painted the altarpiece "The Merode Triptych." (WSJ, 1/14/00, p.W12) 1425 nend Dame Juliana Berner described fly fishing in her "Treatyse of Fysshynge Wyth an Angle." [see 1496] (SFEM, 11/7/99, p.6) 1426 nend Sep 18, Hubert [Huybrecht] van Eyck, painter, died. (MC, 9/18/01) 1426 nend Vietnam provided a defeated Chinese army with boats and horses to carry home its soldiers. (NG, May, 04, p.94) 1427 nend May 10, Jews were expelled from Berne, Switzerland. (MC, 5/10/02) 1427 nend Gentile De Fabriano (b.~1378), Italian painter, died about this time. His work included ?The Adoration of the Kings? (1423). (WSJ, 12/19/08, p.W9A)( http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06421a.htm) 1428 nend Feb 5, King Alfonso V ordered Sicily's Jews to convert to Catholicism. (MC, 2/5/02) 1428 nend Dec 22, Richard Neville Warwick, 2nd earl of Salisbury, was born. (MC, 12/22/01) 1428 nend John Wycliffe (1328-1384), English theologian and biblical translator, was posthumously declared a heretic and his body was exhumed for burning. (WSJ, 4/4/01, p.A18) 1428 1430 Andrei Rublev, Russian icon painter, took part in painting the frescoes of the Andronikov Monastery?s Church of the Savior. (DVD, Criterion, 1998) 1429 nend Jan 9, The conference at Luck began (Jan 9-29). Vytautas hosted a grand Congress at Luck ostensibly to unite the region against threats from the Turks to the south. Emperor Sigismund of Hungary agreed to the formation of the Kingdom of Lithuania and dispatched a crown from Hungary. (DrEE, 11/9/96, p.6)(LHC, 1/9/03) 1429 nend Jan 10, Order of Golden Fleece was established in Austria-Hungary & Spain. (MC, 1/10/02) 1429 nend Jan 23, At the Congress of Luck Emp. Sigismund of Luxembourg offered to crown Vytautas as King of Lithuania. (LHC, 1/23/03) 1429 nend Apr 29, Joan of Arc led French troops to victory over the English at Orleans during the Hundred Years? War. Legend has it that King Charles VII of France had a suit of armor made for Joan at a cost of 100 war horses. In 1996 a suit of armor was found and proposed to be Joan?s armor. (ATC, p.107)(SFC, 6/19/96, p.A10)(AP, 4/29/98)(HN, 4/29/98) 1429 nend May 7, English siege of Orleans was broken by Joan of Arc. (HN, 5/7/98) 1429 nend May 8, French troops under Joan of Arc rescued Orleans. (MC, 5/8/02) 1429 nend May 9, Joan of Arc defeated the besieging English at Orleans. (HN, 5/9/98) 1429 nend Jul 16, Joan of Arc led French army in the Battle of Orleans. [see May 9] (MC, 7/16/02) 1429 nend Jul 17, The dauphin, son of Charles VI, was crowned as king of France. (PCh, 1992, p.144)(MC, 7/17/02) 1429 nend Aug 26, Joan of Arc makes a triumphant entry into Paris. (HN, 8/26/99) 1429 nend Nov 6, Coronation of Henry VI, King of England. (HN, 11/6/98) 1429 nend Dec 21, Jacquemart de Blaharies, Tournay "heretic", was burned to death. (MC, 12/21/01) 1429 nend The beginning of coal mining in the Saarland (Germany) dates to this time. (Econ, 3/1/08, p.71) 1429 nend Two monks reportedly went fishing in Russia?s northern Solovetsky Islands and soon established a year-round settlement usually referred to as Solovki. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.83) 1429 nend The kingdom of Ryukyu was unified under the court at Shuri (later part of Naha, Okinawa). (NH, 9/01, p.56) 1430 nend Jan 29, Andrei Rublev, Russian icon painter, died and was buried in the Andronikov Monastery. In 1966 the Russian film ?Andrei Rublev? was made by Andrei Tarkovsky. (DVD, Criterion, 1998) 1430 nend May 5, Jews were expelled from Speyer, Germany. (MC, 5/5/02) 1430 nend May 23, Joan of Arc was captured by the Burgundians, who sold her to the English. (AP, 5/23/97)(HN, 5/23/98) 1430 nend Jul 14, Joan of Arc, taken prisoner by the Burgundians in May, was handed over to Pierre Cauchon, the bishop of Beauvais. (HN, 7/14/98) 1430 nend Oct 3, Jews were expelled from Eger, Bohemia. (MC, 10/3/01) 1430 nend Oct 27, Lithuanian Grand Duke Vytautas had been preparing for coronation but Polish forces interrupted the arrival of his crown to Trakus. He began to ride to Vilnius but fell from his horse and was returned to Trakus where he died at the age of 80. (H of L, 1931, p.58) 1430 1432 In Lithuania Svitrigaila served as Grand Duke. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1430 nend s Jan van Eyck painted 2 works titled "St. Francis Receiving the Stigmata." For a time he was considered the inventor of oil painting, but later lost that distinction. He is still regarded as the inventor of a type of landscape painting with figures in realistic scale that influenced the entire Northern school of painting. Only 9 signed and dated works survive. In 2001 painter David Hockney and physicist Charles Falco alleged that Eyck and other artists of this period began using optical devices to project pictures and produce detailed tracings. (WSJ, 5/7/98, p.A21)(SFC, 1/5/01, p.C9) 1430 nend Hans Memling (d.1494), painter of the Flemish school, was born in Seligenstadt, Germany. (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.894) 1430 nend ?-1498? Cosimo Tura, Italian painter. He painted "Renaissance Nobleman." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.1525) 1430 1516 Giovanni Bellini, Venetian painter son of Jacopo. He painted "Portrait of the Doge Loredano." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.136) 1431 nend Jan 1, Rodrigo Borgia Lanzol (d.1503), member of the Borgia family, was born in Xativa, Spain. His mother was the sister of Pope Calixtus III. He was elected Pope Alexander VI in 1492 and amassed a fortune by pocketing church funds. His reign helped inspire the Protestant reformation. He fathered numerous children including Lucrezia Borgia. Machiavelli based "The Prince" on him. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8)(PTA, 1980, 424) 1431 nend Feb 21, The interrogation of Joan of Arc (1412-1431) began France. (Sm, 2/06, p.38) 1431 nend Mar 3, Bishop Gabriele Condulmer (1383-1447) was elected as Pope Eugene IV (1431-1447). (WUD, 1994 p.491)(PTA, 1980, p.410)(SC, 3/3/02) 1431 nend May 30, Joan of Arc (19), condemned as a heretic [as a witch], was burned at the stake in Rouen, France. A silent movie of her life was made in 1927 by Carl Theodor Dreyer. (CFA, '96, p.46)WSJ, 1/23/96, p.A-12)(AP, 5/30/97)(HN, 5/30/98)1431 Dec 16, Henry VI of England was crowned King of France. (HN, 12/16/98) 1431 nend Andrea Mantegna (d.1506), Italian painter and engraver, was born. (WUD, 1994, p.1534)(WSJ, 6/6/96, p.A12)(SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T11) 1431 nend Admiral Cheng Ho of the Ming dynasty led a fleet of 52 ships with nearly 30,000 men to the east coast of Africa. Shortly thereafter the Mings halted all voyages and begin to foster an attitude of antiforeign conservatism. (V.D.-H.K.p.172) 1431 nend Thai armies invaded and plundered the Khmer civilization at Angkor Thom in Cambodia. The court moved south of the great lake Tonle Sap and later to Phnom Penh. (SFEC, 7/26/98, p.T6) 1431 nend Cosimo de Medici was arrested for seeking to elevate himself higher than others. With bribes he reduced his sentence from execution to banishment. His absence led to a financial crises in Florence and he was quickly invited back. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1431 1463 ? Francois Villon, French poet. The 1938 film "If I Were King" starred Ronald Colman and Basil Rathbone and was directed by Preston Sturges. It was about the French poet and revolutionary Francois Villon. (WUD, 1994, p.1593)(SFEC, 8/2/98, DB p.49) 1431 1476 In Romania Vlad Tepes, aka Vlad the Impaler, the son of Vlad Dracul (Vlad the Dragon), was a 15th century gruesome Wallachian nobleman. Dracula means son of the dragon. He punished disobedient subjects and ?unchaste? women by impaling them on sharpened logs, often dining amid the victims as they died. The family name changed to Kretzulesco and grew in stature with members upgraded to princes and princesses. (WSJ, 10/30/97, p.A20)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlad_the_Impaler) 1432 nend Jan 15, Afonso V "the African", king of Portugal (1438-1481), was born. (MC, 1/15/02) 1432 nend Zeeland became part of the Low Countries possession of Phillip the Good (1396-1467) of Burgundy. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeeland) 1432 1440 In Lithuania Zygimantas Kestutaitis served as Grand Duke. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1433 nend Apr 14, Liduina van Schiedam (53), Dutch mystic (Christ's Bride), saint, died. (MC, 4/14/02) 1433 nend May 31, Sigismund was crowned emperor of Rome. (HN, 5/31/98) 1434 nend Mar 1, Jacoba of Bavaria married Frank van Borselen. (SC, 3/1/02) 1434 nend May 30, The Battle of Lipany virtually ended the Hussite Wars. Prokopius leader of Taborites, died in battle. (http://tinyurl.com/ckgv5) 1434 nend Nov 24, The Thames River froze. (MC, 11/24/01) 1434 nend Jan van Eyck painted "the Arnolfini Marriage." It is now at the London National Gallery. (Cont, 12/97, p.60)(SFEC, 2/1/98, p.T8) 1434 nend The imperial kiln at Jungdezhen in south-central China produced 250,000 porcelain pieces. (SFEC, 10/6/96, DB p.37) 1434 nend Gil Eannes, Portuguese explorer, made the first successful rounding of Cape Bojador, off Western Sahara, in a lug-rigged boat. (www.enchantedlearning.com/explorers/page/e/eannes.shtml) 1435 nend Sep 21, Treaty of Atrecht. Philippe le Bon of Burgundy and French king Charles II signed a treaty at Arras. Phillipe broke with the English and recognized Charles as France?s only king. (MC, 9/21/01)(PCh, 1992, p.145) 1435 nend Oct 20, Andrea Della Robbia, sculptor, nephew of Luca, was born in Florence. (MC, 10/20/01) 1435 nend A Songhai prince, Sunni Ali, declared Gao?s independence [West Africa]. Aided by Songhai warriors, he successfully fought off Mali?s attempt to regain the city. (ATC, p.122) 1436 nend Jun 6, Regiomontanus (Johannes Muller), prepared astronomical tables, was born. (MC, 6/6/02) 1436 nend The 350-foot high dome of Santa Maria del Fiore, the cathedral of Florence, by Filippo Brunelleschi was completed. The cathedral was consecrated by the Pope following 140 years of construction. In 2000 Ross King authored "Brunelleschi?s Dome: How a Renaissance Genius Reinvented Architecture." (Hem., 10/97, p.130)(SSFC, 12/24/00, BR p.12) 1436 nend Emperor Sigismund (1368-1437) was accepted as king of Bohemia. (WUD, 1994, p.1672)(WUD, 1994, p.1325) 1436 nend Johannes Gutenburg of Germany invented the printing press with movable type. (SFC, 7/26/04, p.F4) 1437 nend Sep 18, Farmers revolted in Transylvania. (MC, 9/18/01) 1437 nend Dec 9, Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor, died. Major Czech factions had accepted Sigismund as king of Bohemia prior to his death. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigismund%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor) 1438 nend Oct 20, Jacopo di Piero della Quercia (64), Italian sculptor, died. (MC, 10/20/01) 1438 nend Jan van Eyck (1385-1440) painted his "Portrait of Cardinal Niccols Albergati." (SFC, 1/5/01, p.C9) 1438 nend Filippo Lippi created the painting "Woman with a Man at a Window." (WSJ, 12/14/01, p.W20) 1438 nend The Incas established an imperial state in the Andes (Peru) and Cusco was rebuilt. They went on to build over 25,000 miles of roads. (SFC, 3/19/02, p.A2)(NG, Feb, 04, p.72) 1438 nend The shipbuilding firm of Camuffo was founded in Portogruaro, Italy. (SFC, 4/14/06, p.D1) 1439 nend Jul 16, Kissing was banned in England in order to stop germs from spreading. (MC, 7/16/02) 1439 nend Oct 21, Traversari Ambrosius (53), Italian humanist and leader, died. (MC, 10/21/01) 1439 nend Oct 27, Albrecht II von Habsburg (42), king of Bohemia, Hungary and Germany, died. (MC, 10/27/01) 1439 1440 Donatello (1386-1466), Florentine artist, completed his bronze statue of David about this time. It was commissioned by Cosimo de Medici. (WSJ, 1/11/99,p.R53)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_%28Donatello%29) 1439 nend Byzantium formally submitted to Rome. [see 330AD] (WSJ, 11/14/95, p. A-12) 1439 1448 Felix V served as the last antipope. He was born as Amadeus VIII, duke of Savoye in 1383. (MC, 9/4/01) 1440 nend Jan 22, Ivan III (the Great), grand prince of Russia, czar from 1462-1505, was born. He conquered Lithuania. (HN, 1/22/99)(MC, 1/22/02) 1440 nend Feb 22, Ladislaus V Posthumus, King of Hungary and Bohemia, was born. (MC, 2/22/02) 1440 nend Jun 29, Florentine troops fought the Milanese in the Battle of Anghiari. After the battle of Anghieri, Andrea del Castagno (1421-1457), a Medici protege, painted effigies of the hanged rebels. no_source 1440 nend Oct 26, Gilles de Rais, French marshal, depraved killer of 140 children, was hanged over slow fire. A brilliant young French knight, he was believed to have cracked over the torture and death of his true love, Jeanne d'Arc, the Maid of Orleans (d.1431). (MC, 10/26/01) 1440 nend Dec 22, Bluebeard, pirate, was executed. (MC, 12/22/01) c 1440 nend The Book of Hours of Catherine of Cleves was made. (SFC, 2/15/97, p.D1) c 1440 nend Lief Eriksson drew a map of America about this time. The "Vinland Map" was introduced in 1965 by Yale University as being the 1st known map of America, drawn about 1440 by Norse explorer Lief Eriksson. (MC, 10/10/01) 1440 nend Eton, the top British public school, was established by Henry VI. (Hem, 4/96, p.68) 1440 1492 In Lithuania Casimir served as Grand Duke. (TB-Com, 10/11/00) 1440 1870 This period is covered in the 1997 book by Hugh Thomas: "The Slave Trade, The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1440-1870." (SFEC,11/16/97, BR p.4)(WSJ, 2/26/02, p.A22) 1441 nend Jun, Jan/Johannes van Eyck (b.1395), Flemish painter (Lamb Gods), died in Brugge. (www.wga.hu/tours/flemish/eyck/brothers.html) 1441 nend Portuguese kidnapped several noble-born Africans, who in turn offered African slaves to the captors as ransom. In 1998 John Reader published "Africa: A Biography of a Continent." (SFEC, 6/28/98, BR p.12) 1442 nend Apr 20, Edward IV, King of England (1461-83), was born. [see Apr 28] (MC, 4/20/02) 1442 nend Apr 28, Edward IV was born. He became king of England (1461-1470) and first king of the House of York (1471-1483). [see Apr 20] (HN, 4/28/02) 1442 nend Jun 12, Alfonso V of Aragon was crowned King of Naples. (HN, 6/12/98) 1442 nend The Pazzi Chapel in Florence was begun. Its design was suspected to be by Michelozzo di Bortalommeo, a follower of Brunelleschi. (SFC, 1/2/97, p.C3) 1442 nend Al-Maqrizi (b.1364), Egyptian historian, died. His work included a history of Cairo. Maqrizi had begun a large work called the Muqaffa, an encyclopedia of Egyptian biography in alphabetic order. Another Egyptian historian, al-Sakhawi, believed this would require eighty volumes to complete, but only sixteen were written. (SSFC, 7/24/11, p.F7)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Maqrizi) 1443 nend May 9, Niccolo d'Albergati, Italian cardinal, died. (MC, 5/9/02) 1443 nend Jun 5, Ferdinand, Portuguese saint, slave to Fez, died. (MC, 6/5/02) 1443 nend Dec 5, Giuliano della Rovere, later Pope Julius II (1443-1513), was born in Liguria. (www.newadvent.org/cathen/08562a.htm) 1443 nend After losing a battle near Nis, Skenderbeg with a group of Albanian warriors defected from the Ottoman army and return to Kruja. Albanian resistance to Turkish rule was organized under the leadership of Skander Beg in Kruja. He was able to keep Albania independent for more than 20 years. A baronial museum in his honor was later was designed by the daughter of Enver Hoxha. (CO, Grolier?s Amer. Acad. Enc./ Albania)(WSJ, 4/14/98, p.A21)(www,Albania, 1998) 1444 nend May 20, Bernardinus van Siena (63), Italian saint, died. (MC, 5/20/02) 1444 nend Aug 26, In the Battle of St. Jakob an der Birs, fought near Basel in Switzerland, a Swiss force of some 1,600 soldiers stopped some 30,000 French mercenaries on their way to relieve a siege of Zurich. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_St._Jakob_an_der_Birs) 1444 nend Nov 10, During the Hungarian-Turkish War (1444-1456) , Sultan Murad II beat the Crusaders in the Battle at Varna on the Black Sea. (DoW, 1999, p.217) 1444 nend Murad II, Ottoman ruler, abdicated and Mehmet II (13) briefly succeeded him until 1446. (Ot, 1993, p.7) 1444 nend The Albanian people organized a league of Albanian princes in this year under George Kastrioti, also known as Skanderbeg. As leader of this Christian league he effectively repulsed 13 Turkish invasions from 1444 to 1466, making him a hero in the Western world. (HNQ, 10/5/98)(www, Albania, 1998) 1444 nend Cossacks were first mentioned in Russian history. (SFC,10/28/97, p.A8) 1444 nend Slaves from Africa were first carried to Portugal. (WSJ, 12/1/97, p.A20) 1445 nend Giovanni di Paolo, Italian painter in Siena, painted "The Creation," and the Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise. In this painting Paolo depicted the universe as a set of nesting concentric spheres. (NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.244) 1445 nend The Council of Florence ended. It established the date for the Great Schism between the Eastern and Western (Orthodox and Catholic) churches as July, 1054. An official date was needed so that talks could begin on reunion. (WSJ, 7/16/97, p.A23) 1445 1510 Sandro Botticelli, Italian painter, was born in Florence as Alessandro di Mariano Filipepi. His work included "The Birth of Venus" "Madonna of the Eucharist" (c1472-1475) and "Portrait of a Man with a Medal." His work "Venus and Mars" is at the London National Gallery. He belongs to the era of the Quattro cento, when artists were still struggling to break free of the rigid outlines of the Middle Ages. His solution was the use of curved lines. Vasari later claimed that Botticelli was a follower of Savonarola, the religious zealot. (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.173)(WSJ, 2/5/97, p.A16)(SFEC, 2/1/98, p.T8) 1446 nend Apr 16, Filippo Brunelleschi (69), architect, sculptor and goldsmith, died and was buried in the Cathedral of St. Mary of the Flower in Florence. In the 1490s Antonio di Tuccio Manetti authored "The Life of Brunelleschi." In 1974 Isabelle Hyman authored "Brunelleschi in Perspective." (ON, 9/00, p.8)(MC, 4/16/02) 1446 nend Oct 9, The Korean alphabet, created under the aegis of King Sejong, was first published. (AP, 10/9/07) 1446 nend In Scotland Sir William St. Clair, a grand master in the Knights Templar, founded the Rosslyn Chapel. It was built in the shape of a cross in the Pentland Hills outside Edinburgh. It became famous as part of the Dan Brown?s 2003 thriller ?The Da Vinci Code.? (SFC, 5/25/06, p.E2) 1446 nend Mehmet II, Ottoman ruler, was deposed and Murad II was recalled to the throne. (Ot, 1993, p.7) 1446 1521 A Gothic choir with buttresses and pinnacles was added to the abbey Mont St. Michel off the coast of Normandy, France. It replaced one that had collapsed. (WSJ, 10/7/06, p.P18) 1446 1523 The Italian painter Perugino, born as Pietro di Cristoforo di Vannucci, was a student of Pierro della Francesca and Andrea Verrochio. He won a papal commission for frescoes on the sidewalls of the Sistine Chapel along with Botticelli and Ghirlandaio. His work included the late weird allegory "The Combat Between Love and Chastity." (WSJ, 1/6/98, p.16) 1446 1524 Il Perugino (Pietro Vannucci), painter, worked in Umbria and died of the plague. His work includes: "The Baptism," "Mary in Glory," "Adoration of the Magi," Martyrdom of St. Sebastian," " Madonna and Child," and "The Virgin in Glory." (WUD, 1994, p.1076)(SFEM, 10/12/97, p.49) 1447 nend The winged altarpiece of Stephensdom in Vienna, Austria was completed. (Hem., Dec. '95, p.67) 1448 nend Oct 31, Johannes VIII Palaeologus (b.1390), Emperor of Byzantium, died. (www.freeglossary.com/John_VIII_Palaeologus) 1448 nend In China hyperinflation hit and paper money lost 97% of its value. China soon abandoned paper money. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1448 nend The Portuguese established the first European trading post in Africa. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1449 nend Jan 1, Lorenzo de Medici [The Magnificent] of Florence was born. (MC, 1/1/02) 1449 nend Albanians, under Skenderbeg, routed the Ottoman forces under Sultan Murat II. (www, Albania, 1998) 1449 nend Ashikaga Yoshimasa (14) inherited the office of Shogun, the chief military and civic leader of feudal Japanese society. His leadership focused on the arts and depleted the national treasury which led to social and political anarchy. (ON, 7/01, p.3) 1449 nend Rodrigo Borgia Lanzol (b.1431), father of Cesare and Lucretia, arrived in Rome from Spain and Italianized his name from Borja to Borgia. His rise in the church was helped a great deal when his uncle became Pope Calixtus III. (HN, 8/10/98)(PTA, p.424)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R4)(MC, 8/11/02) 1449 nend The giant Scottish bombard known as Mons Meg was built. It was retired from active service in 1680, after splitting her barrel while firing a ceremonial shot. She can still be seen in Edinburgh castle. (HNQ, 6/20/02) 1450 nend May 8, Jack Cade's Rebellion-Kentishmen revolted against King Henry VI. (HN, 5/8/98) 1450 nend Jul 12, Jack Cade was slain in a revolt against British King Henry VI. (MC, 7/12/02) 1450 nend Oct 5, Jews were expelled from Lower Bavaria by order of Ludwig IX. (MC, 10/5/01) 1450 nend Oct 23, Juan de Capistrano (70), Italian saint, died. (MC, 10/23/01) 1450 nend Johannes Gutenberg began printing a bible with movable type in Mainz. He perfected interchangeable type that could be cast in large quantities and invented a new type of press. (NG, March 1990, p. 117)(WSJ, 10/31/96, p.A21)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1450 nend Johannes Gutenberg was able to convince financier Johann Fust to loan him 800 guild-ers, a considerable sum. Gutenberg's experiments with printing were financed in large part by Fust, who later won a suit against Gutenberg to recoup his investment. Fust invested another 800 guilders in 1452, securing a partnership in Gutenberg's business. By 1455, impatient for results or perhaps simply due to estrangement from Gutenberg, Fust sued and won a settle-ment of just over 2,000 guilders: the sum of the two loans plus interest. Fust also gained control of Gutenberg's movable type and some of his printing equipment. Gutenberg was able to con-tinue some printing and eventually was granted a pension by the archbishop of Mainz in 1465. (HNQ, 1/12/01) c 1450 nend In the mid 1400s Berbers took over the trade and learning centers of Timbuktu and Walata. (ATC, p.120) 1450 nend In Mexico City an Aztec cornerstone ceremony took place about this time intended to dedicate a new layer of building. In 2005 archeologists found a child found at the Templo Mayor ruins who was apparently killed as part of a ceremony dedicated to the war god Huitzilopochtli. (AP, 7/23/05) c 1450 nend The Portuguese brought slaves to the uninhabited Cape Verde Island. (SFC, 8/5/98, p.A8) c 1450 nend Legend has it that in the mid-15th century Vietnam, King Le Loi defeated Chinese in-vaders with a magic sword given to him by the gods. After the victory, the king was said to be boating on the lake when a giant golden turtle rose to the surface and grabbed the sword in its mouth before plunging deep into the water to return it to its divine owners. The lake was later renamed "Ho Hoan Kiem," which means "Lake of the Returned Sword." (AP, 11/3/03) c 1450 nend The chiefs of Zimbabwe's gold producing provinces declared independence from Great Zimbabwe. A northern group led by King Mwene Mutapa conquered neighboring kingdoms and a new empire called Monomutapa was formed. (ATC, p.148) 1450 1455 Dieric Bouts painted "The Annunciation." The Getty Museum later acquired it for $7 mil-lion, but its authenticity was controversial. (WSJ, 4/9/99, p.W16) 1450 1460 The German Master E.S. made his drawing "Girl With a Ring." (WSJ, 12/8/99, p.A20) 1450 1500 Bartolomeu Dias, Portuguese explorer. He discovered the Cape of Good Hope. (WUD, 1994, p.399) c 1450 1500 Nyatsimba, Mwene Matapa or Monomotapa (Lord of the Plundered People or Ravager of the Lands), Chief of the Zimbabwe Empire. He conquered the middle Zambezi Valley and built stone citadels at Great Zimbabwe. He was known to have a corps of over 100 female bodyguards. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) c 1450 1516 Hieronymus Bosch, painter was born. Hieronymous van Aken was born in the small Dutch Brabant city of 's-Hertogenbosch in Flanders. (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.172)(WSJ, 8/25/98, p.A12)(WSJ, 10/11/01, p.A19) 1450 1532 The period of the Inca Empire. Inca mummies were later found on Mt. Ampato in 1995 and 1997. In 1998 archeologist found 6 frozen mummies sacrificed to Inca gods near the crater of the 19,100 foot El Misti volcano, 465 miles southeast of Lima, Peru. (SFEM, 4/13/97, p.16)(SFC,12/13/97, p.A14)(SFC, 10/3/98, p.C1) 1450 1650 The Venetians occupied the capital city Crete, Iraklion. The forests of Crete provided the Venetians with cedars and firs for their fleets. (SFEC, 8/17/97, p.T10) 1450 1890 The period of the Little Ice Age. Temperatures over this period were a few degrees lower than during the 1900s. (SFC, 11/29/02, p.J6) 1451 nend Feb 3, Murad II, Ottoman sultan (1421-51), died of apoplexy. Mehmet II (19) became Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He ruled until 1481. (ON, 10/00, p.10)(Ot, 1993, p.7)(MC, 2/3/02) 1451 nend Mar 9, Amerigo Vespucci (d.1512), Italian navigator, was born in Florence. (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15384b.htm) 1451 nend Apr 22, Isabella I of Castile, Queen of Spain (1479-1504), patron of Christopher Colum-bus, was born in Madrigal, Spain. (HN, 4/22/98)(AP, 4/22/01)(MC, 4/22/02) 1451 nend Jun 28, An eclipse occurred that allegedly prevented the outbreak of war between the Mohawk and the Seneca Indians. (SCTS, p.6) 1451 nend Sep 21, Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa ordered the Jews of Holland to wear a badge. (MC, 9/21/01) 1451 nend An Afghan named Buhlul invaded Delhi, and seized the throne. He founded the Lodi dy-nasty. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1451 nend In France Jacques Coeur was charged with poisoning Agnes Sorel, mistress to King Charles VII. Sorel had died in childbirth. Charles confiscated Coeur's property and put him in jail. Coeur escaped and fled to Rome. He died several years later fighting the Turks. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R6) 1451 nend The Vatican Library was founded. (WSJ, 3/2/00, p.W10) 1451 1506 Christopher Columbus, was born in Genoa. He was probably the child of Spanish-Jewish parents exiled by the Inquisition. (V.D.-H.K.p.174) 1451 nend March 9, The birthday of Amerigo Vespucci (d.1512). He was the Italian navigator after whom America was named. He explored the New World coastline after Columbus. (CFA, '96,Vol 179, p.42)(AHD, p.1425) 1452 nend Mar 10, Ferdinand II, the Catholic King of Aragon (1479-1516) and Sicily (1468-1516), was born. He bankrolled Columbus and expelled Jews. (WUD, 1994 p.524)(MC, 3/10/02) 1452 nend Apr 15, Leonardo da Vinci (d.1519), Italian painter, sculptor, scientist and visionary, was born in Vinci near Florence. He apprenticed to the painters Verrocchio and Antonio Pollaiuolo and was accepted to the Florentine painters' guild at twenty. Only seventeen surviving paintings can be attributed to him. These include: "The Last Supper" in Milan, the "Mona Lisa" and "The Virgin and Child with St. Anne" in the Louvre. He tried to express his immense knowledge of the world by simply looking at things. The secret he said was "saper vedere," to know how to see. His final "Visions of the End of the World" was a sketchbook in which he tried to depict his sense of the forces of nature, which in his imagination he conceived of as possessing a unity that no one had ever seen before. His use of a smoky atmosphere (sfumato) helped create an impression of lifelikeness. (V.D.-H.K.p.137)(WSJ, 2/5/97, p.A16)(HN, 4/15/98) 1452 nend Jul 27, Ludovico Sforza (Ludovico il Moro, "The Moor," d.1508), Italian duke of Milan (1494-1500), was born. He was the second son of Francesco Sforza, and was famed as patron of Leonardo da Vinci and other artists. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludovico_Sforza) 1452 nend Sep 21, Girolamo Savonarola (d.1498), was born in Ferrara. He became a Dominican monk, reformer, dictator of Florence (1494-98) and martyr. He was best known for his bonfires of the vanities in which corrupt books and images were set alight. (Hem.,4/97,p.53)(WUD, 1994, p.1272,1672)(WSJ, 7/10/98, p.W11)(MC,9/21/01) 1452 nend Oct 2, King Richard III, of England (1483-85), was born. (MC, 10/2/01) 1452 nend The first pawn lender was founded in Perugia (Italy) by Franciscan monks to combat usury. (Econ, 5/27/06, p.73) 1452 nend Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II began construction of a new fortress called Rumeli Hisar on the Constantinople side of the Bosporus. He engaged Urban, a Hungarian engineer, to build a large canon and put him in charge of the canon foundries at Adrianople. (SFC, 9/1/96, BR p.8)(ON, 10/00, p.10) 1452 1510 Liu Jin, a court eunuch of the Ming dynasty in China. He abused his office to amass a great fortune and was executed for treason. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1453 nend Apr 6, Ottoman forces under Mehmet II opened fire on Constantinople. (ON, 10/00, p.11) 1453 nend Apr 22-1453 Apr 23, The Ottomans hauled 76 warships out of the water and dragged them on wood rails to bypass the Greek blockade of the Constantinople harbor. (ON, 10/00, p.12)(Ot, 1993, p.13) 1453 nend May 29, Constantinople fell to Muhammad II, ending the Byzantine Empire. The fall of the eastern Roman Empire, Byzantium, to the Ottoman Turks was led by Mehmed II. Emperor Constantine XI Dragases (49), the 95th ruler to sit on the throne of Constantine, was killed. The city of Constantinople fell from Christian rule and was renamed Istanbul. The Hagia Sophia was turned into a mosque. Spice prices soared in Europe. Nicolo Barbaro wrote his "Diary of the Siege of Constantinople." Manuel Chrysophes, court musician to Constantine XI, wrote a thren-ody for the fall of Constantinople. In 2005 Roger Crowley authored ?1453 The Holy War for Constantinople and the Clash of Islam and the West.? (NH, 9/96, p.22)(Sky, 4/97, p.53)(SFC, 7/27/98, p.A8)(WSJ, 1/11/99,p.R49)(ON, 10/00, p.12)(Ot, 1993, p.6)(WSJ, 1/2/02, p.A15)(SSFC,8/14/05, p.F4) 1453 nend May 29, French banker Jacques Coeurs had his possessions confiscated. (SC, 5/29/02) 1453 nend Jul 4, 41 Jewish martyrs were burned at stake at Breslau, Poland. (Maggio) 1453 nend Jul 17, France defeated England at the 1st Battle at Castillon, France, ending the 100 Years' War. [see Oct 19] (HN, 7/17/98) 1453 nend Oct 19, In the 2nd Battle at Castillon: France beat England, ending the hundred year war. [see Jul 17] (MC, 10/19/01) 1453 nend Piero della Francesca (1415/1420-1492) began work on the "Legenda della Vera Croce" (The Legend of the True Cross) at the church of San Francesco in Arezzo. He was commis-sioned by the Bacci family of Arezzo to complete the work begun by Bicci de Lorenzo. (WSJ, 6/02/97, p.A20)(WSJ, 2/2/08, p.W14) 1453 nend In England Henry VI, of the house of Lancaster, suffered a nervous breakdown and Richard, the Duke of York, was named protector. (AM, 7/01, p.69) 1453 nend In Rome Agrippa?s Aqua Virgo was resuscitated as the Acqua Vergine Antica. (SFEC, 7/2/00, p.T4) 1454 nend Feb 17, At a grand feast, Philip the Good of Burgundy took the "vow of the pheasant," by which he swore to fight the Turks. (HN, 2/17/99) 1454 nend Mar 6, Casimir proclaimed the attachment of Prussia to Polish rule. This began a 13-year war over Prussia (1454-1466). (LHC,3/6/03) 1454 nend Apr 9, The city states of Venice, Milan and Florence signed a peace agreement at Lodi, Italy. (HN, 4/9/99) 1454 nend Aug 22, Jews were expelled from Brunn Moravia by order of King Ladislaus. (MC, 8/22/02) 1455 nend Feb 23, Johannes Gutenberg (Johan Gensfleisch, c1400-1468) printed his 1st book, the Bible. Gutenberg printed Latin Bibles of which 11 were still extant in 1987. [see 1450] (SFC, 2/15/97, p.D1)(MC, 2/23/02) 1455 nend Mar 18, Fra Angelico, Italian monk and Renaissance painter born around 1387 as Guido di Pietro, died. Fra Angelico gained a reputation as a painter under that name before joining the Dominicans in the 1420s. However, much of the influence found in his work is thought to come from Dominican teachings. He stayed at Dominican monasteries in Florence for most of his life doing a variety of religious painting until being called to Rome in 1445 by Pope Eugene IV, where he completed several chapel frescoes. Returning to Florence in the early 1450s, he died on a return visit to Rome in 1455 and is entombed at the church of Santa Maria della Minerva. In 1984 Fra Angelico was beatified by Pope John Paul II. (HNQ,3/6/01)(http://gallery.euroweb.hu/bio/a/angelico/biograph.html)(WSJ,11/9/05, p.D16) 1455 nend Apr 8, Alfonso de Borgia was elected as Pope Callistus III. (MC, 4/8/02) 1455 nend May 3, Jews fled Spain. (MC, 5/3/02) 1455 nend May 22, King Henry VI was taken prisoner by the Yorkists at the Battle of St. Albans, the 1st battle in the 30-year War of the Roses. The army of the Duke of York met the army of Queen Margaret at the Battle of St. Alban?s. The 2nd Duke of Somerset was killed as Yorkists briefly took possession of King Henry VI. (MH, 12/96)(HN, 5/22/99)(MC, 5/22/02) 1455 nend Aug 2, Johan Cicero, elector of Brandenburg (1486-99), was born. (MC, 8/2/02) 1455 nend Dec 1, Lorenzo Ghiberti (77), Italian sculptor, died. (MC, 12/1/01) 1455 nend The young Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II mobilized his army to march on Belgrade--and from there, possibly move on to the European heartland. (HN, 6/15/98) 1455 nend Some Portuguese had come to The Gambia following the expeditions promoted by Prince Henry. They had introduced groundnuts, tie main cash crop of today, cotton, and some tropical fruits from Brazil. Their number, however, was never large and they were soon ab-sorbed by intermarriage. (www.africanculture.dk/gambia/history.htm) 1455 1485 The War of the Roses. During the war Margaret of Anjou, wife of the feeble-minded King Henry VI, was head of the House of Lancaster whose heraldic badge was a red rose. She struggled against the House of York, whose badge was a white rose, for the control of the gov-ernment. (MH, 12/96) 1456 nend Mar 1, Wladyslaw Jagiello, king of Bohemia (1471-1516), Hungary (1490-1516), was born. (SC, 3/1/02) 1456 nend Jul 7, Joan of Arc was acquitted, even though she had already been burnt at the stake on May 30, 1431. (MC, 7/7/02) 1456 nend Jul 14, Hungarians defeated the Ottomans at the Battle of Belgrade, in present-day Yugoslavia. The 1456 Siege of Belgrade decided the fate of Christendom. (HN, 7/14/98) 1456 nend Jul 22, At the Battle at Nandorfehervar (Belgrade), the Hungarian army under prince Ja-nos Hunyadi beat sultan Murad II. The siege of Belgrade had fallen into stalemate when a spontaneous fight broke out between a rabble of Crusaders, led by the Benedictine monk John of Capistrano, and the city's Ottoman besiegers. The melee soon escalated into a major battle, during which the Hungarian commander, Janos Hunyadi, led a sudden assault that overran the Turkish camp, ultimately compelling the wounded Sultan Mehmet II to lift the siege and retreat. (MC, 7/22/02)(PC, 1992, p.150)(HNPD, 7/23/98) 1456 nend Aug 11, Janos Hunyadi (69), Hungarian Prince and general strategist died of plague at about age 49. (PC, 1992, p.150)(MC, 8/11/02) 1456 nend Nov 25, Jacques Coeur, French merchant and banker, died in battle. (MC, 11/25/01) 1456 nend Dec 5, Earthquake struck Naples and 35,000 died. (MC, 12/5/01) 1456 nend Pope Calixtus III appointed his nephew Rodrigo Borgia Lanzol, later Pope Alexander VI, a cardinal. (PTA, 1980, p.424) 1456 nend A comet in the sky caused the Pope to issue a catchall edict to his followers to pray for deliverance from "The Devil, the Turk, and the Comet." (SFC, 3/28/97, p.A12) 1456 1496 Ercole de' Roberti, Italian artist. He was the predecessor to Dosso Dossi at the Ferrara court. (SFC, 4/27/99, p.C1) c 1456 1856 Gypsies living in the principalities that today makeup Romania lived as slaves. [as stated in a work by Isabel Fonseca titled: "Bury Me Standing: The Gypsies and Their Journey." (WSJ, 10/19/95, A-18) 1457 nend Jan 28, Henry Tudor (later Henry VII), 1st Tudor king of England (1485-1509), was born in Pembroke Castle, Wales. (www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/henry_vii_king.shtml) 1457 nend Nov 23, Ladislaus V (17), posthumous king of Hungary and Bohemia, died. (MC, 11/23/01) 1457 nend Aug 14, Gutenberg's financier Johann Fust and calligrapher Peter Schoffer published the 2nd printed book. This is the oldest known exactly dated printed book. (HN, 8/14/00)(MC, 8/14/02) 1457 nend Koshamain, an Ainu chieftain on the island of Hokkaido, led a rebellion against Japa-nese encroachment, but it was put down by Nobuhiro Takeda. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 214) 1457 nend Pattani, later southern Thailand, was declared an Islamic kingdom. (AP, 9/23/05) 1457 nend King James II of Scotland (James of the Fiery Face) banned "Futeball" on the grounds that it threatened national defense by drawing young men away from archery practice. He banned "Golfe" for the same reason. "Nocht usit and utterlie cryit doun." (SFC, 8/10/96, p.E4)(Hem., 1/97, p.47) 1458 nend Jan 24, Matthias Corvinus (1440-1490), the son of John Hunyadi, was elected king of Hungary. Under his rule Hungary was the most important state in central Europe. For his fight-ing force he ordered every 20 houses to provide one horse soldier. "Husz" is 20 in Hungarian and so the light cavalryman became know as a Hussar. His illuminated breviary is held by the Vatican library. (WUD, 1994, p.1672)(Sky, 9/97, p.26)(HN, 1/24/99) 1458 nend Mar 2, Hussite George van Podiebrad was chosen king of Bohemia. (SC, 3/2/02) 1458 nend Jun 27, Alfonso V of Aragon died. Ferdinand I succeeded to the throne of Naples, but Pope Calixtus III declared the line of Aragon extinct and the kingdom a fief of the church. (Wikipedia) 1458 nend Filippino Lippi, painter, was born. His father was the Carmelite friar Fra Filippo and his mother was a nun. His work includes the drawing "Kneeling Male Saint," and the color painting "Male Saint Holding the Body of the Dead Christ." One of his students was Raffaellino del Garbo. (WSJ, 12/3/97, p.A20) 1458 nend Benedetto Cotrugli published the first known work on double-entry bookkeeping. It was invented in Italy around 1340. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R55)(WSJ, 11/10/99, p.A20) 1459 nend Mar 2, Adrian VI [Adriaan F Boeyens], Netherlands, Pope (1522-23), was born. (SC, 3/2/02) 1459 nend Mar 3, Ausias March, Catalan poet, died. (SC, 3/3/02) 1459 nend May 2, Pierozzi Antoninus, Italian archbishop of Florence, saint, died. (MC, 5/2/02) 1459 nend May 12, Sun City, India, was founded by Rao Jodhpur. (MC, 5/12/02) 1459 nend Oct, The Lancastrians defeated the Yorkists at Ludford. (AM, 7/01, p.69) 1459 nend The Serbs fell under Turkish rule and all of Serbia became the property of the sultan and all Serbs became bond-slaves to the land. Serbian national identity survived with the resto-ration in 1557 of the Serbian patriarchate at Pec. (HNQ, 3/25/99) 1459 1519 Maximilian I. Holy Roman Emperor from 1493-1519. (WUD, 1994, p.886) 1459 1525 Jakob Fugger II, German banker. He minted his own money and maintained banks in every European capital. He held a contract for managing the Pope's money and collected cash for the remission of sins. He bankrolled the election of Charles V. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1459 1912 The Ottoman Empire ruled over the Kosova region of Serbia. (SFC, 3/3/98, p.A8) 1460 nend Apr 4, University of Basle, Switzerland, formed. (MC, 4/4/02) 1460 nend Apr 8, Ponce de Leon was born in Spain. He searched for fountain of youth and found Florida. (MC, 4/8/02) 1460 nend May 9, In the Netherlands the courtyard Episcopal palace at Atrecht had witch burnings. (MC, 5/9/02) 1460 nend Jun, English Yorkist earls returned and met Henry VI?s Lancastrian army at Northamp-ton. Henry was captured and taken to London to serve as a figurehead. (AM, 7/01, p.69) 1460 nend Jul 10, Wars of Roses: Richard of York defeated King Henry VI at Northampton. (MC, 7/10/02) 1460 nend Sep, The Duke of York returned to England from Ireland. The nobility would not allow his usurption of the crown but agreed to pass it to him on Henry?s demise. (AM, 7/01, p.69) 1460 nend Nov 13, Prince Henry the Navigator (b.1394), Portuguese prince and patron of explor-ers, died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_the_Navigator) 1460 nend Dec 30, The English Duke of York, Richard Plantagenet, was killed by Lancastrians at the Battle of Wakefield. Queen Margaret hung his head over the gate of the city. (MH, 12/96)(HN, 12/30/98)(Econ, 12/18/10, p.111) 1460 nend The Ottomans conquered southern Greece. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.56) 1460 nend s Benozzo Gozzoli, a pupil of Fra Angelico, painted a portrait of Christ titled "The Holy Face." (SFEC, 8/8/99, p.D7) 1460 nend Rogier van der Weyden painted his "Portrait of a Lady." (WSJ, 12/14/01, p.W20) 1460 nend In 2009 academic Julian Luxford found a note written in Latin by a medieval monk about this time that read when translated into English: "Around this time, according to popular opinion, a certain outlaw named Robin Hood, with his accomplices, infested Sherwood and other law-abiding areas of England with continuous robberies." (AP, 3/14/09) 1460 1464 Rogier van der Weyden painted "The Lamentation Over the Body of the Dead Christ." (SFEC, 12/26/99, p.C17) 1460 1470 Machu Pichu was built under the Inca King Pachacuti in the Peruvian Andes. It was oc-cupied for about 50 years before 180 Spanish conquistadors wiped out a 40,000-man Inca army. In 2003 a nearby complex of structures called Llactapata (high city) was discovered. (SFC, 11/8/03, p.A2) 1460 nend ?-1526? Pedro Alvarez Cabral, Portuguese navigator, discovered and claimed Brazil for Portugal on April 22, 1500. (AHD, p.185)(HFA, '96, p.28) 1460 1550 Jack Eddy, solar physicist, examined tree ring data in the 1970s and found a dearth of solar activity during this period. (NG, 7/04, p.28) 1461 nend Feb 2-3, The English houses of York and Lancaster battled at Mortimer?s Cross, the Battle of the Three Suns. In the War of the Roses Edward of York defeated the Welsh Lancas-trians in the 2nd battle of St Alban's. (MH, 12/96)(AM, 7/01, p.69)(MC, 2/2/02) 1461 nend Feb 17, The Houses of York and Lancaster battled again at St. Alban?s. Queen Marga-ret defeated the Earl of Warwick and freed Henry VI. (MH, 12/96)(AM, 7/01, p.69) 1461 nend Mar 4, Henry VI was deposed and the Duke of York was proclaimed King as Edward IV and continued as King of England until 3 October 1470. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_IV_of_England) 1461 nend Mar 29, Edward IV secured his claim to the English thrown in defeating Henry VI?s Lan-castrians at the battle of Towdon (Towton). Some 50,000 fought and an estimated 28,000 were killed as the War of the Roses continued. (AM, 7/01, p.69)(AM, 7/01,p.68)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Towton) 1461 nend Jun 28, Edward IV was crowned king of England. (www.richardiiiworcs.co.uk/months/june.html) 1461 nend Aug 10, Alfonso ed Espina, bishop of Osma, urged an Inquisition in Spain. (MC, 8/10/02) 1461 nend The Pope's godson discovered a source of alum, used in dyes. This led to a booming business for the Catholic Church. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1462 nend Jun 27, Louis XII, King of France (1498-1515), was born. (HN, 6/27/02) 1462 1464 Piero della Francesca, Italian artist, painted ?The Resurrection? about this time. (WSJ, 12/17/05, p.P14) 1462 1524 Vasco da Gama, Portuguese explorer. (V.D.-H.K.p.174) 1463 nend Jan 5, French poet Francois Villon was banished from Paris. (MC, 1/5/02) 1463 nend Oct 29, Alessandro Achillini, Italian physician and philosopher, was born. (MC, 10/29/01) 1463 nend The Venetians regained southern Greece for a short period. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.56) 1463 nend The Ottomans conquered Bosnia. (www.bartleby.com/67/314.html) 1463 1494 Pico della Mirandola, born in the duchy of Ferrara and died in Florence. He studied Aris-totelian philosophy at Padua, and canon law at Bologna. He learned Hebrew, Aramaic and Ara-bic before he was twenty. He became acquainted with the Hebrew Kabbala and was the first to use cabalistic doctrine to support Christian theology. (V.D.-H.K.p.138) 1464 nend May 15, The English Houses of York and Lancaster battled at Hexham. Among the Lan-castrians the 3rd Duke of Somerset was killed. (MH, 12/96) 1464 nend Jun 18, Roger Van Der Weyden (b.1400), Flemish painter, died. He had mastered the new technique of oil painting and served as the official painter to the city of Brussels. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogier_van_der_Weyden)(Econ, 10/3/09,p.107) 1464 nend Jun 19, French King Louis XI formed a postal service. (MC, 6/19/02) 1464 nend Aug 1, Piero de Medici (1416-1469) succeeded his father, Cosimo, as ruler of Florence. He was nicknamed Il Gottoso (the Gouty One) and squandered the family fortune. (HN, 8/1/98)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1464 nend Mino da Fiesole sculpted the altar for Rome?s Santa Maria Maggiore. (WSJ, 10/22/96, p.A20) 1464 nend Desiderio da Settignano (b.~1439), Renaissance sculptor, died in Florence. (WSJ, 9/11/07, p.D6) 1464 nend Under the guidance of Sunni Ali, the Songhai began to conquer their neighbors and ex-pand their kingdom. Goa became the capital of the Songhai empire. When Sunni Ali died rule was passed to his son, a non-Muslim. (ATC, p.121) 1464 1471 Pope Paul II, Pietro Barbo, succeeded Pius II. He was responsible for a Papal Bull that established a 25-year interval between Holy Years. (PTA, 1980, p.418)(SFC, 12/24/99, p.A15) 1465 nend Feb 11, Elizabeth of York, consort of King Henry VII, was born in London. (MC, 2/11/02) 1465 nend The Nevill Feast at Cawood Castle in Yorkshire, England. 2,500 people were enter-tained. The guests ate over several days, 113 oxen, sic wild bulls, 1,000 sheep, 2,000 each of geese, pigs, and chickens, 12 porpoises, and 4,000 cold venison pasties. Such a feast would show how many fighting men a family could muster. (N.G., Nov. 1985, M. Girouard, p.74) 1465 nend King Henry VI was captured and imprisoned in the Tower of London. (MH, 12/96) 1465 1487 In China during the Chenghua reign blended enamels over a blue underglaze decoration reached a classic stage of development. Lady Wan, consort of the emperor, was intimately as-sociated with porcelains and their design. (SFEC, 10/6/96, DB p.37) 1466 nend Mar 8, Francesco Sforza (b.1401), Italian condottiere, duke of Milan, died. He was the founder of the Sforza dynasty in Milan, Italy, and the brother of Alessandro, with whom he often fought. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Sforza) 1466 nend Oct 19, The peace of Torun ended the 13-year War of the Cities (1454-1466), between the Teutonic knights and their own disaffected subjects in Prussia. The Peace of Thorn (Torún) ended the war between the Teutonic knights (a German military and religious order) and their subjects in Prussia, led by King Casimir IV (1427-1492) of Poland. Poland was given Pomerelia and West Prussia, and the knights retained East Prussia, with a new capital at Königsberg (Ka-liningrad). The knights, formerly strictly a German order, were forced to accept Poles as mem-bers and their grand master became a vassal of the Polish king. (HN,10/19/98)(http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/T/TeutonKn.html) 1466 nend Oct 26, Desiderius Erasmus (d.1536), scholar and author (In Praise of Folly), was born in Rotterdam. He was of illegitimate birth, but became a priest and a monk. He excelled in phi-lology, the study of ancient languages, namely Latin and Greek and worked on a new transla-tion of the New Testament. The more he studied it, the more he came to doubt the accuracy of the Vulgate, St. Jerome's translation into Latin, dating from around 400. "In Praise of Folly" is his most famous work... In it Erasmus had the freedom to discourse, in the ironic style of Lucian (the Greek author whose works he translated), concerning all the foolishness and misguided pompousness of the world. (V.D.-H.K.p.159-160)(MC, 10/26/01) 1466 nend Nov 30, Andrea Doria, Genoese statesman and admiral, was born. (MC, 11/30/01) 1466 1520 Montezuma II, Aztec emperor. He amassed great wealth through taxation in Mexico and Central America. He used his wealth to build his capital at Tenochtitlan. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1466 nend ?-1530 Quentin Massys, Flemish painter. He painted "The Moneylender and His Wife." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.882) 1466 1772 Danzig (Gdansk) was occupied by German religious-knights. (Voruta #27-28, Jul 1996, p.10) 1467 nend May, In Japan the 11-year Onin War began in Kyoto. In 1967 H. Paul Valery authored "The Onin War." (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215)(ON, 7/01, p.5) 1467 nend Jun 15, Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, died. (HT, 6/15/00) 1468 nend Feb 3, Johannes Gutenberg (Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg b.c1400), German inventor of movable type, died. (SFC, 2/15/97, p.D1)(WSJ, 9/14/00, p.A24) 1468 nend Feb 29, Pope Paul III was born. (SFC, 2/29/00, p.A1) 1468 nend Dec 3, Lorenzo the Magnificent and his brother Giuliano succeeded their father, Piero de Medici, as rulers of Florence, Italy. (HN, 12/3/98) 1468 nend Juan Reixach created his panel of St. Vincent Ferrer in the Hispano-Flemish style. (WSJ, 3/2/05, p.D9) 1468 nend Skanderbeg of Albania died and the Turks absorbed Albania into the Ottoman Empire. Over the next five centuries most Albanians converted to Islam. (CO, Grolier?s / Albania)(www, Albania, 1998) c 1468 nend The area around Bosnia was occupied by the Turks in the late 15th cent. (SFC, 4/15/97, p.A10) 1469 nend Apr 15, The guru Nanak (d.1539), 1st guru of Sikhs, was born to Hindu parents in La-hore. Nanak assimilated tenets of pantheistic Hinduism and monotheistic Islam and founded Sikhism in the Punjab. He refused to accept the caste system and the supremacy of the Brah-manical priests and forbade magic, idolatry and pilgrimages. Brahma is the Hindu god of crea-tion. Turbaned followers would sport the main of the lion, Singha or Sikh. The sacred Sikh book, Granth Sahib, was compiled by the 5th guru, Arjun, in 1605. (WUD, 1994, p.1326)(Hem., 3/97, p.28)(SFEM, 9/19/99, p.74)(SFC,9/22/99, p.E1)(WSJ, 10/12/01, p.W17)(MC, 4/15/02) 1469 nend May 3, Nicolo Machiavelli (d.1527), political advisor and author, was born. He was a his-torian and author of "The Prince." He saw in Cesare Borgia, the bastard son of Pope Alexander VI, the prospect of an Italy free of foreign control. "Men are more apt to be mistaken in their generalizations than in their particular observations." (V.D.-H.K.p.109)(AP, 11/15/98)(HN, 5/3/99) 1469 nend May 19, Giovanni della Robbia, Italian sculptor, was born. (MC, 5/19/02) 1469 nend May 31, Manuel I, king of Portugal (1495-1521), was born. (HN, 5/31/98) 1469 nend Oct 17, Crown prince Fernando of Aragon married princess Isabella of Castile. (MC, 10/17/01) 1469 nend Dec 3, Piero de' Medici (53), ruler of Florence, died. (MC, 12/3/01) 1469 nend Fra Filippo Lippi, a Carmelite friar and painter and father of Filippino Lippi, died. Sandro Botticelli was one of his students. (WSJ, 12/3/97, p.A20) 1469 1472 The islands of Sao Tome and Principe were discovered by Portuguese navigators and settled by 1500. (AP, 7/18/03) 1469 nend Apr 15, The guru Nanak (d.1539), 1st guru of Sikhs, was born to Hindu parents in La-hore. Nanak assimilated tenets of pantheistic Hinduism and monotheistic Islam and founded Sikhism in the Punjab. He refused to accept the caste system and the supremacy of the Brah-manical priests and forbade magic, idolatry and pilgrimages. Brahma is the Hindu god of crea-tion. Turbaned followers would sport the main of the lion, Singha or Sikh. The sacred Sikh book, Granth Sahib, was compiled by the 5th guru, Arjun, in 1605. (WUD, 1994, p.1326)(Hem., 3/97, p.28)(SFEM, 9/19/99, p.74)(SFC,9/22/99, p.E1)(WSJ, 10/12/01, p.W17) 1470 nend Mar 2, In England at Lose Coat Field, canon under Edward IV turned a group of Lin-colnshire rebels into a panicked mob. (MH, 12/96) 1470 nend Jun 30, Charles VIII, King of France (1483-98), invaded Italy, was born. One of his feet had 6 toes which prompted his wearing broad, square tip shoes. (HN, 6/30/98)(SFC, 3/13/99, p.E6) 1470 nend Oct 9, Henry VI of England was restored to the throne. (HN, 10/9/98) 1470 nend Nov 1, Edward V, King of England, was born. [see Nov 3] (HN, 11/1/98) 1470 nend Nov 3, Edward V, King of England (Apr 9-Jun 25 1483), was born. [see Nov 1] (MC, 11/3/01) 1470 nend The earliest documented work by Botticelli was made. "Fortitude" was an allegory por-traying a woman who embodies the virtue of inner strength. (SFC, 6/20/97, p.A9) 1470 nend The first book printed in France was an ornate ninth-century transcript produced for the grandson of Charlemagne. It is held by the Bibliotheque Nationale de France. (WSJ, 9/26/95, p.A-20) 1470 nend In Portugal Princess Juana popularized the farthingale, a wide-hipped skit stiffened by whale bone. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R40) c 1470 nend The Quechua-speaking Incas came to dominate what is now Bolivia a mere 75 years before the Spaniards arrived. (NH, 11/96, p.37) 1470 1650 The period of the second of four waves of rising prices over the last 800 years as de-scribed by David Hackett Fisher in his 1996 book: "The Great Wave: Price Revolutions and the Rhythm of History." (WSJ, 12/19/96, p.A16) 1471 nend Mar 22, George van Podiebrad, king of Bohemia (1458-71), died. (MC, 3/22/02) 1471 nend Mar, Edward IV returned to England. (MH, 12/96) 1471 nend Apr 11, King Edward IV of England captured London from Henry VI in the War of the Roses. (MC, 4/11/02) 1471 nend Apr 14, On Easter Sunday Edward IV led an army of mercenaries and Yorkists at the Battle of Barnet and defeated the Lancastrians under the Earl of Warwick. Richard Neville Warwick (42), 2nd earl of Salisbury, was killed in battle. Margaret of Anjou returned from France. With her son, the Prince of Wales, she planned to join with Jasper Tudor, a Welsh ally, and attack Edward west of London. (MH, 12/96)(HN, 4/14/00) 1471 nend May 4, The Yorkists defeated the Lancastrians in the Battle of Tewkesbury between the English House of Lancaster and House of York. King Edward IV routed the forces of ex-queen Margaret. The Lancastrian forces were led by Edmund Beaufort, 4th Duke of Somerset. Ed-ward, the 17-year-old prince of Wales, was killed at the battle of Tewkesbury. (MH, 12/96)(HN,5/4/99)(www.britainexpress.com/History/battles/tewkesbury.htm) 1471 nend May 6, The 4th Duke of Somerset and other Lancastrian nobles were beheaded at the Tewkesbury marketplace after trial presided over by the Duke of Gloucester, Constable of Eng-land. (MH, 12/96) 1471 nend May 21, Henry VI, king of England (1422-61, 70-71) and France (1431-71), was killed in the tower of London and Edward IV took the throne. (HN, 5/21/98) 1471 nend Jul 15, Eskender (d.1494), Emperor of Ethiopia, was born. Eskender was killed at age 22 fighting the Maya, a vanished ethnic group known for using poisoned arrows. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eskender) 1471 nend Jul 25, Thomas A. Kempis (91), [Thomas Hammerken von Kempen], German writer, monk, died. His popular "Imitation of Christ" went through 99 editions by the end of the century. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34)(Internet) 1471 nend Jul 26, Pope Paul II died. (PTA, 1980, p.418) 1471 nend Aug 7, Francesco Della Rovere succeeded Paul II as Pope Sixtus IV. (PTA, 1980, p.420) 1471 nend In Pec, Kosovo, the Qarshise Mosque was built. It was destroyed by Serbs in 1999. (SFC, 9/7/99, p.A12) 1471 1474 A particular Spanish, copper-based coin called a blanca was issued. (NH, 10/96, p.24) 1471 1528 Albrecht Durer, German artist. He is particularly known for his woodcuts for book illustra-tions. (SFEC, 2/9/97, DB p.6)(WSJ, 11/7/00, p.A24) 1472 nend Mar 28, Fra Bartolommeo (d.1517), Florentine Renaissance painter, was born. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fra_Bartolommeo) 1472 nend Apr 15, Leon Battista Alberti (b.1404), Italian humanist, architect (Philodoxis), died. He wrote the 1st Italian grammar, the 1st theory of painting as an art, and the treatise "On the Art of Building." In 1970 Joan Gadol authored a biography. In 2000 Anthony Grafton authored the bi-ography "Leon Battista Alberti." (WSJ, 11/30/00, p.A20)(MC, 4/15/02) 1472 nend Hans Memling painted ?The Virgin and Child With St. Anthony Abbot and Donor.? (SFC, 10/18/05, p.D2) 1472 nend In Siena the Monte dei Paschi began taking deposits and making loans to the poor at better rates than the moneylenders. As of 2009 this was the oldest existing bank. Clerical groups had already established "monti di pieta" (mounds of money for charity). In Siena the original capital came from taxes. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R48)(Econ, 11/3/07, p.101)(Econ, 1/10/09, p.74) 1472 nend The Orkney Islands were part of Norway until this year. (SFEC, 3/23/97, p.T3) 1472 1553 Lucas Cranach the Elder, German painter and graphic artist. He painted "Cardinal Albrecht as St. Jerome." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.339) 1473 nend Feb 19, The astronomer Copernicus (1473-1543) was born in Torun, Poland. He prom-ulgated the theory that the earth and the planets move around the sun. (WUB, 1994, p. 322)(HN, 2/19/98)(AP, 2/19/98) 1473 nend Lorenzo de Medici, Italian banker and poet, wrote: "It is hard to live in Florence if you do not control the state." (WSJ, 1/19/04, p.A12) 1473 nend The game of golf was played in Scotland at the Old course at St. Andrews. (SFC, 6/25/95, p.T-7) 1473 1474 The book "Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye" was translated and printed from the French by William Caxton. A copy sold in 1998 for $1.2 million. (SFC, 7/9/98, p.A12) 1474 nend Mar 21, Angela Merici, Italian monastery founder, saint, was born. (MC, 3/21/02) 1474 nend May 9, Peter van Hagenbach, Elzasser knight, land guardian, was beheaded. (MC, 5/9/02) 1474 nend Sep 8, Ludovico Ariosto, Italy, poet (Orlando Furioso), was born. (MC, 9/8/01) 1474 nend Nov 27, Guillaume Dufay (b.1399), French-Flemish composer, died. His work included "Ecclesiae militantis," a 5-part motet on Pope Eugenius IV?s short-lived supremacy over the Eastern Orthodox Church. (WSJ, 1/2/02, p.A15)(MC, 11/27/01) 1474 nend Dec 12, Isabella crowned herself queen of Castilia & Aragon. (MC, 12/12/01) 1474 nend Bartolome de Las Casas (d.1566), ?Apostle to the Indians,? was born in Seville, Spain. (http://tinyurl.com/brzzu) c 1474 nend Ercole de' Roberti, Italian artist, painted "St. Jerome in the Wilderness." (SFC, 4/27/99, p.C1) 1474 nend By this year Venice passed a patent statute that included many of the elements of mod-ern patent laws. no_source c 1474 1478 Leonardo da Vinci created his portrait "Ginevra de Benci." (WSJ, 12/14/01, p.W20) 1474 1515 Mariotto Albertinelli, painter. He painted "The Visitation." (AAP, 1964) 1474 1556 Bartolome de Las Casas, a Dominican priest, made a copy of the original log of Colum-bus? voyage from a copy given to Columbus before his 2nd voyage. It is the only surviving copy. (NH, 10/96, p.23) 1475 nend Mar 6, Michelangelo Buonarroti (d.1564), painter, sculptor and architect, was born. His early mentor was Bertoldo di Giovanni, a pupil of Donatello. His work included "The Creation of Adam" and the "Pieta Rondanini." He at one time proposed to sculpt the 5,000 foot Monte Sagro in Carrara into the statue of a giant. (WUB, 1994, p. 904)(WSJ, 2/29/96, p.A-14)(AAP, 1964)(SFEC, 7/13/97,p.T11)(SFEC,10/19/97, p.T4)(HN, 3/6/98) 1475 nend Cesare Borgia, illegitimate son of Rodrigo Borgia Lanzol, later Pope Alexander VI (1492-1503), was born. He was made a church cardinal before his 20th birthday. (SFC, 3/16/02, p.A3) c 1475 nend Andrea del Verrochio created his sculpture "Sleeping Youth." (WSJ, 1/29/02, p.A18) c 1475 nend Dieric Bouts, Flemish painter, created his painting "Virgin and Child." (SFEC, 12/19/99, DB p.42) 1475 nend Pope Sixtus IV celebrated the Holy Year by building the Sistine Chapel and the Sixtus Bridge over the Tiber River. (SFC, 12/24/99, p.A15) 1475 1476 Petrus Christus (b. c1415), Netherlandish painter, died in Brugge. (www.artrenewal.org/asp/database/art.asp?aid=2806) 1475 nend In China?s Yunnan province the old Jihong Bridge over the Lancang River was rein-forced with 18 iron chains over the 280-foot chasm. (SFEC, 10/6/96, T5) 1475 nend British fishermen lost access to fishing grounds off Iceland due to a war in Europe. The cod catch did not go down and it is presumed that they had discovered the cod-rich waters off Newfoundland, whose discovery was later attributed to John Cabot. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.23) 1475 nend The Olavinlinna castle was founded by the governor of Viipuri on the border between Sweden-Finland and Russia. (SFEC, 4/11/99, p.T4) 1475 1495 An 11-piece set of tapestries were created with scenes from the Trojan War. They in-cluded "The Death of Troilus, Achilles and Paris." They were later housed at the Museo Cat-edralicio, Zamora, Spain. (WSJ, 4/11/02, p.AD7) 1475 1509 Italian architects invited by Ivan III built the Kremlin Cathedrals of the Assumption and the Archangel. (DVD, Criterion, 1998) 1476 nend Aug 4, Jacob van Armagnac-Pardiac, French duke of Nemours, was beheaded. (MC, 8/4/02) 1476 nend Aug 13, Christopher Columbus swam ashore to Portugal from a burning ship. He believed that Cathay, i.e. China, lay about 3,900 miles west of the Canary Islands. (V.D.-H.K.p.174) 1476 nend Dec 24, Some 400 Burgundy soldiers froze to death during the siege of Nancy. (MC, 12/24/01) 1476 nend Dec 26, Galeazzo Maria Sforza (Il Sforza del Destino), duke of Milan, was murdered. (MC, 12/26/01) 1476 nend The Swiss overcame Burgundy?s Charles the Bold at the Battle of Murten. (SSFC, 5/26/02, p.C5) 1476 nend /1477 The first edition of Chaucer?s Canterbury Tales (1387-1400) was printed by William Caxton. A copy of the red, leather-bound edition sold at auction in 1998 for $7.5 million. In 1905 the Caxton Club in Chicago published the leaf book ?William Caxton? by E. Gordon Duff. Each book contained one of 148 leaves from a Caxton 1st edition of the Canterbury Tales. (SFC, 7/9/98, p.A12)(WSJ, 5/12/05, p.D8) 1476 1507 Cesare Borgia, Italian cardinal, military leader and politician. (WUD, 1994, p.171) 1477 nend Jan 5, Swiss troops defeated the forces under Charles the Bold of Burgundy at the Battle of Nancy. (HN, 1/5/99) 1477 nend Nov 18, William Claxton published the first dated book printed in England. "Dictes & Sayengis of the Phylosophers," by Earl Rivers. It was a translation from the French. [see 1473/1474] (HN, 11/18/99) 1477 nend Future Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, a member of the Habsburg family of Austria, married Mary of Burgundy, heiress of all the Netherlands. Maximilian had given Mary a diamond engagement ring, a practice that soon spread. In 1996 Andrew Wheatcroft wrote a history of the Habsburgs: "The Habsburgs." (WSJ, 1/19/96, p.A-12)(SFEM, 6/28/98, p.6)(SFC, 5/28/08, p.G2) 1477 nend The Seventeen Provinces, a personal union of states in the Low Countries in the 16th century, became the property of the Habsburgs. They roughly covered the current Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, a good part of the North of France (Artois, Nord) and a small part of Germany. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeeland) 1477 nend Joao II (John II) served as king of Portugal for a short time when his father retired to a monastery. He succeeded his father as king in 1481. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_II_of_Portugal) 1477 1576 Titian (Titziano Vecellio), Italian painter. He painted "Venus and Adonis and Allegory" with subjects Alfonso d?Este and Laura Diante. (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.1488) 1478 nend Feb 7, Sir Thomas Moore (d.1535), English humanist, statesman and writer, was born in London. He was best friend of Erasmus, and called by Erasmus: "a man for all seasons." He studied law and rose to the post of lord chancellor after the fall of Cardinal Wolsey. More would not accept Henry VIII's divorce from Catherine of Aragon nor his subsequent marriage to Anne Boleyn. The king had charges of treason filed and More was beheaded on July 6, 1535. He was canonized in 1935. The 1966 film "A man for All Seasons" was based on his life. He is famous for "Utopia." (V.D.-H.K.p.160)(CU, 6/87)(WUD, 1994, p.931)(HN, 2/7/99) 1478 nend Feb 18, George, the Duke of Clarence, who had opposed his brother Edward IV, was murdered in the Tower of London. George underwent forced drowning in a wine barrel ("A butt of Malmsey"). (HN, 2/18/99)(MC, 2/18/02) 1478 nend Apr 26, Pazzi conspirators attacked Lorenzo de'Medici but killed Giuliano de'Medici (~24), Medeheerser of Florence. (HN, 4/26/98)(MC, 4/26/02) 1478 nend Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510) painted "La Primavera" about this time. (WSJ, 4/14/07, p.P11) c 1478 nend Giorgione (d.1510), Italian painter, was born. (T&L, 10/80, p. 58)(WSJ, 12/4/97, p.A20) 1478 nend Ten years after the death of Skanderbeg, his citadel at Kruje was finally taken by the Ottoman Turks and Albania fell into obscurity during several centuries of Turkish rule. (HNQ, 10/5/98)(www, Albania, 1998) 1478 nend In Japan the Onin War ended after rival warlords died of natural causes. Shogun Yoshimasa disinherited his brother and abdicated in favor of his son. (ON, 7/01, p.5) 1478 nend The Swiss began annexing the southern approaches to the strategic and lucrative St. Gothard Pass over the Alps. (SFEC, 6/14/98, p.T4) 1478 1483 The Gubbio Studiola was constructed in the shop of the Florentine woodworker Giuliano da Maiana. The wood inlay art of intarsia was used whereby the carving was done by knife rather than with saws. It was purchased by the NY Metropolitan in 1939. (WSJ, 6/6/96, p.A12) 1478 1529 Baldassare Castiglione, Italian diplomat and author. He wrote the "Book of the Courtier," in which the term sprezzatura was coined. It described the art of making the difficult seem effortless. (WUD, 1994, p.230)(WSJ, 8/22/97, p.A12) 1478 nend ?-1533? Jan Gossaert (Mabuse), Flemish painter. He painted "St Luke Drawing the Virgin Mary." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.858) 1479 nend Mar 26, Vasili III, great prince of Moscow (1505-33), son of Ivan III, was born. (SS, 3/26/02) 1479 nend Sep 4, After four years of war, Spain agreed to allow a Portuguese monopoly of trade along Africa's west coast and Portugal acknowledged Spain's rights in the Canary Islands. (HN, 9/4/98) 1479 nend Nov 6, Johanna, the Insane, Queen of Castilia (1504-20), was born. (MC, 11/6/01) 1479 nend Shkodra fell to the Ottoman Turks. Subsequently, many Albanians fled to southern Italy, Greece, Egypt, and elsewhere; many remaining were forced to convert to Islam. (www, Albania, 1998) 1479 nend Gentile Bellini (1429-1507), Italian artist, was selected by the Venetian Republic to work at the court of the Ottoman sultan, Mehmed II, in Istanbul. (WSJ, 12/20/05, p.D8) 1479 nend In Bosnia the Turks erected a mosque in the center of Banja Luka. It was leveled by the Serbs in 1993. (WSJ, 8/26/98, p.A1) 1479 nend Venice signed a peace treaty with Ottoman Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror (1432-1481) ending 16 years of war. (WSJ, 3/16/06, p.D8)(www.fsmitha.com/h3/h13zt.htm) 1479 nend Jorge Manrique (b.1440), Spanish military hero and poet, died. (SSFC, 9/3/06, p.M3)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorge_Manrique) 1480 nend Feb 13, Hieronymus Alexander, [Girolamo Aleandro], Italian diplomat, cardinal, was born. (MC, 2/13/02) 1480 nend Apr 18, Lucretia Borgia (d.1519), murderess, was born. Lucrezia Borgia, Duchess of Ferrara, was the daughter of Pope Alexander VI, and the sister and political pawn of Cesare Borgia. She was also considered a patroness of the arts. (HN, 4/18/98)(WUD, 1994, p.171) 1480 nend Giovanni Bellini painted "St. Francis in the Desert." (WSJ, 1/14/00, p.W12) 1480 nend Sandro Botticelli painted "The Birth of Venus." (WSJ, 2/5/97, p.A16) 1480 nend Bartolomeo Saachi de Platina had a cookbook printed titled: "De honesta voluptate et valetudine." In 1997 it was valued at $37,000. (SFC, 2/19/96, zz-1 p.2) 1480 nend The Spanish Inquisition was introduced by Ferdinand and Isabella to enable the crown to control the inquiries into whether or not converted Jews were really secret "Judaizers" who kept their original faith. "The Spanish Inquisition," a history of the Inquisition was written by Henry Kamen and a new edition was published in 1998. (WSJ, 4/16/98, p.A1) 1480 nend In Hamburg a pioneering labor market appeared for hiring day workers. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1480 1520 In France the fortress at Bonaguil in the Quercy province was built by a baron as a bulwark against his vassals. (SFEC, 7/11/99, p.T4) 1480 1521 Ferdinand Magellan, Portuguese navigator. He was assigned the task of finding a route to the Spice Islands. (V.D.-H.K.p.177) 1480 1533 A huge Inca cemetery was active in Lima at this time. It was uncovered in 2002 with some 2,200 mummies. (SFC, 4/18/02, p.A4) 1480 1538 Albrecht Altdorfer, German painter. He painted "Martyrdom of St. Florian." He also painted a depiction of Alexander?s 333BC defeat of Darius at Issus. (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.43)(WSJ, 5/15/98, p.W11) 1480 1557 Lorenzo Lotto, Italian painter, celebrated as a realist and a man of religious fervor. (WSJ, 1/15/98, p.A17) 1481 nend Mar 2, Franz von Sickingen, German knight, was born. (SC, 3/2/02) 1481 nend Aug 29, Joao II (John II) became king of Portugal. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_II_of_Portugal) 1481 nend Aug 30, Two Latvian monarchs were executed for conspiracy to murder Polish king Kazimierz IV. (MC, 8/30/01) 1481 nend Sandro Botticelli painted "The Annunciation." (SFC, 10/7/03, p.D8) 1481 nend Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II died at age 60. Kritovoulos authored "History of Mehmet the Conqueror" in the 15th century. (ON, 10/00, p.12) 1481 1512 Beyazid II followed Mehmed II in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii) 1481 1530 In Spain the first burnings of 8 people occurred as a result of the Inquisition trials. Over this period some 2000 people were burned. (WSJ, 4/16/98, p.A20) 1482 nend Sep 1, Krim-Tataren plundered Kiev. (MC, 9/1/02) 1482 nend The border town of Berwick-upon-Tweed ended up in English hands after changing hands 13 times in wars between England and the Scots. (WSJ, 7/8/08, p.A14) 1482 nend A Milanese Duke commissioned Leonardo da Vinci to make an equine statue that would have been the largest in the world. A clay cast was made over 16 years but the appropriated bronze was used for cannons and the clay cast was destroyed when the Duke?s castle fell to French invaders. (Hem., 12/96, p.19) 1482 nend Luca della Robbia (b.1400), Italian artist, died. Luca developed the art of enameled relief sculpture. Andrea della Robbia (1435-1525), his nephew and student, continued the work. (SFC, 11/23/05, p.G2) 1482 nend In Ghana Elmina Castle was built by Portuguese traders. It later became a slave holding castle. (SFEC, 11/22/98, p.T10) 1482 nend Captain Diogo Cao sailed south along the African coast and became the first Portuguese sailor to reach the equator. He4 landed at the mouth of the Zaire (Congo) River. He left four servants and took four Africans hostage back to his king, John, in Portugal. This was the first European encounter with the vast kingdom of the Kongo. (ATC, p.149)(ON, 11/07, p.1) 1482 nend The Ginkaku Temple, also known as the Silver Pavilion was built in Kyoto, Japan. The Shogun who built it died before its completion and it remains without silver. (Hem., 2/96, p.58) 1483 nend Feb 14, Zahir al-Din Mohammed Babur Shah, prince, founder Mughal dynasty in India (1526-30), was born. (MC, 2/14/02) 1483 nend Apr 6, Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio, d.1520), Dutch painter (Sistine Madonna), was born to an unremarkable painter in the Duchy of Urbino. He went on to paint famous works in the Vatican. After an apprenticeship in Perugia, he went to Florence, having heard of the work da Vinci and Michelangelo were doing. His last 12 years were spent on numerous commissions in Rome. He died on his 37th birthday, his funeral mass being celebrated in the Vatican. . (HN, 4/6/98)(HNQ, 11/17/00) 1483 nend Apr 9, Edward IV (b.1442), King of England (1461-70, 71-83) died. His young sons, Edward and Richard, were left in the protection of their uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester. He housed them in the Tower of London where they were probably murdered on his orders. (www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/edward_iv_king.shtml) 1483 nend Jun 25, Edward V, king of England (Apr 9-Jun 25, 1483), was murdered. (MC, 6/25/02) 1483 nend Jun 26, Richard III, Duke of Gloucester, usurped himself to the English throne. (HN, 6/26/98)(MC, 6/26/02) 1483 nend Jul 6, England's King Richard III was crowned. (AP, 7/6/97) 1483 nend Aug 9, Pope Sixtus IV celebrated the first mass in the Sistine Chapel, which was named in his honor. (HN, 8/9/98) 1483 nend Oct 17, The Reverend Dr. Tomas de Torquemada, OP, was appointed inquisitor-general of Spain. (MC, 10/17/01) 1483 nend Nov 2, Henry Stafford (b.1454), earl of Buckingham and constable of England, was beheaded at Salisbury for his rebellion against King Richard III (1452-1485). (DoW, 1999, p.71) 1483 nend Nov 10, Martin Luther, leader of the Protestant Reformation, was born in Eisleben, Germany. He was a monk in the Catholic Church until 1517, when he founded the Lutheran Church. He died in 1546. (V.D.-H.K.p.163)(Voruta #27-28, Jul 1996, p.10)(SFC, 7/21/97,p.A11)(AP, 11/10/97) 1483 nend Dec 24, Leaders of the English rebels swore fealty to Henry Tudor in the Cathedral of Rennes in Brittany. (ON, 12/06, p.1) 1483 nend Felice della Rovere (d.1536), illegitimate daughter of Pope Julius II (r.1503-1513), was born about this time. Her mother was a member of the Normanni, an illustrious Roman family long in decline. In 2005 Caroline P. Murphy authored ?The Pope?s Daughter: The Extraordinary Life of Felice della Rovere.? (www.jsonline.com/enter/books/reviews/jul05/339335.asp) 1483 nend When King Vladislav restored Catholic dominion, a dissident band of Hussites threw the Catholic mayor [Prague?] out of the window. (NH, 9/96, p.24) 1483 1505 Trithemius, author and monk, served as the abbot of a Benedictine monastery. His work included "De Laude Scriptorium" (In Praise of Scribes). (SSFC, 2/22/04, p.M6) 1484 nend Mar 4, Casimir (Kazimierz), the son of Lithuania's Grand Duke Casimir, died in Grodno at age 25. In 1602 he was declared a saint and protector of Lithuania. St. Casimir was born Oct 3,1458, in Cracow. (LHC, 3/4/03) 1484 nend Aug 12, Pope Sixtus IV died. His rule was marked by nepotism and he was involved in a conspiracy to overthrow the Medici in Florence. (PTA, 1980, p.420) 1484 nend Aug 29, Cardinal Cibo was crowned as Pope Innocent VIII. (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08562a.htm) 1484 nend Dec 5, Pope Innocent VIII issued a bull deploring the spread of witchcraft and heresy in Germany. He ordered that all cats belonging to witches scheduled to be burned, be also burned. Kraemer and Sprenger, two Dominican friars, had induced Pope Innocent VIII to issue a bull authorizing them to extirpate witchcraft in Germany. [see 1486] (SFEC, 1/5/97, Z1 p.2)(HN, 12/5/98)(HNQ, 10/31/99) 1484 nend Bartolomeo di Giovanni Corradini, Italian painter who joined the Dominican order as Fra Carnevale, died. (Econ, 12/11/04, p.82) 1484 1768 The Nepalese city-states of Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur, were each ruled by its own Malla king after the Malla dynasty divided up the Kathmandu Valley. (SSFC, 9/21/03, p.C8) 1485 nend Aug 1, Henry (VII) Tudor's army set sail from Harfleur to Wales. (ON, 12/06, p.1) 1485 nend Aug 7, Henry (VII) Tudor's army landed in Milford Haven, South-Wales. (ON, 12/06, p.1) 1485 nend Aug 22, Henry Tudor defeated Richard III (32) at Bosworth. England's King Richard III (1483-1485), the last of the Plantagenet kings, was killed in the Battle of Bosworth. This victory established the Tudor dynasty in England and ended the War of the Roses. 12 miles west of Leicester, the forces of Richard III met the forces under Henry Tudor (later to become Henry VII). Henry Tudor had returned from French exile on August 7 at Milford Haven and assembled forces including two Yorkist defectors, Thomas Stanley and his brother Sir William. These allies, plus the defection of Henry Percy, the 4th earl of Northumberland helped decide the outcome of the battle. Richard, whose forces had taken position on Ambien Hill, died fighting in an attempt to get at Henry Tudor himself. (AP, 8/22/97)(HN, 6/26/98)(HN, 8/22/98)(HNQ, 8/22/00) 1485 nend Sep 3, Henry Tudor entered London following his Aug 22 victory at Bosworth. (ON, 12/06, p.4) 1485 nend Oct 30, Henry Tudor (1457-1509) of England was crowned as Henry VII. This followed his defeat of King Richard III at Bosworth Field on Aug 22. (HN, 10/30/98)(DoW, 1999, p.66) 1485 nend Dec 16, Katherine of Argon, first wife of Henry VIII, was born. (HN, 12/16/98) 1485 nend Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510) painted "Venus and Mars" about this time. (WSJ, 6/16/07, p.P16) 1485 nend William Caxton, the first printer in Britain, published "Le Morte Darthur" by Sir Thomas Mallory (c1400-1471). (WUD, 1994, p.868)(SFC, 2/15/97, p.D1) 1485 nend The medical encyclopedia "Gart der Gesundheit" described the female mandrake, thought to stop bleeding, and to scream when pulled by its roots. (WSJ, 7/7/98, p.A14) 1485 nend Yeoman Warders, all men, began patrolling the parapets and passages of the Tower of London. They became known colloquially as Beefeaters because of the rations of meat they were given during medieval times. In 2007 the 1st woman joined their ranks. (AP, 1/3/07) 1485 nend Diogo Cao, Portuguese explorer, sailed south beyond Cape Palmas, beyond Cape St. Catherine, until he reached Cape Cross (Namibia) at 22? south latitude. His expedition returned to Portugal in 1486. (V.D.-H.K.p.124)(ATC, p.149)(ON, 11/07, p.1) 1485 1545 Jean Clouet, French painter. He painted "Francis I, King of France." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.280) 1485 1547 Hernando Cortes, Spanish conqueror of Mexico. He is credited with naming California after an island in "Sergas de Esplandian," a popular romance in the early 1500s. (HFA, '96, p.65) 1485 1603 The Tudor family ruled over England. (WUD, 1994, p.1523) 1486 nend Jan 18, King Henry VII (1457-1509) married Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV. This ended the Wars of the Roses. (HN, 1/18/99)(ON, 12/06, p.4) 1486 nend Feb 12, In Toledo, Spain, some 750 lapsed Christians were paraded through the streets of Toledo from the Church of San Pedro Martir to the cathedral in order to be reconciled to the Christian faith. In the Auto Da Fe at Toledo the Jews were forced to recant, fined 1/5 of their property and permanently forbidden to wear decent clothes or hold office. (SSFC, 11/13/05, p.M3)(www.jewishhistory.org.il/1480.htm) 1486 nend Mar 4, Jogaila was crowned king of Poland. (LC, 1998, p.12) 1486 nend May 1, Christopher Columbus convinced Queen Isabella to fund expedition to the West Indies. (HN, 5/1/98) 1486 nend Jul 14, Andrea del Sarto (d.1531), aka Vanucchi or di Francesco, Italian Renaissance artist (Recollets), was born. He represented what Vasari called the terza maniera, the third or modern manner of painting. (WUD, 1994, p.55)(WSJ, 10/29/96, p.A21)(MC, 7/14/02) 1486 nend Sep 14, Heinrich Agrippa von Nettesheim (d.1535), German occultist, alchemist, royal astrologer, was born in Cologne. (www.britannica.com) 1486 nend Pico Mirandola challenged the scholars of all of Europe that he would defend a list of nine hundred thesis drawn from various Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and Arabic authors. His list came to the attention of the Vatican, which found thirteen of the theses heretical. Pico was stunned and issued an immediate recantation but was imprisoned for a short time anyway. Later in Florence he wrote "On the Dignity of Man," where he implied that man is the spiritual center of the universe, or that perhaps he is one focus and God the other. (V.D.-H.K.p.139) 1486 nend Heinrich Kraemer and Johann Sprenger, Dominican friars, published Malleus melefircarum (The Witches? Hammer), which became the authoritative encyclopedia of demonology throughout Christendom. The authority of their work, which was a synthesis of folk beliefs that had until then been manifested in local outbursts of witch finding, lasted through the European witch craze of the next three centuries. [see 1486, Dec 5] (HNQ, 10/31/99) 1486 nend King Joao II of Portugal chose Bartolomeu Dias (~1450-1500 to attempt to find a route to India around Africa. Diaz departed with 3 ships in the fall of 1487. (ON, 11/07, p.2)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolomeu_Dias) 1487 nend Jun 16, Battle at Stoke: Henry VII beat John de la Pole & Lord Lovell. (MC, 6/16/02) 1487 nend Aug, Bartolomeu Dias, Portuguese explorer, set out from Lisbon in August, and sailed south to the Cape Verde Islands and past Cape Cross. Storms forced him out to sea and when the winds moderated he continued east but found nothing. He turned north and then sighted land. (V.D.-H.K.p.173) 1487 nend Sep 10, Julius III, Italian counter-Reformation Pope (1550-1555), was born. He was also a poet and promoted the Jesuits. (WUD, 1994, p.773)(HN, 9/10/98)(MC, 9/10/01) 1487 nend Hans Memling (c.1440-1494), Flemish painter, painted the diptych ?Virgin and Child? and ?Maarten van Nieuwenhove? (1463-1500), who was his patron. (SFC, 10/18/05, p.D2)(SFC, 12/23/06, p.E12) 1487 nend Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger, Dominican inquisitors, authored ?Malleus Maleficarum? (The Hammer of Witches), which spoke of supernatural horrors that witches performed and provided advice on identifying them. In 2006 Christopher Mackay provided a critical translation in English. (WSJ, 1/19/08, p.W8) 1487 nend Lorenzo the Magnificent ordered a giraffe from Africa and a cardinal?s hat for his 13-year-old son from Pope Innocent VIII. In return for the hat Lorenzo promised the hand of his eldest daughter for the Pope?s illegitimate son along with a nice loan. The giraffe was procured from Sultan Qaitbay, the Ottoman ruler of Egypt. Pope Innocent promised to get Queen Anne of France to hand over Djem, the exiled brother of Qaitbay, for use as a pawn. Lorenzo promised to give the giraffe to Anne. In 2006 the story was covered by Marina Belozerskaya in her book ?The Medici Giraffe.? (WSJ, 8/19/06, p.P9) 1488 nend Feb 3, Bartolomeu Dias, Portuguese explorer, sighted the coast of Africa sailing north and made landing at Mossel Bay (South Africa) and realized that they had rounded the continent. He saw the southern tip on his return journey in May and named it Cabo Tormentoso (Cape of Storms). He continued north to the Great Fish River near present day Port Elizabeth, and then returned home in December. King Jaoa changed the cape?s name to Cape of Good Hope to encourage future explorers. (V.D.-H.K.p.173)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolomeu_Dias)(ON,11/07, p.2) 1488 nend Jun 11, James III, king of Scotland, died in the battle of Sauchieburn, Scotland. (SC, 6/11/02)(PC, 1992, p.157) 1488 nend Oct 7, Andrea del Verrocchio, sculptor, painter, goldsmith, died at 52. (MC, 10/7/01) 1489 nend Feb 14, Henry VII and Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I ally to assist the Bretons in the Treaty of Dordrecht. (http://tudors.crispen.org/chronology/index.html) 1489 nend Apr 6, Hans Waldmann, Swiss military, mayor (Zurich), was beheaded. (MC, 4/6/02) 1489 nend Jul 2, Thomas Cranmer, first Protestant archbishop of Canterbury (1533-1556), was born. (HN, 7/2/01) 1489 nend A sculpture St. George and the Dragon, created by Bernt Notke, was unveiled in Stockholm, Sweden. He composed the dragon entirely of elk horns. (SSFC, 8/19/07, p.G4) 1489 1490 The plague ravaged the Netherlands. (WSJ, 10/12/98, p.A17) 1490 nend Mar 23, 1st dated edition of Maimonides "Mishna Torah" was published. (SS, 3/23/02) 1490 nend Apr 6, Matthias Corvinus (b.1443), king of Hungary and Croatia (1458-1590), died. He has assembled one of Europe?s finest libraries, 2nd in size only to that in the Vatican. When Hungary later fell to the Turks the library was lost. In 2008 Marcus Tanner authored ?The Raven King: Matthias Corvinus and the Fate of His Lost Library.? (Econ, 7/19/08,p.93)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias_Corvinus_of_Hungary) 1490 nend Francois Rabelais (d.1553), French physician, satirist and humorist, was born. [see 1494] (WUD, 1994, p.1183)(V.D.-H.K.p.143)(SSFC, 2/10/02, p.G5) 1490 nend In Venice the Aldine Press opened and went on to publish the first pocket editions of poetry and Greek classics. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1490 nend A version of the legal handbook "Statham?s Abridgement" was printed. A copy later became part of the collection of the SF law library and was stolen by a city bookbinder. The text is classed as part of the "incunabula," or books printed in the first 50 years after the introduction of movable type by Gutenberg in 1450. (SFC, 5/15/97, p.A26) 1490 nend Anne of Brittany married by proxy the recently widowed Maximilian of Hapsburg who had inherited Burgundy and Flanders from his first wife. Brittany was under siege by France and Maximilian failed to send troops in its defense. Anne had her marriage annulled and married the French Dauphin who had been engaged to marry Margaret of Austria, the daughter of Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy. Anne?s portrait was later painted by Jan Mostaert (WSJ, 7/30/97, p.A13) 1490 nend Christopher Columbus was permitted to make his proposal to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain. He asked to be made a noble with eternal title in the family, and to receive 10% commission on all transactions from his found domain. He was initially turned down and left for France and England, but was then called back and his requests were met. (V.D.-H.K.p.175) 1490 nend Linz became the capital of the province of Upper Austria. (StuAus, April '95, p.39) 1490 nend Ashikaga Yoshimasa (55), former Shogun of Japan (1449-1478), died. (ON, 7/01, p.5) 1490 nend The Portuguese king sent teachers and missionaries to Mani-Kongo in southwest Africa. Mani-Kongo converted to Christianity and later his son became king with the Christian name of Affonso I. (ATC, p.152) 1490 1491 Chinese, Japanese, and Korean astronomers reported a bright comet for 48 nights during the mid-winter weeks of these 2 years. An Italian astronomer again saw its sunlit debris in 1825 and it became known as the Quadrantid meteor shower. It was later cataloged as 2003EH_1. In 2003 it was related to a star explosion over 500 million earlier. (SFC, 12/31/03, p.A2) c 1490 nend s Muslims of the Songhai Empire in West Africa supported Askia Muhammad, who overthrew Sunni Ali?s son, and declared Islam the state religion. Songhai grew and expanded to become the greatest trade empire of West Africa. (ATC, p.121) c 1490 nend s Civil wars weakened Monomutapa in East Africa and by the 1500s the empire was split in two. (ATC, p.148) c 1490 nend s The Medici went bankrupt. (Wired, 8/96, p.118) 1490 1495 Tullio Lombardi created his sculpture "Adam." (WSJ, 5/18/00, p.A24) 1490 1500 Hieronymus Bosch, Dutch artist, painted "Christ Mocked (The Crowning With Thorns)." (WSJ, 6/19/00, p.A42) 1490 1700 This period was covered in 2003 by Diarmaid MacCulloch in the book "Reformation: Europe's House Divided 1490-1700." (Econ, 12/13/03, p.82) 1491 nend Jun 28, Henry VIII, King of England (1509-1547) and founder of the Church of England, was born at Greenwich. He later divorced four times. An inventory of his wealth in 1547 estimated his wealth at £300,000 and his military equipment at another £300,000. (CFA, '96, p.48)(AP, 6/28/99)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1491 nend Nov 15, 6 Jews and 5 Conversos (Jews who pretend to be Catholic converts) were accused of killing Christians in La Guardia, Spain. (MC, 11/15/01) 1491 nend Dec 24, Ignatius Loyola (d.1556), Spanish soldier and ecclesiastic, was born. He founded the Society of Jesus, i.e. the Jesuits, wrote Spiritual Exercises, and introduced a new flexibility that enabled a worldwide ministry. (CFA, '96, p.60)(CU, 6/87) 1491 nend Perkin Warbeck appeared in Ireland and claimed to be the missing Duke of York, thought by many to have been murdered by Richard III. After winning support in France and Scotland, Warbeck's fortunes turned and he was captured and executed in 1497. (HNQ, 4/17/02) 1491 nend William Caxton (b.1422), 1st English printer (Histories of Troy), died. (http://tinyurl.com/cj5dn)(WSJ, 5/12/05, p.D8) 1491 nend Pietro Roccabonella, doctor of medicine and lecturer at the Univ. of Padua, died. (SFEC, 2/15/98, BR p.8) 1492 nend Jan 2, Boabdil, the leader of the last Arab stronghold in Spain surrendered to Spanish forces loyal to King Ferdinand II and Queen Isabella I. Sultan Muhammad XI surrendered, ending Muslin rule in Spain. The combined Catholic forces of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile drove out the last of the Berbers from Spain. The Moors were expelled. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella took the town of Grenada, the last Moslem kingdom in Spain. The event became marked by an annual festival that began around 1516. (ATC, p.73,100)(AP, 1/2/98)(SFEC, 3/22/98, p.T11)(HN, 1/2/99)(WSJ,1/2/02, p.A6)(SSFC, 1/27/02, p.C20) 1492 nend Jan 23, "Pentateuch," a Jewish holy book, was first printed. (MC, 1/23/02) 1492 nend Mar 30, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella signed a decree expelling all Jews from Spain. Jews numbered about 80,000 and it was estimated that about half chose to convert. [see Mar 31] (HN, 3/30/98)(WSJ, 4/16/98, p.A20) 1492 nend Mar 31, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain issued an edict expelling Jews from Spanish soil, except those willing to convert to Christianity. In 2002 Claudia Roden authored "The Ornament of the World," a collection of stories of Sephardic Jews in Spain from 750 to 1492. [see Mar 30] (AP, 3/30/97)(WSJ, 4/26/02, p.W12) 1492 nend Apr 8, Lorenzo I de' Medici ("il Magnifico"), ruler of Florence (1469-92), died. (MC, 4/8/02) 1492 nend Apr 17, A contract was signed by Christopher Columbus and a representative of Spain's King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, giving Columbus a commission to seek a westward ocean passage to find the Indies [to Asia]. (AP, 4/17/97)(HN, 4/17/98) 1492 nend Apr 30, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella granted Christopher Columbus specific privileges and prerogatives regarding the discovery and conquest of islands and a continent in the (western) ocean. (DAH, 1946, p.1) 1492 nend May 15, Cheese and Bread rebellion: German mercenaries killed 232 Alkmaarse. (MC, 5/15/02) 1492 nend Jun 16, Jan Coppenhole, Flemish rebel leader, was beheaded. (MC, 6/16/02) 1492 nend Aug 2, Jews were expelled from Spain by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. [see Mar 31] (MC, 8/2/02) 1492 nend Aug 3, Christopher Columbus, set sail from the port of Palos, in southern Spain and headed for Cipangu, i.e. Japan. The voyage took him to the present-day Americas. His squadron consisted of three small ships, the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Nina. The 2nd ship was owned by Cristóbal Quintero, and was named Pinta. The 3rd ship was owned by Juan Niño, and was named the Santa Clara, but became known by its nickname, the Nina. (http://tinyurl.com/774v3)(SFEM, 11/15/98, p.23)(SFEC, 8/8/99, Z1 p.8) 1492 nend Aug 11, Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia Lanzol (61), father of Cesare and Lucretia, became Pope Alexander VI (d.1503). He siphoned off untold riches from Church funds. Borgia arrived in Rome from Spain in 1449 and Italianized his name from Borja to Borgia. His rise in the church was helped a great deal when his uncle became Pope Calixtus III. (HN, 8/10/98)(PTA, p.424)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R4)(MC, 8/11/02) 1492 nend Sep 6, Columbus' fleet sailed from Gomera, Canary islands. (http://tinyurl.com/774v3) 1492 nend Sep 25, Crew members aboard one of Christopher Columbus' ships, the Pinta, shouted that they could see land, but it turned out to be a false sighting. (AP, 9/25/99) 1492 nend Oct 7, Columbus changed course to the southwest. As a result he missed Florida. (http://tinyurl.com/774v3) 1492 nend Oct 11, Rodrigo de Triana, a sailor on the Pinta, sighted land (the Bahamas) on the horizon. (http://tinyurl.com/774v3) 1492 nend Oct 12, (Old Style calendar; Oct. 21 New Style), Christopher Columbus sited land, an island of the Bahamas which he named San Salvador, but which was called Guanahani by the local Taino people. Seeking to establish profitable Asian trade routes by sailing west, Columbus seriously underestimated the size of the Earth--never dreaming that two great continents blocked his path to the east. Even after four voyages to America, Columbus believed until the end of his life in 1506 that he had discovered an isolated corner of Asia. (NH, 10/96, p.22)(AP, 10/12/97)(HNPD,10/12/98)(http://tinyurl.com/774v3) 1492 nend Oct 16, Columbus' fleet anchored at "Fernandina" (Long Island, Bahamas). (http://tinyurl.com/774v3) 1492 nend Oct 17, Columbus sighted the isle of San Salvador (Watling Island, Bahamas). (http://tinyurl.com/774v3) 1492 nend Oct 19, Columbus sighted "Isabela" (Fortune Island, Bahamas). (http://tinyurl.com/774v3) 1492 nend Oct 21, Columbus landed on San Salvador Island (Bahamas-Watling Island). (http://tinyurl.com/774v3) 1492 nend Oct 26, Columbus' fleet anchored on Ragged Island Range, Bahamas. (MC, 10/26/01) 1492 nend Oct 26, Lead pencils were 1st used. (MC, 10/26/01) 1492 nend Oct 28, Christopher Columbus discovered Cuba and claimed it for Spain. (http://tinyurl.com/dfzzk) 1492 nend Nov 5, Christopher Columbus learned of maize (corn) from the Indians of Cuba. (MC, 11/5/01) 1492 nend Nov 7, A meteorite landed in Ensisheim, Germany. Emperor Maximilian visited Ensisheim 15 days after the fall and ordered that the Ensisheim meteorite be preserved in the local church. A piece of the stone was put up for auction in 2007. (www.meteorite.fr/en/basics/history.htm)(Econ, 10/27/07, p.96) 1492 nend Nov 15, Christopher Columbus noted the 1st recorded reference to tobacco. (MC, 11/15/01) 1492 nend Nov 21, Pinta under Martin Pinzon separated from Columbus' fleet. (MC, 11/21/01) 1492 nend Dec 5, Columbus discovered Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic). (http://tinyurl.com/dfzzk) 1492 nend Dec 24-1492 Dec 25, The Santa Maria under Columbus ran aground on a reef off Espanola on Christmas eve, and sank the next day. With the remains of the Santa Maria, Columbus built a fort and called it La Navidad. (http://tinyurl.com/dfzzk) 1492 nend Dec 31, 100,000 Jews were expelled from Sicily. (MC, 12/31/01) c 1492 nend Andrea Montegna, Italian painter, created his "Descent Into Limbo," a depiction of Christ descending into limbo to liberate the souls of the righteous. In 2003 the work sold for $28 million. (SFC, 1/24/03, p.D2) c 1492 nend Research in 2003 indicated that the Kuikuro people in the Amazon basin had a "complex and sophisticated" civilization with a population of many thousands prior to 1492. (AP, 9/19/03) 1492 nend Leonardo da Vinci drew a flying machine. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1492 nend Piero della Francesca (b.1415/1420), Italian artist, died. His work included ?The Virgin and child with Saints, angels and Federigo da Montefeltro? (1472-1474). (WSJ, 2/2/08, p.W14) 1492 nend Jews began arriving in Morocco after their expulsion from Spain. (SFEC, 7/25/99, p.T11) c 1492 nend In Portugal about this time King Manuel I, bedazzled by the Moorish tiles at the Alhambra in Spain, brought home enough to decorate his palace in Sintra. (SFEC, 4/26/98, p.T6) 1492 nend Sephardic Jews were welcomed by the Ottoman Empire after their expulsion from Spain. (SFEC, 3/28/99, p.T4) 1492 1870 Some 11 million African people were brought to the New World as slaves during this period. (SFEC,11/16/97, BR p.4) 1493 nend Jan 2, Columbus departed La Navidad, Hispaniola, and sailed eastward along the coast. (www1.minn.net/~keithp/v1.htm) 1493 nend Jan 4, Ivan III, Grand Duke of Moscow, announced the 1st war with Lithuania. In fact the war had begun in 1487. (LHC, 1/4/03) 1493 nend Jan 6, Columbus encountered the Pinta along the north coast of Hispaniola. (www1.minn.net/~keithp/v1.htm) 1493 nend Jan 9, Christopher Columbus 1st sighted manatees. (MC, 1/9/02) 1493 nend Jan 12, This was the last day for all Jews to leave Sicily. (MC, 1/12/02) 1493 nend Jan 16, Columbus aboard the Nina departed Hispaniola along with the Pinta to return to Spain. (www1.minn.net/~keithp/v1.htm) 1493 nend Mar 15, Christopher Columbus returned to Spain, concluding his first voyage to the Western Hemisphere. (AP, 3/15/97)(HN, 3/15/98) 1493 nend Apr 15, Columbus met with King Ferdinand and Isabella in Barcelona. (MC, 4/15/02) 1493 nend May 1, Phillippus Paracelsus (d.1541), physician and alchemist, was born in Switzerland. He was christened as Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim. (HN, 5/1/98)(NH, 6/00, p.30,34)(MC, 5/1/02) 1493 nend May 3-1493 May 4, Pope Alexander VI issued 3 papal bulls that divided the discoveries of Columbus between Spain and Portugal. By the Bulls of May 3 and 4 he drew an imaginary line one hundred leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. The May 4 Bull, ?Inter Caetera,? was amended in Sep. granting Spain the right to hold lands to the ?western regions and to India.? (DAH, 1946, p.2)(www.kwabs.com/bull_of_1493.html) 1493 nend Aug 19, Maximilian succeeded his father Frederick III as Holy Roman Emperor. Frederick III of Innsbruck (77), German Emperor (1440-1493), died. (HN, 8/19/98)(MC, 8/19/02) 1493 nend Sep 25, Christopher Columbus set sail from Cadiz, Spain, with a flotilla of 17 ships on his 2nd voyage to the Western Hemisphere. He was accompanied by 13 clerics; Alvarez Chanca, a physician who left valuable accounts of the voyage; Juan Ponce de Leon; Juan de la Cosa, a cartographer; and Columbus?s younger brother Bartholomew. (AP, 9/25/97)(AM, 7/97, p.58) 1493 nend Oct 13, Christopher Columbus left the Canary Islands with 16 ships and over 1000 men on his 2nd voyage to the New World. (http://tinyurl.com/dfzzk)(http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v2.htm) 1493 nend Nov 3, Christopher Columbus discovered the Caribbee Isles (Dominica) during his second expedition. He and his crew of 1,500 built the town of La Isabela on the northern coast of the Dominican Republic. It was abandoned within 5 years due in part to poor relations with the Taino Indians. This area was part of the chiefdom of Higuey. (AM, 7/97, p.54,60)(http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v2.htm) 1493 nend Nov 4, Christopher Columbus discovered Guadeloupe during his second expedition. (HN, 11/4/98) 1493 nend Nov 10, Christopher Columbus discovered Antigua during his second expedition. (HN, 11/10/98) 1493 nend Nov 11, Columbus discovered Saba, North Leeward Islands (Netherland Antilles). (WUD, 1994 p.1257)(MC, 11/11/01) 1493 nend Nov 12, Christopher Columbus discovered the island of Redonda during his second expedition. It was about 34 miles WSW of Antigua. (www.redonda.org/redonda.html#1869) 1493 nend Nov 19, Christopher Columbus discovered Puerto Rico on his 2nd voyage. Juan Ponce de Leon was a member of Columbus? crew. (HT, 4/97, p.28)(MC, 11/19/01) 1493 nend Nov 22, Christopher Columbus arrived at Hispaniola. (AM, 7/97, p.54,60)(http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v2.htm) 1493 nend Nov 28, Christopher Columbus arrived La Navidad, Hispaniola. He found the fort burned and his men from the 1st voyage dead. According to the account of Guacanagari, the local chief who had befriended Columbus on the first voyage, the men at Navidad had fallen to arguing among themselves over women and gold. (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v2.htm) 1493 nend Dec 8, Christopher Columbus and his crew of 1,500 built the town of La Isabela on the northern coast of the Dominican Republic. It was abandoned within 5 years due in part to poor relations with the Taino Indians. This area was part of the chiefdom of Higuey. (AM, 7/97, p.54,60)(http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v2.htm) 1493 nend The 600-page "World Chronicle" by physician Hartmann Schedel (1440-1513) was first published in Nuremburg. One copy is held at the Library of the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna, Austria. Anton Koberger, a Nuremberg publisher, published 2,500 copies of the "Nuremberg Chronicle" by Hartmann Schedel. It included woodcuts by Michael Wohlgemuth and Wilhelm Pleyenwurff. (StuAus, April '95, p.49)(SFC, 3/1/02,p.D18)(www.newadvent.org/cathen/13525a.htm) 1493 nend Columbus landed a small herd of swine on the island of Cuba. (ON, 4/01, p.4) 1493 nend Columbus named Montserrat after the monastery near Barcelona. He did not bother to land on the island. (NH, Jul, p.20) 1493 nend Columbus sailed into St. Croix?s Salt River Bay. (NG, Jan, 1968, C. Mitchell, p. 73) 1493 nend Columbus discovered a group of islands, now called the Virgin Islands, that he christened Las Once Mil Virgenes, in memory of St. Ursula and her 11,000 martyr virgins who were slaughtered by the Huns at Cologne in the 5th century. (SFEC, 2/15/98, p.T8) 1493 nend Pavia?s pawn bank was founded. It was later absorbed by Italy?s Banca Regionale Europea. (Econ, 5/27/06, p.73) 1493 nend In Russia after a major fire in Moscow, Ivan III forbade the construction of wooden buildings in the old city. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.33) 1493 1519 Maximilian I (1459-1519), Holy Roman Emperor over this period. (WUD, 1994, p.886) 1494 nend Jan 6, The 1st Roman Catholic Mass in the New World marked the official establishment of La Isabela. (AM, 7/97, p.58) 1494 nend Jan 25, Ferdinand I (b.1423), cruel king of Naples, died. He was also called Don Ferrante and was the natural son of Alfonso V of Aragon. (MC, 1/25/02)(Wikipedia) 1494 nend Jan, In the Dominican Republic there was a failed rebellion against Columbus. The revolt was organized by Bernal de Pisa, the royal accountant, who was unhappy with the poor return of gold. Pisa was jailed and several others were hanged. (AM, 7/97, p.57,59) 1494 nend Feb 2, Columbus began the practice using Indians as slaves. (HN, 2/2/01) 1494 nend Feb 20, Johan Friis, chancellor (Denmark, helped formed Lutheranism), was born. (MC, 2/20/02) 1494 nend Apr 20, John Agricola, [Schneider], German theologian, prime minister, was born. (MC, 4/20/02) 1494 nend Apr 24, Columbus departed Isabela, Hispaniola, with 3 ships in an effort to reach China, which he believed was nearby. (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v2.htm) 1494 nend Apr 30, Christopher Columbus arrived at Cuba on his 2nd voyage to the Americas. (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v2.htm) 1494 nend May 5, During his second voyage to the Western Hemisphere, Christopher Columbus first sighted Jamaica and commented on the daily rains. Columbus landed on the island of Jamaica, which he names Santa Gloria. (NOHY, 3/90, p.183)(AP, 5/5/97)(HN, 5/5/98) 1494 nend May 13, Columbus found the natives on Jamaica hostile and left for Cuba. (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v2.htm) 1494 nend May 25, Jacopo Pontormo (d.1557), Italian painter (Sepulture of Christ), was born. He represented what Vasari called the terza maniera, the third or modern manner of painting. (WUD, 1994, p.1118)(WSJ, 10/29/96, p.A21)(SC, 5/25/02) 1494 nend Jun 7, Spain and Portugal divided the new lands they had discovered between themselves. King Joao II signed the Treaty of Tordesillas in which he conceded to Spain a monopoly on Columbus? western route in exchange for a Portuguese monopoly on the eastern route. (HN, 6/7/98)(ON, 11/07, p.2)(www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1028.html) 1494 nend Aug 11, Hans Memling (b.1435), German-born master of Flemish painting, died in Brugge. (www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/memling/) 1494 nend Aug 20, Columbus returned to Hispaniola. He had confirmed that Jamaica was an island and failed to find a mainland. (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v2.htm) 1494 nend Sep 12, Francois I of Valois-Angoulome, king of France (1515-47), was born. (MC, 9/12/01) 1494 nend Nov 5, Hans Sachs, cobbler, poet, composer, was born in Nuremberg. He was also the prototype for Wagner's "Die Meistersinger." (MC, 11/5/01) 1494 nend Nov 6, Suleiman I (d.1566), the Great, Ottoman sultan (1520-66), was born. Suleiman the Magnificent, ruler of the Ottoman Empire, was reported to have a harem of 2,000 women. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8)(MC, 11/6/01) 1494 nend Nov 8, Uprising against Piero de' Medici in Florence, Italy. (MC, 11/8/01) 1494 nend Lodovico il Moro, the duke of Milan, commissioned Leonardo da Vinci to paint "The Last Supper" (Cenacolo). (WSJ, 6/2/99, p.A24) 1494 nend Luca Pacioli, considered the father of accounting, published a book on bookkeeping. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R55) c 1494 nend Father Ramon Pane wrote an account of the Taino religion at the request of Christopher Columbus. (AM, 7/97, p.61) 1494 nend Carol Verardi in Basel published an illustrated report of the first expedition to the new world by Christopher Columbus. (HNPD, 10/12/98) 1494 nend The earliest report of Scots making whiskey was made. [see 1495] (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1494 nend Piero Medici, son of Lorenzo and head of the Medici family, fled Florence in the face of a French invasion. Savonarola took the opportunity to lead Florence in restoring a representative government. (WSJ, 7/10/98, p.W11)(Econ, 4/23/05, p.82) 1494 nend In Italy humanist philosopher Giovanni Pico della Mirandola and writer Angelo Ambrogini, better known as Poliziano, both died. In 2007 their bodies were exhumed from Florence's St. Mark's Basilica. The men were thought to be lovers. Both Pico and Poliziano tutored Lorenzo de Medici's son Giovanni, who as Pope Leo X helped make Rome a cultural center of Renaissance Europe. (AP, 7/27/07) 1494 1547 In France the time of King Francois I. The stench along the Seine drove him from the Hotel des Tournelles. Cesspools and the guild that emptied them, the Maitres Fy-Fy, developed at this time. (Hem., 3/97, p.132) 1494 1553 Francois Rabelais, French satirist: "If you wish to avoid seeing a fool you must first break your mirror." [see 1490, 1553] (AP, 2/23/98) 1494 1576 Hans Sachs, German Meistersinger. He authored stories, songs, poems and dramatic works. He later became the central figure in Wagner?s Meistersinger. (WUD, 1994 p.1258)(WSJ, 10/2/01, p.A17) 1495 nend Jan 28, Pope Alexander VI gave his son Cesare Borgia as hostage to Charles VIII of France. (MC, 1/28/02) 1495 nend Feb 5, The 1st Lithuanian Russian war ended with the signing of a peace treaty in Moscow. (LHC, 2/5/03) 1495 nend Mar 8, Juan de Dios, Portuguese-Spanish saint, founder (Brothers of Mercy), was born. (MC, 3/8/02) 1495 nend Jun 1, The first written record of Scotch Whiskey appeared in the Exchequer Rolls of Scotland. Friar John Cor was the distiller. The later J&B brand stood for Justerini and Brooks. [see 1494] (DTnet, 6/1/97)(SFEC,12/28/97, Z1 p.2) 1495 nend Oct 25, Portugal?s King Joao II died without leaving male issue. He was succeeded by his brother-in-law Manuel I. (www.nndb.com/people/561/000095276/) 1495 nend Nov 27, Scottish king James IV received Perkin Warbeck (21), a pretender to the English throne. James gave Warbeck, a Walloon, Lady Catherine Gordon in marriage. (MC, 11/27/01)(PCh, 1992, p.160) 1495 nend Leonardo da Vinci sketched a design of a parachute. (SFEC, 9/8/96, zone 1 p.6) 1495 nend The Taino Indians on Hispaniola staged an organized attack on the Spaniards, but it was easily crushed. (AM, 7/97, p.59) 1495 nend In Korea King Yonsan-gun succeeded King Songjong. His reign was noted for his unscrupulous suppression of the literati. In 2005 the South Korean film industry produced ?The King and the Clown.? It was based on the 15th century monarch and a troupe of entertainers invited to his court. no_source c 1495 nend The 500-year-old body of a young Inca girl was found frozen near the summit of Mt. Ampato, Peru, by American archeologist Johan Reinhard in 1995. The girl was killed by a crushing blow to the head probably in a ritual sacrifice. (SFC, 5/22/96, p.A8) 1495 1498 Leonardo da Vinci worked on "The Last Supper" in Milan under commission for Duke Ludovico Sforza. The 15 by 28 foot work was undergoing a 20 year restoration in 1998 by Dr. Pinin Brambilla Barcilon. (SFEC, 4/12/98, Par p.4) 1496 nend Mar 5, English king Henry VII hired John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto) to explore. (MC, 3/5/02) 1496 nend Mar 9, Jews were expelled from Carinthia, Austria. (MC, 3/9/02) 1496 nend Mar 10, Christopher Columbus concluded his 2nd visit to the Western Hemisphere as he left Isabela, with 2 ships for Spain. He returned to Spain to ask for more support for his colony on Hispaniola. (AM, 7/97, p.59)(http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v2.htm) 1496 nend Mar 12, Jews were expelled from Syria. (HN, 3/12/98) 1496 nend cApr, Bartolome Columbus moved the colony to a new settlement on the south coast, named Isabela La Nueva. It was established on the east bank of the Ozama River. Columbus established Santo Domingo in what is now the Dominican Republic. (SFC, 5/17/96, p.A-14)(AM, 7/97, p.59)(SFEC, 2/14/99, p.T10) 1496 nend Dec 5, Jews were expelled from Portugal by order of King Manuel I. (MC, 12/5/01) 1496 nend Juan de Flandes painted ?Christ Calming the Storm,? a commission by Spain?s Queen Isabel. (WSJ, 12/16/04, p.D8) 1496 nend The "Treatyse of Fyshynge wyth an Angle" by Dame Juliana Berner was published. It was the first book on fishing ever written. [see 1425] (WSJ, 7/29/96, p.A11) 1496 nend La Laguna was founded on the island of Tenerife by Alonso Fernandez de Lugo, who conquered the Canary Islands for Spain. It served as Tenerife?s 1st. capital. (SSFC, 4/16/06, p.F7) 1496 nend Banca del Monte was founded in Milan. It was later absorbed by Italy?s Banca Regionale Europea. (Econ, 5/27/06, p.73) 1496 nend A Polish edict, pushed by Krakow?s gentile bakers, banned Jews from selling bagels within the city limits. (www.nextbook.org/cultural/feature.html?id=1075) 1496 1497 Michelangelo sculpted "Bacchus," considered his first masterpiece. (WSJ, 2/29/96, p.A-14) 1496 1498 Albrecht Durer made his woodcut "The Four Avenging Angels" from the Apocalypse. (LSA, fall/96, p.23) c 1496 1544 Clement Marot, early vernacular French writer. no_source 1497 nend Jan 6, Jews were expelled from Graz, Syria. [see Mar 12, 1496] (MC, 1/6/02) 1497 nend Feb 7, Followers of the priest Girolamo Savonarola collected and publicly burned thousands of objects in Florence, Italy, on the Shrove Tuesday festival. Tom Wolfe's 1997 novel, ?The Bonfire of the Vanities,? makes reference to the original event, but is not a retelling of the story. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonfire_of_the_Vanities) 1497 nend Feb 16, Philip Melanchthon, German Protestant reformer (Augsburgse Confessie), was born. (MC, 2/16/02) 1497 nend Mar 9, Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), Polish astronomer, made the 1st recorded astronomical observation. (WUD, 1994 p.322)(MC, 3/9/02) 1497 nend May 2, John Cabot departed for North America. [see Jun 24] (MC, 5/2/02) 1497 nend May 10, Italian navigator Amerigo Vespucci left for his 1st voyage to New World. (MC, 5/10/02) 1497 nend May 13, Pope Alexander VI excommunicated Girolamo Savonarola for heresy. In Florence the Dominican monk Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) had led the Feb 7 burning of musical instruments, books and priceless works of art. He preached against corruption in the Church and civil government. (Hem., 4/97, p.53)(WUD, 1994,p.1672)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolamo_Savonarola) 1497 nend Jun 24, Italian explorer John Cabot (1450-1498?), (aka Giovanni Caboto), on a voyage for England, landed in North America on what is now Newfoundland or the northern Cape Breton Island in Canada. He claimed the new land for King Henry VII. He documented the abundance of fish off the Grand Banks from Cape Cod to Labrador. (NH, 5/96, p.59)(WUD, 1994, p.206)(AP, 6/24/97)(HN, 6/24/98) 1497 nend Jul 8, Vasco da Gama, Portuguese explorer, departed on a trip to India. He sailed from Lisbon enroute to Calicut, India. His journey took him around South Africa and opened the Far East to European trade and colonial expansion. (V.D.-H.K.p.143)(WUD, 1994,p.1672)(www.indhistory.com/vasco-da-gama.html) 1497 nend Jul 22, Francesco Botticini (c52), Italian painter, died. (MC, 7/22/02) 1497 nend Jul 26, "Edward IV's son" Perkin Warbeck's army landed in Cork. (MC, 7/26/02) 1497 nend Aug 6, John Cabot returned to England after his first successful journey to the Labrador coast. (HN, 8/6/98) 1497 nend Aug 10, John Cabot told King Henry VII of his trip to "Asia." (MC, 8/10/02) 1497 nend Sep 7, Sailor Perkin Warbeck became [briefly] England?s King Richard I. Warbeck had invaded Cornwall after failing to find support in Ireland. He was soon forced to surrender and was imprisoned in the Tower of London. (MC, 9/7/01)(PCh, 1992, p.161) 1497 nend Sep, Henry VII defeated the Cornishmen at Blackheath. An insurrection in Cornwall had developed over taxes to support English defenses against Scottish invasion forces. (PCh, 1992, p.161) 1497 nend Nov 18, Vasco da Gama reached the Cape of Good Hope. (MC, 11/18/01) 1497 nend Nov 22, Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope. (MC, 11/22/01) 1497 nend Hans Holbein the Younger (d.1543), painter, was born in Augsburg, Bavaria. (WSJ, 12/30/06, p.P10)(www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/holbein/) 1497 nend Sandro Botticelli painted "The Calumny." It showed King Midas with donkey ears. (SFC, 10/7/03, p.D8) 1497 nend Portuguese Jews were forced to convert to Christianity and were known as "New Christians," though many continued to practice their original faith in secret. (WSJ, 6/8/98, p.A21) 1497 nend In Scotland the Declaration of Education Act required children to go to school. (SFEC, 12/27/98, Z1 p.8) 1498 nend Mar 2, Vasco da Gama's fleet visited Mozambique Island. (SC, 3/2/02) 1498 nend Apr 7, A crowd stormed Savonarola's convent of San Marco in Florence, Italy. (MC, 4/7/02) 1498 nend Apr 7, Vasco da Gama, Portuguese explorer, arrived at Mombasa, Kenya, where the Arabs repelled him. He sailed on to Malindi and came to terms with the local sultan, who supplied a pilot that knew the route to Calicut (Kozhikode), the most important commercial port in Southwest India at the time. (Econ, 9/30/06, p.58)(www.kenyalogy.com/eng/info/histo4.html) 1498 nend Apr 8, Charles VIII (27), King of France (1483-98), died while preparing a new expedition to invade Italy. He was succeeded by his Valois cousin the Duc d?Orleans (36), who reigned until 1515 as Louis XII. (PC, 1992 ed, p.161) 1498 nend May 20, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama arrived at Calicut (Kozhikkode) in Kerala, India. (www.indhistory.com/vasco-da-gama.html) 1498 nend May 23, The body of Girolamo Savonarola (45), moral scourge of Florence (1494-98), was burned along with 2 Dominican companions. An enraged crowd burned the previously hanged body of Savonarola at the same spot where he had ordered cultural works burned the year before. In 2006 Lauro Martines authored ?Fire in the City,? an account of Savonarola?s life. (WUD, 1994,p.1672)(www.historyguide.org/intellect/savonarola.html)(WSJ, 5/19/06, p.W6) 1498 nend May 30, Columbus departed Spain with 6 ships for his 3rd trip to America. He took 30 women along on his third trip to the New World. (V.D.-H.K.p.143)(http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v3.htm) 1498 nend May, John Cabot began his 2nd transatlantic voyage. Richard Ameryk (1445-1503), a wealthy Welsh merchant, was the chief investor in Cabot's second transatlantic voyage. Five ships set sail for Newfoundland, but en route one ship was forced to return after being damaged in a storm. The rest were never heard from again. A theory, not widely held, suggests the Americas are named after his surname. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cabot)(Econ, 9/22/07, p.23) 1498 nend May, Vasco da Gama reached Calicut, the chief Indian trading port , at 11? north latitude. He was not welcomed by the Muslim traders who saw him as a Christian and competitor. He returned to Lisbon swearing revenge. (V.D.-H.K.p.174) 1498 nend Jun 21, Jews were expelled from Nuremberg, Bavaria, by Emperor Maximillian. (MC, 6/21/02) 1498 nend Jun 26, Toothbrush was invented. In China the first toothbrushes with hog bristles began to show up. Hog bristle brushes remained the best until the invention of nylon. (SFC, 6/6/98, p.E3)(MC, 6/26/02) 1498 nend Jul 31, During his third voyage to the Western Hemisphere, Christopher Columbus arrived at an island he named Trinidad because of its 3 hills. (AP, 7/31/98)(http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v3.htm) 1498 nend Aug 4-1498 Aug 12, Christopher Columbus explored the Gulf of Paria (Venezuela) between Trinidad and South America. (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v3.htm) 1498 nend Aug 14, Columbus landed at the mouth of the Orinoco River in Venezuela. (MC, 8/14/02) 1498 nend Aug 16, Christopher Columbus reached the island of Margarita (Venezuela). (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v3.htm) 1498 nend Aug 17, French King Louis XII made Cesare Borgia (1475-1507) the Duke of Valentinois. Borgia resigned his position as cardinal, which had been bestowed on him at age 18 by his father, Pope Alexander VI. (Econ, 8/16/08, p.16)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesare_Borgia) 1498 nend Sep 16, Tomas de Torquemada, notorious for his role in the Spanish Inquisition, died in Avila, Spain. (AP, 9/16/06) 1498 nend Albrecht Durer made his woodcut titled "The Bath House." (WSJ, 10/29/99, p.W1) 1498 nend Emperor Maximilian I relocated his court from Innsbruck to Vienna and brought along the court musicians. He also decided to include boy singers which gave rise to The Vienna Boys School and Choir. In 1918 the Austrian government took control of the court musicians, but not the boys choir, which became a private institution. The boys choir began to give public concerts in 1926. In 2007 the choir accepted its first African-born member, Jens Ibsen (12) of Daly City, Ca. (SFC, 12/8/07, p.A8) 1498 nend The Shore Porters? Society was founded as a semi-public body controlled by the town of Aberdeen, Scotland. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.104) 1498 nend Niccolo Machiavelli began working as a diplomat for the city-state of Florence. His employment ended in 1512 when he was dismissed by Giuliano de Medici. (ON, 11/04, p.3) 1498 nend Columbus sailed by Grenada and named the island Concepcion. (www.geographia.com/grenada/gdhis01.htm) 1498 nend The first pawnshop reportedly opened in Nuremberg, Germany. (SFEC, 2/22/98, Z1 p.8) 1499 nend Mar 31, Pius IV (Gianangelo de' Medici), Italian lawyer, pope (1559-65), was born. (MC, 3/31/02) 1499 nend Aug 25, Battle at Sapienza: An Ottoman fleet beat Venetians. (chblue.com, 8/25/01) 1499 nend Sep 10, The French marched on Milan. (Hem., 12/96, p.19) 1499 nend Nov 12, Perkin Warbeck, Flemish sailor, was hanged for conspiring to escape from the tower of London with the imprisoned earl of Warwick. [see Nov 23] (PCh, 1992, p.162) 1499 nend Nov 23, Perkin Warbeck, Flemish sailor, was hanged. [see Nov 12] (MC, 11/23/01)(AP, 11/23/02) 1499 nend Nov 28, Edward Plantagenet, 18th Count of Warwick, was beheaded. (MC, 11/28/01) 1499 nend Michelangelo completed his "Pieta" for the Vatican. The marble was from Carrara. (www.abcgallery.com/)(WSJ, 8/1/05, p.D10) 1499 nend The Spanish play "Celestine" was published. (WSJ, 11/19/98, p.A21) 1499 nend Anne of Brittany initiated the white wedding gown. (SFEM, 6/28/98, p.7) 1500 nend Jan 26, Spanish explorer Vicente Yanez Pinzon reached the northeastern coast of Brazil during a voyage under his command. Pinzon had commanded the Nina during Christopher Columbus's first expedition to the New World. (MC, 1/26/02) 1500 nend Feb 24, Charles V, king of Spain (1516-1556), was born in Ghent, Belgium. He was the last Holy Roman Emperor to be crowned by the Pope. (HN, 2/24/99)(SFEC, 11/21/99, p.T10)(MC, 2/24/02) 1500 nend Mar 9, Pedro Cabral (~1460-1520), Portuguese navigator, departed to India. He left Lisbon with 13 ships headed for India and was blown off course. (WUD, 1994 p.206)(SFC, 4/20/00,p.A14)(www.newadvent.org/cathen/03128a.htm) 1500 nend Apr 8, Battle at Novara: King Louis XII beat duke Ludovico Sforza (Il Sforza del Destino). (MC, 4/8/02) 1500 nend Apr 10, France captured duke Ludovico Sforza ("Il Sforza del Destino") of Milan. (MC, 4/10/02) 1500 nend Apr 11, Michael T. Marullus, Greeks poet, drowned. (MC, 4/11/02) 1500 nend Apr 22, Pedro Alvares Cabral (c1460-c1526), Portuguese explorer, discovered Brazil and claimed it for Portugal. He anchored for 10 days in a bay he called "Porto Seguro" and continued on to India. [see Apr 23] (WUD,1994, p.206)(AHD, p.185)(TL-MB, 1988, p.8)(HN, 4/22/98)(SFC,4/20/00, p.A14) 1500 nend Apr 23, Pedro Cabal landed at Terra da Vera Cruz and claimed Brazil for Portugal. The native population was later estimated to have been from 1 to 11 million people. [see Apr 22] (AP, 4/23/98)(SFC, 7/6/98, p.A10)(www.newadvent.org/cathen/03128a.htm) 1500 nend May 29, Bartholomeu Diaz de Narvaez (Novaez), Portuguese sea explorer, drowned. (SC, 5/29/02) 1500 nend Aug 10, Diego Diaz discovered Madagascar. (MC, 8/10/02) 1500 nend Oct, Governor De Bobadilla of Santo Domingo captured Christopher Columbus and returned him in shackles to Spain. Columbus, during his third sojourn to the new world, engaged in a dispute with the ambassador plenipotentiary to Santo Domingo, Hispaniola (later shared by Haiti and the Dominican Republic). Columbus was later released and forgiven by the Queen. (V.D.-H.K.p.143)(SFEC, 3/15/98, Z1p.8)(http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v2.htm) 1500 nend Nov 1, Benvunuto Cellini (d.1571), Italian goldsmith and sculptor, was born. His 1545 autobiography greatly influenced the Renaissance. (HN, 11/1/00)(WSJ, 2/14/00, p.A20) 1500 nend Pietro Torrigiani created his sculpture "Virgin and Child." (WSJ, 1/29/02, p.A18) 1500 nend Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) of Nuremburg painted a self-portrait later described as the most gorgeous portrait ever painted. (WSJ, 3/15/08, p.W16) 1500 nend Giovanni Bellini painted "The Pieta" and "Portrait of a Young Man." (SFEC, 12/26/99, p.C17) 1500 nend Herri met de Bles, Flemish oil painter, created "Landscape With Burning City." (WSJ, 9/8/00, p.W8) 1500 nend Sandro Botticelli, Italian painter, painted his "Mystic Nativity," but he was out of key with public taste. His reputation was only restored in the 19th century. He also did the circular painting "Adoration of the Christ Child." (TL-MB, 1988, p.8)(WSJ, 12/30/97, p.A8) 1500 nend Desiderius Erasmus, Dutch humanist scholar, published his "Adagia." (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1500 nend During the first half century of printing 1450-1500, the majority of printed books were renderings of Greek and Latin works, previously available only in manuscripts... From this point on, published works in the national languages... were in the majority. (V.D.-H.K.p.143) 1500 nend Antwerp Cathedral was completed after 148 years of construction. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1500 nend Pope Alexander VI proclaimed a Year of Jubilee with a call for a crusade against the Turks. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1500 nend Aldus Manutius, Italian printer, founded the Venice Academy for the study of Greek classics and he invented Italic type. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1500 nend Valencia University was founded. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1500 nend The Diet of Augsburg established a Council of Regency to administer the Holy Roman Empire. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1500 nend King Louis XII of France captured Milan in the Italian Wars. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1500 nend Haast's eagle, which lived in the mountains of New Zealand, became extinct about this time, most likely due to habitat destruction and the extinction of its prey species at the hands of early Polynesian settlers. Researchers in 2009 determined that the 40 pound bird was a predator and not a mere scavenger as many had thought. (AP, 9/11/09) 1500 nend The Vatican established a permanent nunciature (diplomatic service) in Venice. (Econ, 7/21/07, p.59) 1500 nend Nueva Cadiz was established on Isla de Cubagua off the coast of Venezuela after Columbus discovered rich pearl oyster beds nearby. (SSFC, 2/19/06, p.F8) 1500 nend Geologists in 2009 said an earthquake of magnitude 6.5-7, dated to about this time, tore a deep gash into a 35-mile fault sergment along the Wasatch front of Utah state. (SFC, 9/25/09, p.A8) 1500 nend The population of the world at about 400 million was distributed as follows: China, Japan, and Korea 130 million Europe and Russia 100 million India subcontinent 70 million Southeast Asia and Indonesia 40 million Central and western Asia 25 million Africa 20 million The Americas 15 million (V.D.-H.K.p.168) c 1500 nend In northern Argentina 3 Inca children were sacrificed. In 1999 a team of archeologists discovered their frozen mummies on Mount Llullaillaco. (SFC, 4/7/99, p.A11) c 1500 nend At the end of the 15th century Azerbaijan became the power base of a native dynasty, the Safavids. They established an empire that dominated Iran in the 16th and 17th centuries.. (CO, Grolier?s Amer. Acad. Enc./ Azerbaijan) c 1500 nend Lake Cauhilla in southern California, the predecessor to the Salton Sea, measured 50 by 100 miles and began evaporating. (SFC, 11/30/98, p.A22) 1500 nend s The Aztecs played ollamalitzli. The game placed a rubber ball through a stone ring and the loser was often beheaded. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1500 nend s The Navajo began settling on Hopi land. They have farmed in the southwest since this time. (SFC, 7/15/96, p.A1)(SFC, 1/3/97, p.A26) 1500 nend s Europe began to restrict the practice of medicine to qualified doctors. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1500 nend s Holland and Saxony began to protect the rights of inventors to their creations. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1500 nend s Juan de Bermudez of Spain first reported on the island of Bermuda. (SFC, 5/2/98, p.E4) 1500 nend s The popularity of surströmming, a Swedish fermented herring with a noxious stench, surged in the early 1500s and again in the early 1700s. (WSJ, 8/13/02, p.A1) 1500 nend s Monomutapa (Zimbabwe) was split in two with the northern half remaining Monomutapa, and a southern half under the rival dynasty of Changamire. (ATC, p.148) 1500 nend s Portugal settled the island of Sao Tome, 250 miles off the coast of Kongo. Most of the settlers were criminals deported from Portugal. Sugar began to be grown on Sao Tome and slaves were purchased from King Affonso. The Portuguese and Africans did not see slavery the same way. To the Portuguese the slaves were beasts of burden and worked so hard that many died. They then bought more. (ATC, p.152) 1500 nend s Most people got married in June because they took their yearly bath in May and were still smelling pretty good by June. However, they were starting to smell, so brides carried a bouquet of flowers to hide the body odor. Baths equaled a big tub filled with hot water. The man of the house had the privilege of the nice clean water, then all the other sons and men, then the women and finally the children. Last of all the babies. By then the water was so dirty you could actually loose someone in it. Hence the saying, "Don?t throw the baby out with the bath water". Houses had thatched roofs. Thick straw, piled high, with no wood underneath. It was the only place for animals to get warm, so all the pets... dogs, cats and other small animals, mice, rats, bugs lived in the roof. When it rained it became slippery and sometimes the animals would slip and fall off the roof. Hence the saying, "It?s raining cats and dogs," There was nothing to stop things from falling into the house. This posed a real problem in the bedroom where bugs and other droppings could really mess up your nice clean bed. So, they found if they made beds with big posts and hung a sheet over the top, it addressed that problem. Hence those beautiful big 4 poster beds with canopies. The floor was dirt. Only the wealthy had something other than dirt. Hence the saying "dirt poor". The wealthy had slate floors which would get slippery in the winter when wet. So they spread thresh on the floor to help keep their footing. As the winter wore on they kept adding more thresh until when you opened the door it would all start slipping outside. A piece of wood was placed at the entry way, hence a "thresh hold". They cooked in the kitchen with a big kettle that always hung over the fire. Every day they lit the fire and added things to the pot. They mostly ate vegetables and didn?t get much meat. They would eat the stew for dinner leaving leftovers in the pot to get cold overnight and then start over the next day. Sometimes the stew had food in it that had been in there for a month. Hence the rhyme: peas porridge hot, peas porridge cold, peas porridge in the pot nine days old." Sometimes they could obtain pork and would feel really special when that happened. When company came over, they would bring out some bacon and hang it to show it off. It was a sign of wealth and that a man "could really bring home the bacon." They would cut off a little to share with guests and would all sit around and "chew the fat." Those with money had plates made of pewter. Food with a high acid content caused some of the lead to leach onto the food. This happened most often with tomatoes, so they stopped eating tomatoes... for 400 years. Most people didn?t have pewter plates, but had trenchers - a piece of wood with the middle scooped out like a bowl. Trencher were never washed and a lot of times worms got into the wood. After eating off wormy trenchers, they would get "trench mouth." Bread was divided according to status. Workers got the burnt bottom of the loaf, the family got the middle, and guests got the top, or the "upper crust". Lead cups were used to drink ale or whiskey. The combination would sometimes knock them out for a couple of days. Someone walking along the road would take them for dead and prepare them for burial. They were laid out on the kitchen table for a couple of days and the family would gather around and eat and drink and wait and see if they would wake up. Hence the custom of holding a "wake". England is old and small and they started running out of places to bury people. So, they would dig up coffins and would take their bones to a house and re-use the grave. In reopening these coffins, one out of 25 coffins were found to have scratch marks on the inside and they realized they had been burying people alive. So they thought they would tie a string on their wrist and lead it through the coffin and up through the ground and tie it to a bell. Someone would have to sit out in the graveyard all night to listen for the bell. Hence on the "graveyard shift" they would know that someone was "saved by the bell" or he was a "dead ringer". (e-mail, Riddiough, 5/14/99) 1500 1600 Hsi Yu Chi was a 16th century Chinese novel based on the account of a 7th century monk, Tripitaka, who traveled to India for 16 years for Buddhist scriptures. (SFC, 12/7/96, p.D1) 1500 1600 The Boke of Hawkynge and Huntynge and Fysshynge was produced. A copy sold for $88,000 in 2000. (SFC, 6/2/00, p.A21) c 1500 1600 George Pencz, 16th century German artist. His work included "Holy Trinity, Seat of Mercy." (SFC, 9/29/01, p.B1) 1500 1600 Weimar became the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Weimar. (SSFC, 8/1/04, p.D10) 1500 1600 Yi Am, 16th cent. Korean artist. The artist?s work included: "Puppies, Birds and Blossoms." (WSJ, 8/10/98, p.A12) c 1500 1600 The 16th century French text "The Rules of Civility" was published. (SFC, 7/4/02, p.D1) 1500 1600 The first Russian book printed was the 15th century "Apostle." (SFC, 12/27/96, p.C16) 1500 1600 The Kalmyk people, descendants from the Golden Horde of Genghis Khan, settled in the lowlands between the Volga and Don rivers with their livestock. (SFC, 9/24/97, p.A12) c 1500 1600 In Honduras the Lenca Indian chieftain Lempira withdrew to the high mountains to lead resistance against the Spaniards. According to legend he plunged to his death from a rocky outcrop near the summit of the highest peak. The Indians developed the Quezungal method of farming, where crops were planted under trees that kept hillsides from eroding. (SFC, 11/18/98, p.A14) c 1500 1600 Giulio Cesare Aranzi, Italian anatomist, name the hippocampus formation of the brain because of its resemblance to Hippocampus, the seahorse. (NH, 9/97, p.56) c 1500 1600 Scotsman Rob Roy was forced to become a highland fugitive. (SFC, 8/19/96, p.D7) c 1500 1600 The Predjama Castle was built at the mouth of a huge cave at Postojna, Slovenia. It was later used by the highway robber Erasmus Luegger. (SSFC, 8/18/02, p.C7) c 1500 1600 A Muslim pilgrim stole coffee beans from Yemen and raised them in India. Yemen was the first great coffee exporter and in order to protect its trade had decreed that no living plant could leave the country. (WSJ, 6/4/99, p.W9) 1500 1650 Period of late Renaissance. (V.D.-H.K.p.143) c 1500 1800 In Nepal the Malla dynasty created an architectural frenzy in Patan between the 16th and 18th centuries. (WSJ, 1/22/98, p.A17) 1500 1800 Ottoman Turk rule extended over Libya. (SSFC, 6/27/04, p.D12) c 1500 nend s-1800s Millions of Africans were torn from their homelands, herded into ships and sold in the New World for more than 300 years. Perhaps the cruelest part of the Atlantic slave trade was the weeks-long sea crossing, or the so-called Middle Passage--that leg of the Triangular Trade that brought the human cargo from West Africa to New World ports. Rather than provide healthful conditions on the sea crossing, slave traders sought to maximize profits with "tight packing"--cramming so many slaves onto the lower decks that those that survived would compensate for the certain losses. The British slave ship Brookes' deck plan shows the ship carrying 454 slaves with 6'x 1'4" of space allowed for each adult male, 5'10" x 11" for each woman and 5' x 1'2" for each boy. This clinical representation of human suffering during the Middle Passage was widely circulated by abolitionist groups. (HNPD, 12/14/98) 1500 1820 The proto-capitalist epoch. The world GDP grew by .07% per year. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R54) 1501 nend Mar 1, Lithuania and Livonia established a 10-year union for protection against Russia. (LHC, 3/1/03) 1501 nend Mar 20, Jean Carondelet (72), lawyer, chancellor of Burgundy (1480-96), died. (MC, 3/20/02) 1501 nend May 20, Portuguese explorer Joao da Nova Castelia (1460-1509) discovered the Ascension Islands on Ascension Day. (www.eoearth.org/article/Ascension_scrub_and_grasslands) 1501 nend Jul 27, Copernicus was formally installed as canon of Frauenberg Cathedral. (MC, 7/27/02) 1501 nend Sep 24, Gerolamo Cardano, mathematician, was born. He authored "Games of Chance," the first systematic computation of probabilities. (HN, 9/24/00) 1501 nend Oct 15, English crown prince Arthur married Catharina of Aragon. [see Nov 14] (MC, 10/15/01) 1501 nend Nov 14, Arthur Tudor married Katherine of Aragon. [see Oct 15] (HN, 11/14/98) 1501 nend Michelangelo was commissioned by Florence, his native home, to carve the colossal statue "David." The work had been by Agostino di Duccio around 1465. Michelangelo finished it in 1504. It was placed at the front of the Palazzo Signoria. In 1873 it was cleaned and moved indoors. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8)(WSJ, 4/29/03, D5) 1501 nend Books printed before 1501 are called incunabula or incunables, after the Latin word for cradle. The 15th century was the cradle of printing. (WSJ, 9/14/00, p.A24) 1501 nend France and Spain occupied Naples, and French troops entered Rome. Louis XII was declared King of Naples by the Pope. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1501 nend Cesare Borgia captured Romagna (north-central Italy) and appointed Remirro de Orco, his cruelest lieutenant, to pacify the region. After the job was done Borgia had Orco cut in two to gain the gratitude of the people. (WSJ, 6/22/98, p.A20) 1501 nend Maximilian I, German emperor, recognized the French conquests of northern Italy in the Peace of Trent. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1501 nend A worn Roman torso was unearthed in Rome. It later acquired the nickname "Pasquino" and served as a station for posting complaints and opinions that came to be known as Pasquinades. (WSJ, 12/31/01, p.A6) 1501 nend The Turks took Durazzo from Venice. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1501 nend Ivan III, Czar of Russia, invaded Lithuania. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1501 nend Gaspar de Corte-Real, Portuguese navigator, made the first authenticated European landing on the northern continent of the Western Hemisphere since c1000AD. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1501 nend Amerigo Vespucci, Florentine navigator, explored the coast of Brazil on his second voyage to the New World. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1501 nend The Anglo-Portuguese Syndicate completed the first of five voyages to Newfoundland. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1502 nend Jan 1, Portuguese navigator Pedro Cabral and Amerigo Vespucci sailed the into the harbor of Rio de Janeiro. Portuguese explorers sailed into Guanabra Bay and mistook it for the mouth of a river which they named Rio de Janeiro. (Hem., Dec. '95, p.129)(MC, 1/1/02) 1502 nend Feb 12, Vasco da Gama, Portuguese explorer, departed on a second trip to India with 20 well-armed ships. (www.indhistory.com/vasco-da-gama.html) 1502 nend Feb 12, Isabella issued a royal order giving all remaining Moors in the realms of Castile the choice between baptism and expulsion. (www.cyberistan.org/islamic/beyond1492.html) 1502 nend Apr 2, Arthur, English crown prince, husband of Catharina of Aragon, died. (MC, 4/2/02) 1502 nend May 9, Christopher Columbus left Cadiz, Spain, on his fourth and final trip to the Western Hemisphere. He explored Central America, and discovered St. Lucia, the Isthmus of Panama, Honduras, and Costa Rica. Columbus left 52 Jewish families in Costa Rica. [see May 11] (TL-MB, 1988, p.8)(AP, 5/9/97)(WSJ, 6/15/00, p.A1) 1502 nend May 11, Columbus embarked on his 4th voyage with 150 men in 4 caravels. Among those in the fleet were Columbus's brother Bartholomew, and Columbus' younger son Fernando, then just 13 years old. They reached the coast of Honduras after 8 months and passed south to Panama (1503). The ships included the Capitana, which served as the flagship, and the Vizcaina. In 2006 Klaus Brinkbaumer authored ?The Voyage of the Vizcaina.? (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49)(http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v4.htm)(WSJ,5/26/06, p.W5) 1502 nend Jun 6, Jofo III, King of Portugal (1521-57), was born. (MC, 6/6/02) 1502 nend Jun 7, Pope Gregory XIII was born. He introduced the Gregorian calendar in 1582. [see 1552] (HN, 6/7/98)(SFEC, 2/20/00, Par p.7) 1502 nend Jun 29, Christopher Columbus arrived at Santo Domingo, Hispaniola, on his 4th voyage to the new world. He requested harbor and advised Gov. Nicolas de Ovando of an approaching hurricane. Ovando denied the request and dispatched a treasure fleet to Spain. 20 ships sank in the storm, 9 returned to port and one made it to Spain. (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v4.htm) 1502 nend Jul, Columbus reached the coast of Honduras during his 4th voyage and passed south to Panama. (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v4.htm) 1502 nend Sep 18, Christopher Columbus landed at Costa Rica during his 4th and last voyage. Columbus left 52 Jewish families in Costa Rica. (MC, 9/18/01)(WSJ, 6/15/00, p.A1) 1502 nend Dec 31, Cesare Borgia (son of Pope Alexander VI) occupied Urbino. (MC, 12/31/01) 1502 nend Donato Bramante began the Tempietto of S. Pietro in Montorio, Rome. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1502 nend Vittore Carpaccio began the fresco cycle "Scenes from the Lives of SS George and Jerome." Full of light and detail, it is typical of the Venetian manner. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1502 nend Lucas Cranch, German painter, began his career in Vienna. In 1521 he painted the famous portrait of Martin Luther. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1502 nend Leonardo da Vinci drew plans for a 720-foot stone span across the Golden Horn at the mouth of the Bosporus. In 2001 Vebjorn Sand, Norwegian artist, completed a 330-foot, laminated timber bridge linking Norway and Sweden at Aas, 16 miles south of Oslo based on the da Vinci plans. (SSFC, 12/9/01, p.C2) 1502 nend Vasco da Gama founded the Portuguese colony at Cochin, China. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1502 nend Ahuizotl, ruler of the Aztecs, died and was cremated on a funeral pyre about this time at the foot of the Templo Mayor pyramid. In 2007 Mexican archeologists found underground chambers in Mexico City they believed to contain his remains. (AP, 8/4/07)(AP, 6/17/10) 1502 nend Moctezuma Xocoyotl (Montezuma II), an Aztec prince, inherited the Aztec throne becoming the 9th ruler of the Aztecs. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8)(ON, 10/00, p.1)(Econ, 9/26/09, p.99) 1502 nend In Germany Peter Henlein of Nuremberg used iron parts and coiled springs to build a portable timepiece. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1502 nend In Germany Wittenberg University was founded. (Voruta #27-28, Jul 1996, p.10)(TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1502 nend Shah Ismail founded the Safavid Dynasty in Persia. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1502 nend Amerigo Vespucci declared that South America is a separate continent after his second voyage. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1502 nend A hurricane nearly destroyed La Nueva Isabela and it was abandoned. The city was rebuilt on the other side of the river as Santo Domingo by the new governor, Nicholas de Ovando. (AM, 7/97, p.59) 1502 nend Vasco da Gama returned to Calicut, India. He bombarded the town, burned a ship full of Arab men, women, and children because its captain had offended him, and demanded that the Muslims turn over the trade to the Portuguese. Within a generation his demands were met. (V.D.-H.K.p.174) 1502 nend Portuguese traders took peanuts from Brazil and Peru to Africa. (SFEC, 1/10/99, Z1 p.8) 1502 nend Jaoa de Nova, Portuguese explorer, discovered St. Helena Island. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1502 nend Spain legalized slave shipments to the Americas. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1502 1533 Atahualpa, emperor of the Incas. He had a fortune in gold and silver and tried to purchase his freedom from Pizarro for a chamber filled with gold. Pizarro took 124 tons of gold in ransom and then re-arrested Atahualpa for treason to the Spanish crown and had him decapitated. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1503 nend Jan 9, Christopher Columbus returned to the mouth of Rio Belen (western Panama), where he built a garrison. (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v4.htm) 1503 nend Feb 11, Elizabeth of York (b.1466), consort of King Henry VII, died on 38th birthday. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_of_York) 1503 nend Mar 10, Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor (1558-1564), was born. He was King of Bohemia and Hungary from 1526-1564. (HN, 3/10/01)(WUD, 1994 p.523) 1503 nend Mar 28, The 2nd Lithuanian war with Russia (1500-1503) ended with a treaty. Lithuania lost a fourth of its territory. (LHC, 3/28/03) 1503 nend Apr 6, Christopher Columbus fended off an Indian attack at his garrison at Rio Belen (Panama). (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v4.htm) 1503 nend Apr 16, Christopher Columbus abandoned the garrison at Rio Belen (Panama) and sailed for home (Hispaniola) with 3 ships. On the way he was shipwrecked in Jamaica. (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v4.htm) 1503 nend May 10, Columbus stumbled across the Cayman Islands and dubbed them Las Tortugas after the numerous sea turtles. (SFEC, 2/16/97, p.T8)(HN, 5/10/98) 1503 nend Jun 25, Christopher Columbus beached his sinking ships in St. Anne?s Bay, Jamaica, and spent a year shipwrecked and marooned there before returning to Spain. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8)(http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v4.htm) 1503 nend Aug 18, Pope Alexander VI (1492-1503), born in Spain as Rodrigo di Borgia (1431), died. He had recently authorized the building of a prison in the cellars of Castel Sant?Angelo in Rome. (PTA, p.424)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI)(SSFC,7/22/07, p.G2) 1503 nend Nov 28, Giuliano della Rovere (1443-1513) was crowned as Pope Julius II. (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08562a.htm) 1503 nend Oct 30, Queen Isabella of Spain banned violence against Indians. (MC, 10/30/01) 1503 nend Nov 17, Il Bronzino, Florentine painter (Eleanor de Toledo & her Son), was born. (MC, 11/17/01) 1503 nend Dec 14, Nostradamus [Michel de Nostredame], prophet, was born in St. Remy, Provence, France. He predicted correctly French king Henri II's manner of death. Nostradamus was the author of a book of prophecies that many still believe foretold the future. He was also physician, an astrologer and a clairvoyant. He wrote in rhyming quatrains, accurately predicting the Great London Fire in 1666, Spain?s Civil War, and a Hitler that would lead Germany into war. He even correctly predicted his own death on July 2, 1566. (HN, 12/14/99)(MC, 12/14/01) 1503 nend Lucas Cranach (1472-1553) the Elder, German artist ( Saxony), completed his painting ?The Crucifixion.? (www.britannica.com/eb/article-9026747/Lucas-Cranach-the-Elder) 1503 nend Parmigianino (d.1540), Italian painter and master draftsman, was born. His paintings included "Madonna of the Long Neck." (WSJ, 2/12/00, p.A25) 1503 nend Leonardo Da Vinci began painting the "Mona Lisa." The husband of Lisa del Giocondo commissioned Leonardo da Vinci to paint the "Mona Lisa," The model was Lisa Gheradini whose relatives had emigrated to Ireland in the 12th century and translated their surname to Fitzgerald, an ancestral name of later US president John F. Kennedy. Lisa Gherardini (b.1479) was originally identified as the subject of the world's most famous painting by Leonardo's first biographer, the 16th-century Italian writer Giorgio Vasari. In 2001 Donald Sassoon authored "Becoming Mona Lisa: The Making of a Global Icon." (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_del_Giocondo)(SFC, 4/26/97,p.E4)(SFC, 3/21/98, p.E3)(WSJ, 12/7/01, p.W16)(AP, 9/13/04) 1503 nend Leonardo da Vinci was commissioned to decorate a hall in the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence. For some 18 months he worked on a mural for the 1440 Battle of Anghiari but abandoned the work in 1506. The mural was later lost when Georgio Vasari was hired to remodel the hall. (WSJ, 11/9/07, p.W4) 1503 nend Thomas a Kempis published his "Imitation of Christ" in an English translation and it had great religious influence. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1503 nend Canterbury Cathedral was finished after 433 years of construction. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1503 nend Henry VII?s chapel, the final stage of English gothic art, was begun in Westminster Abbey. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1503 nend The pocket handkerchief came into general use in polite European society. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1503 nend The missionary Bartolome de Las Casa described the brutal destruction of a Taino Indian city, La Aleta (later in the Dominican Republic). Captain-Gen?l. Juan de Esquival led a Spanish force that massacred 600-700 Higuey Tainos for rebelling after one of their chiefs was disemboweled by a Spanish attack dog. In 1997 archeologists found evidence of a city at the site called La Aleta. (SFC, 3/29/97, p.A10)(AM, 7/97, p.60) 1503 nend The French in Italy were defeated by the Spaniards in the battles of Cerignola and Garigliano, and Spanish forces entered Naples. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1503 nend A War of Succession broke out between Albert IV of Bavaria and Rupert of the Palatinate (a state of the Holy Roman Empire). (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1503 nend Jean Poyet, French Renaissance artist, died. His work included "Vespers: Massacre of the Innocents and Flight Into Egypt." (WSJ, 2/22/00, p.A20) 1503 nend Seville, Spain, was awarded rights to all trade with the recently discovered New World. (SSFC, 8/15/10, p.M4) 1503 nend Zanzibar became a Portuguese colony. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1504 nend Jan 17, Pius V, Pope from 1566-1572, was born. (HN, 1/17/99) 1504 nend Feb 29, An eclipse occurred and helped Christopher Columbus subdue his rebellious Indian carriers. (SCTS, p.29) 1504 nend Apr 1, English guilds went under state control. (MC, 4/1/02) 1504 nend Apr 18, Fra Filippo Lippi (~52), painter, died. (MC, 4/18/02) 1504 nend Apr 23, King Maximilian I routed troops to Bavaria. (MC, 4/23/02) 1504 nend May 5, Anton of Burgundy (~82), the Great Bastard, knight, died. (MC, 5/5/02) 1504 nend Jun 29, Diego Mendez, one of Columbus's captains, returned to Jamaica with a small caravel and rescued the Columbus expedition. Mendez had managed to take a canoe from Jamaica to Hispaniola where he chartered the rescue ship. (http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/v4.htm) 1504 nend Aug 6, Matthew "Nosey" Parker, archbishop of Canterbury, was born. (MC, 8/6/02) 1504 nend Nov 7, Columbus returned to Spain following his 4th voyage after suffering a shipwreck at Jamaica. Columbus brought back cocoa beans and chocolate drinks soon became a favorite in the Spanish court. In 2005 Martin Dugard authored ?The Last Voyage of Columbus.? (EWH, 1968, p.390)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49)(SSFC, 6/26/05, p.C1) 1504 nend Nov 26, Isabella I (53), Catholic Queen of Castille and Aragon (1474-1504), patron of Columbus died. (MC, 11/26/01) 1504 nend Raphael painted "The Marriage of the Virgin." It exemplified the major principles of High Renaissance art. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1504 nend Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) drew his "Adam and Eve." (SFEC, 2/9/97, DB p.6) 1504 nend The Signoria of Florence commissioned Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo to paint the walls of the Grand Council Chamber in the Palazzo Vecchio. (OG) 1504 nend In Florence Leonardo da Vinci and Machiavelli became involved in a scheme to divert the Arno River and thereby cut the water supply to Pisa and force its surrender. Colombino, the project foreman, failed to follow da Vinci?s design, and the project was a spectacular failure. This is covered in the 1998 book "Fortune Is a River" by Roger D. Masters. (WSJ, 6/22/98, p.A20) 1504 nend Louis XII of France ceded Naples to Ferdinand II of Aragon in the Treaty of Lyon. Naples remained under Spanish control for the next 200 years. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1504 nend Babur, founder of the Mughal dynasty in India, captured Kabul in Afghanistan and maintained control to 1519. Babur?s mother descended from Genghis Khan and his father from Timur (Tamerlane). (TL-MB, 1988, p.8)(www.afghan, 5/25/98)(WSJ, 10/24/00, p.A12) 1504 nend Venetian ambassadors proposed to Turkey the construction of a Suez Canal. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1504 nend Henry Tudor, king of England, had coins minted with an accurate self likeness. (TL-MB, 1988, p.8) 1505 nend Feb 4, Joan of Valois (40), Queen of France, saint, died. (MC, 2/4/02) 1505 nend Feb 26, In Brest Polish Chancellor J. Laski invited the Lithuanian government to reconfirm and expand the 1501 Union of Melnik, but the offer was rejected. (LHC, 2/26/03) 1505 nend Apr 20, Jews were expelled from Orange, Burgundy, by Philibert of Luxembourg. (MC, 4/20/02) 1505 nend Jul 24, On their way to India, a group of Portuguese explorers sacked the city-state of Kilwa, East Africa, and killed the king for failing to pay tribute. (HN, 7/24/98) 1505 nend Oct 27, The Grand Duke of Moscow, Ivan III (also known as "Ivan the Great"), died; he was succeeded by his son, Vasily III (Basil III). Vasily's son, Ivan IV, later became the first czar of Russia, "Ivan the Terrible." (TL-MB, 1988, p.9)(AP, 10/27/05) 1505 nend Dec 18, John IX van Horne, prince-bishop of Lieges, Belgium, was executed. (MC, 12/18/01) 1505 nend Giovanni Bellini painted "The Virgin and Child with Saints," the most perfect realization of the "holy conversation" theme in all of Western painting. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1505 nend Hieronymus Bosch began his triptych "The Garden of Earthly Delights" and marked the last fling of the Gothic Middle Ages. He also painted "The Temptation of St. Anthony." (TL-MB, 1988, p.9)(SFC, 8/27/98, p.E3) 1505 nend Giorgione painted "The Concert." (WSJ, 7/16/02, p.D6) 1505 nend Pope Julius summoned Michelangelo to Rome to design the pope?s tomb. The contract was revised 5 times and only 3 of 40 large figures were executed. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9)(OG) 1505 nend Leonardo da Vinci painted ?The Battle of Anghiari? on a wall in Florence?s Palazzo Vecchio. It commemorated a victory of Florentine forces over the ruling Medici. In 1563 the Medici, having regained power, hired Giorgio Vasari to cover up Leonardo?s work with a painting celebrating one of their own martial successes. It was later thought that Vasari hid the original behind his new work. (WSJ, 4/10/08, p.D7) 1505 nend Raphael painted his ?Madonna of the Goldfinch? about this time for the wedding of a friend, Lorenzo Nasi. The painting was shredded in 1548 when Nasi?s palace collapsed. The work was pieced together and modern restoration, which began in 1999, was completed in 2008. (SFC, 10/31/08, p.E7) 1505 nend Wimpfeling published the first history of Germany, "Epitome Rerum Germanicarum." (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1505 nend Maximilian I began a reformation of the Holy Roman Empire. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1505 nend Christ?s College, Cambridge, England, was founded. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1505 nend Magellan began to serve Portugal when he enlisted in the fleet of Francisco de Almeida. He continued in Portuguese service on many expeditions, being wounded in a campaign against the Moroccan stronghold of Azamor in 1513. The wound caused him to limp for the rest of his life. Magellan petitioned King Manuel of Portugal for an increase in his pension as a titular rise in rank, but the king refused and sent him back to Morocco. Upon his second petition in 1516, Magellan was told he might offer his services elsewhere. (HNQ, 10/9/00) 1505 nend A well armed Portuguese fleet attacks Kilwa and then Mombasa. The Portuguese then attempt to monopolize the trade in the east African ports but were unable to maintain control. By the late 1500s, Swahili groups regained control of several ports from the Portuguese.. (ATC, p.144) 1505 nend Portuguese explorers discovered Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and established factories on the east coast of Africa. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1505 nend Christopher Columbus died in poverty in Spain. Columbus was the author of "Books of Prophecies," later translated by Delno C. West. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9)(WSJ, 10/8/99, p.W15) 1505 1585 Thomas Tallis, English organist and vocal composer, especially of church music. (WUD, 1994, p.1450) 1506 nend Jan 22, The Swiss Guard mercenaries, summoned by Pope Julius II to protect the pope and the Vatican, arrived in Rome. (USAT, 5/6/98, p.6A)(AP, 1/22/06) 1506 nend Apr 7, Francis Xavier, saint, Jesuit missionary to India, Malaya, and Japan, was born. (MC, 4/7/02) 1506 nend May 19, Columbus selected his son Diego as sole heir. (MC, 5/19/02) 1506 nend May 20, Christopher Columbus (55) died in poverty in Spain, still believing he discovered the coast of Asia. Columbus died in the Spanish city of Valladolid, and was initially interred in a monastery there. Three years later, his remains were moved to a monastery on La Cartuja. In 1537, Maria de Rojas y Toledo, widow of Columbus' son Diego, was allowed to send the bones of her husband and his father to the cathedral in Santo Domingo for burial. There they lay until 1795, when Spain ceded the island of Hispaniola to France and decided Columbus' remains should not fall into foreigners' hands. A set of remains that the Spaniards thought were Columbus' were then dug up from behind the main altar in the newly built cathedral and shipped to a cathedral in Havana, where they remained until the Spanish-American War broke out in 1898 and Spain brought them to Seville. But in 1877, workers digging inside the Santo Domingo cathedral unearthed a leaden box containing 13 large bone fragments and 28 small ones. It was inscribed "Illustrious and distinguished male, don Cristobal Colon." The Dominicans said these were the real remains of Columbus and that the Spaniards must have taken the wrong remains in 1795. (AP, 5/20/97)(HN, 5/20/99)(AP, 10/13/02)(SFC, 1/18/05, p.A8) 1506 nend Albrecht Durer painted his "Portrait of a Young Woman." (SFEC, 12/26/99, p.C17) 1506 nend Giorgione painted ?The Three Philosophers? about this time. (WSJ, 8/3/06, p.D5) 1506 nend The Laocoon sculpture was unearthed in Rome. It served as a peg for Goethe?s aesthetic theories. It later inspired Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, 18th century German dramatist and critic, to write one of the greatest essays ever written on a work of ancient art. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9)(WSJ, 9/7/99, p.A23) 1506 nend Pope Julius II placed the 1st stone for the new St. Peter?s Basilica. Bramante began to rebuild St. Peter?s Cathedral in Rome, which had been neglected since the 14th century when the popes resided at Avignon. Pope Urban VIII consecrated it in 1626. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9)(SSFC, 2/18/07, p.A2) 1506 nend The University of Frankfurt-on-the-Oder was founded. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1506 nend Jacob Fugger, Augsburg merchant, imported spices to Europe from the East Indies. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1506 nend The Spaniards in the West Indies began raising sugar cane. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1506 nend Machiavelli, Italian diplomat, established the Florentine militia, the first Italian national troops. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1506 nend Andrea Mantegna (b.1431), Italian painter and engraver, died. His paintings included a dead Christ, ?Christo Morto,? whose bare feet seem to stick out of the picture. He also painted "Virgin and Child in Glory." (WSJ, 6/6/96, p.A12)(SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T11)(WSJ, 11/10/07, p.W14) 1506 nend King Chungjong (r.1506-1544) began his rule in Korea. He restored Confucian rule with the support of officials who had deposed King Yongsan-gun. (www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/history/early_choson_period.htm) 1506 nend Copernicus, Polish-born astronomer, was appointed canon of church properties in the Prussian diocese of Ermland. (ON, 2/11, p.5) 1506 nend Riots in Lisbon, Portugal, led to the slaughter of 2,000-4,000 converted Jews. This became the setting for a 1998 novel by Richard Zimler, "The Last Kabbalist of Lisbon." (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) (WSJ, 6/8/98, p.A21) 1506 nend Philip I of Castile died and was succeeded by a Council of Regency because of the insanity of his widow. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1506 nend Mozambique, Africa, was colonized by the Portuguese. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1506 1510 Leonardo da Vinci divided his time between Florence and Milan, where he serve Charles d?Amboise, the region?s French governor. It was in this period that he compiled his illustrated observations that came to be known as the 72-page Codex Leicester. It consists of 18 loose, double-sided sheets, written in mirror script and illustrated with about 360 sketches. The work was first planned as a treatise on the motion of water. (SFC, 10/29/96, p.F3)(WSJ, 10/31/96, p.A21)(NH, 11/96, p.14,96) 1507 nend Jan 15, Johann Oporinus [Herbster], Swiss book publisher (Koran), was born. (MC, 1/15/02) 1507 nend Feb 23, Gentile Bellini, Venetian artist, died. (www.boglewood.com/cornaro/xgentilebellini.html) 1507 nend Mar 12, Cesare Borgia (31), cardinal, soldier, politician, died while fighting alongside his brother, the king of Navarre, in Spain. (HN, 3/12/99)(MC, 3/12/02) 1507 nend Apr 25, Martin Waldseemuller, a German geographer working at a small college in Eastern France, labeled the New World "America," for the first time in his book "Cosmographiae Introductio," and gave Amerigo Vespucci (d.1512) credit for discovering it. Letters of 1504-1505 had circulated in Florence claimed that Vespucci had discovered the new World. Vespucci was in fact only a passenger or low officer on one of the ships captioned by others. Vespucci was later believed to have been the brother of Simonetta Vespucci, the model for Venus in the Botticelli painting. In 2000 the US Library of Congress planned to acquire the original map for $14 million from the Prince Johannes Waldburg-wolfegg. A $10 million purchase was completed in 2003. In 2009 Toby Lester authored ?The Fourth Part of the World: The Race to the Ends of the World, and the Epic Story of the Map That Gave America Its Name.? (SFEC, 8/23/98, p.T10)(SFC, 10/27/00, p.C14)(WSJ, 7/25/03,p.W19)(AP, 4/25/07)(SSFC, 12/27/09, Books p.E5) 1507 nend Oct 1, Italian architect Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola was born. (AP, 10/1/07) 1507 nend Giorgione painted his ?Sunset Landscape? about this time. (WSJ, 8/3/06, p.D5) 1507 nend Margaret of Austria was appointed Regent by the States-General (parliament) of the Netherlands until the Archduke Charles came of age. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1507 nend The Diet of Constance recognized the unity of the Holy Roman Empire and founded the Imperial Chamber, the empire?s supreme judicial court. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1507 nend Genoa was annexed by the French. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1507 nend Martin Luther was ordained. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1507 nend Pope Julius II announced an indulgence for the re-building of St. Peter?s. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1507 nend Johannes Ruysch produced the first printed map of America, as declared by the selling map dealer, R.B. Arkway, Inc. It is dotted with Asian place names. In 1995 it was for sale for $135,000. (WSJ, 11/24/95, p.B-8) 1507 1650 The shores of Oman were dominated by Portuguese adventurers who were responsible for the forts of Mirani and Jalali. The native Bedouins spoke the Harsusi language. (NG, 5/95, p.121-123) 1508 nend Feb 4, Proclamation of Trent. (HN, 2/4/99) 1508 nend Feb 6, King Maximilian I (1459-1519) assumed the title of Emperor (1493-1519) without being crowned. (TL-MB, p.9)(WUD, 1994, p.886)(MC, 2/6/02) 1508 nend Aug 12, Ponce de Leon arrived and conquered the island of Boriquen (Puerto Rico). Spain had appointed him to colonize Puerto Rico. He explored Puerto Rico and Spanish ships under his command began to capture Bahamanian Tainos to work as slaves on Hispaniola. His settlement at Caparra, 2 miles south of San Juan Bay, was plagued by Taino Indians and cannibalistic Carib Indians. (NH, 10/96, p.23)(SC,8/12/02)(http://welcome.topuertorico.org/glossary/index.shtml#936) 1508 nend Nov 30, Andrea Palladio (d.1580), [Andrea di Piero della Gondola], Italian Renaissance architect, was born in Padua. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.14)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Palladio) 1508 nend Giorgione painted "The Tempesta," a landscape of a stormy setting with a town in the background, a soldier lower left and a woman nursing to the right. It is at the Academia Gallery in Venice. (T&L, 10/80, p. 58)(WSJ, 12/4/97, p.A20) 1508 nend Pope Julius II transferred Michelangelo to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling in Rome. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9)(OG) 1508 nend Raphael at age 26 entered the service of Pope Julius II and was entrusted with the decoration of the new papal apartments. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1508 nend The League of Cambrai was formed against Venice by Ferdinand of Aragon, Emp. Maximilian, Louis XII of France, and Pope Julius II as part of an ongoing dispute over sovereignty in Italy. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1508 nend Alfonso d?Albuquerque, Portuguese navigator, conquered Muscat in Oman. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.53) 1508 nend Sebastian de Ocampo, Spanish navigator, explored Cuba. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1508 nend In England Althorp was bought by John Spencer, the ancestor of the 9th Earl Spencer, Princess Diana?s brother. The estate in Great Brington was selected as the grave site for Princess Diana in 1997. (SFC, 4/3/98, p.B2) 1509 nend Jan 25, Giovanni Morone, Italian theologist, diplomat, cardinal, "heretic," was born. (MC, 1/25/02) 1509 nend Apr 21, Henry VII (b.1457), 1st Tudor king of England (1485-1509), died. In 2011 Allen Lane authored ?Winter King: The Dawn of Tudor England.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England)(Econ, 9/24/11,p.107) 1509 nend Apr 22, Henry Tudor became King Henry VIII of England following the death of his father, Henry VII. He soon married Catherine of Aragon, his brother?s widow and the aunt of Charles V (the Holy Roman Emperor), and fathered Mary, future Queen of England. (V.D.-H.K.p.161)(AP, 4/22/08) 1509 nend Apr 27, Pope Julius II excommunicated the republic of Venice. The pope lifted the ban in February 1510. (AP, 4/27/07) 1509 nend May 14, In the Battle of Agnadello, the French defeat the Venetians in Northern Italy. (HN, 5/14/98) 1509 nend May 20, Catharina Sforza (45), "La Sforza del Destino", Italian duchess of Forli, died. (MC, 5/20/02) 1509 nend Jun 11, England's King Henry VIII married Catherine of Aragon. (AP, 6/11/97)(HN, 6/11/98) 1509 nend Jun 11, In Italy troops of Florence took Pisa. (AP, 6/11/03) 1509 nend Jun 24, Henry VIII was crowned king of England. (AP, 6/24/97)(HN, 6/24/98) 1509 nend Jul 10, John Calvin, founder of Calvinism, the basis for modern Protestantism, was born. (HN, 7/10/98) 1509 nend Andrea Calmo (d.1571, Venetian playwright, was born about this time. He became a pioneer in comedia dell?arte. no_source 1509 nend Fra Bartolomeo, Italian artist, painted "The Holy Family with the Infant St. John." It was purchased by the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA) for close to $4 million. His work "The Holy Family with the Infant St. John," was purchased by the John Paul Getty Museum in Malibu for $22.5 mil. (WUD, 1994, p.123)(SFC, 5/13/96, p.D-5)(WSJ, 10/29/96, p.A21)(SFEC,1/11/98, p.D7) 1509 nend Sebastian Brant?s "Ship of Fools," a satire first published in 1494, appeared in an English version by Alexander Barclay. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1509 nend Erasmus lectured at Cambridge and dedicated his "In Praise of Folly," a witty satire on church corruption and scholastic philosophy, to Thomas More. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1509 nend Johann Pfefferkorn, a converted Jew, led a persecution of the Jews in Germany under Maximilian I. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1509 nend Brasenose College, Oxford, and St. John?s College, Cambridge, were founded. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1509 nend The Egyptian and Gujarat fleets were routed by the Portuguese at the Battle of Diu, which left the latter in control of the Indian seas and the spice trade. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1509 nend In Portugal the Madre de Deus convent was established by Queen Leonor. The tile-bedecked church, Igreja de Madre de Deus, was built almost 50 years later. (Econ, 6/12/10, p.96) 1509 nend Spanish armies invaded North Africa in a crusade against the Muslim rulers of Tripoli, Oran, and Bougie. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1509 nend Spanish conquistadores founded a colony at Darien on the Isthmus of Panama. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1509 nend The Venetian defeat at Agnadello led to the annexation of Faenza, Rimini, and Ravenna by Pope Julius II, and Otranto and Brindisi by Ferdinand of Aragon. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1509 nend Peter Henlein, Nuremberg inventor, invented the watch, nicknamed the Nuremberg egg. (TL-MB, 1988, p.9) 1509 1520 The Spanish colonized the area of Nueva Granada (modern Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Venezuela). (http://homepage20.seed.net.tw/web@3/flags/wfh/pg-am-4.htm) 1509 1564 John Calvin, French theologian. He started the Protestant Reformation in France in 1532. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14)(SFC, 7/21/97, p.A11) 1510 nend Jan 22, Jews were expelled from Colmar, Germany. (MC, 1/22/02) 1510 nend May 25, Georges d'Amboise (49), French cardinal, viceroy in North Italy, died. (SC, 5/25/02) 1510 nend Jun 9, Nicolaas van Nieuwland, corrupt 1st bishop of Harlem, was born. (MC, 6/9/02) 1510 nend Jul 19, In Berlin 38 Jews were burned at the stake. (MC, 7/19/02) 1510 nend Oct 28, Francisco Borgia was born. He was the grandson of debauched Pope Alexander VI, and became a theologian and saint. (MC, 10/28/01) 1510 nend Bernard Pallissy (d.1590), French ceramicist, painter and writer, was born. (www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artMakerDetails?maker=867&page=1) 1510 nend Giovanni Bellini painted ?Virgin With the Blessing Child.? (WSJ, 8/3/06, p.D5) 1510 nend Raphael painted "The Triumph of Galatea," a fresco on the wall of the Farnesina, the villa of Agnostino Chigi. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) c 1510 nend Alexander Barcley wrote his long poetic essay on the "Miseries of Courtiers." It described the psychology of feasting. (MT, 6/96, p.9) 1510 nend In Spain Garci Ordonez de Montalvo authored "Serges de Esplandian" (The Adventures of Esplandian), a novel that described an island filled with gold named California and ruled by Queen Califia. (SFEC, 4/18/99, BR p.1)(SFC, 2/25/00, p.C14) 1510 nend Juan de la Cosa, cartographer, made an early map of the New World. (SFEC, 2/14/99, p.T11) 1510 nend Everyman, the first English morality play, was performed. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1510 nend John Colet, English churchman and humanist, founded St. Paul?s School in London. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1510 nend Erasmus became Prof. of Greek at Cambridge Univ. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1510 nend Martin Luther became professor of theology at the Univ. of Wittenberg. (V.D.-H.K.p.163) 1510 nend Sunflowers from America were introduced by the Spaniards into Europe. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1510 nend The Florentine banker Bartolomeo di Marchionni lent the King of Spain money for the crown?s first shipment of Africans to Santo Domingo. (SFEC,11/16/97, BR p.4) 1510 nend Slave trade began with a consignment of African slaves to work on Portuguese sugar plantations in Brazil. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1510 nend In China Liu Jin, a eunuch of the Ming dynasty, was executed for abusing his authority. He had grown wealthy from graft. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R4) 1510 nend War broke out between Denmark and the Hanseatic League. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1510 nend Goa, India, was captured by the Portuguese. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1510 nend The wheel-lock firearm was introduced in Nurnberg, Germany. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1510 nend Leonardo da Vinci designed the horizontal water wheel that was the forerunner of the modern water turbine. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1510 nend Giorgione (b.~1478), Italian painter, died of the plague. He was a top student of Bellini and excelled in the paragone: a competition between painting an poetry, where painters sought to rival poets in conveying beauty. Titian finished Giorgione?s ?Sleeping Venus.? (T&L, 10/80, p. 58)(WSJ, 12/4/97, p.A20)(Econ, 7/29/06, p.77) 1510 1515 Don Pedro Fajardo y Chacon, commissioned a set of wood friezes for his Velez Blanco castle in Almeria. The friezes were based on engravings by Jacopo da Strasbourg and Zoan Andrea Vavasorri that depicted the triumphs of Caesar and events in the mythical life of Hercules, the "Labors of Hercules." (WSJ, 1/6/00, p.A20)(WSJ, 5/18/00, p.A24) 1510 1550 Spain took in gold shipments from the New World at 3,000 pounds a year. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1510 1572 Frances Clouet, French painter. His work included the dandified "Charles IX of France." (SFEC, 12/1/96, BR p.4) 1511 nend Jul 30, Giorgio Vasari (d.1574), Italy, painter, architect and art historian (Vasari's Lives), was born. He wrote "Lives of the Artists." (WUD, 1994, p.1582)(MC, 7/30/02) 1511 nend Sep 1, Council of Pisa opened. Louis XII of France called the council to oppose the Holy League of Pope Julius II. (PTA, 1980, p.432)(MC, 9/1/02) 1511 nend Nov 22, Erasmus Reinhold, German mathematician (calculated planetary table), was born. (MC, 11/22/01) 1511 nend Fra Bartolomeo painted "The Mystic Marriage of St. Catherine." He emphasizing his mastery in the display of draperies. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1511 nend Raphael completed the frescoes in the Stanza della Segnatura in the Vatican for Pope Julius II. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1511 nend There were Jews in Thessaloniki, Greece involved in the printing. (WSJ, 4/29/97, p.A20) 1511 nend Sebastian Virdung, German musician, published the earliest manual for playing musical instruments. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1511 nend Pope Julius joined the Holy League with Aragon and Venice against the French. Papal forces captured Modena and Mirandola from the French. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1511 nend In Mecca, Arabia, there was an attempt to ban coffee. (Econ, 12/20/03, p.90) 1511 nend Portuguese sailors first reached the unsettled Mascarene Islands (Mauritius, Reunion and Rodrigues). They discovered the dodo bird and killed many for sport. (NH, 11/96, p.24)(SSFC, 12/9/01, p.C9) 1511 nend Vasily III became the new patriarch of Moscow. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1511 nend Malacca (Melaka), the center of East Indian spice trade, was captured by the Portuguese. When the Dutch gained influence in Indonesia and Jakarta they took over Melaka and built the fortress A Famosa. (TL-MB, p.10)(SFEC, 8/3/97, p.T8) 1511 nend Portuguese traders reached the Banda Islands, including Run, and broke the Venetian monopoly over nutmeg. Over the next century the Dutch muscled in an almost cornered the nutmeg market. The history of the nutmeg trade was documented in 1999 by Giles Milton in his: "Nathaniel's Nutmeg." (WSJ, 5/21/99, p.W7) 1511 nend King Ferdinand of Spain said: "Get gold, humanely if possible, but at all hazards ? get gold." (WSJ, 11/9/00, p.A24) 1511 nend Diego de Velazquez, Spanish commander, occupied Cuba. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 nend Feb 22, Amerigo Vespucci (b.1451), Italian explorer, died in Seville, Spain. (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15384b.htm) 1512 nend Mar 5, Gerardus Mercator (d.1594), Flemish philosopher and cartographer, was born in Rupelmonde, Flanders (later Belgium). (www.navis.gr/men/mercator.htm) 1512 nend Apr 10, James V, king of Scotland (1513-42), was born. (PCh, 1992, p.167)(MC, 4/10/02) 1512 nend Apr 11, The forces of the Holy League were heavily defeated by the French at the Battle of Ravenna. France under Gaston de Foix beat the Spanish Army. Gaston de Foix, French pretender to Navarre throne, died in battle. (HN, 4/11/99)(MC, 4/11/02) 1512 nend Aug 31, Giuliano de Medici became the new governor of Florence. (ON, 11/04, p.3) 1512 nend Nov 1, Michelangelo's paintings on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel were completed and first exhibited to the public. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10)(AP, 11/1/97)(HN, 11/1/98) 1512 nend Nov 7, Giuliano de Medici fired Niccolo Machiavelli from civil service in Florence. (ON, 11/04, p.4) 1512 nend Nov 16, Jemme Herjuwsma, Fries rebel, was beheaded. (MC, 11/16/01) 1512 nend Nov 17, Kempo Roeper, Frisian rebel, was quartered. (MC, 11/17/01) 1512 nend Dec 27, The laws of Burgos gave New World natives legal protection against abuse and authorized Negro slavery. (HN, 12/27/98) 1512 nend Raphael completed the Sistine Madonna, a visual expression of Renaissance humanism. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 nend Masque was used for the first time to describe a poetic drama. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 nend The English began using double-deck warships. They displaced 1,000 tons and were armed with 70 guns. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 nend Newfoundland cod banks were exploited by fisherman from England, France, Portugal and Holland, who sent the dried catch back to Europe. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 nend Copernicus, Polish-born astronomer, wrote his manuscript ?The Little Commentary,? in which he suggested that the earth?s apparent immobility was due to a ?false appearance? and a sun-centered cosmos would resolve many astronomical inconsistencies. (ON, 2/11, p.5) 1512 nend French armies defeated the forces of the Holy League at the Battle of Ravenna. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 nend Henry VIII claimed the throne of France and sent troops unsuccessfully into Spain. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 nend Shi?ism became the state religion of Persia. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 nend Portuguese explorers discovered the Celebes and found nutmeg trees in the Moluccas. This began an 84-year monopoly of the nutmeg and mace trades. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 nend The Portuguese took over control of East Timor. (SFC, 3/3/98, p.A6) 1512 nend Spain imported black slaves to Hispaniola to replace moribund Indian laborers. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 nend The Spaniards conquered Navarre and annexed it to Castile. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10)(Econ, 6/26/04, Survey p.13) 1512 nend Selim I deposed his father Bayazid II and became Sultan of Turkey. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 nend Ponce de Leon stepped ashore on the Turks and Caicos Islands. (SFEC, 2/14/99, p.T4) 1512 nend Julius II convened the Lateran Council to try for the first time to reform abuses within the Church of Rome. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1512 1520 Selim I followed Beyazid II in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii) 1513 nend Feb 20, Pope Julius II died. He was laid in rest in a huge tomb sculptured by Michelangelo. (HN, 2/20/99) 1513 nend Mar 6, Niccolo Machiavelli was released from jail in Florence. He complained in verse that it was difficult to write poetry there because people kept beating him up. (ON, 11/04, p.4) 1513 nend Mar 11, Giovanni de' Medici became Pope Leo X. The Medici Pope Leo X led the Catholic Church until 1521. (OG)(MC, 3/12/02) 1513 nend Mar 27, Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de Leon sighted Florida. (AP, 3/27/97)(HN, 3/27/98) 1513 nend Apr 2, Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de Leon landed in Florida. Juan Ponce de Leon, Spanish explorer, discovered Florida and planted orange and lemon trees there. [see March 27, 1512 entry] He also discovered the Dry Tortugas, 10 small keys southwest of Key West. The Spanish governor of Puerto Rico, Juan Ponce de Leon, discovered Florida and named it Pascua Florida, "feast of the flowers." His discovery was made during his search for the legendary Fountain of Youth. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10)(NH, 4/97, p.317)(AP, 4/2/97)(SFEC, 1/2/00, Z1p.2)(HNQ, 3/9/00) 1513 nend Apr 8, Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de Leon and his expedition began exploring the Florida coastline. (AP, 4/8/07) 1513 nend Jun 6, Battle at Novara: Habsburgers vs. Valois. (MC, 6/6/02) 1513 nend Aug 16, Henry VIII of England and Emperor Maximilian defeated the French at Guinegatte, France, in the Battle of the Spurs. (HN, 8/16/98) 1513 nend Sep 9, James IV (40), King of Scotland (1488-1513), was defeated and killed by English at the Battle of Flodden Field. The Scottish navy was sold to France. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10)(HN, 9/9/98)(MC, 9/9/01) 1513 nend Sept 25, Vasco Nunez de Balboa, Spanish explorer, crossed the Isthmus of Panama and claimed the Pacific Ocean for Spain. He was named governor of Panama and the Pacific by King Ferdinand. In 2004 Hugh Thomas authored ?Rivers of Gold: The Rise of the Spanish Empire from Columbus to Magellan.? (HFA, '96, p.38)(TL-MB, 1988, p.10)(SFEC, 9/21/97, p.C7)(WSJ,6/2/04, p.D12) 1513 nend Sep 29, Spanish explorer Vasco Nunez de Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean. (HN, 9/29/98) 1513 nend Michelangelo began to work on his Moses, the awesome central figure of the statues surrounding the tomb of Julius II. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1513 nend Niccolo Machiavelli wrote "The Prince" in which he gave reasons for the rise and fall of states. He dedicated it to Lorenzo de Medici, the successor to Giuliano. It was not published until 1532. In it he justified the ruthless subjection of religion and morality to politics. A 1998 translation by Prof. Angelo M. Codevilla included 428 footnotes and attempted to maintain the peculiar language of Machiavelli. (WSJ, 2/18/98, p.A20)(WSJ, 2/27/98, p.A15)(ON, 11/04, p.5) 1513 nend Chartres Cathedral, near Paris, was completed after almost 400 years of work. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1513 nend The Palazzo Farnese, a large and magnificent palace in Rome, was designed by Antonio de Sangallo the younger and Michelangelo. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1513 nend Calusa Indians in catamaran canoes attacked Spanish ships under Ponce de Leon in the southwest Florida and both sides suffered casualties. (AM, 11/04, p.49) 1513 nend Henry VIII and Maximilian defeated the French forces in Italy and Louis XII gave up Milan. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1513 nend Christian II became King of Denmark and Norway. He later asserted his right to the Swedish throne by force of arms. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1513 nend Jorge Alvarez, Portuguese commander, reached Canton, China. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1513 nend Portugal captured Goa, India. (SSFC, 3/19/06, p.F7) 1513 nend Magellan, who served for the Portuguese on many expeditions, was wounded in a campaign against the Moroccan stronghold of Azamor. The wound caused him to limp for the rest of his life. (HNQ, 10/9/00) 1513 nend The Swiss completed the acquisition of the southern province of Ticino. (SFEC, 6/14/98, p.T4) 1513 nend A manuscript map was drawn by Piri Reis (1470-1554) a Turkish captain who later became the Chief Admiral of the Ottoman Navy. It was presented to Ottoman Sultan Selim I in Egypt in 1517. no_source 1513 1514 Dosso Dossi painted his portrait of "Saint George." (WSJ, 1/20/98, p.A20) 1514 nend Apr 26, Copernicus made his first observations of Saturn. Nicholas Copernicus later proposed that the sun is stationary and that the earth and the planets move in circular orbits around it. (HN, 4/26/98)(BHT, Hawking, p.4) 1514 nend Aug 23, Selim I (the Grim), Ottoman Sultan, routed a Persian army in the Battle of Chaldiran. (TL-MB, p.10)(PCh, 1992, p.168) 1514 nend Sep 15, Selim I entered Tabriz, Persia, and massacred much of the population. (PCh, 1992, p.168) 1514 nend Sep, Thomas Wolsey (1473-1530) was appointed archbishop of York. (TL-MB, p.10) 1514 nend Dec 4, Richard Hunne, English "heretic", allegedly committed suicide. (MC, 12/4/01) 1514 nend Dec 31, Andreas Vesalius (d.1564), anatomist, author of "De Humani Corporis Fabrica," was born in Brussels, Belgium (NH, 10/96, p.34)(TL-MB, 1988, p.15)(MC, 12/31/01) 1514 nend Giovanni Bellini painted ?Feast of the Gods.? The painting depicts Ovid?s tale of how Vesta, goddess of virginity is approached while sleeping by Priapus, god of fertility, who begins to twitch up her tunic. At that moment a donkey sneezes and awakens Vesta, who quickly awakes and runs away. It is now on exhibit at the National Gallery of Art in Wa., DC. (T&L, 10/1980, p.66)(WSJ, 8/3/06, p.D5) 1514 nend Diego Columbus, son of Christopher, built the first seat of government in the Americas in Santo Domingo. (SFEC, 2/14/99, p.T10) 1514 nend Hampton Court Palace was begun for Wolsey. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1514 nend Pope Leo X issued a papal bull against slavery. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1514 nend England and France declared a truce in their warfare. Mary Tudor, sister of Henry VIII, married Louis XII. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1514 nend At the Battle of Orsha, Lithuanian forces defeated those of Moscow. (SFC, 9/9/96, p.A12) 1514 nend Vasily III, ruler of Moscow, captured Smolensk from Poland. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1514 nend George Dozsa, soldier of fortune, instigated a peasant?s revolt in Hungary. He was later captured and grilled alive. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1514 nend Spanish soldiers conquered the natives of Cuba. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1514 nend 1,500 Spanish settlers went to Panama. (TL-MB, 1988, p.10) 1515 nend Jan 1, King Louis XII (b.1462) of France, died. He was succeeded by Francis I (1494-1547). (Econ, 12/12/09, p.93)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_I_of_France) 1515 nend Feb 4, Michael Radvila the Black was born in Nesvizh. He later became palatine of Vilnius, chancellor of Lithuania, and supporter of Reformation. (LHC, 2/4/03) 1515 nend Mar 28, Theresa of Avila (d.1582), Teresa de Jesus (St. Theresa), Spanish Carmelite nun, mystic writer, saint, was born. She initiated reforms in the Order. She co-founded with John of the Cross (1542-1591) the Order of Discalced (barefoot) Carmelites. "Untilled ground, however rich, will bring forth thistles and thorns; so also the mind of man." "To wish to act like angels while we are still in this world is nothing but folly." (CU, 6/87)(WUD, 1994, p.769)(AP, 12/8/97)(AP, 7/5/98)(MC, 3/28/02) 1515 nend Jul 21, St. Philippus Nerius, [Philippo Neri], Italian merchant, priest, was born. (MC, 7/21/02) 1515 nend Jul 22, Emperor Maximillian and Vladislav of Bohemia forged an alliance between the Habsburg [Austria] and Jagiello [Polish-Lithuanian] dynasties in Vienna. (HN, 7/22/98) 1515 nend Jul 26, Santiago, Cuba, was founded. (SFC, 7/22/00, p.A17) 1515 nend Sep 13, King Francis of France defeated the Swiss army under Cardinal Matthias Schiner at Marignano, northern Italy. Switzerland was last involved in a war. French armies defeated the Swiss and Venetians at the Battle of Marignano and Milan fell to the French. Francis I conquered Lombardy in northern Italy. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11)(SFC, 6/7/96, p.A12)(HN, 9/13/98) 1515 nend Sep 22, Anne of Cleeves, fourth wife of Henry the VIII, was born in Cleeves, Germany. (HN, 9/22/00) 1515 nend Oct 4, Lucas Cranach (d.1586), the Younger, German painter, was born. (WUD, 1994, p.339)(MC, 10/4/01) 1515 nend Nov 15, Thomas Wolsey (1473-1530), archbishop of York, was made a cardinal. (http://www.britainunlimited.com/Biogs/Wolsey.htm) 1515 nend Dec 2, Gonzalo de Cordoba, Spanish general, strategist, viceroy of Naples, died. (MC, 12/2/01) 1515 nend Dec 24, Thomas Cardinal Wolsey was appointed English Lord Chancellor. (MC, 12/24/01) 1515 nend Giovanni Bellini (b.~1430-1516), Italian artist, painted his masterpiece ?Lady With a Mirror. (Econ, 7/29/06, p.77) 1515 nend Hans Holbein the Younger arrived in Basel, the European center of book publishing. The city in 1997 owned 340 prints by Holbein. (WSJ, 6/24/97, p.A20) 1515 nend Alexander Barclay began composing his "Eclogues," the earliest pastoral poems in English. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1515 nend John Skelton?s "Magnyficense" became one of the best known morality plays. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1515 nend Raphael succeeded Bramante as chief architect of St. Peter?s in Rome. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1515 nend Matthias Grunewald completed the enormous altarpiece for the Antonites of Isenheim. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1515 nend By this year the Taino Indians of what is now the Dominican Republic were practically annihilated in clashes with the Spanish. (SFC, 3/29/97, p.A10) 1515 nend Petrus Apianus, German mathematician and instrument maker, attempted to explain the universe by crafting an artistic dial that tracked the movement of the stars. (SFC, 7/19/02, p.E3) 1515 nend Juan Diaz de Solis, Spanish navigator, reached the Rio de la Plata in South America and discovered Argentina. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1515 nend Bartolome de Las Casas, Dominican priest, returned to Spain from Hispaniola to plead on behalf of the ill-treated native Indians. (NH, 10/96, p.29) 1515 nend Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de Leon first described the Gulf Stream. In 1770 Benjamin Franklin drew a map of the Gulf Stream and in 1786 described it in detail in Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. In 2008 Stan Ulanski authored ?The Gulf Stream: Tiny Plankton, Giant Bluefin, and the Amazing Story of the Powerful River in the Atlantic.? (WSJ, 10/4/08, p.W9) 1515 nend Afonso d?Albuquerque, Viceroy of the Portuguese Indies, captured Hormuz (Ormuz) and forced all other traders to round the Cape of Good Hope. This established Portugal?s supremacy in trade with the Far East. Hormuz is the strait between Iran and Trucial Oman. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11)(WUD, 1994, p.684) 1515 nend The first nationalized French factories were set up in the manufacture of tapestries and arms. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1515 nend Spanish conquistadores founded Havana, Cuba. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1515 nend Bartolome de Las Casas (1474-1566), Dominican priest and the first Spanish priest to be ordained in the New World, returned to Spain from Hispaniola to plead on behalf of the ill-treated native Indians. He became known as the ?Apostle to the Indians.? Helen Rand Parish (1912-2005) later authored a number of seminal works on Las Casas. (NH, 10/96, p.29)(TL-MB, p.11)(SSFC, 5/15/05,p.A19)(http://tinyurl.com/brzzu) 1515 nend Diego (b.~1450), the younger brother of Christopher Columbus, died. He had accompanied Columbus on his second voyage (1493). Diego was released from chains in Spain in 1500, became a priest and returned to the West Indies in 1509. (AH, 2/03, p.7)(www.newadvent.org/cathen/04140a.htm) 1515 1516 Dosso Dossi, court painter in Ferrara, painted "Melissa" (aka Circe). (WSJ, 1/20/98, p.A20) 1515 1519 Coffee from Arabia appeared in Europe. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1515 1520 In Portugal the Belem Tower was built in Lisbon and served as a beacon to sailors. It originally stood well in the water but now the Tagus laps only its base. (SFEC, 2/1/98, p.T7) 1516 nend Feb 18, Mary Tudor, later Queen Mary I of England (1553-1558) and popularly known as "Bloody Mary," was born in Greenwich Palace. (HN, 2/18/98)(AP, 2/18/98) 1516 nend Feb 23, The Hapsburg Charles I succeeded Ferdinand in Spain. (HN, 2/23/99) 1516 nend Mar 17, Giuliano de' Medici (37), monarch of Florence, died. (MC, 3/17/02) 1516 nend Mar 26, Konrad von Gesner, naturalist (Bibliotheca Universalis), was born in Zurich, Switzerland. (SS, 3/26/02) 1516 nend Apr 10, Jews were compelled to live in a specific area of Venice. (MC, 4/10/02) 1516 nend Aug 24, At the Battle of Marj Dabik, north of Aleppo, the Turks beat Syria. Suliman I (Selim the Grim), the Ottoman Sultan, routed the Mamelukes (Egypt) with the support of artillery capturing Aleppo and Damascus. This opened the way to 400 years of Ottoman Turkish rule over most of the Arab world. (PC, 1992, p.169)(Econ, 11/14/09, p.101) 1516 nend Mateo Realdo Colombo (d.1559), Italian anatomist and discoverer of the pulmonary circulation, was born at Cremona. He studied medicine at Padua with Vesalius, became his assistant, and in 1544 succeeded him as lecturer in surgery and anatomy. The best authority for Colombo's work in anatomy is his "De Re Anatomicâ" (Venice, 1559; Paris, 1562). The most complete life is that by Tollin in Pflügers Archiv: XXI-XXII. In English there is a good sketch by Fisher, Annals of Anatomy and Surgery (Brooklyn, 1880). In 1997 Federico Andahazi authored "The Anatomist," a novel that was based on Colombo?s research on the clitoris. (CE, online)(SFEC, 10/29/00, BR p.5) 1516 nend Hans Holbein in Basel painted a wooden shingle as a sort of advertisement for the schoolmaster Oswald Geishüsler. It marked the beginning of "profane" painting in the West. (WSJ, 6/24/97, p.A20) 1516 nend Titian began "The Assumption of the Virgin," a monumental altarpiece in the Church of the Frari, Venice. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1516 nend Giovanni Bellini (b.~1430), Italian artist, died in Venice. Giorgione and Titian had graduated from his workshop. (Econ, 7/29/06, p.77)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Bellini) 1516 nend The first published account of the discovery of North America appeared in "De Rebus Oceanicus et Novo Orbe" by the Italian historian Peter Martyr. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1516 nend Erasmus published his version of the New Testament. He began by copying manuscripts found in monasteries and given to him by his friend Thomas More. His Latin translation and commentary and an improved Greek text differed in many places from the Vulgate of St. Jerome, and was immediately recognized as the most accurate translation so far. (V.D.-H.K.p.159) 1516 nend Thomas More published his "Utopia," the "golden little book" that invented a literary-world immune from the evils of Europe, where all citizens were equal and believed in a good and just God. "Your sheep, which are usually so tame and cheaply fed, begin now... to be so greedy and so wild that they devour human beings themselves and devastate and depopulate fields, houses, and towns." From More?s Utopia. The key thought in the work is that poverty, injustice and inequality will never be eliminated from the world until private property is abolished. (V.D.-H.K.p.160)(NG, 5.1988, pp. 574)(WSJ, 10/22/98, p.A20) 1516 nend The German Quedlinburg Manuscript of this date and other church treasures were stolen from a cave where they were being stored in 1945 by Lt. Joe Tom Meador of Whitewright, Texas. The items were then sold by his brother and sister. In 1996 a criminal trial focused on the issue. (WSJ, 12/11/96, p.A20) 1516 nend Music printed from engraved plates was used for the first time in Italy. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1516 nend Archduke Charles, later Emp. Charles V, succeeded his grandfather, King Ferdinand II of Spain, and founded the Hapsburg dynasty. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1516 nend The Treaty of Noyon brought peace between France and Spain. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1516 nend In Bavaria, Germany, the Reinheitsgebot (purity law) was enacted. It required that beer be made from malt, hops, yeast, water and nothing else. (WSJ, 5/27/98, p.A1)(SFC, 7/15/04, p.A2)(Econ, 10/9/10, p.76) 1516 nend Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and Seville Univ., Spain, were founded. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1516 nend Juan Diaz de Solis, Spanish explorer, was killed on the coast of Argentina. He was eaten by natives. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11)(SFEM, 11/15/98, p.26) 1517 nend Jan 20, Ottoman sultan Selim I captured Cairo. The center of power transferred then to Istanbul. The Ottoman Empire retained the Mamluks as an Egyptian ruling class. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate) 1517 nend Mar 26, The famous Flemish composer Heinrich Issac, whose music fused Flemish, Italian and Germanic styles, died. (HN, 3/26/99) 1517 nend Apr 13, Tuman Bey, the last Mameluke sultan of Egypt, was hanged as Osman?s army occupied Cairo. (MC, 4/13/02) 1517 nend Jun 11, Sir Thomas Pert reached Hudson Bay. (SC, 6/11/02) 1517 nend Jul 1, The 1st burning of Protestants at stake in Netherlands. (MC, 7/1/02) 1517 nend Oct 6, Fra Bartolommeo (b.1472), Florentine Renaissance painter, died. He was a Dominican monk nicknamed Baccio della Porta. His work included a portrait of Savonarola. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fra_Bartolommeo)(SFC, 5/13/96, p.D-5) 1517 nend Oct 31, Martin Luther nailed his Ninety-five Thesis to the door of the Wittenberg Palace All Saints? Church. He grew to believe in faith alone as man?s link to the justice of God, and therefore denied the need for the vast infrastructure of the Church. This event signaled the beginning of the Protestant Reformation in Germany and Protestantism in general, shattering the external structure of the medieval church and at the same time reviving the religious consciousness of Europe.. Martin Luther (1483-1546) was born in Eisleben, Germany. He was a monk in the Catholic Church until 1517, when he founded the Lutheran Church. (V.D.-H.K.p.163)(CU, 6/87)(SFC, 7/21/97, p.A11)(AP, 10/31/97)(AP,10/31/97) (HN, 10/31/98) 1517 nend Oct, Ferdinand Magellan arrived in Spain and began the first voyage to successfully circumnavigate the world a little less than two years later. He eventually died in the Philippines in 1521. The expedition was completed by others in 1522. (HNQ, 10/9/00) 1517 nend Seville Cathedral was completed after 115 years of work. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1517 nend Archduke Charles left the Netherlands for Spain and entered Valladolid in triumph. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1517 nend Archduke Charles granted a monopoly in the African slave trade to Florentine merchants. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1517 nend Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba, Spanish explorer, sailed from Cuba and discovered the Mayan civilization in the Yucatan, southeast Mexico. (TL-MB, p.11)(SSFC, 5/6/01, p.T6) 1517 nend Bartolomeo de las Casas, the first Spanish priest to be ordained in the New World, pleaded the case of oppressed and enslaved American Indians. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1517 nend An Aztec chronicler described a comet as a "flaming ear of corn." (NG, 12/97, p.97) 1517 nend The Mamelukes in Egypt lost power. (WUD, 1994, p.869) 1517 nend In Germany the Salzbergwerk Berchtesgaden salt mine began operations. (SSFC, 8/6/06, p.G5) 1517 nend Portuguese sailors named Ilha Formosa (beautiful island), later known as Taiwan. (SFC, 12/11/99, p.B6) 1518 nend Apr 18, Bona Sforza (1494-1558) was crowned Queen of Poland and Grand Duchess of Lithuania in Wawel Cathedral, Krakow. The Italian niece of Bianca Maria Sforza, who in 1493 married Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, became the 3rd consort of Lithuania?s Grand Duke Sigismund the Old (1467-1548). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bona_Sforza) 1518 nend Sep 29, Jacopo Tintoretto (d.1588), Italian artist, was born. (Econ, 2/10/07, p.90)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tintoretto) 1518 nend Oct 12, A pontifical ambassador interrogated Rev. Dr. Martin Luther. Luther was summoned to the Diet of Augsburg where he refused to recant. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11)(MC, 10/12/01) 1518 nend Raphael painted a portrait of Leo X which showed spectacles with concave lenses for short-sightedness. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1518 nend Raphael began painting the nude model ?La Fornarina? (the Little Baker Girl). It was completed about 1519. (www.abcgallery.com/R/raphael/raphael58.html) 1518 nend Titian painted "Offering to Venus." (NH, 6/01, p.47) 1518 nend Gil Vicente, founder of Portuguese drama, wrote "The Ship of Purgatory." (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1518 nend Ulrich Zwingli, a Swiss clergyman, supported Martin Luther?s Reformation. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1518 nend Forks were used at a banquet in Venice (for the first time?). (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1518 nend Portugal and the Kingdom of Kotte, Ceylon, signed a peace treaty. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1518 nend Cardinal Wolsey arranged the Peace of London between England, France, the Pope, Maximilian I and Spain. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1518 nend Algiers and Tunis, Barbary states in North Africa, were founded. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1518 nend Henry VIII authorized a college of physicians and it was founded by Oxford physician Thomas Linacre. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1518 nend Porcelain from Asia was imported to Europe (for the first time?) from Asia. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1518 nend Anthony Blatner, German goldsmith, built the first fire-engine in Augsburg, Germany. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1518 nend Vasco Nunez de Balboa, Spanish explorer, was wrongly charged with treason and beheaded. (SFEC, 9/21/97, p.C7) 1518 nend Juan de Grijalva, Spanish explorer, named the area comprising of Mexico, Central America north of Panama, the Spanish West Indies, and south-west North America New Spain. He was also the first European to smoke tobacco, introduced to him by a native chief. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1518 nend Lorens de Gominot obtained a license to import 4,000 African slaves into the New World colonies. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1519 nend Jan 12, Maximilian I of Hapsburg (59), Holy Roman Emperor and German Kaiser, died. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11)(AP, 1/12/98)(PC, 1992, p.170) 1519 nend Feb 15, Pedro Menendez de Aviles, explorer (found St. Augustine, Florida), was born. (MC, 2/15/02) 1519 nend Feb 16, Gaspard de Coligny, Huguenot leader, French admiral, was born. (MC, 2/16/02) 1519 nend Mar 13, The Spaniards under Cortez landed at Vera Cruz. Cortez landed in Mexico with 10 stallions, 5 mares and a foal. Smallpox was carried to America in the party of Hernando Cortes. (SFC, 9/2/96, p.A3)(HN, 3/13/98)(SFC, 10/19/01, p.A17)(SSFC, 5/6/01,p.T6) 1519 nend Apr 13, Catherine de Medicis (d.1589), the daughter of Lorenzo de Medici, was born in Florence. She married at age 14 and became queen in 1547 as Henry II of France acceded to the throne. She was the mother of Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III. (www.hyperhistory.com/online_n2/people_n2/women_n2/c_medici.html) 1519 nend Apr 24, Envoys of Montezuma II attended the first Easter mass in Central America. (HN, 4/24/98) 1519 nend Apr, Montezuma received a message that white strangers had reappeared and attacked a Mayan coastal village south of the Aztec border. Hundreds of Mayans were killed and the strangers sailed north. (ON, 10/00, p.2) 1519 nend May 2, Artist Leonardo da Vinci (67) died at Cloux, France. In 1994 A. Richard Turner wrote "Inventing Leonardo," a history of Leonardo legends. In 2004 Bulent Atalay authored ?Math and the Mona Lisa: The Art and Science of Leonardo da Vinci.? In 2004 Charles Nicholl authored ?Leonard da Vinci: The Flights of the Mind.? http://library.thinkquest.org/13681/data/davin2.shtml?tqskip=1 (AP, 5/2/97)(NH, 5/97, p.58)(Econ, 5/15/04, p.80)(Econ, 12/11/04, p.81) 1519 nend Jun 24, Lucretia Borgia (39), daughter of Pope Alexander VI, died. In 2004 Sarah Bradford authored ?Lucrezia Borgia: Life, Love and Death in Renaissance Italy.? (HN, 4/18/98)(WUD, 1994, p.171)(SSFC, 12/19/04, p.E2) 1519 nend Jul 6, Charles of Spain was elected Holy Roman emperor in Barcelona. The Catholic heir to the Hapsburg dynasty, Charles V, was elected Holy Roman Emperor, combining the crowns of Spain, Burgundy (with the Netherlands), Austria and Germany. He was the grandson of Ferdnand and Isabella of Spain. (V.D.-H.K.p.162)(NH, 9/96, p.18)(HN, 7/6/98) 1519 nend Jul 16, There was a public debate between Martin Luther and theologian John Eck. (MC, 7/16/02) 1519 nend Aug 11, Johann Tetzel (~79), Dominican monk, died. (MC, 8/11/02) 1519 nend Aug 15, Panama City was founded. (MC, 8/15/02) 1519 nend Aug, Montezuma learned that Cortez was marching toward Tenochtitlan with an army of 300 soldiers and 2000 non-Aztec Indians. Cortez was accompanied by Malinche, his Indian mistress and interpreter. (ON, 10/00, p.2) 1519 nend Sep 5, In the 2nd Battle of Tehuacingo, Mexico, Hernan Cortes faced the Tlascala Aztecs. (MC, 9/5/01) 1519 nend Sep 20, Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan set out from Spain with 270 men and 5 ships on a voyage to find a western passage to the Spice Islands in Indonesia. Magellan was killed en route, but one of his ships eventually circumnavigated the world. He was first European explorer to reach the Pacific Ocean from the Atlantic by sailing through the dangerous straits below South America that now bear his name. [see Sep 20, 1520] (V.D.-H.K.p.182)(DD-EVTT, p.41)(AP, 9/20/97)(HN, 9/20/98) 1519 nend Sep 21, Hans Backofen (Backoffen), German sculptor, died at about 49. (MC, 9/21/01) 1519 nend Nov 7, University of Leuven condemned the teachings of Rev. Martin Luther. (MC, 11/7/01) 1519 nend Nov 8, The Aztec and their leader, Moctezuma, welcomed Hernando Cortez and his 650 explorers to their capital at Tenochtitlan. Spanish adventurer Hernando Cortez and his force of about 300 Spanish soldiers, 18 horses and thousands of Mexico's native inhabitants who had grown resentful of Aztec rule marched unmolested into Tenochtitlán, the capital city of the Aztec empire. The Aztec ruler Montezuma, believing that Cortez could be the white-skinned deity Quetzalcoatl, whose return had been foretold for centuries, greeted the arrival of these strange visitors with courtesy--at least until it became clear that the Spaniards were all too human and bent on conquest. Cortez and his men, dazzled by the Aztec riches and horrified by the human sacrifice central to their religion, began to systematically plunder Tenochtitlán and tear down the bloody temples. Montezuma's warriors attacked the Spaniards but with the aid of Indian allies, Spanish reinforcements, superior weapons and disease, Cortez defeated an empire of approximately 25 million people by August 13, 1521. (ATC, p.16)(SFC, 9/2/96, p.A3) (HNPD, 11/8/98) 1519 nend Dec, Magellan reached the Bay of the Rio de Janeiro. (V.D.-H.K.p.182)(DD-EVTT, p.41) 1519 nend Corregio began painting the ceiling frescoes in the dining room of the abbess of St. Paul?s Convent in Parma. (SFEC, 9/15/96, p.T6) 1519 nend Gil Vicente, Portuguese dramatist, wrote a second farce, "The Ship of Heaven." (TL-MB, 1988, 1988, p.11) 1519 nend St. George?s Chapel, Windsor, England, was completed after 46 years of work. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1519 nend The Chateau of Chombard was begun in France, and would take 30 years to finish. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1519 nend The Italian influenced medieval church at the Moscow Monastery of Peter the Metropolitan was constructed. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.38) 1519 nend Nanak (1469-1539) founded Sikhism, a combination of Hinduism and Buddhism. Sikhs revere 10 gurus. "Be in the world, but not worldly." (TL-MB, 1988, p.11)(WSJ, 10/12/01, p.W17) 1519 nend Ulrich Zwingli initiated the Swiss Reformation with his preaching in Zurich. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1519 nend Martin Luther disputed with Johann Eck in the Leipzig Disputation and questioned the infallibility of the Pope. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1519 nend Bohemians minted silver Joachimsthalers, "thalers" for short. This was the basis for the word "dollar." (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1519 nend A mass-production technique for casting brass objects was used in Italy. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1519 nend Prussia experienced a monetary crises. (ON, 2/11, p.6) 1519 nend Domenico de Pineda, Spanish navigator, explored the Gulf of Mexico. (TL-MB, 1988, p.11) 1519 nend Francisco de Montejo, a captain under Cortez, set about subjugating the Maya in Mexico. (SSFC, 5/6/01, p.T6) 1519 nend In Mexico Cortes discovered a plot by some Cholulans to assassinate him and ordered some 6,000 Cholulan men executed. (SFEC, 11/8/98, p.T10) 1519 nend Spanish soldiers in Mexico learned that the shipwrecked sailor Gonzalo Guerrero had drifted there in 1511. Guerrero married a Maya woman and raised the first mestizo children. (Econ, 11/10/07, p.102)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonzalo_Guerrero) 1519 1579 Sir Thomas Gresham, merchant prince. He was a British banker and money-changer and served as the financial agent for Elizabeth I. He ran a news service in the Netherlands to keep informed of finances there and built the Royal Exchange of London modeled on the Antwerp commodities exchange. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1520 nend Apr 6, Raphael (b.1483), [Sanzio], Italian painter (Sistine Madonna), died on his 37th birthday. His work included "The Veiled Lady" and a set of cartoons that were woven into 10 tapestries titled "The Acts of the Apostles" (1544-1557). (WSJ, 4/11/02, p.D7)(www.abcgallery.com/R/raphael/raphaelbio.html) 1520 nend May 20, Hernando Cortes defeated Spanish troops sent to punish him in Mexico. (HN, 5/20/98) 1520 nend Jun 15, Pope Leo the Tenth threatened to excommunicate Martin Luther if he did not recant his religious beliefs. Pope Leo X excommunicated Martin Luther by the bull Exsurge. (AP, 6/15/00)(HT, 6/15/00) 1520 nend Jun 24, Montezuma, under orders by Cortez to calm his people, was showered with "stones, darts, arrows and sticks" from a jeering crowd. (ON, 10/00, p.5) 1520 nend Jun 30, Montezuma II was murdered as Spanish conquistadors fled the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan during the night. Montezuma died from wounds inflicted by his people. Conquistadors under Cortez plundered gold from Aztecs. (HN, 6/30/01)(ON, 10/00, p.5)(MC, 6/30/02) 1520 nend Jul 10, The explorer Cortes was driven from Tenochtitlan, Mexico, by Aztec leader Cuauhtemoc, and retreated to Tlaxcala. (HN, 7/10/98) 1520 nend Jul 14, Hernando Cortes fought the Aztecs at the Battle of Otumba, Mexico. (MC, 7/14/02) 1520 nend Sep 20, Magellan set sail from Spain with five ships and 265 men, on a voyage to find a western passage to the Spice Islands of Indonesia. (MC, 11/28/01) 1520 nend Sep 21, Suleiman I (the Magnificent), son of Selim, became the Ottoman sultan in Constantinople. He ruled to 1566. [see Sep 30] (TL-MB, 1988, p.12)(HN, 9/21/98)(Ot, 1993, xvii) 1520 nend Sep 22, Selim I, Sultan of Turkey (1512-20), died at 53. (MC, 9/22/01) 1520 nend Sep 30, Suleiman I succeeded his father Selim I as sultan of Turkey. [see Sep 21] (MC, 9/30/01) 1520 nend Oct 7, The 1st public burning of books took place in Louvain, Netherlands. (MC, 10/7/01) 1520 nend Oct 15, King Henry VIII of England ordered bowling lanes at Whitehall. (MC, 10/15/01) 1520 nend Oct 21, Ferdinand Magellan arrived at Tierra Del Fuego (Argentina-Chile). (MC, 10/21/01) 1520 nend Oct 23, King Carlos I (1500-1558) was crowned as German emperor Charles V (1520-1558), a Holy Roman Emperor. no_source 1520 nend Nov 4, Danish-Norwegian king Christian II was crowned king of Sweden. (MC, 11/4/01) 1520 nend Nov 9, Swedish King Christian II executed 600 nobles. (MC, 11/9/01) 1520 nend Nov 28, Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan reached the Pacific Ocean after passing through the South American strait, the straits of Magellan, and entered the ?Sea of the South.? (V.D.-H.K.p.177)(AP, 11/28/97) 1520 nend Dec 10, Martin Luther publicly burned the papal edict demanding that he recant, or face excommunication. (AP, 12/10/97) 1520 nend Dec 18, Magellan struck out into the open sea to the northwest (V.D.-H.K.p.177) 1520 nend A 9-piece tapestry set was created for the Holy Roman Empire coronation of Belgium-born Charles V, King of Spain, titled "Los Honores." The set was restored by Belgium in 2000 for the 500th anniversary of Charles? birth. (WSJ, 4/11/02, p.AD7) 1520 nend The funereal monuments of the Medici Chapel were commissioned by Pope Clement VII. They were done primarily by Michelangelo (1475-1564) from 1520 to 1534, being completed by his students after his departure. The four figures?dawn, day, dusk and night?are considered among the sculptor?s most accomplished work. He left Florence in 1534, hoping to return, but spent his last years in Rome. (HNQ, 11/15/00) 1520 nend Joachim Patenier painted one of the earliest industrial pictures showing a blast-furnace. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1520 nend Jacopo Pontormo made his red chalk body sketches. (SFC, 2/15/97, p.D6) 1520 nend The book "Prester John of the Indies" was written. It was translated in 1810. Later Robert Silverberg wrote: "The Realm of Prester John" and John Buchanon wrote "Prester John." In 1952 the French work "Le Pretre Jean" was written. (SFEC, 12/15/96, p.C5) 1520 nend In Germany Jacob Fugger ?The Rich? established a Roman Catholic housing settlement for the poor in Augsburg in the name of Augsburg?s local St. Ulrich. In return for cheap rent residents agreed to pray for the Fuggers? souls. (WSJ, 12/26/08, p.A10) 1520 nend The Jews of Rothenburg, Bavaria, were banished entirely and forevermore. (NH, 9/96, p.24) 1520 nend The Anabaptists, Protestants who baptized believers only and not infants, grew as a movement in Switzerland, Germany and the Netherlands. Some emigrated to America and established themselves as the Amish of Lancaster, Pa. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12)(SFC, 7/2/98, p.A7) 1520 nend King Francis founded the Royal Library of France at Fontainebleu. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1520 nend Chocolate was brought from Mexico to Spain for the first time. [see 1502] (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1520 nend Many small stars congregated... like to two clouds. (Now known as the Large Magellanic Cloud) Thus one of Ferdinand Magellan?s crew, on the first voyage around the earth, described the southern Pacific sky on a clear night in this year. (NG, 5/88, p.619) 1520 nend King Christian II of Denmark and Norway defeated a Swedish army at Lake Asunden and was crowned King of Sweden. He then renounced his offer of amnesty and massacred most of the Swedish leaders. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1520 nend Emperor Charles V and Henry VIII met at Dover and agreed to an Anglo-French commercial treaty. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1520 nend Magellan sailed around the tip of South America and renamed the South Sea as the Pacific Ocean. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1520 nend Scipione del Ferro, Italian mathematician, solved cubic equations for the first time. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1520 nend A smallpox epidemic raged in Vera Cruz, Mexico. The 16th century smallpox epidemic in Mexico and Central America killed about half of the Aztecs. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12)(SFEC, 1/30/00, Z1 p.2) 1520 1530 The ?Shahnameh? (Persian Book of Kings), completed in 1010AD by Persian poet Firdawsi (Ferdowsi) was commissioned to be illustrated for Shah Tahmasp by more than a dozen artists. 258 miniatures were made with 750 folios of Farsi text. In 1568 it was given to the Ottoman Sultan. In 1981 Stuart Cary Welch and martin Dickinson published ?The Houghton Shahnameh,? a 2-volume study. (www.mazdapublisher.com/BookDetails.aspx?BookID=186)(WSJ, 10/13/94,p. A18,)(Econ, 4/9/11, p.95) 1520 1579 Bayazid Roshan, an Afghan intellectual, lived. He revolted against the power of the Moghul government. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1520 nend /24-1579/80 Giovanni Battista Moroni was a Renaissance portraitist. He worked in Trent and Bergamo and then returned to his hometown of Albino. (WSJ, 2/22/00, p.A38) 1520 1598 William Cecil. He later became the Lord Treasurer and chief adviser for Queen Elizabeth I, for which he was made Lord Burghley. He built the Burghley House. (WSJ, 8/24/99, p.A16) 1521 nend Jan 3, Pope Leo X excommunicated Martin Luther from the Roman Catholic Church. (NH, 9/96, p.18)(AP, 1/3/98) 1521 nend March 6, Magellan made landfall at the island of Guam in the Marianas. (HN, 3/6/98) (V.D.-H.K.p.177-178) 1521 nend March 9, Magellan sailed west, southwest towards the Philippines. (V.D.-H.K.p.177-178) 1521 nend Mar 15, Ferdinand Magellan discovered the Philippine Islands, where he was killed by natives the following month. [see Apr 26] (PCh, 1992, p.172)(MC, 3/17/02)(AP, 3/16/97) 1521 nend Apr 7, Inquisitor-general Adrian Boeyens banned Lutheran books. (MC, 4/7/02) 1521 nend Apr 7, Ferdinand Magellan landed on Cebu Island, Philippines. Italian chronicler Antonio Pigafetta reported a thriving port with large supplies of rice and gold. In 2003 the island was a booming commercial center with a population of 4 million. (WSJ, 10/15/03, p.B2A) 1521 nend Apr 16, Martin Luther arrived at Diet of Worms. (MC, 4/16/02) 1521 nend Apr 17, Under the protection of Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony, Martin Luther first appeared before Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and the Imperial Diet to face charges stemming from his religious writings. The Roman Catholic Church had already excommunicated him on Jan 3, 1521. He was later declared an outlaw by Charles V. (NH, 9/96, p.18)(HN, 4/17/98)(AP, 4/17/07) 1521 nend Apr 18, Martin Luther confronted the emperor Charles V in the Diet of Worms and refused to retract his views which led to his excommunication. Cardinal Alexander questioned the Rev Martin Luther. (HN, 4/18/99)(MC, 4/18/02) 1521 nend Apr 21, Martin Luther was called before an Imperial Diet in Worms. He was already accused of heresy and excommunicated by the Pope. Here he was absolved of all charges. (V.D.-H.K.p.163) 1521 nend Apr 22, French king Francois I declared war on Spain. (MC, 4/22/02) 1521 nend Apr 22, Juan de Padilla, Spanish nobleman, communero-rebel, was beheaded. (MC, 4/22/02) 1521 nend Apr 23, The Comuneros were crushed by royalist troops in Spain. (HN, 4/23/99) 1521 nend Apr 26, Magellan was killed in a fight with natives on Mactan Island. Magellan named the Mariana Islands Islas de los Ladrones (Islands of Thieves), and was killed by natives on Cebu. Juan Sebastian Elcano, Magellan?s second in command, returned to Spain with 18 men and one ship, the Vittorio, laden with spices. His coat of arms was augmented in reward with the inscription Primus circumdisti me: "You were the first to encircle me." Some 50,000 Chamorro people populated the islands. [see Apr 27] (V.D.-H.K.p.177-178)(SFEC,11/10/96,Z1p.2)(TL-MB, p.12)(SFEC,3/7/99,Z1 p.4) 1521 nend April 27, Ferdinand Magellan (50), Portuguese explorer, was killed by natives in the Philippines. [see Apr 26] (AP, 4/27/99) 1521 nend May 8, Peter Canisius, [Pieter de Hondt/Kanijs], Jesuit, saint, was born. (MC, 5/8/02) 1521 nend May 8, Emperor Charles V and the Diet issued the Edict of Worms. It banned Luther?s work and enjoined his detention, but was not able to be enforced. (NH, 9/96, p.20) 1521 nend May 20, Ignatius Loyola was seriously wounded by a cannon ball. (MC, 5/20/02) 1521 nend May 26, Martin Luther was banned by the Edict of Worms of because of his religious beliefs and writings. (AP, 5/26/97) 1521 nend May 28, Willem van Croij (~62), duke of Soria, died. (MC, 5/28/02) 1521 nend Aug 13, Spanish conqueror Hernando Cortez conquered the Mexican city of Tenochtitlan (Mexico City) after an 85-day battle. Cuauhtemoc fought against Cortes in Tlatelolco when Moctezuma surrendered. Cortez had an Indian mistress named La Malinche. (NG, 6/1988, p.763)(AP, 8/13/97)(TL-MB, p.12)(WSJ, 8/13/97,p.A12)(WSJ, 4/24/98, p.A15) 1521 nend Aug 27, Josquin Des Prez, composer, died. (MC, 8/27/02) 1521 nend Aug 31, Spanish conqueror Cortez (1485-1547), having captured the city of Tenochtitlan, Mexico, set it on fire. Nearly 100,000 people died in the siege and some 100,000 more died afterwards of smallpox. In 2008 Buddy levy authored ?Conquistador: Hernan Cortes, King Montezuma, and the Last Stand of the Aztecs.? (HN, 8/31/98)(WSJ, 7/10/08, p.A13) 1521 nend Sep 28, Turkish sultan Suleiman I's troops occupied Belgrade. (MC, 9/28/01) 1521 nend Oct 11, Pope Leo X titled King Henry VIII of England "Defender of the Faith" in recognition of his writings in support of the Catholic Church. Henry had penned a defense of the seven Catholic Sacraments in response to Martin Luther?s Protestant reform movement. By 1534, Henry had broken completely with the Catholic Church, and the Pope?s authority in England was abolished. (TL-MB, p.12)(HNQ, 8/12/00)(MC, 10/11/01) 1521 nend Oct 24, Robert Fayrfax, composer, died at 57. (MC, 10/24/01) 1521 nend Oct 25, Emperor Charles V banned wooden buildings in Amsterdam. (MC, 10/25/01) 1521 nend Nov 19, Battle at Milan: Emperor Charles V's Spanish, German, and papal troops beat France and occupied Milan. An eight year war between France and the Holy Roman Emp., Charles V, began after the French supported rebels in Spain. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12)(MC, 11/19/01) 1521 nend Nov 20, Arabs attributed a shortage of water in Jerusalem to Jews making wine. (MC, 11/20/01) 1521 nend Lorenzo Lotto, Italian artist, painted the "Christ Bidding Farewell to His Mother." (WSJ, 1/15/98, p.A17) 1521 nend Suleiman I, the Ottoman Sultan, conquered Belgrade and invaded Hungary. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1521 nend The Chateau de Chenonceaux in the Loire Valley of France was built for the royal tax collector, Thomas Bohier. It took eight years to construct. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1521 nend The manufacture of silk cloth was introduced to France. It had been made in Sicily since the 1100s. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1521 nend In Puerto Rico the Caparra colony founded by Spanish conquistadores relocated to a barrier island at the entrance of San Juan Bay. (HT, 4/97, p.28)(TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1521 nend The first running of the bulls was held at Pamplona, Spain. [see 1591] (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1521 nend Francisco de Gordillo, Spanish explorer, sailed up the American Atlantic coast to South Carolina. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1521 nend Ponce de Leon returned to Key Marco in southwest Florida, where he was again repulsed by the Calusa Indians and died from an arrow wound. (AM, 11/04, p.49) 1521 nend Clipperton Island was originally discovered by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521, but was later named after John Clipperton, an English pirate who led a mutiny against William Dampier in 1704. Mexico occupied the island in 1897 and established a military outpost there. In 1930, the Vatican gave the rights to the King of Italy, Viktor Emanuel II, who declared one year later that Clipperton was a part of France. In 1944 US President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered the navy to occupy the island in one of the most secret US operations of WW II. After the war it was abandoned, and has since only been visited by the French Navy and an occasional scientific or amateur radio expedition. In 1989 Jimmy M. Skaggs authored "Clipperton: A History of the Island the World Forgot." (NH, 12/96, p.70)(www.qsl.net/clipperton2000/history.html) 1522 nend Feb 7, Treaty of Brussels: Habsburgers split into Spanish and Austrian Branches. (MC, 2/7/02) 1522 nend Mar 9-16, Marten Luther preached his Invocavit. (MC, 3/9/02) 1522 nend Apr 29, Emperor Charles V named Frans van Holly inquisitor-gen of Netherlands. (MC, 4/29/02) 1522 nend May 25, Emperor Karel I returned to Spain. (SC, 5/25/02) 1522 nend Aug 27, Giovanni A. Amadei (75), Amadeo, Italian sculptor, architect, died. (MC, 8/27/02) 1522 nend Sep 6, Juan Sebastian Elcano (Del Cano), Magellan?s second in command, returned to Spain with 18 men and one ship, the Vittorio, laden with spices. His coat of arms was augmented in reward with the inscription: Primus circumdisti me: "You were the first to encircle me."18 survivors of the original Magellan expedition completed the circumnavigation of the globe under Sebastian del Cano. Plumes of the bird of paradise from New Guinea were first brought back to Europe. One of the five ships that set out in Ferdinand Magellan's trip around the world made it back to Spain. Only 15 of the original 265 men that set out survived. Magellan was killed by natives in the Philippines. (V.D.-H.K.p.177-178)(SFEC, 11/10/96, zone 1 p.2)(TL-MB, 1988,p.12)(NH, 9/96, p.8)(HN, 9/6/98) 1522 nend Sep 8, Spanish navigator Juan de Elcano returned to Spain. He completed the 1st circumnavigation of globe, expedition begun under Ferdinand Magellan. [see Sep 6] (MC, 9/8/01) 1522 nend Oct 15, Emperor Charles named Hernan Cortes governor of Mexico. (MC, 10/15/01) 1522 nend Dosso Dossi painted "Allegory of Music." (WSJ, 1/20/98, p.A20) 1522 nend Martin Luther completed his translation of the New Testament into German and returned to Wittenberg. His supporter, Ulrich Zwingli, condemned Lenten fasting and celibacy. Luther also published his Christmas Postils as preaching models for other pastors. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12)(WSJ, 12/21/01, p.W15) 1522 nend A Bible was printed in Alcala, Spain, in Hebrew, Greek, Latin and Aramaic. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1522 nend Adrian VI was elected Pope. He was the last non-Italian pope until John Paul II. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1522 nend In 2007 The book "Beyond Capricorn" said a 16th century maritime map in a Los Angeles library vault, which accurately marks geographical sites along Australia's east coast in Portuguese, proves that Portuguese seafarer Christopher de Mendonca lead a fleet of four ships into Botany Bay in this year. (Reuters, 3/21/07) 1522 nend England declared war on France and Scotland. Holy Roman Emp. Charles V visited Henry VIII and signed the Treaty of Windsor. Both monarchs agreed to invade France. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1522 nend Suleiman I captured Rhodes from the Knights Hospitallers of St. John. The knights surrendered after a 6-month siege. In 1530 the knights were resettled on Malta by Charles V. (WSJ, 7/21/08, p.A11) 1522 nend Albrecht Durer, German artist and engraver, designed a flying machine for use in war. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1522 nend Guatemala was conquered by Spanish armies. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1522 nend A massive slave rebellion, the first of dozens, was crushed in Hispaniola. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1522 nend Martin Cortes (d.1569), son of Hernando Cortes, was born in Mexico to an Amerindian woman named Malinche. Cortes also named a 3rd son Martin, who was born in Spain. Both brothers were arrested in 1566 for purportedly fomenting a rebellion against the Spanish crown. (SSFC, 7/11/04, p.M3) 1522 nend The Portuguese crown began administering Sao Tome. (AP, 7/18/03) 1522 nend Pascual de Andagoya, Spanish explorer, became the first European to set foot in Peru. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1522 nend Gustavus Vasa became administrator of Sweden and pledged to free his country from Danish control. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1522 1524 Titian painted "Bacchanal of the Andrians" during this period. (WSJ, 8/3/06, p.D5) 1523 nend Jun 6, [Gustav] Gustavus Vasa was elected Gustavus I of Sweden. (HFA, '96, p.32)(TL-MB, 1988, p.12)(HN, 6/6/98) 1523 nend Jul 1, Hendrik Voes, Flemish priest, church reformer, was burned at stake along with John of Esschen, Flemish priest, church reformer. (MC, 7/1/02) 1523 nend Oct 27, English troops occupied Montalidier, France. (MC, 10/27/01) 1523 nend Nov 30, Amsterdam banned the assembly of heretics. (MC, 11/30/01) 1523 nend Titian painted "Bacchus and Ariadne," a heroic mythological composition for Alfonso d?Este, Duke of Ferrara. It is now at the London National Gallery. (TL-MB, p.12)(SFEC, 2/1/98, p.T8) 1523 nend Hans Holbein completed the first of several portraits of Erasmus in Basel. He also began the design of 51 plates on the "Dance of Death," which reflected ideas of the Reformation. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12)(WSJ, 6/24/97, p.A20) 1523 nend Hans Judenkonig published in Vienna the first manual of lute playing. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1523 nend Anthony Fitzherbert published the "Book of Husbandry," the first English manual of agriculture. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1523 nend Pope Adrian VI died and was succeeded by Pope Clement VII, nephew of Lorenzo de? Medici. Adrian VI was the last non-Italian Pope until 1978 when Cardinal Wojtyla, Archbishop of Cracow, became Pope Paul II. Clement was pope until 1534. (WUD, 1994, p.1691)(TL-MB, 1988, p.12)(WUD, 1994, p.276) 1523 nend Sugar was grown in Cuba for the first time. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1523 nend The first turkeys were introduced to Spain and Europe from America by the conquistadors. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12)(SFEC, 11/24/96, p.A3) 1523 nend Christian II was deposed in Denmark after a civil war and was exiled. His uncle became King Frederick I of Denmark and Norway. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1523 nend The first marine insurance policies were issued in Florence. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1523 nend The Ottoman Emperor Suleiman the Magnificent successfully overcame the Knights Hospitaller, Order of St. John, from their position on the island of Rhodes in the Aegean Sea. The Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, offered the Knights the Isle of Malta. In exchange for a perpetual lease the Knights undertook to send the emperor a falcon (made famous in the mystery novel, The Maltese Falcon, and the movie of the same name) once every year as a token of their fealty. They remained there until the time of Napoleon, and became known as the Knights of Malta. (WSJ, 12/30/94, A-6, Review of The Knights of Malta by H.J.A.Sire) 1523 nend Portuguese settlers were expelled from China. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1523 nend Sweden became independent and dropped out of the Kalmar Union, formed in 1397 with Denmark and Norway. (www.emersonkent.com/historic_documents/kalmar_union.htm) 1523 1524 Dosso Dossi painted "Jupiter, Mercury and Virtue." (WSJ, 1/20/98, p.A20) 1524 nend Mar 19, Giovanni de Verrazano of France sighted land around area of Carolinas. (MC, 3/19/02) 1524 nend Apr 17, Giovanni da Verrazano, Florentine navigator, reached present-day New York Harbor. He explored from Cape Fear to Newfoundland and discovered New York Bay and the Hudson River. He was later eaten by natives. (TL-MB, p.12)(HN, 4/17/98)(SFEM, 11/15/98, p.26)(AP, 4/17/08) 1524 nend Apr 19, Pope Clemens VII fired the Netherlands inquisitor-general French Van de Holly. (MC, 4/19/02) 1524 nend cApr, The Peasant?s War, in which Protestants fought against Catholics and demanded an end to feudal services and oppression by the landed gentry, broke out in Germany. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1524 nend Jul 26, James I became king of Scotland at age 12. (MC, 7/26/02) 1524 nend Aug 19, Emperor Charles V's troops besieged Marseille. (MC, 8/19/02) 1524 nend Nov 14, Pizarro began his 1st great expedition, near Colombia. (MC, 11/14/01) 1524 nend Dec 11, Henry Van Zutphen, Dutch Protestant martyr, was burned at stake. (MC, 12/11/01) 1524 nend Dec 24, Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama (~55), who had discovered a sea route around Africa to India, died in Cochin, India. He had served as Viceroy in India. Gama served under the patronage of Dom Manoel and at one time burned alive 380 men, women and children. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12)(AP, 12/24/97)(MC, 12/24/01)(SSFC, 3/10/02, p.M3) 1524 nend Albrecht Durer drafted a dozen drawings of the same face on a grid. Each grid was transformed as if it were printed on a rubber graph which was then bent and twisted to distort the normal proportions. Computerized morphing only came c1990. (MT, 10/94, p.9) 1524 nend Peter Bennewitz, German prof. of mathematics, produced the first textbook on theoretical geography: "Cosmographia." (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1524 nend Jan Wynken de Worde printed Robert Wakefield?s "Oration" using Italic type for the first time in English typography. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1524 nend Martin Luther and Johann Walther produced jointly a German hymnal: "Geistliche Lieder." (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1524 nend Aden became a tributary of Portugal. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1524 nend Hans Holbein the Elder (b. c1460), German-born artist, died in Eisenheim. (www.abcgallery.com/H/holbein/fholbeinbio.html) 1524 nend Pedro de Alvarado, a lieutenant of Cortez, marched into the Guatemalan highlands. He played the local Indian tribes against one another and won a major battle fought at a river in western Guatemala against warriors of the Quiche tribe led by Tecun Uman. (NG, 6/1988, p.790) 1524 nend Chevalier Bayard, commander of French forces in Lombardy, was killed and the French were driven out. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1524 nend Hernandez de Cordoba founded Granada, Nicaragua. The city, also known as La Gran Sultana (The Grand Sultan), is the oldest city in Central America. (SSFC, 4/10/05, p.F4) 1524 nend Denmark confirmed Swedish independence under Gustavus Vasa in the Treaty of Malmo. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1524 nend Shah Ismail, ruler of Persia, died. (www.britannica.com/eb/article-230075) 1524 nend Ulrich Zwingli abolished the Catholic mass in Zurich. (TL-MB, 1988, p.12) 1524 1585 Pierre de Ronsard, established the use of the vernacular in French verse. (V.D.-H.K.p.143) 1524 1608 Giambologna, a sculptor from Florence. (WSJ, 2/1/96, p.A-16) 1525 nend Feb 24, In the first of the Franco-Habsburg Wars, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V captured the French king Francis I at the battle of Pavia, in Italy. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Pavia) 1525 nend Mar 20, The Paris parliament began the pursuit of Protestants (Papists proudly participated). (MC, 3/20/02) 1525 nend Apr 8, Albert von Brandenburg, the leader of the Teutonic Order, assumed the title "Duke of Prussia" and passed the first laws of the Protestant church, making Prussia a Protestant state. (HN, 4/8/99) 1525 nend May 7, The German peasants' revolt was crushed by the ruling class and church. (HN, 5/7/99) 1525 nend May 10, Church reformer John Pistorius was caught in the Hague. (MC, 5/10/02) 1525 nend May 14, A German army under Philip of Hesse surrounded and slaughtered 5,000 ending a peasant revolt led by Thomas Muntzer. (MC, 5/15/02)(PCh, 1992, p.173) 1525 nend May 17, Battle at Zabern: duke of Lutherans beat rebels. (MC, 5/17/02) 1525 nend May 27, Thomas Muntzer (28), German vicar, Boer leader, head of the German peasant revolt was beheaded. Some 150,000 peasants died in the uprising. (PCh, 1992, p.173)(MC, 5/27/02) 1525 nend Jul 19, The Catholic princes of Germany formed the Dessau League to fight against the Reformation. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13)(HN, 7/19/98) 1525 nend Aug 21, Estavao Gomes returned to Portugal after failing to find a clear waterway to Asia. (HN, 8/21/98) 1525 nend Sep 15, Jan de Bakker (26), Roman Catholic priest also known under the name Pistorius, was burned during the Reformation in the Netherlands. (http://www.bautz.de/bbkl/p/pistorius_joh.shtml) 1525 nend Dec 30, Jacob Fugger (66), German banker and merchant, died. (MC, 12/30/01) 1525 nend Michelangelo worked on the Medici chapel. (NH, 9/96, p.67) c 1525 nend Joos van Cleve, Belgian painter, painted "St. John the Evangelist on Patmos." (MT, Spg. ?97, p.20) 1525 nend Spanish architects established the style of "Plateresque," as exemplified by the gateway of the Univ. of Salamanca. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1525 nend Cardinal Wolsey presented Hampton Court Palace to Henry VIII. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1525 nend The bishop of London recruited Augustine Packington as an agent in Antwerp to buy up all copies of Tyndale?s translation of the New Testament. Packington, a supporter of Tyndale, sent copies to London, where they were burned and passed payments on to Tyndale, who used the money for a new version of his work. (www.tyndale.org/TSJ/17/cooper.html)(Econ, 12/20/08, p.103) 1525 nend Thomas Munzer, a German Anabaptist, set up a communistic theocracy at Mulhausen, Germany. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1525 nend William Tyndale (1494-1536), English religious scholar, completed his translation of the New Testament in Hamburg, Germany. It was published in Worms in Spring 1526, and then smuggled to England. (ON, 11/04, p.2)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tyndale) 1525 nend The Capuchin order of friars was founded in Italy. They become among the most effective Catholic preachers and missionaries in the Counter-Reformation. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1525 nend The Mennonites, a Protestant branch of the Anabaptists, were established in Zurich, Switz. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1525 nend Martin Luther married Katherine von Bora, a former nun, "to spite the devil." (SFC, 2/28/96, D-10)(SFC, 3/16/02, p.A3) 1525 nend In India Babur, a warrior with an Islamic Persian background, invaded Hindu India. He took Delhi and Agra and made Agra his capital. (HT, 4/97, p.22) 1525 nend Andrea della Robbia (b.1435), Italian artist, died. He was the nephew and pupil of Luca della Robbia (1400-1482). (SFC, 11/23/05, p.G2) 1525 nend In Rome public street cleaners were employed and paid through a tax on artisans and tradesmen. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1525 nend Turkey and Hungary signed a seven year truce. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1525 nend Charles V led the German and Spanish forces over the French and Swiss at the Battle of Pavia and became master of Italy. Francis I was captured and taken to Spain. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1525 nend Thousands of German peasants were slaughtered. (NH, 9/96, p.67) 1525 nend Luther wrote his tract: "Against the Murderous and Thieving Hordes of Peasants." (NH, 9/96, p.21) 1525 nend Albrecht Durer, German engraver, compiled the first German manual on geometry. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1525 nend City officials tried to control the street vendors in Mexico City. (SFC, 9/7/96, p.A19) 1525 nend Francisco Pizarro, Spanish conquistador, sailed from Panama to explore Peru. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1525 nend The Spanish made initial contact with the Incas. (SFC, 3/19/02, p.A2) 1526 nend Jan 14, Francis of France, held captive by Charles V for a year, signed the Treaty of Madrid, giving up most of his claims in France and Italy. (HN, 1/14/99) 1526 nend Feb 27, Saxony and Hesse formed the League of Gotha, a league of Protestant princes. (MC, 2/27/02) 1526 nend Mar 26, King François I returned Spanish captivity to France. (SS, 3/26/02) 1526 nend Apr 21, Mongol Emperor Zahir-ud-din Babur annihilated Indian Army of Ibrahim Lodi at the Battle of Panipat. Babar, King of Kabul, established in this year the Mughal dynasty at Delhi. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13)(SFEC, 5/21/00, p.T8)(WSJ, 3/31/07, p.P10) 1526 nend Jul 6, King Afonso of Kongo (1509-1542) sent a letter of complaint to Portugal regarding the impact of slave trade in his country. (www.millersville.edu/~winthrop/Thornton.html) 1526 nend Jul 26, The Spaniard Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon and his colonists left Santo Domingo in the Caribbean for Florida. (HN, 7/26/98) 1526 nend Oct 18, Lucas Vazquez de Ayllp, Spanish colonialist who settled in SC, died. (MC, 10/18/01) 1526 nend Nov 9, Jews were expelled from Pressburg, Hungary, by Maria of Hapsburg. (MC, 11/9/01) 1526 nend Nov 30, Giovanni de? Medici (b.1498), brother to Cosimo the Elder, died soon after his leg was amputated due to a bullet wound. (www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/372320/Giovanni-de-Medici)(AM,7/05, p.41) 1526 nend Nov, The 1st American slave revolt occurred in SC at the Spanish settlement of San Miguel de Gualdape near the mouth of the Pee Dee River in South Carolina. (http://whgbetc.com/mind/slave_revolts_2.html) 1526 nend Albrecht Durer painted the "Four Apostles," his last great religious painting and presented it to the city of Nuremberg. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1526 nend Lucas Cranach the elder (1472-1553) painted the "Adam and Eve," typical of the artist?s Gothic style as opposed to the "decadent" Italian style. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13)(WUD, 1994, p.339) 1526 nend William Tyndale published the first complete version of the New Testament in English at Worms, Germany. "Tyndale was the first translator of the biblical texts from their original Greek and Hebrew into English." (WSJ, 12/22/94, A-20)(WSJ, 11/19/96, p.A20) 1526 nend John Taverner, organist and composer, was appointed the Master of Choristers at Oxford Univ. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1526 nend The 1st Africans to the US arrived at a Spanish settlement South Carolina. (www.inmotionaame.org/timeline.cfm?bhcp=1) 1526 nend The Teutonic Knights, a German military and religious order of knights and priests, broke away from the Catholic Church to become Lutherans. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1526 nend Pope Clement VII formed the League of Cognac against Emp. Charles V. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1526 nend The slave trade escalated to the point where the Portuguese bribed officials to revolt and provided goods and guns to any chief who would supply slaves. King Affonso wrote to King John of Portugal asking that the Portuguese ban the slave trade in Kongo. Numerous letters were sent but King John did nothing. (ATC, p.152) 1526 nend Ferdinand of Austria was elected King of Bohemia and inaugurated the Austro-Hungarian state. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13)(WSJ, 7/14/99, p.A23) 1526 nend Zhu Duan (b.1464), Chinese artist, died. His work included the hanging scroll ?Looking at a Misty River at Dusk.? (http://wwar.com/masters/z/zhu_duan.html)(SFC, 6/28/08, p.E1) 1526 nend Francis I of France and Emp. Charles V signed the Peace of Madrid wherein Francis renounced claims to much Italian territory. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1526 nend In Italy the Beretta family made crossbows. With advancing technology the family launched into firearms (1550). (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42)(Econ, 11/18/06, p.64) 1526 nend Conquistador Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba (b.~1475) was beheaded by Pedrarias Dávila, a superior officer, over his claims to Nicaragua. (SSFC, 6/26/11, p.G3) 1526 nend Turkish forces of Suleiman I defeated the Hungarian forces and killed Hungarian King Louis II at the Battle of Mohacs. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1526 nend Peace was concluded between Poland and Russia. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1526 1712 In northern India the Mughal Dynasty was the last great dynasty to rule. (Hem., 2/97, p.55) 1527 nend Mar 16, The Emperor Babur defeated the Rajputs at the Battle of Kanvaha, removing the main Hindu rivals in Northern India. (HN, 3/16/99) 1527 nend Apr 30, Henry VIII and King Francis of France signed the treaty of Westminster. (HN, 4/30/98) 1527 nend May 6, German and Spanish troops under Charles V began sacking Rome, bringing about the end of the Renaissance. Libraries were destroyed, Pope Clement VII was captured and thousands were killed. 147 of 189 of the Pope?s Swiss guard were killed. (HN, 5/6/02)(PCh, 1992, p.174)(WSJ, 4/14/06, p.W5) 1527 nend May 16, Florence expelled the Medici nephews of the Pope and reverted to a republic.. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13)(MC, 5/16/02) 1527 nend May 21, Philip II (d.1598), king of Spain and Portugal (1556-98), was born. He invaded England and roasted heretics. He collected a fifth of all the wealth generated from the mines and trade in the Americas. He invested heavily into his military and lost it all with the defeat of the Armada in 1588. His debt at his death amounted to 85 million ducats, or 300 tons of gold. (HN, 5/21/98)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8)(MC, 5/21/02) 1527 nend May 30, The University of Marburg was founded. It is the oldest Protestant University in Germany. (HFA, '96, p.30)(AHD, p.797)(HN, 5/30/98) 1527 nend Jun 21, Nicolo Machiavelli (b.1469), Florentine statesman, author (The Prince), died. ?When the effect is good... it will always excuse the deed.? (WSJ, 5/21/96, p.A-16)(WSJ, 6/22/98,p.A20)(www.online-literature.com/machiavelli/) 1527 nend Jun 24, Gustaaf I began Reformation in Sweden, taking RC possessions. (MC, 6/24/02) 1527 nend Nov 18, Luca Cambiaso, Italian painter and sculptor, was born. (MC, 11/18/01) 1527 nend Nov 20, Wendelmoet "Weyntjen" Claesdochter, became the 1st Dutch woman to be burned as heretic. (MC, 11/20/01) 1527 nend Dec 6, Pope Clemens VII fled to Orvieto. (MC, 12/6/01) 1527 nend Adrian Willaert, Flemish composer, was made maestro di capella at St. Mark?s, in Venice. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1527 nend Henry VIII appealed to the Pope for permission to divorce Catherine of Aragon. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1527 nend Croatia formed a state union with Austria. (WSJ, 7/14/99, p.A23) 1527 nend Giuseppe Arcimboldi (d.1593), Italian painter [Arcimboldo], was born. (WUD, 1994, p.78)(WSJ, 7/10/97, p.A13) 1527 nend Muslim Somali Chief, Ahmed Gran, used firearms against the Ethiopians for the first time. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1527 nend Don Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, a Spanish soldier, was appointed 2nd in command under Panfilo de Narvaez (47), to explore the recently discovered land of Florida. (ON, 10/03, p.1) 1527 nend Spanish mercenaries paid by Charles V sacked Rome and left 4,000 dead. Some see this event as marking the close of the Renaissance. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1527 nend Theophrastus von Hohenheim established chemotherapy and the modern school of medical thinking at the Univ. of Basel in Switzerland. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1527 nend Hernando Cortez and his conquistadores completed the conquest of New Spain. They brought back to Spain tomatoes, avocados, papayas, and vanilla. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1527 1528 Henry VIII imprisoned Pope Clement VII for disobedience. It was to Clement that Henry appealed for an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, which had been granted under special dispensation in the first place. (V.D.-H.K.p.163) 1528 nend Jan 22, England & France declared war on Emperor Charles V of Spain. The French army was later expelled from Naples and Genoa. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13)(MC, 1/22/02) 1528 nend Apr 6, Albrecht Durer (b.1471), German painter, graphic artist, died in Germany. (SFEC, 2/9/97, DB p.6)(MC, 4/6/02) 1528 nend Apr 14, A Spanish expedition, led by Panfilo de Narvaez, arrived at the west coast of Florida with 400 soldiers and 42 horses. (ON, 10/03, p.1) 1528 nend May 1, The Spanish Narvaez expedition began an inland march to Florida with some 300 men and 40 horses. (ON, 10/03, p.1) 1528 nend Jul 30, The Spanish Narvaez expedition captured the Indian town of Aute (Florida). (ON, 10/03, p.2) 1528 nend Sep 28, A Spanish fleet sank in Florida hurricane; 380 died. (MC, 9/28/01) 1528 nend Nov 2, The Spanish Narvaez expedition, having traveled some 700 miles toward eastern Texas, encountered a massive storm and their 5 barges separated. (ON, 10/03, p.2) 1528 nend Nov 6, A Spanish barge under Don Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca landed in East Texas. The survivors of 2 barges spent the winter on an island they named Isla de Malhado, "The Island of Misfortune." By the spring of 1529 there were 15 castaways left and half the native population was dead from disease. (ON, 10/03, p.3) 1528 nend Nov 30, Great Wierd, Dutch Gelderland army commander, was beheaded. (MC, 11/30/01) 1528 nend Hans Holbein painted "The Artist?s Family." After meeting Sir Thomas More in England, he returned temporarily to Basel. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1528 nend Paracelsus (Theophrastus von Hohenheim), a Swiss physician and alchemist, wrote the first manual of surgery, "Die Kleine Chirurgia." (See Paracelsus in 1537) His middle name was Bombastus. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13)(HC, 1/9/98) 1528 nend Baldassare Castiglione (1478-1529), Italian diplomat and courtier, published "Il Libro del Cortegiano" (The Courtier), an exhaustive study of etiquette and court life that was read and copied throughout Europe. In 1561 Sir Thomas Hoby provided an English translation. (WSJ, 5/28/04, p.W3)(WSJ, 1/14/07, p.P12) 1528 nend In Mexico the fortress of San Juan de Ulua was built on a coral reef in Vera Cruz. It was later estimated that half-million slaves died in the process. (SFEC, 5/17/98, p.T12) 1528 nend The Scottish Reformation began. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1528 nend Cardinal Wolsey dissolved 22 religious houses and used the money for the founding of several colleges. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1528 nend Jacob Hutter (d.1536), Anabaptist evangelist from South Tyrol, founded a "community of love," whose members shared everything. They settled in Moravia due to the religious tolerance there. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakob_Hutter) 1528 nend Wheat was introduced into New Spain. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1528 nend Hernando Cortes was recalled to Spain and he brought with him haricot beans. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1528 nend England established its first colony in the New World at St. Johns, Newfoundland. (SFEC, 4/25/99, Z1 p.8) 1528 nend Charles V granted to the Welser family, Augsburg merchants, rights to colonize most of north-eastern South America. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1528 nend Philip Melanchthon, Protestant reformer, proposed German educational reforms. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1528 nend In Germany the Carolinum school was founded in Ansbach, Bavaria. (AP, 9/17/09) 1528 nend Babar the Great ordered a large mosque built in Ayodha, 2 years after he established the Mogul Empire in India. The Babri Mosques was destroyed by a Hindu mob in 1992. (AM, 7/04, p.49) 1528 nend Typhus swept through Italy and killed tens of thousands. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1528 1530 Pontormo (Jacopo Carucci) painted "Portrait of a Halberdier." (WSJ, 4/9/99, p.W16) 1528 1588 Paolo Cagliari Veronese, Venetian painter. He was hauled before the Inquisition in1573 and accused of painting profanities. (WUD, 1994, p.1588)(TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1529 nend Apr 16, Louis de Berquin, French humanist, reformer, heretic, was burned at stake. (MC, 4/16/02) 1529 nend Apr 19, The 2nd Parliament of Speyer banned Lutheranism. At the Diet of Speyer the Lutheran minority protested against restrictions on their teachings and were called "Protestant" for the first time. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speyer) 1529 nend Apr 22, Spain and Portugal divided the eastern hemisphere in Treaty of Saragosa. (HN, 4/22/98) 1529 nend May 6, Babur defeated the Afghan Chiefs in the Battle of Ghagra, India. (HN, 5/6/98) 1529 nend May 27, 30 Jews of Posing, Hungary, charged with blood ritual, were burned at stake. (MC, 5/27/02) 1529 nend Jun 9, Zurich declared war on Catholic cantons. (MC, 6/9/02) 1529 nend Jun 21, John Skelton (69), English poet, died. (MC, 6/21/02) 1529 nend Jul 26, Francisco Pizarro was made governor for life and captain-general in New Spain. He returned to Peru in a fleet of three ships. Pizarro received a royal warrant in Toledo, Spain, to "discover and conquer" Peru. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13)(HN, 7/26/98) 1529 nend Sep 8, The Ottoman Sultan Suleiman re-entered Buda and established John Zapolyai as the puppet king of Hungary. (HN, 9/8/98) 1529 nend Oct 1-3, Martin Luther met with Huldrych Zwingli. (MC, 10/1/01) 1529 nend Oct 15, Ottoman armies under Suleiman ended their siege of Vienna and head back to Belgrade. The Ottomans siege of Vienna was a key battle of world history. The Ottoman Empire reached its peak with the Turks settled in Buda on the left bank of the Danube after failing in their siege of Vienna. (WSJ, 3/27/96, p.A-16)(TL-MB, 1988, p.13) (HN, 10/15/98) 1529 nend Oct 17, Henry VIII removed Cardinal Thomas Wolsey as Lord Chancellor for failing to secure an annulment of his marriage. (HN, 10/17/98)(PCh, 1992ed, p.176) 1529 nend Oct 21, Henry VIII of England was named Defender of the Faith by the Pope after defending the seven sacraments against Luther. (HN, 10/21/98) 1529 nend Oct 26, Thomas More was appointed English Lord Chancellor. (MC, 10/26/01) 1529 nend Nov 3, The first Reformation Parliament for five years opened in London, England and the Commons put forward bills against abuses amongst the clergy and in the church courts. (HN, 11/3/99)(MC, 11/3/01) 1529 nend Nov 4, Thomas Wolsey, English Lord Chancellor and cardinal, was arrested. (MC, 11/4/01) 1529 nend Bernardino Luini, a pupil of Leonardo da Vinci, completed his fresco of the Passion and Crucifixion at the Santa Maria Degli Angioli church in Lugano, Switzerland. (SFEC, 6/14/98, p.T4) 1529 nend Luther published two hymns: "Away in a Manger" and "A Mighty Fortress Is Our God." (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1529 nend Civil war commenced between Catholic and the Reformed cantons in Switzerland. The Catholics were ultimately defeated. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1529 nend Emp. Charles V ceded the Spanish rights in the Spice Islands to the Portuguese. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1529 nend The Turks at Buda planted paprika from the New World. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1529 nend Maize from America, grown in Turkey, was introduced to England as "turkey corn." (TL-MB, 1988, p.13) 1529 nend Baldassare Castiglione (b.1478), Italian diplomat, courtier and author of "Il Libro del Cortegiano" (The Courtier), died while on a papal mission to Toledo. (WSJ, 1/14/07, p.P12) 1529 1608 Giambologna, a Florentine sculptor. A biography was written by Baldinucci. (WSJ, 1/8/99, p.C13) 1530 nend Feb 23, Spain's Carlos I was crowned Holy Roman Emperor Charles V by Pope Clement VII in the last coronation of a German king by a Pope. Charles restored the Medici to power after capturing Florence and ceded Malta to the landless religious order of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. (TL-MB, p.14)(MC, 2/24/02)(PC, 1992, p.176) 1530 nend Mar 7, King Henry VIII's divorce request was denied by the Pope. Henry then declared that he, not the Pope, is supreme head of England's church. (MC, 3/7/02) 1530 nend Apr 18, Francois Lambert d'Avignon (~43), French church reformer, died. (MC, 4/18/02) 1530 nend May 7, Louis I Conde, French prince, leader of Huguenots, was born. (MC, 5/7/02) 1530 nend Aug 25, Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible), 1st tsar of Russia (1533-84), was born. (MC, 8/25/02)(http://www.ilstu.edu/~jmalli1/) 1530 nend Sep 20, Luther advised the Protestant monarch compromise. (MC 9/20/01) 1530 nend Nov 19, Augsburg Emperor Karel I demanded the Edict of Worms. (MC, 11/19/01) 1530 nend Nov 29, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey (55), former adviser to England's King Henry the VIII, died. He had served as Lord Chancellor from 1514-1529. Wolsey had amassed a fortune second only to that of the king. (AP, 11/29/97)(PCh, 1992ed, p.176) 1530 nend Dec 26, (OS) Zahir al-Din Mohammed Babur Shah (47), founder Moguls dynasty (India), died. Babur left power to his son Humayun, who built a royal city called Purana Qila that is part of Delhi today. His memoirs, known as the Baburnama, are considered the first true autobiography in Islamic literature. The first English translation was made in 1922 by Annette Beveridge. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babur)(Econ, 12/18/10, p.80) 1530 nend Antonio Allegri de Correggio (1489-1534), Italian painter, painted his supreme altarpiece the "Adoration of the Shepherds." Only 40 of drawings have survived. (TL-MB, p.14)(WSJ, 2/12/00, p.A25) 1530 nend Titian, Italian artist and chief master of the Venetian school, painted Cardinal Ippolito de?Medici. He became court painter in Bologna. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1530 nend In Antwerp William Tyndale published his translation into English of the Pentateuch, the first five books of the Old Testament, and shipped copies to England. (WSJ, 12/22/94, A-20)(ON, 11/04, p.2) 1530 nend Erasmus (1469-1536), Dutch Renaissance humanist, authored ?On Good Manners for Boys? (De civilitate morum puerorum). (Econ, 10/8/11, p.102) 1530 nend Georgius Agricola, German mineralogist and scholar, published "De Re Metallica," the first systematic book on mineralogy. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1530 nend Jacobus Calchus, a Carmelite friar, wrote a 34-page Latin treatise on whether a man might marry the widow of his deceased brother. It was used to bolster Henry VIII?s case to divorce Catherine of Aragon in favor of Anne Boleyn. (SFC, 5/14/02, p.A2) 1530 nend Palsgrave?s English-French dictionary mentioned bottle corks for the first time. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1530 nend The earliest know French contract for comedia dell?arte players was drawn up. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1530 nend Etienne Briard introduced round characters in musical engraving. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1530 nend The San Francisco Church and monastery in Valladolid, Mexico, was begun. (SSFC, 11/17/02, p.C11) 1530 nend Florence, Italy, held the first lottery, La Lotto de Firenze. It was followed by similar drawings in Genoa and Venice to raise funds for various public projects. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34)(http://www.logiuocodellotto.com/) 1530 nend The game of bingo can be traced back to a lottery game called "Il Giuoco del Lotto d'Italia" played in Italy about this time. By the eighteenth century, the game had matured, and in France, playing cards, tokens, the reading out of numbers had been added to the game. In the nineteenth century, Bingo was widely used in Germany for educational purposes to teach children spelling, animal names, and multiplication tables. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bingo_%28U.S.%29) 1530 nend Martin Luther and Philip Melanchthon drew up the Augsburg Confessions and presented them unsuccessfully to the German Diet at Augsburg convened by Charles V. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1530 nend The carpenter?s bench and vice first come into use. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1530 nend Opium known as laudanum was used as a pain reliever. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1530 nend The Las Tortugas Islands were renamed the Caymans, They were named after an indigenous type of crocodile that no longer lives there. (AP, 5/10/03) 1530 1531 In Belgium the Antwerp exchange was founded for brokers to trade shares and commodities. (TL-MB, p.14)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1530 nend s Gonzalo Oviedo, a Spanish colonist, sent back the first reports and pictures of life in North America. (MT, Sum. ?98, p.9) 1530 nend s Khayr Ad-Din (d.1546) known by the European name Barbarossa, meaning Redbeard, united Algeria and Tunisia as military states under the Ottoman caliphate. He was a Barbary pirate and became admiral of the Ottoman fleet. (HNQ, 4/25/02) 1531 nend Jan 5, Pope Clemens VII forbade English king Henry VIII to re-marry. (MC, 1/5/02) 1531 nend Jan 22, Andrea del Sarto (44), Italian painter, died. (MC, 1/22/02) 1531 nend Jan 26, Lisbon was hit by an earthquake and some about 30,000 died. (MC, 1/26/02) 1531 nend Feb 11, Henry VIII was recognized as the supreme head of the Church of England. (HN, 2/11/97) 1531 nend Feb 27, German Protestants formed the League of Schmalkalden to defend themselves against Charles V and the Roman Catholic states. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14)(HN, 2/27/99) 1531 nend Apr 5, Richard Roose was boiled to death for trying to poison an archbishop. (MC, 4/5/02) 1531 nend May 31, "Women's Revolt" in Amsterdam: wool house in churchyard. (MC, 5/31/02) 1531 nend Sep 14, Philipp Apian (d.1589), German geographer and cartographer, was born. (http://www.antiquemaps.co.uk/chapter12.html) 1531 nend Oct 11, The Catholics defeated the Protestants at Kappel during Switzerland?s second civil war. (HN, 10/11/98) 1531 nend Oct 11, Huldrych Zwingli, Swiss church reformer (Zwinglian), died. Ulrich Zwingli, Swiss Protestant reformer, was killed in the Swiss civil war between the Protestant and Catholic cantons. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14)(MC, 10/11/01) 1531 nend Oct 24, Bavaria, despite being a Catholic region, joined the League of Schmalkalden, a Protestant group which opposed Charles V. (HN, 10/24/98) 1531 nend Nov 23, Peace of Kappel ended the second civil war in Switzerland. (AP, 11/23/02) 1531 nend Dec 6, John Volkertsz Trimaker, Dutch Anabaptist leader, was beheaded. (MC, 12/6/01) 1531 nend Dec 12, Legend held that a dark-skinned Virgin Mary appeared to a peasant outside Mexico City and left an imprint on his cactus-fiber poncho. The poncho became an icon for the Virgin of Guadalupe. Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin, an Indian peasant, had visions of the Virgin Mary. In 2002 Pope John Paul II planned to canonize him. The Vatican?s main source was a religious work that dated to 1666. (SFC, 2/1/99, p.A9)(WSJ, 2/27/02, p.A1)(WSJ, 4/17/02, p.A1)(AP, 7/30/02) 1531 nend Desiderius Erasmus, Dutch humanist and scholar, published the first complete edition of Aristotle?s works. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1531 nend Andrea Alciati published the "Emblemata," the first and most influential emblem book. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1531 nend Michael Servetus (1511-1553) published his 1st book: "De Trinitatis Erroribus." He was forced underground by the Inquisition emerged as Michael Villeneuve in Lyons. He later undertook medical studies in Paris. In 2002 Lawrence and Nancy Goldstone authored "Out of the Flames." (TL-MB, 1988, p.18)(HN, 10/27/98)(WSJ, 9/18/02, p.D8) 1531 nend De Architecture by Vitruvius (70-15BC) was translated into Italian. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1531 nend Haley?s comet caused panic in many parts of the world. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1531 nend German sculptor Tilman Riemenschneider (c71) died. Most of his work was unpainted in wood and stone. (WSJ, 12/8/99, p.A20) 1531 nend The first stage theater of a permanent and public kind was established at Ferrara in Italy. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1531 nend The Spaniards founded Puebla, on the route from Veracruz to Mexico City, to house demobilized conquistadors. (SFEC,11/9/97, p.T5)(SFEC, 11/8/98, p.T8) 1531 nend In Mexico Queretaro was designated the third city of New Spain. (SSFC, 1/27/08, p.E5) 1531 nend Francisco Pizarro left Panama with 180 men to conquer Peru. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1531 nend The Inquisition in Portugal became notably assiduous in reaction to the spread of Protestantism. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1531 nend Ferdinand I was elected King of the Romans, some 27 years before succeeding his brother Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1531 1533 A 12-piece tapestry set was created based on hunting scenes included "The Killing of the Wild Boar" (December). It was later housed in the Louvre. (WSJ, 4/11/02, p.AD7) c 1531 1537 Ceramicist Francesco Urbini was later believed to have created a plate that shows a male head made up entirely of phalluses. In 2003 a British museum paid $317,000 for it. The head is framed by a garland carrying the inscription: "Ogni homo me guarda come fosse una testa de cazi" (Every man looks at me as if I were a dickhead). (Reuters, 9/18/03) 1532 nend Mar 18, English parliament banned payments by English church to Rome. (MC, 3/18/02) 1532 nend Mar 25, Pietro Pontio, composer, was born. (MC, 3/25/02) 1532 nend May 16, Sir Thomas More resigned as English Lord Chancellor. (MC, 5/16/02) 1532 nend Nov 15, Pope Clemens VII told Henry VIII to end his relationship with Anne Boleyn. (MC, 11/15/01) 1532 nend Nov 16, Pizarro first encountered Incan emperor Atahualpa at Cajamarca, who declined conversion to Christianity. Pizzaro and 167 fellow Spaniards, armored and on horseback, killed or wounded some 6,000 to 7,000 natives and captured emperor Atahualpa. In 2007 Kim MacQuarrie authored ?The Last Days of the Incas. (SSFC, 7/8/07, p.M2) 1532 nend Ludovico Ariosto, Italian Renaissance poet, published the third and last edition of his epic poem, "Orlando Furioso." This skeptical and humorous work about legendary chivalry later influenced the writing of Edmund Spenser and Miguel de Cervantes. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1532 nend Francois Rabelais, French satirist, published "La Vie de Gargantua et de Pantagruel," a grotesque and humorous satire on almost every aspect of contemporary religion and culture. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14)(SSFC, 2/10/02, p.G5) 1532 nend John Calvin (1509-1564), French theologian, started the Protestant Reformation in France. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14)(SFC, 7/21/97, p.A11) 1532 nend In Italy the Shroud of Turin was scorched in a fire and doused with water. (SFEC, 2/1/98, p.A24) 1532 nend Henry (VIII) pressed Cardinal Wolsey to move the Pope to grant an annulment, but Wolsey was unsuccessful, was accused of treason and died on the way to face the King. A new minister, Thomas Cromwell formulated a plan by which the crown assumed spiritual as well as temporal authority in England. Henry could now divorce Catherine, marry Anne Boleyn and reform a separate Church of England. With Anne he sired Elizabeth I, and then had her killed so as to marry Jane Seymour, who died in childbirth. He later married and divorced Anne of Cleves and then Catherine Howard, who was very promiscuous and was beheaded. (V.D.-H.K.p.162) 1532 nend Sugarcane was first cultivated in Brazil. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1532 nend A 2,100 lb. bell was cast in Japan. It was later shipped to San Francisco and placed in the Asian Art Museum. It was rung every New Year 108 times after a Buddhist tradition, once for each of the mortal desires that plague mankind. (SFC, 1/1/97, p.A15) 1532 nend Suleiman I, Sultan of the Ottoman empire, invaded Hungary. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1532 nend Spanish conquistadores reached the high valley of the Andes. Pizzaro entered Cuzco, Inca capital of Peru. (V.D.-H.K.p.11) 1532 nend Pizzaro with 183 soldiers entered the lowlands of northern Peru near Cajamarca, the capital of the Inca empire. (SFEC, 7/5/98, p.A10) 1532 1540 Thomas Cromwell disbanded most of the monasteries in England and absorbed their vast wealth under the crown. (V.D.-H.K.p.162) 1533 nend Jan 25, England's King Henry VIII secretly married his second wife, Anne Boleyn (who later gave birth to Elizabeth I) in a service performed by Thomas Cranmer. (AP, 1/25/98)(HN, 1/25/99)(PCh, 1992ed, p.177) 1533 nend Feb 28, Michel de Montaigne (d.1592), was born near Bordeaux, France. He was the French moralist who created the personal essay. Montaigne was brought up by his father under peasant guidance and a German tutor for Latin. He spent a lifetime of political service under Henry IV, and then composed his "Essays." This was the first book to reveal with utter honesty and frankness the author's mind and heart. Montaigne sought to reach beyond his own illusions, to see himself as he really was, which was not just the way others saw him. "Nothing is so firmly believed as what we least know." (WUD, 1994, p.928)(V.D.-H.K.p.144) (HN, 2/28/99) 1533 nend Mar 30, Henry VIII made Thomas Cranmer archbishop of Canterbury. Cranmer had advised Henry that his 1509 marriage to Catherine of Aragon was null and void because she had previously married Henry?s late brother Arthur, even though that marriage was ever consummated. (PCh, 1992ed, p.177) 1533 nend May 14, Margaret of Valois, queen consort of Navarre, was born. (HN, 5/14/01) 1533 nend May 23, The marriage of England's King Henry VIII to Catherine of Aragon was declared null and void. (AP, 5/23/97)(HN, 5/23/98) 1533 nend May 28, England's Archbishop declared the marriage of King Henry VIII to Anne Boleyn valid. (AP, 5/28/97) 1533 nend Mar 30, Henry VIII divorced his 1st wife, Catherine of Aragon. (MC, 3/30/02) 1533 nend Apr 8, Claudio Merulo, organist, composer, was born. (MC, 4/8/02) 1533 nend Jun 1, Anne Boleyn, the second wife of King Henry VIII, was crowned as Queen Consort of England. (AP, 6/1/08) 1533 nend Jul 11, Pope Clement VII excommunicated England's King Henry VIII. (AP, 7/11/97) 1533 nend Jul 6, Ludovico Ariosto (57), Italian poet (Orlando Furioso), died. (MC, 7/6/02) 1533 nend Aug 28, Atahualpa, last of the Inca rulers was strangled at the orders of Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro. The Inca empire died with him. (MC, 8/28/01) 1533 nend Aug 29, Francisco Pizarro captured Cuzco and completed his conquest of Peru. He ordered the imprisonment and murder of Atahualpa, the last ruler of the Inca Empire. Atahualpa was executed by orders of Francisco Pizarro, although the chief had already paid his ransom. Ruminahui (Rumanahui), a general of Atahualpa, led 15,000 soldiers into the mountains north of Quito, after Pizarro killed the Inca emperor Atahualpa. His forces carried an estimated 70,000 man-loads of gold. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14)(AP, 8/29/97) (SFEC, 7/5/98, p.A10)(SFEC, 8/9/98,p.A15)(HN, 8/29/98) 1533 nend Sep 7, Elizabeth I, Queen of England, was born in Greenwich. She led her country during the exploration of the New World and war with Spain which destroyed the Spanish Armada. Elizabeth Tudor (d.1603), the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, reigned as Queen of England from 1558 to 1603. She went bald at age 29 due to smallpox. (WUD, 1994, p.463)(SFC,10/18/97, p.E4)(AP, 9/7/97)(HN, 9/7/98)(MC,9/7/01) 1533 nend Nov 15, Francisco Pizarro entered Cuzco, Peru. [see Aug 29] (HN, 11/15/98) 1533 nend Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543) painted "The Ambassadors," a brilliant portrait of two French ambassadors to England. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14)(WSJ, 12/30/06, p.P10) 1533 nend Titian painted "Charles V." (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1533 nend The first madrigals, developed mostly in Italy and England, were published in Rome. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1533 nend Cartagena de Indias (Colombia) was founded by Spain and served as a major port for the trade of slaves, gold and cargo. (SSFC, 5/18/03, p.C12) 1533 nend Catherine de'Medici (14) brought along her Neapolitan chefs for her wedding to the duc d'Orleans, who later became King Henry II. French court cuisine hardly changed. (Hem., Nov.'95, p.129)(WSJ, 11/12/99, p.W13) 1533 nend Spaniards arrived at Zaci, the capital of the Cupul Maya, in Mexico?s Yucatan peninsula and were pushed out. (SSFC, 6/29/08, p.E5)(http://tinyurl.com/4o62ox) 1533 nend Ivan IV (The Terrible), succeeded to the Russian throne at the age of three. He ruled until 1544 under the regency of his mother and later of powerful nobles. His hatchet man and head of the dreaded "Oprichniki" was Maliuta Skuratov. Ivan IV created the Streltsy, Russia?s first permanent army. Ivan IV later killed his 27-year-old son, Ivan, in a fit of rage over suspected alliance with his enemies, the boyars, or nobles. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14)(AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.30,31) 1533 nend Ottoman ruler Suleiman I concluded a treaty with Austria and got time to deal with dissident elements in Anatolia. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1533 1556 Thomas Cranmer was the archbishop of Canterbury. In 1996 Diarmaid MacCulloch wrote his story: "Thomas Cranmer." (WSJ, 9/12/96, p.A14) 1533 1603 Elizabeth Tudor reigned as Queen of England from 1558 to 1603. She went bald at age 29 due to smallpox. (WUD, 1994, p.463)(SFC,10/18/97, p.E4) 1534 nend Feb 26, Pope Paul III was affirmed George van Egmond as bishop of Utrecht. (PTA, 1980, p.440)(SC, 2/26/02) 1534 nend Mar 26, Lübeck, Hanseatic League port in the Baltic, accepted free Dutch ships into East Sea. (SS, 3/26/02)(WUD, 1994 p.851) 1534 nend Mar, England?s King Henry VIII imposed the Oath of Royal Supremacy. (www.newadvent.org/cathen/11177a.htm) 1534 nend Apr 7, Josr de Anchieta, Spanish Jesuit, missionary (Brazilian Tupi Indians), was born. (MC, 4/7/02) 1534 nend Apr 17, Sir Thomas Moore (d.1535) was jailed in the Tower of London. (SFEC, 12/19/99, p.T3)(MC, 4/17/02) 1534 nend Apr 20, Elizabeth Barton, [St Magd van Kent], British prophet, died. (MC, 4/20/02) 1534 nend Apr 20, Jacques Cartier departed St. Malo on the 1st of his 3 expeditions to the New World. (http://tinyurl.com/ddztr) 1534 nend May 10, Jacques Cartier reached Newfoundland. He noted the presence of the Micmac Indians who fished in the summer around the Magdalen Islands north of Nova Scotia. (CFA, '96, p.46)(SFEC, 5/11/97, p.T15) 1534 nend May 12, Wurttenburg became Lutheran. (MC, 5/12/02) 1534 nend Jun 9, Jacques Cartier became the first man to sail into the mouth of the St. Lawrence River. (http://tinyurl.com/ddztr) 1534 nend Jun 29, Jacques Cartier discovered Canada?s Prince Edward Islands. (MC, 6/29/02) 1534 nend Jul 13, Ottoman armies captured Tabriz in northwestern Persia. (HN, 7/13/98) 1534 nend Jul 18, Zacharias Ursinus, German theologian (Heidelberger Catechism), was born. (MC, 7/18/02) 1534 nend Jul 24, Jacques Cartier landed in Canada and claimed it for France. Jacques Cartier while probing for a northern route to Asia visited Labrador and said: "Fit only for wild beasts... This must be the land God gave to Cain." [see May 10] (NG, V184, No. 4, 10/1993, p. 4)(MC, 7/24/02) 1534 nend Aug 15, St. Ignatius of Loyola, Spanish ecclesiastic, founded the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits) in Paris with the aim of defending Catholicism against heresy and undertaking missionary work. Ignatius converted to Christianity while convalescing after a battle and wrote his Spiritual Exercises meant as a guide for conversion. In Paris, Ignatius and a small group of men took vows of poverty, chastity and papal obedience. Ignatius formally organized the order in 1539 that was approved by the pope in 1540. The society?s rapid growth and emphasis on scholarship aided in the resurgence of Catholicism during the Counter-Reformation. The Jesuits were also active in missionary work in Asia, Africa and the Americas. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14)(HNQ, 1/13/01)(MC, 8/15/02) 1534 nend Aug 20, Turkish admiral Chaireddin (Khair ad-Din) "Barbarossa" occupied Tunis. (MC, 8/20/02)(PC, 1992, p.178) 1534 nend Sep, Don Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, reunited earlier with 3 survivors of the Narvaez expedition: Andres Dorantes, Alonso de Castillo and Estevanico, a black African and formerly Castillo's slave, fled their enslavement under the Mariames Indians. (ON, 10/03, p.4) 1534 nend Sep, During his voyage back to France Cartier learned from the 2 Native sons, Dom Agaya and Taignoagny of Iroquoian Chief Donnacona, that their father's village of Stadacona (present-day Quebec) was called a 'kanata'. Cartier wrote the name 'Kanata' on his charts and maps, perhaps to mark the land belonging to Chief Donnacona's tribe. This is the first recorded use of the name 'Canada', and the name by which the country would become known. (http://tinyurl.com/ddztr)(Canada, 1960, p.20) 1534 nend Oct 18, A new pursuit of French protestants began. (MC, 10/18/01) 1534 nend Nov 3, English Parliament passed Act of Supremacy, making King Henry VIII head of the English church, a role formerly held by the Pope. Henry VIII was declared "the only supreme head in Earth of the Church of England." He suppressed the monasteries, ordered Bibles burned and renounced papal jurisdiction. He issued the Act of Supremacy which signified a break with the Catholic Church of Rome. (WSJ, 9/12/96, p.A14)(SFEC, 6/11/00, p.A30)(WSJ, 4/4/01,p.A18)(http://tinyurl.com/86a3z) 1534 nend Dec 4, Turkish sultan Suleiman occupied Baghdad. (MC, 12/4/01) 1534 nend Dec 6, Quito, Ecuador, was founded by Spanish. (http://worldfacts.us/Ecuador-Quito.htm) 1534 nend Michelangelo left Florence following years of work on the Medici tombs. (OG) 1534 nend Mannerism, influenced by Michelangelo, developed in painting and architecture. Francesco Parmigianino (1503-1540), painter of the "Madonna with the Long Neck," was a leading exponent. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14)(Econ, 1/26/08, p.82) 1534 nend Lorenzo Lotto, Italian artist, painted the "Adoration of the Shepherds." (WSJ, 1/15/98, p.A17) 1534 nend Pope Paul III (1534-1549), Alessandro Farnese, confirmed "The Last Judgement" commission to Michelangelo, who settled in Rome and began to work on the immense painting on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14)(OG)(Econ, 12/13/03, p.82) 1534 nend Gratien du Pont, a French poet, published a chessboard with 64 rhyming insults to females, one for each square. (Econ, 7/10/04, p.76) 1534 nend Jan Van Wynkyn (Wynkyn de Worde) published "Tullius Offyce," the 1st Latin-English dictionary. He was the 1st printer in England to use italic type. (SFEC, 6/11/00, p.A30) 1534 nend Regensburg Cathedral, Germany, was completed after 259 years of work. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1534 nend Anabaptists took power in Münster, Germany. Their reading of the Old Testament permitted polygamy and led them to proclaim a world rebellion. Their name became synonymous with anarchy for over 200 years. (WSJ, 9/18/02, p.D8) 1534 nend The Ottoman Empire extended from Hungary to Baghdad. (TL-MB, 1988, p.14) 1534 nend The King of Siam died of smallpox. (SFC, 10/19/01, p.A17) 1534 1536 Titian?s ?Portrait of Isabella d?Este, Marchioness of Mantua,? dated to about this time. (SFC, 10/29/11, p.E2) 1535 nend Jan 6, Lima, Peru, was founded by Francisco Pizarro. [see Jan 18] (TL-MB, 1988, p.15)(WSJ, 7/2/97, p.B8)(MC, 1/6/02) 1535 nend Jan 15, Henry VIII declared himself head of English Church. [see Oct 30, 1534] (MC, 1/15/02) 1535 nend Jan 18, Francisco Pizarro founded Lima Peru. [see Jan 6] (MC, 1/18/02) 1535 nend Jan, Thomas Cromwell sent out his agents to conduct a commission of enquiry into the character and value of all ecclesiastical property in the kingdom. (HNC, 6/14/02) 1535 nend Feb 10, 12 nude Anabaptists ran through the streets of Amsterdam. [see 1534] (MC, 2/10/02) 1535 nend Feb 11, Gregory XIV, Roman Catholic Pope was born. (HN, 2/11/97) 1535 nend Mar 10, Bishop Tomas de Berlanga discovered the Galapagos Islands. (www.gct.org/history.html) 1535 nend Apr 17, Antonio Mendoza was appointed first viceroy of New Spain. (HN, 4/17/98) 1535 nend Apr 29, John Houghton, English, was executed. (MC, 4/29/02) 1535 nend May 19, French explorer Jacques Cartier set sail for North America. (HN, 5/19/98) 1535 nend May 21, Imperial authorities in Antwerp captured and imprisoned William Tyndale for heresy over his translation of the Bible into English. (WSJ, 12/22/94, A-20)(www.hyperhistory.net/apwh/bios/b2tyndalew.htm) 1535 nend Jun 22, John Fisher (65), English bishop (1504-35), cardinal, saint, was beheaded by Henry VIII. (MC, 6/22/02) 1535 nend Jun 24, Francis of Waldeck overcame the Anabaptists of Munster. Fanatic leader John of Leyden and others were tortured and executed in Jan 1536. (MC, 6/24/02)(PC, 1992, p.179) 1535 nend Jun, Castaways Don Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca with 3 companions resumed their journey from Texas to Mexico after spending 8 months with the congenial Avavares Indians. (ON, 10/03, p.5) 1535 nend Jul 1, Sir Thomas More went on trial in England for treason. (MC, 7/1/02) 1535 nend Jul 6, Thomas More (b.1478) was beheaded in England for treason, for refusing to renounce the Catholic church in favor of King Henry VIII's Church of England. More?s sentence to death by hanging was commuted to beheading. He was canonized by the Catholic Church in 1935. In 1966 Robert Bolt authored the play "A Man for All Seasons" based on More?s struggle with Henry. In 1998 Peter Ackroyd published "The Life of Thomas More." Pope John Paul II named More as the patron saint of politicians in 2000. (V.D.-H.K.p.161)(AP, 7/6/97)(HN, 7/6/98)(WSJ, 10/22/98, p.A20)(WSJ,11/7/00, p.A27) 1535 nend Jul 10, Jacob Van Campen, Reconstruction bishop, was beheaded. (MC, 7/10/02) 1535 nend Aug 31, Pope Paul III deposed & excommunicated King Henry VIII. (YN, 8/31/99) 1535 nend Sep, The site of the city of Quebec was first visited by Jacques Cartier during his 2nd voyage to the New World. It was an Indian village called Stadacona. Quebec is the oldest continuously inhabited settlement in what is now Canada. (HNQ, 10/3/99)(Canada, 1960, p.20) 1535 nend Oct 2, Jacques Cartier first saw the site of what is now Montreal and proclaimed "What a royal mountain," hence the name of the city. [see 1536] Having landed in Quebec a month ago, Jacques Cartier reached a town, which he named Montreal. (SFEC, 3/2/97, p.T7)(HN, 10/2/98) 1535 nend Oct 4, The 1st full English translation of the Bible was printed in Switzerland. Miles Coverdale?s translation of the Bible into English (from Dutch and Latin) was the first complete version in English and was dedicated to Henry VIII. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15)(MC, 10/4/01) 1535 nend Nov 1, Francesco Sforza, Italian ruler ("Il Sforza del Destino") Milan, died. (MC, 11/1/01) 1535 nend Rabelais published the second edition of "Gargantua." It was published after Pantagruel even though it was the first part of the two part work. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1535 nend The summer palace of Prague Castle, The Belvedere, was begun with a design derived from Brunelleschi?s foundling hospital in Florence. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1535 nend France became the first country to have a permanent embassy at the Sublime Porte in Istanbul. (Econ, 12/12/09, p.93) 1535 nend Holy Roman Emperor Charles V led a naval expedition to Tunis against Barbarossa. The foray proved successful, but Barbarossa escaped and continued to fight. (WSJ, 7/21/08, p.A11) 1535 nend Spanish conquistadors attempted to create a settlement in the Buenos Aires area but were driven away by the Karandias Indians. (SSFC, 10/14/01, p.T5) 1535 nend The Spaniards founded a temporary settlement on the banks of the Rio de la Plata that 45 years later becomes the city of Buenos Aires. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1535 nend Diego de Almagro explored Chile. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1535 nend The Anabaptists under John of Leiden formed a communist state at Munster. When the city was recaptured, John was tortured to death. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1535 nend Emissaries of Cortez discovered La Paz, in Baha, Mexico. (SSFC, 11/2/03, p.C10) c 1535 1625 Sofonisba Anguissola, Italian artist. She was the first woman to achieve fame as a painter in this century. She served as art instructor to Queen Isabel and worked as a court painter. Her paintings here illustrated include "The Chess Game" (1555), a self-portrait (c1552), portrait of her sister Elena (c1551), and the "Holy Family with Saints Anne and John the Baptist" (1592). (Smith., 5/95, p.106-109) 1536 nend cJan, Spanish castaways Don Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca with 3 companions reached the Pacific Coast in northern Mexico under Indian escort and encountered Spanish troops engaged as slave hunters. (ON, 10/03, p.5) 1536 nend Feb 2, The Argentine city of Buenos Aires was founded by Pedro de Mendoza of Spain. The memorial Column standing at the center of Buenos Aires, gives the date as 1500. (AP, 2/2/97)(MC, 2/2/02) 1536 nend Feb 25, Jacob Hutter (d.1536), Anabaptist evangelist from South Tyrol, was burned as a heretic in Austria. He had founded of a "community of love" in 1528, whose members shared everything. (TL-MB, 1988, p.13)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakob_Hutter) 1536 nend Apr 14, English king Henry VIII expropriated minor monasteries. (MC, 4/14/02) 1536 nend May 2, King Henry VIII accused Anna Boleyn of adultery, incest, and treason. [see May 15, May 19] (MC, 5/2/02) 1536 nend May 6, King Henry VIII ordered a bible placed in every church. (MC, 5/6/02) 1536 nend May 10, Thomas Howard, 4th duke of Norfolk, English Earl Marshall, was born. (MC, 5/10/02) 1536 nend May 15, Anna Boleyn and Lord Rochford were accused of adultery, incest, treason. [see May 2, May 19] (MC, 5/15/02) 1536 nend May 17, Anne Boleyn's 4 "lovers" were executed. (MC, 5/17/02) 1536 nend May 19, Anne Boleyn, the second wife of England's King Henry VIII, was beheaded on Tower Green after she was convicted of adultery and incest with her brother, Lord Rochford, who was executed two days before. It was the day before Henry VIII's marriage to Jane Seymour. (AP, 5/19/97)(DTnet, 5/19/97)(HN, 5/19/99) 1536 nend May 21, The Reformation was officially adopted in Geneva, Switzerland. (HN, 5/21/98) 1536 nend May 23, Pope Paul III installed the Portuguese Inquisition. (MC, 5/23/02) 1536 nend May 30, English king Henry VIII married Jane Seymour (wife #3). (MC, 5/30/02) 1536 nend May, English poet Thomas Wyatt was imprisoned in the Tower of London for allegedly committing adultery with Anne Boleyn. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Wyatt_(poet)) 1536 nend May, Jacques Cartier sailed for France from Canada and carried with him the kidnapped local chief Donnacona, who later died in France. Donnacona, prior to his death, described a mythical kingdom with great riches called Saguenay. (Canada, 1960, p.21) 1536 nend Jun 6, Mexico began it's inquisition. (MC, 6/6/02) 1536 nend Jul 6, Jaques Cartier returned to France after discovering the St. Lawrence River in Canada. (HN, 7/6/98) 1536 nend Jul 9, French navigator Jacques Cartier returned to Saint-Malo from Canada. (MC, 7/9/02) 1536 nend Jul 12, Desiderius Erasmus (b.1469 in Rotterdam) died, humanist, priest (Novum instrumentum omne), died. His most famous works included "In Praise of Folly" and a Greek text of the New Testament. In 1999 Prof. Charles Trinkaus published "Collected Works of Erasmus: Controversies," an examination of the religious conflict between humanism and the Reformation. (V.D.-H.K.p.159-160)(SFC, 9/27/99, p.A26)(WSJ, 1/31/03, p.W13)(MC,7/12/02) 1536 nend Jul 14, France and Portugal signed the naval treaty of Lyons aligning themselves against Spain. (HN, 7/14/98) 1536 nend Jul 18, The authority of the pope was declared void in England. (AP, 7/18/97) 1536 nend Jul 24, Spanish castaways Don Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca with 3 companions arrived in Mexico City under escort from Culiacan. (ON, 10/03, p.5) 1536 nend Oct 6, William Tyndale (b.1494), the English translator of the New and Old Testament, was burned at the stake at Vilvoorde Castle (Belgium) as a heretic by the Holy Roman Empire. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tyndale) 1536 nend Oct 14, Garcilaso de la Vega, Spanish poet and diplomat, died in battle. (MC, 10/14/01) 1536 nend Nov 13, Robert Packington (d.1536), a mercer in London and brother of Augustine Packington, was shot and killed. Packington had spoken against the covetousness and cruelty of the clergy in the House of Commons. (www.tyndale.org/TSJ/17/cooper.html) 1536 nend Toyotomi Hideyoshi (d.1598), Japan?s unifier and folk hero, was born in a village called Nakamura in Owari province. (www.samurai-archives.com/hideyoshi.html) 1536 nend Sansovino created his sculpture relief of "St. Mark Healing a Demoniac." (WSJ, 1/29/02, p.A18) 1536 nend Hans Holbein the Younger was made court painter to Henry VIII of England. He painted a famous portrait of Henry VIII. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15)(SFEC, 12/1/96, BR p.4) 1536 nend Titian painted the "Portrait of Francesco Maria della Rovere, Duke of Urbino." (WSJ, 3/9/98, p.A16) 1536 nend The first song book with lute accompaniment was published in Spain. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1536 nend John Calvin published the "The Institutes of the Christian Religion," which spread Calvinist ideas across Europe. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1536 nend The suppression of the smaller monasteries in England under Thomas Cromwell was completed. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1536 nend Although English conquest of Wales took place under the 1284 Statute of Rhuddlan, a formal Union did not occur until 1536, shortly after which Welsh law, which continued to be used in Wales after the conquest, was fully replaced by English law under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542. There was another Act of Union in 1542. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales)(SFC, 7/23/97, p.A10) 1536 nend In England Hyde Park was seized from the monks at Westminster Abbey by Henry VIII and preserved as forest for the royal hunt. (SFEM, 3/21/99, p.8) 1536 nend Robert Aske led an uprising of some 30,000 people against the dissolution of the monasteries in the northern counties of England. It ended a year later with the arrest and hanging of Aske. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1536 nend Savoy and Piedmont were conquered by France. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1536 nend Provence was invaded by Charles V. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1536 nend Jacques Cartier discovered the St. Lawrence River and explored as far as the site of Montreal. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1536 nend The first Spanish settlement was established in Buenos Aires, Argentina, but the colony failed. The cows and horses however thrived on the tall pampa grass and when new colonists arrived two decades later they found the thriving livestock. (Hem. 10/'95, p.103) 1536 nend A Spanish conquistador noted oil seeping in the countryside of Colombia. (WSJ, 1/3/96, p.A-1) 1536 nend Spanish soldiers crushed an Indian revolt and Incas fled to Peru?s Vilcabamba region. In 2002 archeologists uncovered a settlement on Cerro Victorio. (SFC, 3/19/02, p.A2) 1536 nend The city of Porlamar was founded on the southeastern coast of Margarita Island off the coast of Venezuela. (SSFC, 2/19/06, p.F8) 1537 nend Jan 6, Alessandro de' Medici (b.1510), Italian monarch of Florence, was assassinated by his cousin Lorenzino (d.1548). This event was commemorated in the bust Brutus by Michelangelo. Cosimo I (18) came to power following the murder of Alessandro. no_source 7 nend /05, p.36) no_source 1537 nend Mar 25, The 5th Lithuanian war with Russia (1534-1537) ended with a peace treaty. It lasted until the start of war with the Livonian Order (1562-1582). (LHC, 3/25/03) 1537 nend May 20, Hieronymus Fabricius Ab, physician (De Formato Foetu), was born in Aquapend, Italy. (MC, 5/20/02) 1537 nend Jun 2, Pope Paul III banned the enslavement of Indians in the New World. (HN, 6/2/99) 1537 nend Aug 15, Juan de Salazar, Spanish pioneer, founded Asuncion, the capital of Paraguay. (SFEC, 1/12/97, Z3 p.4)(PC, 1992, p.181) no_source 1537 nend Aug, Castaway Don Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca returned from Mexico to Spain where he wrote an account of his 3,000 mile journey through North American and his experiences with the Indians. In 2006 Paul Schneider authored ?Brutal Journey: The True Story of the First Crossing of North America.? Schneider used de Vaca?s original memoir as well as an official report prepared by survivors of the Narvaez expedition. (ON, 10/03, p.5)(SSFC, 6/11/06, p.M3) 1537 nend Oct 12, Edward IV, King of England (1547-53), was born. He was the only son of Henry VIII by his third wife Jane Seymour. (HN, 10/12/98)(MC, 10/12/01) 1537 nend Oct 13, Jane Grey, Queen of England for 9 days, was born. (MC, 10/13/01) 1537 nend Oct 24, Jane Seymour, the third wife of England's King Henry VIII, died 12 days after giving birth to Prince Edward, later King Edward VI. (AP, 10/24/97) 1537 nend Miles Coverdale completed William Tyndale?s English translation of the Bible. A complete Bible, two-thirds of which had been translated by Tyndale, was published by royal permission. (WSJ, 4/4/01, p.A18)(Econ, 12/20/08, p.102) 1537 nend Hans Holbein?s masterpiece was his life-size Tudor dynastic portrait in Whitehall Palace that included Henry VIII and his father Henry VII.. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15)(AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.23) 1537 nend The complete works of Cicero, "Opera Omnia," was published in Venice in four volumes. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1537 nend Paracelsus, Philippus Aureolus, Swiss physician and alchemist, published his "Grosse Astronomie," a manual of astrology. [See Paracelsus in 1528] (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1537 nend Sebastiano Serlio, architect at the palace of Fontainebleau, published the first of six volumes of his "Trattato di Architettura." (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1537 nend The first Catholic hymnal was published. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1537 nend Costanzo Vesta published his first book of madrigals in Rome, a landmark in the development of the form. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1537 nend The first conservatories of music were founded for girls in Venice, and for boys in Naples. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1537 nend Jacopo Sansovino began building the famous Old Library of St. Mark?s, Venice. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1537 nend Popayan, Colombia, was founded. (SFEC, 11/10/96, p.T10) 1537 nend The Spanish built La Fortaleza overlooking the bay on the southwestern edge of San Juan, Puerto Rico. (HT, 4/97, p.29) 1537 nend Andreas Vesalius, the Belgian "father of anatomy", accepted the chair of anatomy at Padua. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1537 nend Niccolo Fontana founded the science of ballistics. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1537 nend Gerhardus Mercator, Flemish geographer, surveyed and drew a map of Flanders that was so accurate that Charles V made him his geographer. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1537 nend Robert Aske was arrested and hung for the uprising in northern England against the closing of the monasteries by Thomas Cromwell. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1537 nend In India Bangalore was founded on the Deccan Plateau by a king who was lost and given a bowl of boiled beans (Bendakalooru means town of boiled beans) by women in the area. (WSJ, 3/25/98, p.B10) 1537 nend The Reformation came to Norway. (WSJ, 8/27/96, p.A12) 1538 nend Feb 24, Ferdinand of Hapsburg and John Zapolyai, the two kings of Hungary, concluded the peace of Grosswardein. (HN, 2/24/99) 1538 nend Feb 26, Worp van Thabor, Frisian abbot of Thabor (Chronicon Frisiae), died. (SC, 2/26/02) 1538 nend Mar 10, Thomas Howard (d.1572), Duke of Norfolk, executed by Queen Elizabeth, was born. (HN, 3/10/98)(MC, 3/10/02) 1538 nend Apr 24, Guglielmo Gonzaga, composer, was born. (MC, 4/24/02) 1538 nend Apr 26, Giovanni P. Lomazzo, Italian writer, poet (Trattato), was born. (MC, 4/26/02) 1538 nend May 26, Geneva threw out John Calvin and his zealots. Calvin was exiled from Geneva for three years and lived in Strasbourg. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15)(MC, 5/26/02) 1538 nend Jun 18, Treaty of Nice ended the war between Emperor Charles V and King Francois I. It only lasted 10 months. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15)(PCh, 1992, p.180)(MC, 6/18/02) 1538 nend Jul 8, Diego de Almagro (63), Spanish conquistador (Chile and Peru), died. (MC, 7/8/02) 1538 nend Dec 17, Pope Paul III excommunicated England's King Henry VIII. [see Aug 31, 1535] (MC, 12/17/01) c 1538 nend A colossal gilded statue of Buddha was erected at Ayutthaya (Siam). It survived the sacking of the city in 1767 and in 1854 was renamed Si Mongkhon Bophit by King Monghut. (WSJ, 4/21/05, p.D7) 1538 nend Titian painted his "Urbino V." (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1538 nend Benvenuto Cellini, Florentine artist, was imprisoned for about a year in the dungeon beneath the papal fortress of Castel Sant?Angelo for killing his brother?s murderer. (SSFC, 7/22/07, p.G2) 1538 nend Religious plays were first performed in Mexico on the feast of Corpus Christi. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1538 nend Mercator (1512-1594), Flemish cartographer, used the name "America" for the first time. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerardus_Mercator) 1538 nend Construction of Henry VIII?s Nonsuch Castle in Cuddington, Surrey, southeast England, began. It took eight years to complete and was still incomplete when Henry died in 1547. It stood for less than 150 years having fallen into disrepair in the 1680s. By 1690 the palace had vanished. A watercolor picture of the castle was painted by Joris Hoefnagel in 1568 as part of a record of the most important buildings in Europe. The picture was put up for auction in 2010. (Reuters, 11/3/10) 1538 nend The Thirteen Articles of the Church of England were written. In 1964 A.G. Dickens (d.2001 at 91) authored "The English Reformation." (HNQ, 10/20/98)(SFC, 8/4/01, p.E2) 1538 nend Thomas Cromwell ordered an English Bible to be available to the public in every Church. (WSJ, 4/4/01, p.A18) 1538 nend Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada, Spanish conquistador, founded Bogota, Colombia. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1538 nend France?s King Francois I closed the French bath houses by this time. (Econ, 12/19/09, p.139) 1538 nend Portugal captured Diu, India, and established it as part of a fortified trade network. (SSFC, 3/19/06, p.F7) 1538 nend The earliest reference to a diving bell was made at Toledo, Spain. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1539 nend Feb 19, Jews of Tyrnau, Hungary, (then Trnava, Czech), were expelled. (MC, 2/19/02) 1539 nend Apr 17, Tobias Stimmer, Swiss painter, cartoonist (Comedia), was born. (MC, 4/17/02) 1539 nend Apr 19, Emperor Charles V reached a truce with German Protestants at Frankfurt, Germany. (HN, 4/19/97) 1539 nend May 28, Hernando de Soto sailed from Cuba to Florida with 13 pigs to help sustain his 700 men on his gold-hunting expedition. [see May 30] (ON, 4/01, p.4)(MC, 5/28/02) 1539 nend May 30, Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto landed at Tampa Bay, Florida, with 600 soldiers in search of gold. Hernando de Soto returned to the New World at the head of a 1,000-man expedition into North America. He landed near present-day Tampa Bay and proceeded through what is now Alabama and Tennessee, making treaties with some Indian, viciously fighting with others. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15)(AP, 5/30/97)(HN, 5/30/98)(HNQ, 10/11/00) 1539 nend Jun 3, Hernando De Soto claimed Florida for Spain. In 1922 Lippincott published "Narratives of de Soto in Florida." The translated texts included "A Narrative of de Soto?s Expedition Based on the Diary of Rodrigo Rangel" by Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes." (HN, 6/3/98)(ON, 4/01, p.5) 1539 nend Jul 5, Antonio M. Zaccaria, Italian physician, saint, died. (MC, 7/5/02) 1539 nend Aug 10, King Francis of France declared that all official documents were to be written in French, not Latin. (HN, 8/10/98) 1539 nend Nov 15, Richard Whiting (b.1461), the Bishop of Glastonbury, was hung, drawn and quartered on Glastonbury Tor after being convicted of treason for remaining loyal to Rome. Little Jack Horner was reputed to have been the steward to Whiting, whose jury included Horner. 12 deeds, sent by Whiting as a bribe to the king, were reportedly carried by Horner, who was said to have stolen the one to the manor of Mells, it being the real 'plum' of the twelve manors. The first publication date for the lyrics to the Little Jack Horner nursery rhyme is 1725. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Jack_Horner) 1539 nend Claeszon Marinus van Reymerswaele created his painting "The Banker and His Wife" (The Money Changer and His Wife). (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R54)(WSJ, 1/21/02, p.A13) 1539 nend Jacques Arcadett, a Dutchman, was appointed master of music at the Julian Chapel. His first book of four-part madrigals was published about this time and was reprinted for more than a century. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1539 nend Cosimo I de? Medici (1519-1574), Duke of Florence, married Eleonora (1522-1562), daughter of the Spanish viceroy of Naples. Their wedding included a musical intermedi, one of the first such interludes for which music survives. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosimo_I_de%27_Medici)(TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1539 nend Michelangelo began to redesign the Capitol in Rome. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1539 nend The Six Articles, a religious stature, was passed at the "instance" of Henry VIII. It set forth the position of the English Church on six fundamental points in an effort to stem the growth and influence of the English Protestants. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1539 nend In England Richard Whiting, the last abbot of Glastonbury, was hanged at Glastonbury Tor. (Local Inscription, 2000) 1539 nend In Lyon, France, printers went on strike against long hours, poor conditions and excessive profits by masters. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1539 nend Japanese trading monopolies ended in favor of a free market. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1539 nend German scholar George Joachim Rheticus received permission to write a condensed version of the ideas of astronomer Nicholas Copernicus. The short book was titled ?First Account.? (ON, 2/11, p.6) 1539 nend Olaus Magnus, Swedish ecclesiastic and historian, produced a map of the world. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1539 nend The first form of a flintlock was recorded in Sweden. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1540 nend Jan 6, England's King Henry VIII married his fourth wife, Anne of Cleves. The marriage lasted about six months. (HN, 1/6/99)(AP, 1/6/98) 1540 nend Jan 25, Edmund Campion, saint, Jesuit martyr (Decem Rationes), was born in London. (MC, 1/25/02) 1540 nend Feb 9, The 1st recorded race met in England at Roodee Fields, Chester. (MC, 2/9/02) 1540 nend Feb 14, Emperor Charles V entered Ghent without resistance and executed the rebels. He brutally beat down an uprising against taxes for an expansionist war. Nine leaders were beheaded and another hanged. City burgers were forced to walk the streets barefoot with rope hanging round their necks. The "Gentse Feesten" annual festival re-enacts this event every mid-July. (SFEC, 11/21/99, p.T10)(MC, 2/14/02) 1540 nend Feb 23, Spanish explorer Francisco Vasquez de Coronado began his unsuccessful search for the fabled Seven Cities of Gold in the American Southwest. Antonio de Mendoza, Viceroy of Mexico, sent Francisco Coronado overland to search for the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola in present day New Mexico. Coronado, Spanish explorer, introduced horses, mules, pigs, cattle, and sheep into the American southwest. An Indian guide spoke of a rich kingdom called Quivira. When no cities were found he confessed under torture that the story was false. (NPS-CNM, 4/1/97)(HN, 2/23/99)(TL-MB, 1988, p.16)(SFC, 1/31/04, p.D1) 1540 nend Mar 4, Protestant count Philip of Hessen married his 2nd wife. (SC, 3/4/02) 1540 nend Mar 9, Hernando de Soto reached southern Georgia. He found the Indians there raising tame turkeys, caged opossums, corn, beans, pumpkins, cucumbers and plums. (ON, 4/01, p.5)(www.floridahistory.com/inset7.html) 1540 nend May 17, Afghan chief Sher Khan defeated Mongol Emperor Humayun at Kanauj. (HN, 5/17/98) 1540 nend Jun 10, Thomas Cromwell was arrested in Westminster. (MC, 6/10/02) 1540 nend Jun 24, Henry VIII divorced his 4th wife, Anne of Cleves. (MC, 6/24/02) 1540 nend Jun 29, Thomas Cromwell, English ex-chancellor, was sentenced to death. (MC, 6/29/02) 1540 nend Jul 9, England's King Henry VIII had his 6-month-old marriage to his fourth wife, Anne of Cleves, annulled. (AP, 7/9/97) 1540 nend Jul 28, King Henry VIII's chief minister, Thomas Cromwell, was executed. The same day, Henry married his fifth wife, Catherine Howard. (AP, 7/28/97)(HN, 7/28/98)(PCh, 1992, p.181) 1540 nend Aug 25, Explorer Hernando de Alarcon traveled up the Colorado River. (MC, 8/25/02) 1540 nend Sep 27, The Society of Jesus, a religious order under Ignatius Loyola, was approved by the Pope. The Jesuits were recognized by Pope Paul III. They were to become the chief agents of the Church of Rome in spreading the Counter-Reformation. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16)(HN, 9/27/98) 1540 nend Oct 11, Charles V of Milan put his son Philip in control. (HN, 10/11/98) 1540 nend Oct 19, Hernando de Soto fought native Indians at the bloody battle of Mabila in present day Alabama. (WSJ, 8/5/05, p.W2)(www.floridahistory.com/inset91.html) 1540 nend Renaissance artist Lucas Cranach the Elder (1472-1553) created his painting "Suffer the Little Children to Come Unto Me" about this time In 2009 it was stolen from a Lutheran church in the southern Norway town of Larvik. It?s value was estimated at 15-20 million kroner ($2.1-$2.8 million). (AP, 3/8/09) 1540 nend Faust died; a famous magician who employed his magical wiles to entrap men and young woman and to take from them whatever his evil mind desired. (V.D.-H.K.p.238) 1540 nend Garcia Lopez de Cardenas, a Spanish conquistador, became the first European to know the Colorado and the Grand Canyon. (NG, 5.1988, Mem Forum)(SFEC, 10/4/98, BR p.12) 1540 nend The united companies of barbers and surgeons were incorporated in London. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1540 nend German vintner records described this year as the ?Great Sun Year,? as relentless heat and drought withered the Rhine between Cologne and the Netherlands. (SFC, 3/31/05, p.F3) 1540 nend Sher Shah, Afghan rebel, became Emperor of Delhi. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1540 nend Ruffs as accordion-style collars was a fashion brought to Europe from India and popularized by the queen of Navarre. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R40) 1540 nend Francesco Mazzola Parmigianino (b.1503), Italian painter and master draftsman, died. His paintings included "Antea." (Econ, 1/26/08, p.82) 1540 nend Spaniards settled Campeche, Mexico. Montejo the Younger, the founder of Merida, gained a foothold at Campeche. (SSFC, 5/4/03, p.D12)(SSFC, 1/25/09, p.E4) 1540 nend Arequipa, Peru, was founded by Spanish conquerors. (SSFC, 6/24/01, p.A16) 1540 nend The first potato from South America reached Pope Paul III. It was then taken to France and grown as an ornamental plant. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1540 nend In Portugal Coimbra Univ. was founded in a royal palace. (SFEC, 4/26/98, p.T7) 1540 nend Venice and Turkey signed a treaty at Constantinople. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1540 nend Ether was produced from alcohol and sulfuric acid. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1540 nend The pulmonary circulation of the blood was discovered by Michael Servetus, a Spanish theologian and physician. In 1553 he was burned at the stake in Geneva for heresy. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16)(WSJ, 9/18/02, p.D8) 1540 nend Antonio de Mendoza, Viceroy of Mexico, sent a sea expedition under Hernando de Alarcon up the Gulf of California where they entered the mouth of the Colorado River and became the first Europeans to stand on California soil. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16)(NPS-CNM, 4/1/97) 1540 nend Cabeza de Vaca, a Spanish conquistador, was appointed governor of the province of Rio de la Plata. His advocacy of Indian rights caused him to be arrested and banished to a Spanish outpost in North Africa. (ON, 10/03, p.5) 1540 nend s The 1982 French film "The Return of Martin Guerre" with Gerard Depardieu was based on a true story set in 16th century France against a backdrop of the Reformation and a marriage of convenience between 11-year-old Bertrande de Rols and 14-year-old Martin Guerre. (SFC, 7/12/96, p.D7)(WSJ, 7/17/96, p.A12) 1540 1541 Francisco Coronado, one of the first Spanish conquistadores to enter the Southwest, vividly described a group of "dog nomads," that he encountered wintering just outside the walls of the Pecos Pueblo, a multi-storied village of more than 1000 inhabitants, east of Santa Fe, New Mexico. (MT, 12/94, p.2-3) 1540 1580 In Vincenza Palladio created a wide variety of palaces and public buildings. (AMNHDT, 5/98)(WSJ, 11/8/02, p.W12) 1540 1596 Jacopo Zucchi, a mannerist painter. His work included "The Bath of Bathsheba" (1570). (WSJ, 4/28/98, p.A16) 1541 nend Feb 12, Santiago, Chile, was founded by Spanish conquistador Pedro de Valdivia, a lieutenant of Pizarro. When the Spaniards arrived in Chile, 11 languages were in widespread use: Quechua, Aymara, Rapanui, Chango, Kunza, Diaguita, Mapudungun, Chono, Kawesqar, Yagan and Selk?nam. By 2007 only the 1st 3 remained. The last ethnic Selk?nam died in the 1970s. (PCh, 1992,p.182)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_de_Valdivia)(SSFC, 8/12/07, p.A18) 1541 nend Mar 14, In the area of the state of Mississippi Hernando de Soto and his men were attacked by hundreds of Chickasaw Indians. 11 Spaniards were killed along with 15 horses and 400 pigs. (ON, 4/01, p.5) 1541 nend Apr 4, Ignatius Loyola, Spanish ecclesiastic, was elected 1st superior-general of the Jesuits. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16)(MC, 4/4/02) 1541 nend May 8, Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto discovered and crossed the Mississippi River, which he called Rio de Espiritu Santo. He encountered the Cherokee Indians, who numbered about 25,000 and inhabited the area from the Ohio River to the north to the Chattahoochee in present day Georgia, and from the valley of the Tennessee east across the Great Smoky Mountains to the Piedmont of the Carolinas. [see May 21] (NG, 5/95, p.78)(AP, 5/8/97)(HN, 5/8/99) 1541 nend May 21, The Spaniards first saw the mighty Mississippi, the "Father of the Waters." Still dreaming of fabled rich cities, De Soto succumbed to fever on May 21, 1542 and was buried in the mud of the Mississippi, to prevent his body being disturbed by Indians. [see May 8] (HNQ, 10/11/00) 1541 nend May, The expedition of Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, having crossed the high plains of Texas, feasted on game and held a Mass of thanksgiving. (Sm, 2/06, p.12) 1541 nend Jun 18, Irish parliament "selected" Henry VIII as King of Ireland. (SFEC, 12/22/96, Z1 p.6)(MC, 6/18/02) 1541 nend Jun 26, Francisco Pizarro, the Spanish Conqueror of Peru, was murdered by his former followers in Lima. (HN, 6/26/98)(MC, 6/26/02) 1541 nend Jun 29, The Spanish [first] crossed the Arkansas River. Francisco Vazquez de Coronado continued to explore the American southwest. He left New Mexico and crossed Texas, Oklahoma and east Kansas. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16)(HFA, '96, p.32) 1541 nend Aug 23, Jacques Cartier landed near Quebec on his third voyage to North America and established a short-lived community there. (HN, 8/23/98)(TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1541 nend Sep 24, Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus (b.1493), Swiss alchemist, physician and theologian, died. The 1835 poem "Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim" by Robert Browning was based on the life of Paracelsus. In 2006 Philip Ball authored ?The Devil?s Doctor: Paracelsus and the Renaissance World of Magic and Science.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracelsus)(Econ, 1/21/06, p.81) 1541 nend Oct 31, "The Last Judgement" by Michelangelo on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel at Rome was officially unveiled. It is one of the largest paintings in the world. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16)(OG) 1541 nend Nov 9, Queen Catharine Howard was confined in the London Tower. (MC, 11/9/01) 1541 nend El Greco (d.1614), artist, was born in Crete. He settled in Toledo, Spain, in 1577 and died there. (WSJ, 6/18/01, p.A16) 1541 nend Lorenzo Lotto, Italian artist, painted the "Portrait of a Man With a Felt Hat." (WSJ, 1/15/98, p.A17) 1541 nend The "Codex Mendoza" was an Aztec pictorial manuscript of this time. It showed tribute received by the Aztecs from people like the Mixtec with turquoise shields and beads. It also showed 3 young people being stoned to death for drunkenness. (NH, 4/97, p.24)(Arch, 1/05, p.29) 1541 nend Thomas Wyatt (1503-1542), British poet, authored his ?Defence,? an attempt to get out of the Tower of London where he faced charges of treason. (Econ, 5/7/11, p.91) 1541 nend John Knox, a Scottish theologian and historian, led the Calvinist Reformation in Scotland. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1541 nend John Calvin, French theologian, set up a theocratic government in Geneva. Some of the finest French watchmakers joined him. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) (Hem., 2/96, p.96) 1541 nend Spanish conquistadors arrived in the area of New Mexico and encountered the Jemez Indians, who numbered around 30,000. The Jemez lived in fortified villages in the high mesas and had arrived over 200 years earlier. In 2001 the tribe numbered about 3,400. (SSFC, 11/11/01, p.C8) 1541 nend Cabeza de Vaca, a Spanish conquistador, became the 1st European to see the Iguacu Falls in Brazil. He named the falls Saltos de Santa Maria but the Tupi-Guarani name persisted. (SFEC, 10/8/00, p.17) 1541 nend Francisco de Orellana, Spanish soldier and explorer, descended the River Amazon from the Andes to its mouth in the Atlantic Ocean. When Pizarro's half-brother prepared to explore the lands east of Quito, Francisco de Orellana led an advance expedition and wound up exploring the Amazon basin, following the current to emerge at the mouth of the river in August 1542. From there, he returned to Spain (by way of Trinidad), full of tales of riches and strange tribes led by women like the Amazons of Greek mythology. Orellana died in a return expedition to the Amazon River four years later. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16)(HNQ, 2/11/01) 1541 nend Ethiopia was invaded by the Portuguese. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1541 nend In Guatemala a volcano crater filled with water cracked and a mud slide engulfed the capital town of Ciudad Vieja. Over 1,000 people were buried. The volcano was named Agua from that point on. (SFEC, 1/10/99, Z1 p.8) 1541 nend Jean Clouet (b.1480), French Renaissance artist, died. He was the chief painter of King Francis I. Clouet?s work included a 1519 portrait of Francis I as Saint John the Baptist. (Econ, 10/16/10, p.104)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Clouet) 1541 nend Morelia, the capital of the Mexican state of Michoacan, was founded by the royal edict of Antonio de Mendoza. It was originally named Valladolid after a city in Spain. The name was changed in 1928 to honor the local village priest and revolutionary hero Jose Maria Morelos. (Hem, Nov.'95, p.146)(SSFC, 11/17/02, p.C11) 1541 nend In Morocco, the Portuguese abandoned their sea defense settlement at Mogador, later Essaouira. Mogador had originally been named by the Phoenicians. (SFEC, 1/2/00, p.T4) 1541 nend Suleiman I annexed southern and central Hungary. The Turkish Ottomans occupied Budapest, Hungary, until 1546. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16)(Sm, 3/06, p.76) 1541 nend An earthquake and tidal wave finished off the settlement of Nueva Cadiz on Isla de Cubagua off the coast of Venezuela. (SSFC, 2/19/06, p.F8) 1542 nend Feb 13, Catherine Howard (b.c1520), the fifth wife of England's King Henry VIII, was executed for adultery. (WUD, 1994, p.689)(AP, 2/13/98) 1542 nend May 21, Spanish explorer Hernando De Soto died while searching for gold along the Mississippi River. His men buried his body in the Mississippi River in what is now Louisiana in order that Indians would not learn of his death, and thus disprove de Soto's claims of divinity. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16)(AP, 5/21/97)(MC, 5/21/02) 1542 nend Jun 24, Juan de la Cruz, [de Yepes], Spanish Carmelite, poet, saint, was born. (MC, 6/24/02) 1542 nend Jun 27, Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo set out from the port of Navidad, Mexico, with 2 ships, the San Salvador and the Victoria, to "discover the coast of New Spain." Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo claimed California for Spain. [see Sep 28] (NPS-CNM, 4/1/97)(MC, 6/27/02) 1542 nend Jul 15, In 2007 an expert on the "Mona Lisa" says he had ascertained with certainty that Lisa Gherardini (b.1479), the symbol of feminine mystique, died on this day, and was buried at the Sant'Orsola convent in central Florence where she spent her final days. (AFP, 1/19/07) 1542 nend Jul 21, Pope Paul III launched the Inquisition against Protestants (Sanctum Officium). Alleged heretics were tried and tortured in an effort to stem the spread of the Reformation. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16)(MC, 7/21/02) 1542 nend Aug 24, In South America, Gonzalo Pizarro returned to the mouth of the Amazon River after having sailed the length of the great river as far as the Andes Mountains. (HN, 8/24/98) 1542 nend Aug, Francisco de Orellana emerged at the mouth of the Amazon river. He had led an advance expedition from Peru and wound up exploring the Amazon basin and following the current to the mouth. (HNQ, 2/11/01) 1542 nend Sep 24, Thomas Wyatt (b.1503), British poet, died. He is credited with introducing the sonnet into English. In 2011 Nicola Shulman authored ?Graven With Diamonds: The Many Lives of Thomas Wyatt, Courtier, Poet, Assassin.? (Econ, 5/7/11,p.91)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Wyatt_%28poet%29) 1542 nend Sept 28, Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo, Spanish explorer, stepped ashore at the present day harbor of San Diego and named it San Miguel. He went on to explore the coast of California. The tip of Point Loma in San Diego is the home of the Cabrillo National Monument, the second most visited monument in the US after the Statue of Liberty. The island of Coronado was named in honor of the Four Crowned Martyrs, Los Quatro Martires Coronados, on whose feast day it was discovered. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16)(AAM, 3/96, p.52)(NPS-CNM, 4/1/97)(SFC,12/26/97,p.C22) 1542 nend Oct 4, Roberto Bellarmino, Italian Jesuit theologian, diplomat, saint, was born. (MC, 10/4/01) 1542 nend Oct 7, Explorer Cabrillo discovered Catalina Island off the Southern California coast. (MC, 10/7/01) 1542 nend Oct 14, Abul-Fath Djalal-ud-Din, 3rd Mogul emperor of India (1556-1605), was born. (MC, 10/14/01) 1542 nend Nov 22, New laws were passed in Spain giving protection against the enslavement of Indians in America. (HN, 11/22/98) 1542 nend Nov 24, The English defeated the Scots under King James at the Battle of Solway Moss, in England. (HN, 11/24/98)(MC, 11/24/01) 1542 nend Nov, Cabrillo landed at the Channel Island, now known as San Miguel. His men got into a scuffle with local Indians and Cabrillo broke a leg. The party continued to sail north almost to present day Fort Ross. (NPS-CNM, 4/1/97) 1542 nend Dec 7, Mary Stuart, Queen of Scotland (1560-1587), was born. [see Dec 8] (MC, 12/7/01) 1542 nend Dec 8, Mary, Queen of Scotland (1542-67), was born. She became the Queen of England when she was a week old, but was forced to abdicate her throne to her son because she became a Catholic. She was executed for plotting against Elizabeth I. [see Dec 7] (HN, 12/8/00) 1542 nend Dec 14, James V (b.1512), king of Scotland (1513-42), died. (MC, 12/14/01) 1542 nend Bernard Palissy started working in France. He produced dishes and plates with leaves, lizards, snakes, insects and shells in high relief. (SFC, 1/8/97, z-1 p.6) 1542 nend Magdalen College, Cambridge, was founded. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1542 nend The University of Zaragoza was founded [in Spain?]. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1542 nend The Medici tapestry factory in Florence was founded about this time. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1542 nend War was renewed between the Holy Roman Empire and France. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1542 nend Explorer Juan Cabrillo spotted the 534 foot rock at Morro Bay, Ca. (SFEC, 8/25/96, p.T10) 1542 nend An 2nd Act of Union united Wales into England. It followed the 1542 Act of Union. (SFC, 7/23/97, p.A10) 1542 nend Britain?s 1st bankruptcy laws were crafted under Henry VIII. (Econ, 3/6/04, p.53) 1542 nend A landslide on the Yangtze River cut off navigation for 82 years. (NH, 7/96, p.32) 1542 nend Antonio da Mota, Portuguese explorer, became the first European to enter Japan. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1542 nend Merida, Mexico, was founded by Francisco de Montejo at the holy Maya city of T?Ho. Montejo was the son of the captain under Cortez with the same name. (SSFC, 5/6/01, p.T6) 1542 nend In Russia Ivan the Terrible at age 12 entertained himself by dropping dogs from the higher battlements of the Kremlin. (SFC, 4/18/98, p.C3) 1542 nend 150 Spanish colonists settled Asuncion, capital of Paraguay. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1542 1544 A 7-piece set of tapestries was created titled the "Seven Deadly Sins." They were later housed at the Palacio Real in Madrid. (WSJ, 4/11/02, p.AD7) 1542 1591 John of the Cross, Spanish mystic, writer and theologian. He co-founded with St. Theresa the Order of Discalced (barefoot) Carmelites. (CU, 6/87)(WUD, 1994, p.769) 1542 1605 Emperor Akbar, 3rd Grand Moghul of India and godfather of Shah Jahan. Akbar commissioned an illustrated manuscript of the Hamzanama (Story of Hamza, the paternal uncle of the prophet Mohammed). The 1,400 painted folios took over 100 artists 15 years to complete. (WSJ, 8/8/02, p.D10) 1542 1621 Cardinal Robert Bellarmine, became chief theologian of the Roman Catholic church. He denied Galileo?s mathematical proofs and astronomical observations. He was named a saint and was canonized in 1930. (V.D.-H.K.p.201) 1543 nend Jan 3, Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo died of gangrene and was buried at San Miguel. (NPS-CNM, 4/1/97) 1543 nend Feb 21, In the Battle at Wayna Daga Ethiopian and Portuguese troops beat Moslem army. Ahmed Gran, sultan of Adal, died in the battle. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelawdewos_of_Ethiopia) 1543 nend Apr 14, Bartoleme Ferrelo returned to Spain after discovering a large bay in the New World (San Francisco). (HN, 4/14/99) 1543 nend May 24, The city of Valladolid, Mexico, was founded in the Yucatan peninsula. (SSFC, 6/29/08, p.E5)(www.valladolidyucatan.com/history.html) 1543 nend May 24, Nicolaus Copernicus, astronomer, died in Poland. His book, "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs," (De Revolutionibus Orbium Caelestium), proof of a sun-centered universe, was printed just before he died. Although he did say that the earth rotated once a day and did revolve around the sun once a year, he kept 2 features of the old Aristotelian system: one involved uniform circular motion, and the other was quintessential matter, for which such motion was said to be natural. In 1916 the Catholic clergy placed the book on its ?Index of Prohibited Books.? In 2004 Owen Gingerich authored "The Book Nobody Read," an examination of how the ideas of Copernicus spread. In 2006 William T. Vollmann authored ?Uncentering the Earth: Copernicus and The Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres.? In 2008 his remains, buried in a Roman Catholic Cathedral in Frombork, Poland, were positively identified using DNA evidence. In 2011 Dava Sobel authored ?A More Perfect Heaven: How Copernicus Revolutionized the cosmos.? (WSJ, 3/5/04, p.W8)(NH, 4/1/04, p.66)(SSFC, 2/5/06, p.M1)(AP, 11/20/08)(Econ, 9/24/11, p.106) no_source 1543 nend Jul 1, England and Scotland signed the peace of Greenwich. (HN, 7/1/98) 1543 nend Jul 12, England's King Henry VIII married his sixth and last wife, Catherine Parr, who outlived him. (AP, 7/12/97) 1543 nend Sep 3, Cardinal Beaton replaced Earl Arran as regent for Mary of Scotland. (MC, 9/3/01) 1543 nend Sep 9, Mary, Queen of Scots, was crowned Queen of England. (HN, 9/9/01) 1543 nend Sep, The Spanish survivors of the de Soto expedition reached Spanish settlements in Mexico. (ON, 4/01, p.5) 1543 nend Benvenuto Cellini, Italian goldsmith, produced a magnificent salt cellar for Francis I, which still survives. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1543 nend Luther wrote a pamphlet titled: "On the Jews and Their Lies." Anti-Semitism flourished long before Hitler came along. The founder of the Protestant movement, Martin Luther, despised Jews. In 1543, he wrote this evil book which helped to set the stage for the Holocaust. Among his most well known admirers was Adolf Hitler "My advice, as I said earlier, is: First , that their synagogues be burned down... Second, that all their books, their Talmudic writings, also the entire Bible be taken from them... Third, that they be forbidden on pain of death to praise God ... Fourth, that they be forbidden to utter the name of God within our hearing and .... be expelled from their country and be told to return to Jerusalem where they may lie, curse, blaspheme, murder,..." (Translation by Martin H. Bertram, Fortress Press, 1955). (NH, 9/96, p.21) http://www.btinternet.com/~ablumsohn/links.htm 1543 nend Andreas Vesalius, Belgian physician, published his "De humani corporis fabrica" (Concerning the Fabric of the Human Body), which contained the first complete description of the human body. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15)(WSJ, 10/19/99, p.A24) 1543 nend Aug 22, French and Ottoman forces captured Nice following a siege of the city. Admiral Barbarossa led the Ottoman fleet in the campaign. (Econ, 12/12/09, p.93)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Nice) 1543 nend Protestants were burned at the stake for the first time in the Spanish Inquisition. Pope Paul III issued an index of prohibited books. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1543 nend Phillip of Spain married Maria of Portugal. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1543 nend Henry VIII of England and Emp. Charles V formed an alliance against France. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1543 nend King Francis I of France invaded Luxembourg. A combined French and Turkish fleet captured Nice. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1543 nend Filipino natives expelled Spanish conquistador, Ruy Lopez de Villalobos, a year after he had discovered and named them. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1543 nend Portuguese ships landed on the Japanese Island of Tanega. The first European visitors to Japan introduced muskets and baked bread. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215)(TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1543 nend New Spain received European vegetables and grains such as broad beans, chickpeas, barley, and wheat, transported by a new viceroy from Spain. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1543 nend Sugar cane was introduced to Brazil about this time. Fermented sugar cane later became the base for cachaca, a light rum that is the national spirit. Cachaca is used to prepare the national drink, the caipirinha. (Hem, 4/96, p.10) 1543 nend Hans Holbein, one of the greatest artists of the German Renaissance, died in England. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1543 1773 The Palacio de los Capitanes in Antigua, Guatemala, was the center for Spanish rule over Chiapas, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua during this period. (SFEM, 6/13/99, p.32) 1544 nend Mar 11, Torquato Tasso, Italian Renaissance poet (Aminta, Apologia), was born. (MC, 3/12/02) 1544 nend May 17, Scot earl Matthew van Lennox signed a secret treaty with Henry VIII. (MC, 5/17/02) 1544 nend May 24, William Gilbert, English physicist, was born. He coined the terms "electric" and "magnetic" poles. (HN, 5/24/99) 1544 nend May 29, Jacobus Latomus [Jasques Masson] (~68), Belgian inquisitor, died. (SC, 5/29/02) 1544 nend Sep 14, Henry VIII's forces took Boulogne, France. (HN, 9/14/98) 1544 nend Sep 18, English King Henry VIII's troops occupied Boulogne, France. [see Sep 14] (MC, 9/18/01) 1544 nend Sep 19, Francis, the king of France, and Charles V of Austria signed a peace treaty in Crespy, France, ending a 20-year war. The Peace of Crespy ended the fighting between Charles V and Francis I. Henry VIII was not consulted. France surrendered much territory and Charles gave up his claim to Burgundy. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16)(HN, 9/19/98) 1544 nend Nov 27, Ascanio Trombeti, composer, was born. (MC, 11/27/01) 1544 nend The first herbarium was published by Italian botanist Luca Ghini. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1544 nend The University of Konigsberg was founded. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1544 nend Henry VIII crossed the Channel to Calais to campaign with Charles V against Francis I. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1544 nend The Turks invaded Hungary for the third time and seized the crown jewels. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) no_source 1544 nend Gustavus I of Sweden signed an alliance with France. (TL-MB, 1988, p.16) 1544 nend Rats first showed up in North America. (SFC, 6/15/96, p.E4) 1544 1545 Titian painted "Danaë." (WSJ, 5/8/03, p.D8) 1544 1557 A set of cartoons designed by Raphael (1483-1520) were woven into 10 tapestries titled "The Acts of the Apostles." (WSJ, 12/3/99, p.W16)(WSJ, 4/11/02, p.D7) 1544 1603 William Gilbert, English physician, discovered that the earth was a magnet from his observations on the behavior of lodestone, the mineral now called magnetite. He grew to suspect that the earth?s gravity and magnetism were connected in some way , but he never understood how. Under the reign of Protestant Queen Elizabeth I, he was able to argue for Copernicus?s heliocentric picture of the solar system, and suggested that the planets must be held in their orbits by some kind of magnetism. (V.D.-H.K.p.198) 1545 nend Feb 13, William of Nassau became prince of Orange. (MC, 2/13/02) 1545 nend Feb 19, Pierre Brully, [Peter Brulius], Calvinist minister, was burned to death. (MC, 2/19/02) 1545 nend Apr 12, French king Francis I ordered the Protestants of Vaudois killed. (MC, 4/12/02) 1545 nend Apr 13, Elisabeth van Valois, French queen of Spain, daughter of Henri II, was born. (MC, 4/13/02) 1545 nend Jul 8, Don Carlos, son of Spanish king Philip II (protagonist in Schiller's drama; hero in Verdi opera), was born. (MC, 7/8/02) 1545 nend Jul 19, A French fleet entered The Solent, the channel between the Isle of Wight and Hampshire, England, and French troops landed on the Isle of Wight. King Henry VIII of England watched his flagship, Mary Rose, capsize in Portsmouth harbor as it left to battle the French. 73 people died including Roger Grenville, English captain of Mary Rose. The Mary Rose was raised in 1982. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17)(HN, 7/19/98)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Rose) 1545 nend Sep 24, Albrecht von Brandenburg, archbishop, monarch, founder of The Brandenburg Concerts of Mainz, died at 55. (MC, 9/24/01) 1545 nend Oct 18, John Taverner, English composer (Western Wynde), died. (MC, 10/18/01) 1545 nend Dec 13, The Church Council of Trent began with the meeting of 30 bishops. It lasted 3 years but took 18 years to complete its work. The Council sparked the beginning of the Counter-Reformation. [see 1562] (CU, 6/87)(TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1545 nend Agnolo Bronzino, Florentine painter, produced his work: "Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time." (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1545 nend Benvenuto Cellini, Italian goldsmith, wrote his autobiography, which greatly influenced the Renaissance. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17)(HN, 11/3/99) 1545 nend Conrad von Gesner, Swiss naturalist, published the first volume of his "Bibliotheca Universalis," a catalogue of all the writers who ever lived. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1545 nend In Mexico Bishop Fray Bartolome de las Casas championed the Indians in the area of Chiapas. (WSJ, 1/15/98, p.A1) 1545 nend The first European botanical garden was established in Padua. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1545 nend Lord Lisle, English fleet commander, set ablaze Treport in Normandy. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1545 nend Claude Garamond, French typographer, cut a Greek type that remained in use to the early 19th century. Some modern typefaces bear his name. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1545 nend The Spanish discovered the silver mines of Potosi, Bolivia. From the town of Cerro Rico, which means Hill of Riches, they took out the equivalent of $2 billion from one mountainside. (NH, 10/96, p.4) 1545 nend A typhus epidemic killed hundreds of thousands of natives and colonists in Cuba and New Spain. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1546 nend Feb 18, Martin Luther (b.1483), leader of the Protestant Reformation in Germany, died in Eisleben. In 1989 Harvard professor Heiko A. Oberman (1930-2001) authored ?Luther.? (V.D.-H.K.p.165)(WSJ, 6/23/07, p.P10)(AP, 2/18/08) 1546 nend Mar 29, Cardinal Beaton, English archbishop of St. Andrews, was murdered. (MC, 3/29/02) 1546 nend May 29, Cardinal Beaton, English archbishop of St. Andrews, was murdered. (SC, 5/29/02) 1546 nend Jun 7, The Peace of Ardes ended the war between France and England. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17)(HN, 6/7/98) 1546 nend Aug 3, French printer Etienne Dolet, accused of heresy, blasphemy and sedition, was hanged and burned at the stake for printing reformist literature. (HN, 8/3/98) 1546 nend Dec 14, Tycho Brahe (d.1601), astronomer, was born in Knudstrup, Denmark. He constructed the most precise astronomical instruments of his time. (SCTS, p.136)(HN, 12/14/00)(MC, 12/14/01) 1546 nend Titian painted his great family portrait of Paul III and his Grandsons Ottavio and Cardinal Alessandro Farnese. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1546 nend The Farnese Hours manuscript was illuminated by Giulio Clovio. (SFC, 2/15/97, p.D1) 1546 nend Girolamo Fracastoro, (Hyeronymous Fracastorius), Italian Florentine physician, gave the first description of typhus and the nature of contagion in his work "De Contagione et Contagiosis Morbis." He had earlier described and named syphilis. (WP, 1952, p.28)(TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1546 nend The first Welsh book, "Yny Lhyvyr Mwnn," was printed. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1546 nend Henry VIII founded Christ Church, Oxford?s largest college. (SSFC, 11/11/01, p.C11) 1546 nend Henry VIII closed the bath houses of Southwark. (Econ, 12/19/09, p.139) 1546 nend Pierre Lescot, French architect, began the building of the Louvre in Paris. Francois I, needing more space for acquired works of art, started the construction of 2 new wings to the 12th century Louvre fortress. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17)(WSJ, 10/7/98, p.A20) 1546 nend Pope Paul III put Michelangelo in charge of the restoration of St. Peter?s Basilica in Rome. He designed the dome of St. Peter?s. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17)(SSFC, 2/18/07, p.A2) 1546 nend Charles V got into the Schmalkaldic War against the Protestant princes upon support by the Catholic Counter-Reformation. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1546 nend The Turks occupied Moldavia. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1546 nend A coalition of eastern Maya laid siege to Valladolid, in Mexico?s Yucatan peninsula. Spanish conquistadores brutally crushed a major Mayan rebellion in New Spain. (http://tinyurl.com/4o62ox)(TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1546 nend Gerardus Mercator, Flemish geographer, affirmed that the earth has magnetic pole. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1546 nend Barbarossa, one of the great figures in the court at Istanbul, died. Khayr Ad-Din was a Barbary pirate and later, as admiral of the Ottoman fleet, he united Algeria and Tunisia as military states under the Ottoman caliphate in the 1530s. (HNQ, 2/10/99) 1546 1568 Alexandru Lapuseanu, ruler of Moldavia, outlawed divorce and imposed the death penalty on anyone who started such legal proceedings. (SFC, 6/2/96, Zone 1p.2) 1547 nend Jan 8, The first Lithuanian book was printed in Konigsberg (Karaliauciuje) at the printing shop of H. Weinreich. It was a catechism titled: "Katekizmusa prasti Zadei, makslas skaitima raschta yr giesmes" by the Lithuanian student Martynas Mazvydas (200-300 copies). He had been specifically invited by Albrecht von Brandenberg to prepare a book in Lithuanian that would assist the priests in teaching the native language and help spread the ideas of the Reformation, i.e. Lutheranism. It was a small format book of 79 pages part of which was taken up by 11 hymns presented with music. The text was a faithful translation of J. Seklucian?s (1545) and J. Malecki?s (1546) Polish catechisms. (Voruta #27-28, 7/1996, p.10)(DrEE, 9/14/96, p.4)(LHC, 1/7/03) no_source 1547 nend Jan 16, Ivan IV, popularly known as "Ivan the Terrible," crowned himself the new Czar of Russia in Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. He was the first Russian ruler to assume that title. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17)(HN, 1/16/99)(AP, 1/16/08) 1547 nend Jan 19, Henry Howard (29), earl of Surrey, army commander, poet, was beheaded. (MC, 1/19/02) 1547 nend Jan 28, England's King Henry VIII died; his sixth and last wife was Catherine Parr. He was succeeded by his 9-year-old son, Edward VI. (V.D.-H.K.p.162)(AP, 1/28/98)(HN, 1/28/99) 1547 nend Jan, An inventory of the possessions of King Henry VIII was begun under Edward VI, Henry?s son and successor. It took three years to complete. His total wealth amounted to some 600,000 pounds. A commoner?s daily wage at this time was about two and one-half pence. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.20) 1547 nend Feb 3, Russian czar Ivan IV (17) married Anastasia Romanova. (MC, 2/3/02) 1547 nend Feb 20, King Edward VI of England was enthroned following the death of Henry VIII (Jan 28). (MC, 2/20/02) 1547 nend Mar 21, Matthew Stryjkovski (d.c1592), the 1st author of a printed history of Lithuania, was born in Strykov, Poland. (LHC, 3/21/03) 1547 nend Mar 31, Francis I, King of France (1515-1547), died and was succeeded by his son Henry II, who was dominated by his mistress, Diane de Poitiers, during his 12 year reign. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17)(HN, 3/31/99) 1547 nend Apr 24, Charles V's troops defeated the Protestant League of Schmalkalden at the battle of Muhlberg. (HN, 4/24/98) 1547 nend May 20, Melchior Bischoff, composer, was born. (MC, 5/20/02) 1547 nend Jun 21, There was a great fire in Moscow. (MC, 6/21/02) 1547 nend Sep 2, Hernan Cortes, Spanish general who defeated Aztec Indians, died. (MC, 9/2/01) 1547 nend Sep 10, The Duke of Somerset led the English to a resounding victory over the Scots at Pinkie Cleugh. This was the last battle to be fought between English and Scottish royal armies and the last in which the longbow was used tactically en masse. (HN, 9/10/98)(WSJ, 11/4/04, p.D10) 1547 nend Sep 10, The English demanded that Edward VI (10), wed Mary Queen of Scots (5). (MC, 9/10/01) 1547 nend Sep 10, Pierlugi Faranese, Italian son of Pope Paul III, was murdered. (MC, 9/10/01) 1547 nend Sep 29, Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (d.1616) was born, at Alcala de Henares, near Madrid. "He was first a soldier and was captured by Barbary pirates in 1575. His family was unable to raise the ransom money until 1580. He was not initially successful as a writer until he wrote "The Ingenious Hidalgo Don Quixote de la Mancha" (1604). (V.D.-H.K.p.150)(HN, 9/29/02) 1547 nend Oct 19, Pierino del Vaga, Italian painter, died at 46. (MC, 10/19/01) 1547 nend The "Dodekachordon" on the 12 church modes by Henricus Glareanus, Swiss music theorist, was published. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1547 nend Hans Staden of Germany was shipwrecked on the Atlantic coast of Brazil. He was later rescued and in 1557 published an illustrated account of his adventures. (Arch, 5/05, p.30) 1547 nend French became the official language of France, displacing Latin. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1547 nend Nostradamus, French astrologer, made his first predictions. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1547 nend Forces of Charles V captured the Elector of Saxony at the Battle of Muhlberg. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1547 nend The Truce of Adrianople was concluded between Charles V, Ferdinand I of Hungary, and Suleiman I of Turkey. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1547 nend The English parliament repealed the Statute of the Six Articles, which defined heresy. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1547 nend Moscow was destroyed by fire. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1548 nend Apr 1, Sigismund I, the Elder (81), King of Poland, died. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17)(MC, 4/1/02) 1548 nend Jun 30, Formerly Holy Roman (Catholic) Emperor Charles V ordered Catholics to become Lutherans. (MC, 6/30/02) 1548 nend Jul 16, La Paz, Bolivia, was founded. (MC, 7/16/02) 1548 nend Aug 15, Mary Queen of the Scots (6), who was engaged to the Dauphin, landed in France. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17)(MC, 8/15/02) 1548 nend Sep 5, Catharine Parr (36), queen of England and last wife of Henry VIII, died. (MC, 9/5/01) 1548 nend Tintoretto, Italian Renaissance artist, painted his work "St. Mark Rescuing the Slave." (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1548 nend Jacopo Tintoretto (1518-1594), Venetian school Italian artist, established his fame with the painting ?Miracle of the Slave.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tintoretto)(Econ, 2/10/07, p.90) 1548 nend Titian painted his portrait of Charles V at Muhlberg. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1548 nend John Bale?s "Kynge Johan," the first English historical drama, appeared. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1548 nend The Hotel de Bourgogne, first theater (under a roofed building) in Paris opened. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1548 nend Charles V annexed the 17 provinces of the Netherlands to the Burgundian Circle of the Empire. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1548 nend Gonzalo Pizarro, son of the conqueror of Peru, was defeated by and executed by Pedro de la Gasca in the Battle of Xaquixaguane. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1548 nend The University of Messina, Sicily, was founded. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1548 nend Spaniards in Mexico exploited the silver mines. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1548 nend In Thailand King Chakrapat was saved by his wife Suriyothai, who maneuvered her elephant in front of the invading Burmese King Tabinshweeti and took the sword thrust intended for her husband. The historical film "Suriyothai" was directed by Chatri Chalerm Yukol and premiered in Aug 2001. It was about the 16th Queen Suriyothai who saved her husband King Thianracha during a war with invaders from Myanmar. (SFC, 9/30/99, p.E6)(WSJ, 8/30/01, p.A11)(SFC, 7/3/03, p.E1) 1549 nend Feb 14, Maximilian II, brother of the Emperor Charles V, was recognized as the future king of Bohemia. (HN, 2/14/99) 1549 nend Mar 20, Thomas Seymour of Sudely, English Lord Admiral, was beheaded. (MC, 3/20/02) 1549 nend May 27, Lijsbeth Dirksdr, Friesian Anabaptist, drowned. (MC, 5/27/02) 1549 nend Jun 9, Book of Common Prayer was adopted by the Church of England. Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, issued the "Book of Common Prayer." Other prayer books were forbidden by the Act of Uniformity. The book was mandated by the government under Edward VI, son of Henry VIII, so that services could be spoken in the language of the people. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17)(WSJ, 9/12/96, p.A14)(MC, 6/9/02) 1549 nend Aug 9, France declared war on England. England declared war on France. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17)(HN, 8/9/98) 1549 nend Aug 15, Francis Xavier, Portuguese Jesuit missionary, landed in Kagoshima, Japan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215)(ON, 11/02, p.8)(MC, 8/15/02) 1549 nend Sep 13, Pope Paul III closed the first session of the Council of Bologna. (HN, 9/13/98) 1549 nend Oct 1, Anna of H Bartolomaeus was born. She was a Flemish prioress and founded a nunnery. (MC, 10/1/01) 1549 nend Nov 5, Philippe du Plessis, France, author, was born. (MC, 11/5/01) 1549 nend Wen Cheng-ming, Chinese artist, created his hanging scroll "Trees in a Valley." (WSJ, 5/15/02, p.D7) 1549 nend Giorgio Vasari wrote the first biography of Leonardo da Vinci. (NH, 5/97, p.58) 1549 nend The 17 provinces of the Netherlands became independent of the Holy Roman Empire. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1549 nend La Pleiade, a group of 7 French poets, established the Alexandrine metre of a 12-syllable line. Pierre de Ronsard was in the group. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1549 nend Piro Ligorio designed the Villa d?Este at Tivoli for the Cardinal d?Este Ippolito II. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1549 nend Court jesters, mainly dwarfs and cripples, appeared in Europe. [see 1202] (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1549 nend Jesuit missionaries arrived in South America. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1549 nend Sao Salvador, later Bahia in Brazil, was founded by Thome de Souza, Portugal?s first governor of Brazil. Portuguese conquerors founded Salvador. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17)(SFEC, 8/8/99, p.T8) 1549 nend The Ye Old Cock Tavern opened in London. (SFEC, 9/12/99, p.T14) 1549 nend Ivan IV called the first national assembly in Russia. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1549 nend Pope Paul III died and was succeeded by Julius III. (TL-MB, 1988, p.17) 1550 nend Mar 24, France and England signed the Peace of Boulogne. It ended the war of England with Scotland and France. France bought back Boulogne for 400,000 crowns. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18)(MC, 3/24/02) 1550 nend Apr 2, Jews were expelled from Genoa, Italy. [see Jun 15, 1567] (MC, 4/2/02) 1550 nend Apr 12, Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford, was born (d.1604). Some claimed that he was responsible for all the 37 plays, 154 sonnets and 2 long narrative poems that are attributed to William Shakespeare. De Vere was first advanced as the author of Shakespeare?s work in 1918 by English schoolmaster J. Thomas Looney. (SFC, 4/26/97, p.E1)(WSJ, 5/1/97, p.A16)(WSJ, 4/18/09, p.A2) 1550 nend Apr 28, Powers of Dutch inquisition were extended. (MC, 4/28/02) 1550 nend Apr 29, Emperor Charles V gave inquisitors additional authority. (MC, 4/29/02) 1550 nend May 25, Camillus de Lellis, Italian soldier, monastery founder, saint, was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1550 nend Jun 27, Charles IX, king of France (1560-74), was born. (SC, 6/27/02) 1550 nend Jul 7, Chocolate was introduced (Europe). (MC, 7/7/02) 1550 nend Sep 5, William Cecil appointed himself English minister of foreign affairs. (MC, 9/5/01) 1550 nend The Flemish Tapestry, "The Bridal Chamber of Herse," was woven by Willem de Pannemaker. It is now stored in the N.Y. Metropolitan Museum of Art. (WSJ, 1/5/96, p.A-8) 1550 nend Michelangelo (75) completed the frescoes of the Cappella Paolina, "the Conversion of Paul" and "The Crucifixion of St. Peter." (OG) 1550 nend Michelangelo began his painting "The Deposition from the Cross," which included a self-portrait as Nicodemus. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1550 nend Japanese Ukiyoe painting, which takes subjects from everyday life, had its beginnings. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1550 nend Nicholas Udall wrote the first known English comedy: "Ralph Roister Doister." (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1550 nend Giorgio Vasari, Italian architect and painter, published his definitive "Lives of the Artists," and founded the Fine Arts Academy in Florence. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18)(WSJ, 2/5/97, p.A16) 1550 nend Palladio, Italian architect, designed the Villa Rotunda, Vincenza. It has four porticoes and symmetrical planning and is an example of his search for harmonious proportions. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1550 nend John Marbeck produced the first musical setting for the English liturgy. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1550 nend John Marbeck, English theologian, published a concordance of the entire English bible. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) c 1550 nend In California later radiocarbon tests indicated human habitation at the bay side foot of San Bruno Mountain up to this time. The Sipliskin Tribe, a northern branch of the Ohlone Indians, occupied the site. (SFEC,12/29/97, p.A13) 1550 nend In Washington state Mount St. Helens began almost nonstop eruptions that continued for a century. (SFEC, 8/16/98, p.A15) 1550 nend Anton Fugger, Augsburg banker, went bankrupt. This caused financial chaos throughout Europe. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1550 nend Rhaticus, German mathematician, published a set of trigonometric tables. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) c 1550 nend In Hawaii a Great Wall was built on the Big Island behind which refuge, sanctuary and purification could be sought. Puhonua o Honaunau National Historic Park later marked the area. (SSFC, 8/26/01, p.T9) 1550 nend In Italy the Beretta family branched into guns. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1550 nend Mercury was discovered in Peru. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1550 nend African slaves were shipped to Brazil to work sugar plantations. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1550 nend South America shipped rubber to Europe. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1550 nend Helsinki was founded by the Swedes. (SFEM, 8/8/99, p.44) 1550 nend s In Moscow Ivan the IV built a stone church to commemorate the triumph of Orthodoxy over Roman Catholicism, Islam and the Uniates, who sought to unite the Catholic and Orthodox churches. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.36) 1550 1555 Julius III, Giommaria Ciocci del Monte or Giovanni Maria del Monte, served as Pope 1550-1555. (WUD, 1994, p.773) 1550 1563 Henry Machyn, a merchant tailor in London, kept a diary over this time that described the funerals of noble persons, the coronation of Queen Elizabeth I, the murder of Arden of Feversham by his wife and her lover, and other London events. A definitive edition of the diaries was in process by English Prof. R.W. Bailey and graduate students at the Univ. of Mich. in 1996. (MT, 6/96, p.9)(MT, Fall 02, p.22) c 1550 1600 Grace O?Malley led a 200-strong band on Clare Island, Ireland, financed by piracy. (SFEC, 4/12/98, p.T8) c 1550 1615 Shakespeare was born in England and authored about thirty-five plays. "Man and woman are always the focus of the plays... the medieval world picture fades into the background, and humankind emerges naked and unadorned...he was skillful in comedy as in tragedy, and he even knew how to mix the two... he invaded the life of ordinary families in his plays, revealing to us what we had always known but never faced. " [see Apr 23, 1564] (V.D.-H.K.p.146) 1551 nend Mar 9, Emperor Charles V appointed his son Philip as heir to the throne. Don Philip was recognized as the sole heir of Charles V. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18)(MC, 3/9/02) 1551 nend May 2, William Camden, English historian (Brittania, Annales), was born. (MC, 5/2/02) 1551 nend May 12, San Marcos University opened in Lima, Peru. The Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos was founded under Spanish royal charter. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18)(MC, 5/12/02)(AM, 7/01, p.18) 1551 nend Jun 27, France promulgated the Edict of Chateaubriand, a crackdown on Protestantism in France. The Edict of Chateaubriand placed severe restrictions on Protestants, including loss of one-third of property to informers and confiscation of all property of those who left France. (www.pierrechastain.com/timeline.htm) 1551 nend Oct 16, Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, was re-arrested. (MC, 10/16/01) 1551 nend Konrad von Gesner wrote the first modern book on Zoology: "Historia Animalium." (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1551 nend Cranmer published his 42 Articles, the basis of Anglican Protestantism. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1551 nend Palestrina, Italian composer, was appointed director of music at St. Peter?s in Rome. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1551 nend Pope Eugenius IV brought some of the Middle-Eastern Christians back into the Western Christian fold when he established the Chaldean rite of the Catholic Church. (WSJ, 3/12/00, p.A10) 1551 nend The term "Xmas" was used at least this early for Christmas. The short form derived from the Greek letters "XP," chi and rho, as an abbreviation of the Greek symbol for Christ. (SFC,12/24/97, Z1 p.6) 1551 nend Spanish sailors in the Caribbean became ill after eating a fish stew. Most likely caused by ciguatera, a disease caused by toxins of microorganisms eaten by reef fish. (NH, 5/96, p.60) 1551 nend Spaniards in Chile began producing wine. (SFC, 8/31/07, p.F4) 1551 nend Henry II led French forces against Charles V in Italy. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1551 nend Persecution of the Jews became widespread in Bavaria. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1551 nend Turkish forces captured Tripoli but failed to take Malta. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1551 nend Printing was introduced into Ireland. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1551 nend Erasmus Rheinhold, German astronomer, published astronomical tables based on the numerical values provided by Nicolas Copernicus. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1551 nend Leonard Digges, English inventor, described the theodolite (a surveying instrument to measure horizontal and vertical angles) in his posthumously published "Pantometria." (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1551 nend The Jesuits founded the Papal Univ. in Rome. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1551 nend The National Univ. of Mexico was founded. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1552 nend Jan 15, France signed a secret treaty with German Protestants. (MC, 1/15/02) 1552 nend Jan 22, Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, was beheaded for treason. (MC, 1/22/02)(MT, Fall 02, p.23) 1552 nend Jan 23, The 2nd version of Book of Common Prayer became mandatory in England. The Second Prayer Book of Edward VI, more radical than the first, was authorized by a second Uniformity Act. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18)(MC, 1/23/02) 1552 nend Feb 1, Sir Edward Coke, English jurist, was born in Mileham, Norfolk. He helped the development of English law with his arguments for the supremacy of common law over royal prerogative. (HN, 2/1/99)(MC, 2/1/02) 1552 nend Apr 14, Laurentius Andreae, [Lars Andersson], Swedish church reformer, died. (MC, 4/14/02) 1552 nend Jul 18, Rudolf II of Habsburg, emperor of Germany (1576-1612), was born. (MC, 7/18/02) 1552 nend Aug 2, The treaty of Passau gave religious freedom to Protestants living in Germany. The Augsburg Interim was annulled and Lutherans were allowed freedom of worship in Germany. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18)(HN, 8/2/98) 1552 nend Aug 14, Fra Paolo Sarpi, [Paulus Venetus], expert, philosopher, was born in Venice. (MC, 8/14/02) 1552 nend Aug, Ivan IV of Russia began his conquest of Kazan, Tatarstan, and Astrakhan in the Volga delta. Kazan, the capital of Tatarstan, fell to Ivan in September. (Econ, 6/2/07, p.56)(www.1000kzn.ru/razdel/en/227/) 1552 nend Oct 6, Matteo Ricci, Italian Jesuit missionary (China), was born. (MC, 10/6/01) 1552 nend The Badianus Manuscript is the earliest known treatise on New World indigenous medicine. It was written and translated in Nahuatl and Latin by Aztec scribes Martinus de la Cruz and Juan Badianus. (AM, 7/01, p.37) 1552 nend Etienne Jodelle, French dramatist, completed his "Cleopatre Captive," the first French neoclassical tragedy. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1552 nend Edward VI founded Christ?s Hospital in London. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1552 nend The English again attacked the Irish town and monastery at Clonmacnoise and carried everything away. (SFEC, 8/1/99, p.T8) 1552 nend The Treaty of Friedewalde confirmed the alliance between Henry II of France and the Protestant princes of Germany against Charles V. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1552 nend The Turks invaded Hungary again with a victory at the Battle Szegedin. Istvan Dobo led the defense of Eger against the Turks. The siege of Eger lasted 38 days. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18)(Hem., 6/98, p.126) 1552 nend Books on geography and astronomy were burned in England because of fears of magic. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1552 nend The shift from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar was begun. In 2000 Duncan Steel authored "Marking Time: The Epic Quest to Invent the Perfect Calendar." (SFEC, 2/20/00, Par p.7) 1552 nend Bartolomeo Eustachio, Italian anatomist, described the Eustachian tube of the ear and the Eustachian valve in the heart. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1552 1553 Giovanni Battista Moroni, Renaissance artist, painted his "Portrait of Isotta Brembati." (WSJ, 4/13/00, p.A19) 1552 1599 Edmund Spencer, helped establish the form of modern English in literature. (V.D.-H.K.p.143) 1553 nend Apr 29, A Flemish woman introduced to England the practice of starching linen. (MC, 4/29/02) 1553 nend May 5, Erasmus Alberus (~52), German theologist (Barfesser Munche), died. (MC, 5/5/02) 1553 nend Jun 12, King Edward VI accepted archbishop Cranmer's "42 Articles." (MC, 6/12/02) 1553 nend Jul 6, Edward VI Tudor (15), King of England (1547-53), died. Mary Tudor was warned that Edward VI was already dead and that she was walking into a trap set by John Dudley, the Duke of Northumberland, Edward?s regent. (ON, 5/00, p.3)(MC, 7/6/02) 1553 nend Jul 9, Maurice of Saxony was mortally wounded at Sievershausen, Germany, while defeating Albert of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. (HN, 7/9/98) 1553 nend Jul 10, After King Edward VI of England died of tuberculosis, John Dudley, the Duke of Northumberland, tried to get his daughter, Lady Jane Grey (the great-granddaughter of Henry VII), declared the queen and got archbishop Cranmer?s signature to that end. However the succession went to Mary, the Catholic half-sister of Edward. Cranmer and others were then found guilty of treason. (WSJ, 9/12/96, p.A14)(AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.24) 1553 nend Jul 19, 15-year-old Lady Jane Grey, daughter of John Dudley, the Duke of Northumberland, was deposed as Queen of England after claiming the crown for nine days. Mary, the daughter of King Henry VIII, was proclaimed Queen. (AP, 7/19/97) 1553 nend Aug 2, An invading French army was destroyed at the Battle of Marciano in Italy by an imperial army. (HN, 8/2/98) 1553 nend Aug 3, Mary Tudor, the new Queen of England, entered London. (HN, 8/3/98) 1553 nend Aug 12, Pope Julius III ordered the confiscation and burning of the Talmud. (SC, 8/12/02) 1553 nend Aug 23, John Dudley, the Duke of Northumberland, English Lord Admiral, premier (1551-53), was beheaded on Tower Hill in front of 10,000 onlookers. (ON, 5/00, p.5)(Internet) 1553 nend Sep 4, Cornelia da Nomatalcino, a monk who converted to Judaism, was burned at the stake. (MC, 9/4/01) 1553 nend Oct 16, Lucas Cranach the elder (b.1472), German painter and graphic artist, died at 81. His work included "Madonna and Child in a Landscape." (TL-MB, 1988, p.13)(WUD, 1994, p.339)(http://tinyurl.com/ykv47h) 1553 nend Oct 19, Bonifazio Veronese, Veneziano, [de' Pitati], Italian painter, died. (MC, 10/19/01) 1553 nend Oct 21, Volumes of the Talmud were burned. (MC, 10/21/01) 1553 nend Oct 27, Michael Servetus (b.1511), Spanish theologian and physician, was burnt for heresy in Geneva, Switzerland. His last book "Christianismi Restitutio" included a chapter on the pulmonary circulation of blood. In 2002 Lawrence and Nancy Goldstone authored "Out of the Flames." [see 1540] (HN, 10/27/98)(WSJ, 9/18/02, p.D8)(WSJ, 1/18/08, p.W10) 1553 nend Nov 13, English Lady Jane Grey and the bishop Cranmer were accused of high treason. (MC, 11/13/01) 1553 nend Dec 13, Henry IV (d.1610), Henry of Navarre, Henry the Great, 1st Bourbon king of Navarre, France, (1572/89-1610), was born. (WUD, 1994, p.662)(MC, 12/13/01) 1553 nend Les Observations de Plusieurs Singularitez et Choses Memorables was written by Pierre Belon, French naturalist and traveler. It included an account of Turkish fruit sorbets. (NH, 4/97, p.77) 1553 nend Pedro Cieza de Leon wrote the first European description of the potato in his ?Chronicles of Peru.? (SSFC, 10/5/08, p.A15) 1553 nend Virgil?s "Aeneid" was translated into English for the first time. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1553 nend Christopher Tye composed "The Acts of the Apostles." (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1553 nend The Forty-two Articles of the Church of England were written by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer "for the avoiding of controversy in opinions." The Forty-two Articles had been partly derived from the Thirteen Articles of 1538. When Mary became queen in 1553 and restored Catholicism, the Forty-two Articles were eliminated. (HNQ, 10/20/98) 1553 nend Protestants fearing persecution in England began leaving to Switzerland. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1553 nend The League of Heidelberg was formed by German Catholic and Protestant princes to stop Philip of Spain from becoming Holy Roman Emperor. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1553 nend The National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) was founded as a royal, pontifical university. (WSJ, 9/1/99, p.A1) 1553 nend Suleiman I of Turkey made peace with Persia. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1553 nend Turkish warships ravaged the Mediterranean. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1553 nend In London The Mysterie and Compagnie of the Merchant Adventurers for the Discoverie of Regions, Dominions, Islands and Places Unknown offered stock to finance a quest for a passage to the riches of the East. The Muscovy Company venture led to the death of explorer Sir Hugh Willoughby who died with the crews of 2 ships in the Arctic ice. A 3rd ship reached the court of Ivan the Terrible in Moscow and returned with a treaty giving England freedom to trade there. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1553 nend Hugh Willoughby and Richard Chancellor voyaged to Russia via Archangel seeking a north-east passage to China. Willoughby discovered Novaya Zemlya and died on the Kola Peninsula. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1553 nend Giambattista della Porta, Italian inventor, improved the camera obscura. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1553 nend Francois Rabelais (b.1490), French physician, satirist and humorist, died. He studied with the Benedictines and received orders from the Franciscans. His work included the multi-volume "La Vie de Gargantua et de Pantagruel." (WUD, 1994, p.1183)(V.D.-H.K.p.143)(SSFC, 2/10/02, p.G5) 1554 nend Jan 9, Gregory XV, Roman Catholic Pope was born. (HN, 1/9/98) 1554 nend Feb 12, Lady Jane Grey (17), who had claimed the throne of England for nine days, the Queen of England for thirteen days, was beheaded on Tower Hill along with her husband, Guildford Dudley, after being condemned for high treason. (HN, 2/12/99)(AP, 2/12/08) 1554 nend Feb 21, Hieronymus Bock, German doctor (founder of modern botany), died. (MC, 2/21/02) 1554 nend Feb 23, Henry Grey, Duke of Suffolk and Lady Jane Grey's father, was executed. (MC, 2/23/02) 1554 nend Mar 3, Johan Frederik de Greatmoedige (50), ruler of Saxon (1532-47), died. (SC, 3/3/02) 1554 nend Mar 12, Richard Hooker, English theologian, was born. He authored "Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity." (HN, 3/12/99) 1554 nend Jul 24, Queen Mary of England married Philip II, king of Spain and the Catholic son of Emp. Charles V. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18)(ON, 5/00, p.5)(MC, 7/24/02) 1554 nend Oct, Mongol fighters battled Chinese defenders at the Jinshanling wall. After 3 days of fighting the Chinese overwhelmed the Mongols. (SFC, 2/9/06, p.E4) 1554 nend Nov 30, Sir Philip Sidney (d.1586), English poet, statesman and soldier was born. (HN, 11/30/98)(MC, 11/30/01) 1554 nend Nov 30, England reconciled with Pope Julius III. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18)(MC, 11/30/01) 1554 nend Benvenuto Cellini completed his masterpiece, the bronze Perseus. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1554 nend Palladio wrote "L?Antichita," a guidebook to Roman antiquities. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1554 nend Jorg Wickram, German writer, wrote the first German romance novel: "Der Goldfaden." (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1554 nend Palestrina composed his first book of Masses. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1554 nend John Knox fled to Geneva where he met Jean Calvin. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1554 nend Henry II of France invaded the Netherlands. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1554 nend Dragut, leader of the Mediterranean pirates, recaptured Mehedia, Tunisia, from the Spaniards. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1554 nend At London?s Guildhall Sir Nicholas Throckmorton was tried and found not guilty. The verdict was deemed unsatisfactory and the whole jury was carted off to prison and released after paying heavy fines. [see Nov, 1583] (SFC, 8/11/96, p.T7) 1554 nend Fernelius, French physician, codified the medicine of the Renaissance. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1554 nend Flemish hop growers emigrated to England. (TL-MB, 1988, p.18) 1554 nend Sao Paulo in Brazil was founded by the Jesuits with a mission school. (USA Today, OW, 4/22/96, p.3)(Hem, 8/96, p.67) 1554 1562 Pierre Eskrich (aka Pierre DuVase), a French illustrator, produced a collection of 218 bird paintings. He had fled Lyon to Geneva to escape the Edict of Chateaubriand (1551), a crackdown on Protestantism in France. (SFC, 3/17/06, p.E7) 1555 nend Feb 9, John Hooper, the deprived Bishop of Gloucester, was burned for heresy. (MC, 2/9/02) 1555 nend Mar 23, Julius III (67), born as Giovanni M. del Monte, Pope (1550-55), died. He was succeeded by Marcellus II and then by Paul IV. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19)(SS, 3/23/02) 1555 nend May 25, Gemma Frisius (46), Frisian geographer, astronomer, died. (SC, 5/25/02) 1555 nend Sep 8, Thomas Villanova, Spanish saint and archbishop of Valencia, died. (MC, 9/8/01) 1555 nend Sep 25, The Religious Peace of Augsburg compromised differences between Catholics and Protestants in the German states. Each prince could chose which religion would be followed in his realm. Lutheranism was acknowledged by the Holy Roman Empire. The Peace of Augsburg was the first permanent legal basis for the existence of Lutheranism as well as Catholicism in Germany. It was promulgated as part of the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire. Charles V's Augsburg Interim of 1548 was a temporary doctrinal agreement between German Catholics and Protestants that was overthrown in 1552. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19)(PCh, 1992, p.189)(HNQ, 2/8/99) 1555 nend Sep 30, Oxford Bishop Nicholas Ridley was sentenced to death as a heretic. (MC, 9/30/01) 1555 nend Oct 16, Hugh Latimer (80), Protestant royal chaplain of Anne Boleyn, was burned at stake at Oxford for heresy under the Catholic rule of Mary, half-sister of Edward VI. (WSJ, 9/12/96, p.A14)(www.flickr.com/photos/60861613@N00/3859836193/) 1555 nend Oct 16, Nicholas Ridley, Protestant English theologian and bishop of Rochester, was burned at Oxford for heresy under the Catholic rule of Mary, half-sister of Edward VI. (WSJ, 9/12/96, p.A14)(www.flickr.com/photos/60861613@N00/3859836193/) 1555 nend Oct 21, English parliament refused to recognize Philip of Spain as king. (MC, 10/21/01) 1555 nend Oct 25, Emperor Charles V put his son Philip II in charge of Netherlands, Naples, and Milan. (MC, 10/25/01) 1555 nend Nov 21, Georgius Bauer (b.1494), German mineralogist (Agricola), died. His full description of mining, smelting, and chemistry in "De Re Metallica," was published in Basel in 1556. In it he described the hazards of mining, including occupational diseases such as "difficulty in breathing and destruction of the lungs." It was still the major source on the state of technology in the Middle Ages. In 1912 it was translated by Herbert Hoover, mining engineer and future US president. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25)(WSJ, 7/29/06,p.P8)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Agricola) 1555 nend Fr. Bernardino de Sahagun wrote down "The War of Conquest: The Aztec?s Own Story." (ON, 10/00, p.5) 1555 nend England?s Parliament established the Company of Watermen and Lightermen to regulate the Thames boating industry. (AP, 1/9/07) 1555 nend In England Queen Mary began a campaign of burnings and hangings during which over 300 people were executed for refusing to abandon their Protestant faith. (ON, 5/00, p.5) 1555 nend Michelangelo began work on his Rondanini Pieta with a modern expressionistic quality. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1555 nend The first Aztec dictionary was published. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1555 nend Pierre Belon, French naturalist, published the first comprehensive study of birds in "L?Histoire de la nature des oyseaux." (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1555 nend Guillaume Rondelet wrote a classic taxonomy of fishes. His categories, based on general shape and habitation, precluded any deep insight into a genealogical basis of historical order. (NH, 9/97, p.15) 1555 nend The first Jesuit play was performed in Vienna. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1555 nend Balthazar de Beaujoyeoux, violinist, introduced several fellow violinists to the court of Catherine de Medici. Under his influence the lute was replaced by the violin as France?s most popular instrument. (SFC, 12/29/96, zone 1 p.2) 1555 nend Siena was incorporated with Florence. When the Florentine army defeated the Siennese a moratorium was put on further development in the walled city. (EWH, p.426)(SFEC, 6/29/97, p.T11) 1555 nend Japanese pirates besieged Nanking. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1555 nend The Ottoman Empire continued its conquest of the North African coast. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1555 1600 Richard Hooker, architect of Anglicanism. The Anglican Communion emerged from the conflicts between Henry VIII and Pope Clement VII over Henry?s marriage to Anne Boleyn. (SFC, 7/21/97, p.A11) 1555 1636 Tung Ch?i-ch?ang, painter and master of calligraphy. He also mastered the play of void and presence at the heart of Chinese ink painting. (SFC, 10/14/96, p.B3) 1556 nend Feb 5, Henry II of France and Philip of Spain signed the truce of Vaucelles. (HN, 2/5/99) 1556 nend Feb 14, Archbishop Thomas Cranmer was declared a heretic. (MC, 2/14/02) 1556 nend Feb 2, The worst earthquake in history devastated China?s Shanxi Province, killing 830,000 people. (PCh, 1992, p.190)(www.kepu.ac.cn/english/quake/ruins/rns03.html) 1556 nend Mar 21, Former Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer (66), scheduled to denounce his errors and be burned at the stake, denounced his own confessions and was hustled off to be burned. He then put forth his hand and declared: "Forasmuch as my hand offended, writing contrary to my heart, my hand shall first be punished." (WSJ, 9/12/96, p.A14)(MC, 3/21/02) 1556 nend Mar 22, Cardinal Reginald Pole became archbishop of Canterbury. (MC, 3/22/02) 1556 nend Mar 28, Philip II, Charles V's son, was crowned king of Spain. [see Sep 12] (MC, 3/28/02) 1556 nend Apr 13, Portuguese Marranos who reverted back to Judaism were burned alive by order of Pope. (MC, 4/13/02) 1556 nend Jun 16, Pedro Fernandes Sardinha, The 1st bishop of Bahia, was shipwrecked between the rivers São Francisco and Cururipu and murdered by the Indians. The Caytes of the Brazilian coast ate the crews of every wrecked Portuguese ship they found. They ate the first Bishop of Bahia, two Canons, the Procurator of the Royal Portuguese Treasury, 2 pregnant women and several children. (WSJ, 7/8/96,p.A9)(www.newadvent.org/cathen/13466a.htm) 1556 nend Jul 31, St. Ignatius of Loyola (65), founder of the Society of Jesus, the Jesuit order of Catholic priests and brothers, died in Rome. (AP, 7/31/97)(MC, 7/31/02) 1556 nend Sep 9, Pope Paul IV refused to crown Ferdinand of Austria emperor. (MC, 9/9/01) 1556 nend Sep 12, Emperor Charles resigned and his brother Ferdinand of Austria took over. Charles V resigned and ended his days in a Spanish monastery. He bequeathed Spain to his son Philip II, and the Holy Roman Empire to his brother Ferdinand I. A few years of peace in Europe followed. The event formed the basis for a later historical play by Friedrich Schiller, which was in turn used by Verdi for his opera "Don Carlos." (TL-MB, 1988, p.19)(WSJ, 3/21/96, p.A-12)(MC, 9/12/01) 1556 nend Sep 13, Charles V and Maria of Hungary marched into Spain. (MC, 9/13/01) 1556 nend Nov 5, The Emperor Akbar defeated the Hindus in a 2nd Battle at Panipat and secured control of the Mogul Empire. Akbar the Great became Mogul Emperor of India and defeated the Afghans at the Battle of Panipat in the Punjab. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19)(HN, 11/5/98) 1556 nend Nov 10, The Englishman Richard Chancellor was drowned off Aberdeenshire on his return from a second voyage to Russia. (HN, 11/10/98) 1556 nend Robert Recorde, English mathematician, wrote a navigational guide to China, "The Castle of Knowledge." He was the first person to use the "=" sign. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1556 nend Orlando di Lasso, Belgian composer, composed his first book of motets, among the earliest of 2,000 compositions. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1556 nend Suleiman?s mosque in Constantinople was completed after six years of work. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1556 nend The Jesuit order was established in Prague. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1556 nend In India Humayun fell down the library steps in Purana Qila and died. This put his 14-year-old son, Akbar, on the throne. (HT, 4/97, p.22) 1556 nend The first tobacco seeds from Brazil reached Europe, brought back by Andre Thevet, a Franciscan monk. [see Mar 5, 1558, 1561] (TL-MB, 1988, p.19)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1556 nend Philip II of Spain made the Duke of Alba his chief military and political advisor. (WSJ, 7/1/04, p.D8) 1556 1605 The Mughal Empire (Northern India) prospered under Akbar. (ATC, p.1161) 1556 1605 Akbar the Great during his reign built a walled Mughal fort at Hund in northern Pakistan, that now encloses a modern village. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.C) 1556 1620 Adriaen de Vries, Dutch sculptor. He was born in The Hague and worked in Florence under the sculptor Giovanni Bologna. His work included "Juggling Man" (c1610-1615), a bust of Emp. Rudolf II (1603), and the Neptune Fountain (1615-1618). (WSJ, 1/6/98, p.A20)(WSJ, 12/7/99, p.A24) 1557 nend Feb 27, The 1st Russian Embassy opened in London. (MC, 2/27/02) 1557 nend Jul 16, Anne of Cleves (41), queen of England and 4th wife of Henry VIII, died. (MC, 7/16/02) 1557 nend Aug 10, Spanish and English troops in alliance defeated the French at the Battle of St. Quentin (San Quintino). French troops were defeated by Emanuele Filiberto's Spanish army at St. Quentin, France. (HN, 8/10/98)(www.niaf.org/news/news_italy/news_italy_mar2003.asp) 1557 nend Sep 1, Jacques Cartier, French explorer, died in St. Malo, France. (www.plpsd.mb.ca/amhs/history/cartier.html) 1557 nend Sep 11, Catholic & Lutheran theology were debated in Worms. Catholics and Protestants met in Worms in a final effort to achieve reconciliation. (MC, 9/11/01)(TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1557 nend Dec 3, The 1st Covenant of Scottish protestants formed. (MC, 12/3/01) 1557 nend Pieter Breughel the Elder created his painting "The Drunkard Pushed Into the Pigsty." (WSJ, 9/6/02, p.W14) 1557 nend The first English play to be censored, "The Sea-Sack Full of Newes," was produced at Aldgate in London, and was promptly suppressed. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1557 nend William Whittingham translated the Geneva Testament into English. It was divided into verses and printed in Roman type. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1557 nend Robert Recorde published the first English treatise on algebra, "Whetstone of Witte." (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1557 nend The world?s first sovereign bankruptcy took place following the indulgence of Genoese lenders for Spain?s Philip II expensive taste for warfare. (Econ, 9/23/06, p.11) 1557 nend The influx of New World silver caused bankruptcies in France and Spain. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1557 nend The Portuguese settled in Macao, on the coast of southern China, and established trading factories. Trade agreement gave the Portuguese a virtual monopoly for 300 years on maritime commerce China and Europe. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19)(SFEC, 5/16/99, p.A24)(SFEM, 10/10/99, p.16) 1557 nend The Russians invaded Poland and started the 14-year Livonian War of succession in the Baltic lands held by the Teutonic Knights. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1557 nend The Spanish enslaved local Indians around Guanajuato, Mexico, to work a silver mine. A major vein was struck in 1768. (SSFC, 5/4/03, p.D7) 1557 nend John III (the Pious) of Portugal, who began the Inquisition, died. He was succeeded by his three-year old grandson, Sebastian. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1557 nend Olaus Magnus (b.1490), Swedish mapmaker, died. He guessed at the location of the northern land of Thule mentioned by Greek explorer Pytheas (c380-310BC). (WSJ, 3/4/06, p.P9) 1558 nend Jan 6, The French seized the British held port of Calais. (HN, 1/6/99) 1558 nend Jan 7, The French, under the Duke of Guise, finally took the port of Calais from the English. (HN, 1/7/99) 1558 nend Mar 5, Smoking tobacco was introduced in Europe by Francisco Fernandes. [see 1556] (MC, 3/5/02) 1558 nend Apr 24, Mary, Queen of Scotland, married the French dauphin, Francis. (HN, 4/24/98) 1558 nend Apr 26, Jean Francois Fernel, French physician, died. (MC, 4/26/02) 1558 nend Jun 22, The French took the French town of Thioville from the English. (HN, 6/22/98) 1558 nend Jul 13, Led by the court of Egmont, the Spanish army defeated the French at Gravelines, France. (HN, 7/13/98) 1558 nend Jul 23, Battle at Grevelingen: Gen. Lamoral van Egmont beat France. [see Jul 13] (MC, 7/23/02) 1558 nend Aug 4, 1st printing of Zohar (Jewish Kabala). (MC, 8/4/02) 1558 nend Sep 21, Charles V (b.1500), King of Spain (Carlos I), former Holy Roman Emperor (1519-1556), died. In 2006 lab tests showed that Charles suffered from gout. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19)(http://tinyurl.com/kq9sq) 1558 nend Nov 6, Thomas Kyd, English dramatist (Spanish Tragedy), was born. (MC, 11/6/01) 1558 nend Nov 17, Queen Mary (1553-58), Mary I Tudor (42), "Bloody Mary", died. Over 280 Protestants were burned under her rule. Elizabeth I ascended the English throne. With the reign of Elizabeth I a new statement of doctrine of the Church of England was needed. The Church of England was reestablished. In 1996 Carolly Erickson authored "Bloody Mary." (AP, 11/17/97)(HNQ, 10/20/98)(HN, 11/17/98)(ON, 5/00, p.5)(Econ,9/18/10, p.72) 1558 nend Nov 17, Reginald Pole (58), English cardinal, scholar, "heretic", died. (MC, 11/17/01) 1558 nend Hendrick Goltzius (d.1617), Dutch Master painter, was born. (WSJ, 8/14/03, p.D8) 1558 nend John Knox authored "The First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women." He was referring to the governments of Mary Tudor in England and Mary, Queen of the Scots. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19)(Econ, 8/6/11, p.14) 1558 nend Giovanni Battista della Porta, Italian artist, published his "Natural Magic," the first published account of the use of the camera obscura as an aid to artists. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1558 nend The religious climate in England changed for the better and Protestants returned home from Geneva and Zurich. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1558 nend The Hamburg exchange was founded. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1558 nend The Univ. of Jena was founded. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1558 nend Mary Queen of Scots married the Dauphin, who later became Francis II of France. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1558 nend Ferdinand I became Holy Roman Emperor without being crowned by the Pope. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1558 nend Thomas Gresham (1519-1579, English financier, put forward proposals for reforming the English currency. He formulated Gresham?s Law, a hypothesis that bad money drives good money out of circulation. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19)(WUD, 1994, p.622) 1558 nend John Dee, English mathematician, invented two compasses for master pilots. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1558 1637 Hon?ami Koetsu, Japanese art collector, calligrapher and ceramist in Kyoto. (WSJ, 9/21/00, p.A24) 1559 nend Jan 15, England's Queen Elizabeth I was crowned in Westminster Abbey and Lord Dudley soon became her favorite. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19)(AP, 1/15/98) 1559 nend Jan 29, Thomas Pope (~52), English politician, benefactor, died. (MC, 1/29/02) 1559 nend Feb 16, Pope Paul IV called for the overthrow of sovereigns supporting heresy. (MC, 2/16/02) 1559 nend Mar 14, Jacques d'Auchy, Walloon Baptist merchant, was executed. (MC, 3/14/02) 1559 nend Apr 3, Philip II of Spain and Henry II of France signed the peace of Cateau-Cambresis, ending a long series of wars between the Hapsburg and Valois dynasties. Turin was chosen as the new capital of Savoy state under Duke Emanuele Filiberto. (HN, 4/3/99)(www.world66.com/europe/italy/piemonte/turin/history) 1559 nend May 8, An act of supremacy defined Queen Elizabeth I as the supreme governor of the church of England. Soon after Elizabeth I took power in 1558 some 200 Catholics were strangled and disemboweled. (HN, 5/8/99)(Econ, 9/18/10, p.72) 1559 nend May 10, Scottish Protestants under John Knox rose against Queen Mary. Knox preached an inflammatory sermon at Perth and incited the Protestants lords to rise. They captured Edinburgh and sacked religious houses in other cities. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19)(MC, 5/10/02) 1559 nend May 13, Excavated corpse of heretic David Jorisz was burned in Basel. (MC, 5/13/02) 1559 nend Jul 10, Henry II of France died following a wound to the head by a tournament lance on June 30. This allegedly fulfilled a prophecy by Nostradamus. Gabriel de Lorges de Montgomery, captain of the Scottish Guards, accidentally killed Henry II as they jousted in front of the Hotel Royal des Tournelles. The widowed queen, Catherine de Medicis (d.1589), had the royal residence demolished. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19)(SFEM, 3/15/98, p.16) 1559 nend Aug 14, Spanish explorer de Luna entered Pensacola Bay, Florida. (HN, 8/14/98) 1559 nend Aug 22, Spanish archbishop Bartholome de Carranza was arrested as a heretic. (MC, 8/22/02) 1559 nend Sep 19, 5 Spanish ships sank in a storm off Tampa. About 600 died. (MC, 9/19/01) 1559 nend Titian began his work "Europa." It was completed in 1562. In 1896 it was acquired by Isabella Stewart Gardner. [see 1562] (WSJ, 3/9/98, p.A16) 1559 nend The Elizabethan Prayer Book was used for the first time. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1559 nend Wen Zhengming (b.1470), Chinese artist, died. He was later considered the Michelangelo of Chinese art. Most of his work, composites of poetry, calligraphy and painting, was done to repay obligations. (Econ, 8/21/04, p.70) 1559 nend The first synod of Calvinist, or Reformed, churches, met in Paris. The common name given to French Protestants during the Reformation, Huguenots, came into use soon thereafter. They formed a loose national organization as they won converts among many French nobles. This led to a series of wars as Roman Catholic nobles feared the growth of Huguenot power. [see 1572] (HNQ, 10/8/00) 1559 nend Realdo Columbus, Italian anatomist, advanced the understanding of human blood circulation. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1559 nend The Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis ended the war between the late Holy Roman Emp. and France, and between England and France. Calais was to remain French for eight years and then to be restored to England. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1559 nend The Escorial, an enormous palace built on a grid plan for Philip II, was begun in Madrid. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1559 nend Mateo Prunes, a Majorcan mapmaker, created his portolan chart of the Mediterranean and Black seas on the skin of a single sheep. Portolan charts are navigational maps based on realistic descriptions of harbors and coasts. (SSFC, 5/23/10, p.A15) 1559 nend 1,500 Spanish settlers sailed from Vera Cruz to found a settlement on Pensacola Bay in Florida, but were repulsed by hostile Indians. A Spanish settlement was founded in the area of Pensacola, Fl., but its exact location is a mystery. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19)(AP, 3/24/06) 1559 nend King Christian of Denmark and Norway died after almost 24 years on the throne. He was succeeded by his son Frederick II. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1559 nend The Geneva Academy was founded. It became a Univ. in 1873. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1559 nend Pope Paul IV issued the Catholic Church's 1st Index Librorum Prohibitorum. The Index of Forbidden Books was maintained until 1966. (SFC, 1/21/04, p.D2) 1559 nend Pope Paul IV died and was succeeded by Pius IV. (TL-MB, 1988, p.19) 1560 nend Jan 31, Spanish king Philip II married Elisabeth de Valois. (MC, 1/31/02) 1560 nend Aug 10, Hieronymus Praetorius, German composer, was born. (MC, 8/10/02) 1560 nend Aug 21, Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) became interested in astronomy. (SC, 8/21/02) 1560 nend Sep 16, Arnaud du Tilh, who had confessed to impersonating Martin Guerre, was hanged in front of Guerre?s house in Artigat, France. In 1941 Janet Lewis (1899-1998) published "The Wife of Martin Guerre," a historical novel based on Guerre. The story was turned into an opera in 1961 with music by William Bergsma. In 1984 a French film version was released "The Return of Martin Guere." An American version, "Somersby," was made in 1993 set during the Civil War. (SFC, 12/5/98, p.C2)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Guerre) 1560 nend Hsu Wei wrote the first classic Chinese novel, "Ching Ping Mei." (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1560 nend Cardinal Mendoza, archbishop of Burgos, wrote "Tizon de la nobleza de Espana," (the Blot on the Spanish Nobility). He claimed that virtually the entire aristocracy had Jewish or Moorish blood to point to the folly of the Inquisition?s campaign to prevent anyone with Jewish blood from securing a position of authority under the crown. (WSJ, 4/16/98, p.A20) 1560 nend The Geneva Bible, an English translation, was published. (WSJ, 4/4/01, p.A18) 1560 nend Giorgio Vasari?s commission for the Uffizi Palace took shape in Florence. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1560 nend Anika Stroganoff began construction of the Annunciation Cathedral in Solvychegodsk, Russia. His grandchildren completed it in 1584. (WSJ, 9/7/00, p.A24) 1560 nend The Church of Scotland was founded. The Presbyterian branch of Protestant Christianity was started by John Knox. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20)(SFC, 7/21/97, p.A11) 1560 nend The beginnings of Puritanism appear in England. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1560 nend Nicolas Gombert (b.~1495), Flemish composer, died about this time. He was one of the most famous and influential composers between Josquin Desprez and Palestrina, and best represents the fully-developed, complex polyphonic style of this period in music history. (SFC, 6/9/09, p.E2)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Gombert) 1560 nend The Huguenot conspiracy of Amboise attempted without success to overthrow the Guises, a powerful French ducal line that championed the Catholic cause. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1560 nend In Japan a foundry began making pots and developed to become Nabeya B-tech Kaisha (NBK), a 21st century maker of high-precision machine parts. (Econ, 3/8/08, p.72) 1560 nend Turkish galleys routed a Spanish fleet off of Tripoli. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1560 nend Giovannin Battista della Porta founded the first scientific society in Naples. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1560 nend King Francis II of France died and was succeeded by Charles IX. Francis? widow, Mary Queen of Scots decided to return to Scotland. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1560 nend King Gustavus I of Sweden died. He was succeeded by Eric XIV, who courted Queen Elizabeth. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1560 nend The first blacks set foot in Brazil. (SFC, 9/21/96, p.A8) 1560 1609 Oswald Croll, the inventor of the Unguentum Sympatheticum Crolii, a salve for both weapons and wounds. (NH, 6/00, p.28) 1561 nend Jan 22, Sir Francis Bacon (e.1626), English philosopher, was born in London. He was a statesman and essayist. Educated at Cambridge, he served under Queen Elizabeth and King James I. "He wrote the "Essays" throughout his life and these are filled with pithy wisdom and homely charm. His "Advancement of Learning" and "Novum Organon" constitute his most important contribution to knowledge. He held for the inductive method of learning as opposed to the deductive method. The deductive method, according to Bacon, failed because the seeker after knowledge deduced from certain intuitive assumptions conclusions about the real world that might have been logically correct but were not true to nature. The inductive method succeeded because the student of nature ascended by what Bacon called a "ladder of intellect" from the most careful and indeed humble observations to general conclusions that had to be true because their foundation was experience. "If a man will begin in certainties he shall end in doubts; but if he will be content to begin in doubts he shall end in certainties." In 1998 Perez Zagorin published "Francis Bacon." (V.D.-H.K.p.140)(AP, 5/1/98)(HN, 1/22/99) 1 nend ) The idols of the tribe, i.e. intellectual faults that are common to all human beings (the universal tendency to oversimplify). 2) The idols of the cave, i.e. errors caused by individual idiosyncrasies. 3) The idols of the marketplace, caused by the language itself. 4) The idols of the theater, i.e. philosophical systems that stood in the way of the patient, humble search for truth." (V.D.-H.K.p.140) 1561 nend Jan 28, The Edict of Orleans suspended the persecution of French Huguenots. (MC, 1/28/02) 1561 nend Mar 29, Santorio Sanctorius was born in Trieste. He became a physician, and was burned at stake as a heretic. (MC, 3/29/02) 1561 nend May, In Montpellier, France, a Calvinist stronghold, the Catholics marched in protest against the Calvinists chanting "We shall dance in spite of the Huguenots." Wars of religion began to rip France apart and lasted for the next 6 decades. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R22) 1561 nend Aug 19, Mary Queen of Scots arrived in Leith, Scotland, to assume the throne after spending 13 years in France. (MC, 8/19/02) 1561 nend Aug 29, Bartholomeus Pitiscus, German mathematician (Trigonometry), was born. (MC, 8/29/01) 1561 nend Sep 20, Queen Elizabeth of England signed a treaty at Hamptan Court with French Huguenot leader Louis de Bourbon, the Prince of Conde. The English would occupy Le Harve in return for aiding Bourbon against the Catholics of France. (HN, 9/20/98) 1561 nend Sep 23, Philip II of Spain gave orders to halt colonizing efforts in Florida. The French took advantage of the opportunity. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20)(HN, 9/23/98) 1561 nend Dec 9, Edwin Sandys, a founder of the Virginia colony, was born. (MC, 12/9/01) 1561 nend Ruy Lopez wrote the first manual of chess instruction. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1561 nend Thomas Sackville and Thomas Norton, English dramatists, wrote the first known English tragedy, "Gorboduc or Ferrex and Porrex." It marked the first use of blank verse in the English theater. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1561 nend Gabriel Fallopius, wrote one of the first studies in anatomy in "Observationes anatomicae." (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1561 nend Santa Cruz (Bolivia) was founded by the Spaniard Nuflo de Chavez as a bulwark against Portuguese expansion. (WSJ, 12/6/96, p.A12) 1561 nend Portuguese monks at Goa introduced printing to India. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1561 nend The Order of the Teutonic Knights in the Baltic States was secularized. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1561 nend The first Calvinist refugees from Flanders, clothworkers, settled in Sandwich, England. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1561 nend The Edict of Orleans suspended the persecution of the Huguenots. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1561 nend A great hurricane ravaged Mexico?s Yucatan peninsula. (AM, 7/05, p.49) 1561 nend The Basilica of St. Basil in Moscow, begun in 1555, was completed under the reign of Ivan the Terrible to celebrate the conquest of the Khanate of Kazan. (WSJ, 9/16/06,p.P18)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Basil's_Cathedral) 1561 nend Jean Nicot, French ambassador to Lisbon, sent tobacco seeds and powdered leaves back to France. The word "nicotine" is derived from his name. French diplomat Jean Nicot introduced the use of tobacco to the French court in the 1560s. Tobacco was cultivated and smoked by American Indians long before the arrival of Columbus to the New World. By the 1530s Spanish settlers were cultivating wild tobacco (N. rustica) and exporting it to Europe from the West Indies. Sir Walter Raleigh popularized smoking tobacco in England during the late 1500s. Nicotine, an addictive alkaloid found in tobacco and certain other plants, is named for Nicot, as is the genus name for the tobacco plant, Nicotiana. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20)(HNQ, 1/24/00) 1561 nend Philip II moved his court to Madrid, which was but a village until this time, and proclaimed Madrid as capital of Spain. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20)(SFEC, 3/22/98, p.T11) 1561 nend Simon Bening, Flemish painter, died. He was known as the best illuminator of his time. (Econ, 1/3/04, p.62) 1561 1598 In Merida, Mexico, the Catedral de San Idelfonso was constructed on the site of a Mayan temple by Spanish conquistadors. It was designed as a stronghold in their struggle to subdue the Maya. (SSFC, 5/6/01, p.T6) 1562 nend Jan 17, French Protestant Huguenots were recognized under the Edict of St. Germain. (AP, 1/17/98) 1562 nend Feb 5, Michael Radvila the Black accepted homage of G. Ketler, Duke of Couronia, to Sigismund August. (LHC, 2/5/03) 1562 nend Mar 1, Blood bath at Vassy; General de Guise allowed the murder of 1200 Huguenots. The Guises massacred more than 60 Huguenots at a Protestant service at Vassy and sparked off The Wars of Religion in France. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20)(SC, 3/1/02) 1562 nend Mar 4,The Archdiocese of Riga was attached to Lithuania. (LHC, 3/4/03) 1562 nend Mar 9, Kissing in public was banned in Naples and made punishable by death. (MC, 3/9/02) 1562 nend May 1, The 1st French colonists in the US, a 5-vessel Huguenot expedition led by Jean Ribault (1520-1565), landed in Florida. He continued north and established a colony named Charlesfort at Parris Island, SC. (Arch, 1/05, p.47)(www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0841765.html) 1562 nend Jul 23, Gottfried, Gotz von Berlichingen, German Knight of kingdom, died. (MC, 7/23/02) 1562 nend Sep 17, The Council of Trent took ecclesiastical canon. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) demanded that clarity replace embellishment and display in church music. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20)(MC, 9/17/01) 1562 nend Oct 9, Gabriel Fallopius, anatomist (discovered fallopian tubes), died in Modena, Italy. (MC, 10/9/01) 1562 nend Nov 25, Lope Felix de Vega, dramatist and poet (Angelica, Arcadia), was born in Madrid, Spain. (MC, 11/25/01) 1562 nend Dec 19, The French Wars of Religion between the Huguenots and the Catholics began with the Battle of Dreux. (HN, 12/19/98) 1562 nend Titian completed the "Rape of Europa" for Philip II of Spain. It is the most celebrated of his erotic mythologies. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20)(WSJ, 3/9/98, p.A16) 1562 nend William Turner published a survey of spas in Europe. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1562 nend Gasparo Bartolotti, Italian violin maker, began his career. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1562 nend William Cecil built the first conservatory in England to protect his subtropical plants and trees. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1562 nend A Spanish priest wrote that the well at Chichen Itza was a place where Mayas had made offerings to their gods. (ON, 5/02, p.6) 1562 nend The Univ. of Lille was founded. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) c 1562 nend Austrian Archduke Maximilian began breeding Spanish Andalusian horses. (SFC, 7/6/02, p.D2) 1562 nend Milled coins were first introduced in England. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1562 nend The Huguenot leader Louis I de Bourbon signed the Treaty of Hampton Court with Queen Elizabeth that called for the English troops to occupy Dieppe and La Havre. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1562 nend In Korea Im Kkok-chong, a righteous outlaw who rose up against the greedy officials and distributed it to the poor, was caught and beheaded. His chivalry and revolutionary ideas captured the admiration of the people and inspired the popular novel: ?Hong Kil-tong chon, the Tale of Hong Kil-Tong,? written in the early 17th century by the scholar Ho Kyun. (www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/history/early_choson_period.htm) 1562 nend Emp. Ferdinand I signed an 8-year truce with Suleiman I of Turkey. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1562 nend John Hawkins, English naval commander, removed 300 African slaves from a Portuguese ship bound for Brazil. This marked the start of the English participation in the slave trade. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1563 nend Feb 15, Ivan IV led Russian forces in the takeover of Polocka, defended under the leadership of Stanislav Davaina. (LHC, 2/15/03) 1563 nend Feb 18, Huguenot Jean Poltrot de Merde shot French Gen. Francois De Guise (44). (MC, 2/18/02) 1563 nend Feb 27, William Byrd, English composer, was appointed organist at Lincoln Cathedral. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20)(MC, 2/27/02) 1563 nend Mar 19, The Peace of Amboise granted Rights for Huguenots. (MC, 3/19/02) 1563 nend Apr 30, Jews were expelled from France by order of Charles VI. (HN, 4/30/98) 1563 nend Jun 1, Robert Cecil, Earl of Salisbury, Chief Minister of England, was born. (HN, 6/1/98) 1563 nend Oct 13, Francesco Caracciolo, Italian religious founder and saint (Caracciolini), was born. (MC, 10/13/01) 1563 nend Pieter Breughel the Elder, great Flemish artist, painted the "Tower of Babel." [see 1568-1625] (TL-MB, 1988, p.20)(WSJ, 2/18/00, p.W12) 1563 nend The Council of Trent ordered a repainting of the "The Last Judgement" by Michelangelo to cloth many of the frescos' previously nude figures. (SFC, 1/21/04, p.D2) 1563 nend Foxe?s "Book of Martyrs" appeared in its first illustrated English edition. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1563 nend The 1563 Canterbury Convocation drastically revised the Forty-two Articles of the Church of England. The 39 Articles combined Protestant doctrine with Catholic church organization to establish the Church of England. Dissenting groups included the Puritans, Separatists, and Presbyterians. [see 1571] (TL-MB, 1988, p.20)(HNQ, 10/20/98) 1563 nend The Jesuits lead the Counter-Reformation from Bavaria. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1563 nend In Turin the Istituto Bancario San Paolo di Torino was established with a system of ownership under a charitable foundation under the control of local authorities. The system held into 1997. (WSJ, 3/24/97, p.A14) 1563 nend Francesco Salviati (b.1510), Italian Mannerist painter from Florence, died. His work included frescoes on the walls of the Palazzo Farnese. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_de%27_Rossi_%28Il_Salviati%29) 1563 nend Maximilian II was elected King of Hungary. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1563 nend Frederick II of Denmark allied to Poland, Lubeck, and Saxony against Sweden to start the Seven Years? War. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1563 nend The Peace of Amboise ended the First War of Religion in France. Huguenots gained limited tolerance. The French regain La Havre from the English. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1563 nend Gerardus Mercator, Flemish geographer, produced the first detailed map of Lorraine. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1563 1727 In Prestonpans, Scotland, 81 people were convicted and executed for being witches. In 2004 they were officially pardoned. (WSJ, 9/15/06,p.A10)(http://forejustice.org/wc/sp/scottish_pardons.html) 1564 nend Feb 15, Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei (d.1642) was born in Pisa. He was the first modern man to understand that mathematics can truly describe the physical world. He said: "The Book of Nature is written in mathematics." [V.D.-H.K. dated his death to 1646] He ran afoul of the Catholic Church for defending the Copernican system, which maintained that the earth revolves around the sun. He died in Acetri, near Florence. (V.D.-H.K.p.1200) (TNG,Klein,p.22) (AHD,p.539) (CFA, '96,Vol 179,p.40) (AP, 2/15/98) (HN, 2/15/99) 1564 nend Feb 18, Michelangelo (b.1475), painter and sculptor, died in Rome. In 1996 George Bull wrote a biography and in 1999 James H. Beck published "Three Worlds of Michelangelo." In 2003 Ross King authored "Michelangelo & the Pope?s Ceiling." In 2005 James Hall authored ?Michelangelo and the Reinvention of the Human Body.? (AP, 2/18/98)(SFEC, 3/14/99, BR p.6)(SSFC, 1/26/03, p.M3)(SSFC,6/26/05, p.C5) 1564 nend Feb 26, Christopher Marlowe, English, poet, dramatist, was baptized. His work included "Doctor Faustus," "Tamburlaine," "The Jew of Malta," and other plays. He was murdered at 29 in a Deptford tavern and was suspected of being a spy to the Continent on behalf of the Crown. In 1993 Anthony Burgess had a novel published posthumously about Marlowe titled "A Dead Man in Deptford." (WSJ, 4/28/95, p.A-8)(DTnet, 6/1/97)(SC, 2/26/02) 1564 nend Mar 9, David Fabricius, astronomer (discovered variable star), was born in Essen, Germany. (MC, 3/9/02) 1564 nend Mar 13, Zigmantas Augustas gave over to Poland his rights to Lithuania and supported the Warsaw parliament recess and summons for the 1st representatives on talks regarding union. (LHC, 3/13/03) 1564 nend Apr 23, William Shakespeare (1564-1616), English poet and playwright of the Elizabethan and early Jacobin periods, was born and died on the same date 52 years later. He added more than 1,700 word to the English language. He was the son of an illiterate glove maker who left school at 12: "Be not afraid of greatness: some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon them." -- from Act II, Scene 5 of "Twelfth Night." From "Henry V," "Once more unto the breach, dear friends, once more." (CFA, '96, p.44)(WSJ, 4/22/96, p.a-23)(AP, 4/23/97)(HN, 4/23/99) 1564 nend Apr 26, William Shakespeare was baptized. (HN, 4/26/98) 1564 nend May 27, John Calvin (54), one of the dominant figures of the Protestant Reformation, died in Geneva. (HN, 5/27/99)(MC, 5/27/02) 1564 nend Jun 22, A 3-ship French expedition under René de Laudonnière arrived in Florida and built Fort Caroline. (Arch, 1/05, p.47)(www.cla.sc.edu/sciaa/staff/depratterc/chas2.html) 1564 nend Jul 25, Maximillian II became emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. (HN, 7/25/98) 1564 nend Aug 18, Spanish king Philip II joined the Council of Trent. (MC, 8/18/02) 1564 nend Sep 13, On the verge of attacking Pedro Menendez's Spanish settlement at San Agostin, Florida, Jean Ribault's French fleet was scattered by a devastating storm. (HN, 9/13/98) 1564 nend Oct 3, Christophorus Fabritius, [Christoffel Smit], Calvinist vicar, was burned at the stake. (MC, 10/3/01) 1564 nend Oct 15, Andreas Vesalius (b.1514), Flemish anatomist, died. Andreas Vesalius, the father of modern anatomy, was forced by the Inquisition to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. He disappeared during the voyage. In 1543 he authored of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On the Fabric of the Human Body). (TL-MB, 1988, p.20)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius) 1564 nend Oct 18, John Hawkins began his 2nd trip to America. (MC, 10/18/01) 1564 nend Dec 31, Willem of Orange demanded freedom of conscience and religion. (MC, 12/31/01) 1564 nend The Peace of Troyes ended the war between England and France with England renouncing its claim to Calais for a substantial payment. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1564 nend Emp. Ferdinand I died. He was succeeded by his son Maximilian II. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1564 nend Ivan IV was forced by the Russian nobles (Boyars) to withdraw from Moscow. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1564 nend Spaniards occupied the Philippines and built Manila. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1564 nend The Council of Trent ended with the Pope promulgating profesio fidei, the final definition of Roman Catholicism. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1564 nend The Counter-Reformation extended to Poland. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1564 nend John Calvin, Protestant leader, died in Geneva. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1564 nend Andrea Amati (d.1577), Italian violin maker, made one of the first of his famous violins in Cremona. Stradivari was one of his students. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20)(AMNHDT, 5/98)(Econ, 7/30/05, p.78) 1564 nend The first horse-drawn coach was introduced to England from Holland. (TL-MB, 1988, p.20) 1564 nend France adopted the reformed calendar and shifted the new year from April to Jan. Some didn't like the change and were called April fools. (SFEC, 1/10/99, Z1 p.8) 1564 1651 Abraham Bloemaert, Dutch artist and teacher of Hendrick ter Brugghen. (SFEM, 8/31/97, p.13) 1565 nend Mar 1, Spanish occupier Estacio de Sá founded Rio de Janeiro. He destroyed the existing French colony. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21)(SC, 3/1/02) 1565 nend Apr 27, First Spanish settlement in Philippines was established in Cebu City. (HN, 4/27/98) 1565 nend May 19-Sep 8, In Malta the Great Siege lasted over this period as Suleyman the Magnificent sought to add the island to his conquests. The Turkish army of 40,000 men besieged the Knights of Malta, led by Grand Master Jean de la Valette, at their garrison, St. Elmo. The defenders numbered 540 knights, 400 Spanish troops, and Maltese gentry. In the initial attack 200 of 260 defenders lay dead at the end of the day but the garrison held out. The Turks continued their efforts for four months when reinforcements arrived and saved them. The arrival of a fleet from Spain, the ?Gran Soccorso,? turned the tide. This halted the westward advance of Islam in the Mediterranean. St. Elmo was later transformed into Valletta, the capital of Malta. The Order of St. John continues to thrive to today. (HNQ, 4/8/99)(WSJ, 12/30/94, p.A-6)(AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.40)(WSJ,7/21/08, p.A11) 1565 nend Jul 29, Mary Queen of Scots married her cousin, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21)(MC, 7/29/02) 1565 nend Aug 28, A Spanish expedition under Pedro Menendez de Aviles arrived at an inlet on the Florida coast on the feast day of St. Augustine and gave the theologian?s name to the encampment. (WSJ, 7/17/08, p.W8) 1565 nend Sep 8, A Spanish expedition under Pedro Menendez de Aviles established the first permanent European colony in the present day St. Augustine, Fla. Aviles founded St. Augustine on the site of the Timucuan Indian village of Seloy, 42 years before the English settled at Jamestown and 55 years before the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock. St. Augustine, Florida is the oldest permanent European settlement in the US. Castillo de San Marco fortress was built by the Spanish to defend St. Augustine. (AP, 9/8/97)(NG, March 1990, p.117)(WSJ, 8/3/95, p.A-8)(WSJ,5/21/98, p.A1) 1565 nend Sep 20, A Spanish fleet under Pedro Menendez de Aviles wiped out some 350 Frenchmen at Fort Caroline, in Florida. Spanish forces under Pedro Menendez massacred a band of French Huguenots that posed a potential threat to Spanish hegemony in the area. They also took advantage of the local Timucuan Indian tribe. Artist Jacques Le Moyne de Morgues managed to escape and return to France, where he painted watercolors depicting the local botany. His alleged paintings of Indians living nearby were later thrown into question. (WSJ, 8/3/95, p.A-8)(Arch, 1/05, p.47)(WSJ, 7/18/08, p.W8)(Arch,5/05, p.31)(Arch, 1/06, p.25) 1565 nend Sep 28, Alessandro Tassoni, political writer (Rape of Bucket), was born in Modena, Italy. (MC, 9/28/01) 1565 nend Dec 9, Pius IV (66), [Gianangelo de' Medici], Italian Pope (1559-65), died. (MC, 12/9/01) 1565 nend Dec 18, Benedetto Varchi (62), Italian humanist and historian (L'Ercolano), died. (MC, 12/18/01) 1565 nend Pieter Breughel the Elder received a commission for a series of paintings called "The Months." Five survive including "Hunters in the Snow." (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1565 nend Tintoretto (c.1518-1594) created his ?Crucifixion,? later considered the single best example of Italian Renaissance religious art. (WSJ, 9/22/07, p.W10) 1565 nend The Vasari corridor was built in Florence to connect the Pitti Palace with the Uffizi Gallery. In 1664 Leopoldo de Medici began a collection of artists? self-portraits and housed them in the corridor. (Econ, 5/26/07, p.100) 1565 nend Palladio finished S. Giorgio Maggiore Church in Venice. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1565 nend The bouree, derived from a traditional French clog dance, was introduced at the French court Catherine de?Medici. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1565 nend Pedro Menendez de Aviles, Spanish Florida?s 1st governor, led an expedition to the Calusa and stationed a small garrison at Calos. The garrison withdrew in 1568. (AM, 11/04, p.50) 1565 nend The Royal College of Physicians in London was officially permitted to carry out human dissections. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1565 nend Pencils were first manufactured in England. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1565 nend Venetian Fernand Berteli drew a large body of water in the St. Lawrence Valley on his map "A Complete Description of the Whole Known World." (LSA, Spring 1995, p.6) 1565 nend Father Andres Urdaneta sighted land believed to be the California coast while sailing on the Manila to Acapulco trade route. (SFC,10/17/97, p.A25) 1565 nend Elizabeth I of England granted the nobleman Hellier de Carteret the island fiefdom of Sark, which included the island of Brecqhou in the English Channel. (SFC, 8/10/96, p.A10) 1565 nend In India Akbar had the Red Fort built in Agra along the Yamuna River. (HT, 4/97, p.22) 1565 nend The Iglesia de San Roque was built in Campeche, Mexico. (SSFC, 1/25/09, p.E5) 1565 nend Philip II of Spain sent Miguel Lopez de Legazpi and 1,000 mercenaries from Mexico to wrest the Philippines from Muslim sultans, who had ruled since the 12th century. (SFC, 7/7/03, p.A6) 1566 nend Feb 13, St. Augustine, Florida, was established. [see Sep 8, 1565] (MC, 2/13/02) 1566 nend Mar 9, David Riccio, Italian singer, secretary, lover of Mary Stuart, was murdered. (MC, 3/9/02) 1566 nend May 10, Leonhard Fuchs (65), German botanist, died. (MC, 5/10/02) 1566 nend Mar 11, The 2nd Lithuanian statutes went into effect and upheld a democracy of landowners. The Statute of Lithuania gave the Seimas legislative power. The parliament had developed since Casimir ascended to the Polish throne. It was composed of an upper chamber or Council of Lords and assemblies of noblemen. They assembled in Vilnius or Brest-Litovsk. (DrEE, 10/5/96, p.5)(LHC, 3/11/03) 1566 nend Jun 19, King James I (d.1625 at 59), son of Mary Queen of Scots, was born. James, aka King James VI of Scotland ruled Scotland from 1567-25 and England from 1603-25. (WUD, 1994, p.763)(WSJ, 4/16/97, p.A13)(DTnet, 6/19/97)(HN, 6/19/99) 1566 nend Jul 2, French astrologer, physician and prophet Nostradamus died in Salon. (AP, 7/2/97) 1566 nend Aug 25, Iconoclastic fury began in the Dutch province of Utrecht. Fanatical Calvinists instigated religious riots in the Netherlands. (chblue.com, 8/25/01)(TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1566 nend Sep 5, Suleiman I, Great Law Giver and sultan of Turkey (1520-66), died at 71. Suleyman the Magnificent died and his great empire began a gradual decline under his slothful son, Selim II. Suleyman during his reign commissioned the architect Sinan to build the Suleymanye, perhaps the finest mosque ever constructed. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21)(WSJ, 4/29/99, p.A24)(MC, 9/5/01) 1566 nend Nov 10, Robert Devereux, 2nd earl of Essex, cousin and lover of Elizabeth I, was born. (MC, 11/10/01) 1566 nend Dec 1, Spanish king Philip II named Fernando Alvarez, duke of Alba. (MC, 12/1/01) 1566 nend Dec 30, Alessandro Piccinini, composer, was born. (MC, 12/30/01) 1566 nend Gerolamo Bassano (d.1621), Italian artist, was born. His work included ?The Sepulchre.? It was based on a larger altarpiece painted in 1574 by his father Jacopo Bassano and Francesco Bassano. In 2006 the Washington County Museum of Fine Arts in Maryland commissioned an x-ray of the work and found that it hid a portrait of a man in Renaissance clothing. (SFC, 5/12/06, p.E9)(www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/bassano/) 1566 nend Pieter Breughel the Elder painted the "Peasant Wedding Dance." (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1566 nend G. Blundeville published his "Foure Chiefest Offices Belonging to Horsemanship." It was a pioneering manual of veterinary science. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1566 nend Japanese music began to win its individual character with the popularization of national forms of vertical bamboo pipe (shakuhachi), three-stringed guitar (samisen), and zither (koto). (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1566 nend The Stari Most (Old Bridge) was built over the Neretva River in Bosnia. It gave the city of Mostar (bridge keeper) its name. It was destroyed in 1993 by Bosnian Croat artillery. An annual diving contest was held off the bridge since it was built. In 2004 the bridge was reopened. (SFC, 5/15/00, p.A12)(WSJ, 6/1/04, p.A1)(Econ, 11/26/05, p.64) 1566 nend A Serbian Orthodox monastery was built in Zitomislic, Bosnia. It was destroyed in 1992 during the Bosnian War, but was rebuilt and reopened in May 2005. (Econ, 11/26/05, p.64) 1566 nend During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, the Knole manor house in west Kent came into the possession of her cousin Thomas Sackville (1536-1608) whose descendants the Earls and Dukes of Dorset and Barons Sackville have lived there since 1603 (the intervening years saw the house let to the Lennard family). Thomas Sackville was the first Earl of Dorset and Lord Treasurer to Elizabeth I and James I. In 2010 Robert Sackville-West authored ?Inheritance: The Story of Knole and the Sackvilles.? (Econ, 8/21/10, p.70)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knole_House) 1566 nend Two sons of Cortes, both named Martin Cortes, were arrested in Mexico for purportedly fomenting a rebellion against the Spanish crown. In 2004 Anna Lanyon authored ?The New World of Martin Cortes.? (SSFC, 7/11/04, p.M3) 1566 nend Akbar began the construction of the Lahore Fort in northern Pakistan. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.C) 1566 nend Heinrich Bullinger, Swiss theologian, sought to combine Calvinism with Zwinglianism in his "Helvetian Confession." (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1566 nend Cardinal Michaele Ghislieri was elected Pope Pius V. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1566 nend Regent Margaret abolished the Inquisition. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1566 nend The Turko-Hungarian War restarted despite the truce of 1562. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1566 nend The Spanish made contact with Calusa Indians at a major village in what is now Pineland, Florida. (AM, adv. circular, p.2) 1566 nend Spanish conquistador Juan Pardo arrived the Spanish settlement at Santa Elena, on what later became known as Parris Island, South Carolina. He marched into the interior and founded Fort San Juan next to a Catawba town called Joara. Fort San Juan was burned down by the Catawba after about 18 months. (Sm, 3/06, p.33) 1566 nend Sir Francis Drake visited an island off Roanoke, Va., with a ship full of Turkish prisoners. Only half the prisoners were recorded as taken back to England. (WSJ, 4/14/97, p.B5) 1566 nend One of the world?s first newspapers, "Notizie Scritte," appeared in Venice. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1566 nend Bartolome de Las Casas (b.1474), ?Apostle to the Indians,? died in Madrid, Spain. (http://tinyurl.com/brzzu) 1566 1572 Pius V (b. 1504) led the Catholic Church. (HN, 1/17/99) 1566 1574 Selim II followed Suleiman I in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii) 1566 1638 Joachim Wytawael (Wtewael), Dutch mannerist painter. (SFEM, 8/31/97, p.13)(SFEM, 9/17/00, p.96) 1567 nend Feb 9, Henry Stuart, earl of Darnley, Lord Darnley, the second husband of Mary, Queen of Scots, was murdered in his sick-bed in a house in Edinburgh when the house blew up. In 2003 Alison Weir authored "Mary, Queen of the Scots, and the Murder of Lord Darnley." (HN, 2/9/99)(MC, 2/9/02)(WSJ, 5/1/03, D10) 1567 nend Apr 11, Dutch Prince William of Orange fled from Antwerp to Breda. (MC, 4/11/02) 1567 nend May 1, Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt, Dutch royal painter, was born. (MC, 5/1/02) 1567 nend May 15, Claudio Giovanni Antonio Monteverdi (d.1643), musician and composer (L'Orfeo), was born in Cremona, Italy. He marked the beginning of the Baroque Era in music. (LGC-HCS, p.25)(WUD, 1994, p.928)(MC, 5/15/02) 1567 nend May 15, Mary, Queen of Scots married James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell. (MC, 5/15/02) 1567 nend Jun 11, At Borthwick Castle a thousand Scottish nobles cornered Mary, Queen of Scots, who fled the castle by jumping out the window, disguised as a pageboy. The nobles cornered the newly-wed Mary and her third husband, the dubious James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell. They demanded Bothwell's head and Mary?s renunciation of the Earl and his influence. Bothwell, a suspect in the murder of Queen Mary?s second husband, Lord Darnley, just a few months before, fled the castle?s sheltering 110-foot towers and the asylum offered by the 6th Lord Borthwick, leaving his wife and queen behind. (HNQ, 4/13/01) 1567 nend Jun 15, Genoa expelled the Jews. [see Apr 2, 1550] (MC, 6/15/02) 1567 nend Jun 16, Mary, Queen of Scots, was imprisoned in Lochleven Castle in Scotland. (AP, 6/16/98) 1567 nend Jun 20, Jews were expelled from Brazil by order of regent Don Henrique. (MC, 6/20/02) 1567 nend Jul 24, Mary, Queen of Scots, was imprisoned and forced to abdicate her throne to her 1-year-old son James VI. (HN, 7/24/98) 1567 nend Aug 8, Duke of Alba's army entered Brussels, Belgium. (MC, 8/8/02) 1567 nend Sep 9, Lomaraal, Count van Egmont and Philip van Hoorne, were arrested by Alba. (MC, 9/9/01) 1567 nend Oct 6, The Duke of Alba became guardian of the Netherlands. Spain?s Duke of Alba arrived in Brussels at the head of a 10,000 troops to quell the iconoclastic riots. (MC, 10/6/01)(WSJ, 7/1/04, p.D8) 1567 nend Nov 10, In the Battle at St. Denis the French government army faced the Huguenots. Catholic duke François I of Condé (1530-1569) managed to sustain his position against a numerically larger force of Huguenots (French Protestants). The Huguenots had started a second War of Religion in France with the Conspiracy of Meaux led by Condé and Duke Anne of Montmorency (1493?-1567). Montmorency lost his life at St. Denis. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21)(DoW, 1999, p.390) 1567 nend Samuel de Champlain, French explorer (Lake Champlain), was born. Later evidence suggested that he was more likely born about 1580. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_de_Champlain) 1567 nend El Greco (1541-1614) arrived in Venice as a painter if icons in the hieratic, late-Byzantine style. (WSJ, 6/18/01, p.A16) 1567 nend The Metropolitan Cathedral was begun in Mexico City. It took 250 years to complete. (Hem., 1/96, p.26) 1567 nend Longleat House was begun. It shows the impetus of the Reformation on English domestic architecture. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1567 nend The Catholic Church outlawed the outright sale of indulgences. (WSJ, 1/13/00, p.A1) 1567 nend Maximilian II established a monastery council to superintend the clergy. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1567 nend Laurence Sheriff founded the Rugby school in England. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1567 nend Mary, Queen of Scots, played one of the 1st recorded games of golf at Seton Castle. In 2005 the 14-bedroom castle was put on the market asking $27 million. (SFC, 8/31/05, p.C2) 1567 nend The Duke of Alva, a military commander under Philip II of Spain, arrived in the Netherlands as a military governor and began a reign of terror. Margaret of Parma resigned the regency. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1567 nend Typhoid fever swept through parts of South America and killed more than two million Indians. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1567 nend Alvaro Mendana de Neyra, Spanish explorer, discovered the Solomon Islands. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1568 nend Jan 24, In Netherlands Duke of Alba declared (future King) William of Orange an outlaw. (MC, 1/24/02) 1568 nend Feb 16, A sentence of the Holy Office condemned all the inhabitants of the Netherlands to death as heretics. From this universal doom only a few persons, especially named, were acquitted. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War) 1568 nend Feb 17, Holy Roman Emperor Maximillian II agreed to pay tribute to the Sultan for peace. (MC, 2/17/02) 1568 nend Mar 9, Aloysius "Luigi" van Gonzaga, Italian prince, Jesuit, saint, was born. (MC, 3/9/02) 1568 nend Mar 23, Treaty of Longjumeau: French Huguenots went on strike. (SS, 3/23/02) 1568 nend May 3, French forces in Florida slaughter hundreds of Spanish. (HN, 5/3/98) 1568 nend May 11, Christian I, ruler of Anhalt-Bernburg (Battle of White Mountain), was born. (MC, 5/11/02) 1568 nend May 13, Mary Queen of Scots was defeated by English at battle of Langside. (MC, 5/13/02) 1568 nend May 16, Mary Queen of Scotland fled to England. (MC, 5/16/02) 1568 nend May 19, Defeated by the Protestants, Mary, Queen of Scots, fled to England where Queen Elizabeth imprisoned her. (HN, 5/19/99)` 1568 nend Jun 1, Duke of Alba beheaded 18 nobles in Brussels. (MC, 6/1/02) no_source 1568 nend Jun 4, Lamoraal, Count Egmont, prince of Gavere, was beheaded in Brussels for opposition to the Spanish Inquisition. He became a heroic figure in Goethe's play and Beethoven's musical setting. Philips van Montmorency comte d'Horn, admiral, statesman, was also beheaded along with 18 other leaders of the Flemish opposition. (PCh, 1992, p.195)(MC, 6/5/02) 1568 nend Jun 5, Ferdinand, the Duke of Alba, crushed the Calvinist insurrection in Ghent [Belgium]. (HN, 6/5/98) 1568 nend Jul 13, Alexander Nowell, the Dean of St Paul's Cathedral, perfected a way to bottle beer. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21)(MC, 7/13/02) 1568 nend Jul 23, Don Carlos (c23), son of Spanish king Philip II, died. (MC, 7/23/02) 1568 nend Sep 5, Tommasso Campanella, Italian philosopher and poet, who wrote "City of the Sun," was born. (HN, 9/5/98) 1568 nend Sep 30, Eric XIV, king of Sweden, was deposed after showing signs of madness. The Swedes declared Eric XIV unfit to reign and proclaimed John III king. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21)(HN, 9/30/98) 1568 nend Oct 5, The Conference of York began in the trial against Mary Stuart. (MC, 10/5/01) 1568 nend Oct 5, Willem of Orange's army occupied Brabant. (MC, 10/5/01) 1568 nend The "Shahnameh" by Firdawsi, as commissioned by Shah Tahmasp was given to the Ottoman Sultan Selim II. By 1903 it was in the hand of Baron Edmond de Rothschild. (WSJ, p. A-18, 10/13/94) 1568 nend Archbishop Matthew Parker supervised the "Bishop?s Bible," which was published in opposition to the popular (Calvinistic, 1560) Geneva Bible. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21)(WSJ, 4/4/01, p.A18) 1568 nend Il Gesu, the mother church of the Jesuit order, was begun in Rome. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1568 nend The Spanish Riding School in Vienna began operating and became world famous for their Lipizzaners, white horses. (SFEC, 11/29/98, p.T5) 1568 nend Emp. Maximilian bought peace from Selim II and the Sultan received a large annual payment. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1568 nend Leaders of the Flemish opposition to the Spanish Inquisition were beheaded as traitors in Brussels. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1568 nend General Oda Nobunaga, Japanese leader who seized Kyoto and destroyed the power of the feudal lords, introduced a dynamic period of centralization and expansion. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1568 nend Gasparo da Salo began making violins at Brescia. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1568 nend Constanzo Varoli, Italian anatomist, studied the anatomy of the human brain. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1568 nend In Rome Aonio Paleario, poet and protestant-style reformer, was burned at the stake by Pius V for posting a poem on a statue, a practice that was called the "talking statue" (Pasquino): "You?d think it was winter ? the way Pius is burning Christians, - like so many logs on the fire. ? He must be getting himself ready ? to enjoy the flames of Hell. (WSJ, 5/3/01, p.A16) 1568 nend The "Shahnameh" (Persian Book of Kings-1520-1530) by Firdawsi was given to the Ottoman Sultan. It was commissioned to be illustrated for Shah Tahmasp by more than a dozen artists. 258 miniatures were made with 750 folios of Farsi text in it. (WSJ, p. A-18, 10/13/94) 1568 1600 The Azuchi-Momoyama Period in Japan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215) 1568 1625 Jan Breughel, the Elder, a son of Pieter Breughel, painted the "teeming textures of normal existence." (WSJ, 2/18/00, p.W12) 1568 1648 The Eighty Years' War, or Dutch Revolt was the secession war in which the proto-Netherlands first became an independent country and in which the region now known as Belgium became established. It was carried on by the Calvinist and predominantly mercantile Dutch provinces. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War) 1569 nend Jan 11, The 1st recorded lottery in England was drawn in St Paul's Cathedral. (MC, 1/11/02) 1569 nend Feb 7, King Philip II ordered the inquisition in South America. (MC, 2/7/02) 1569 nend Feb 28, The Lithuanian delegation pulled out of union talks with Poland and departed Lublin. (LHC, 2/28/03) 1569 nend Mar 12, Zigmantas Augustas broke away from Lithuania and attached Volinija and Palenki to Poland. (LHC, 3/12/03) 1569 nend Mar 13, Count of Anjou defeated the Huguenots at the Battle of Jarnac. Louis Conde, French prince, co-leader of Huguenots, died in battle. (MC, 3/13/02) 1569 nend Apr 3, Giovanni Battista Massarengo, composer, was born. (MC, 4/3/02) 1569 nend May 10, John of Avila (b.1500), Spanish minister and writer, died. He became the patron saint of Spain's diocesan clergy and was considered one of the greatest preachers of his time. He was canonized in 1970. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_Avila)(AP, 8/20/11) 1569 nend Jul 1, The Lublin Union was signed and direct rule over Lithuania was passed to Poland. Lithuania maintained certain ministers, laws, money and an army. The territories of Volinija, Kiev and Podolija were transferred to Polish rule. (H of L, 1931, p.72-74)(LC, 1998, p.20) 1569 nend Jul 1, Latvia Parliament accepted the Union of Lublin and was incorporated into Poland. (MC, 7/1/02) 1569 nend Aug 27, Pope Pius named Cosimo I de' Medici, grand duke of Toscane. (MC, 8/27/01) 1569 nend Sep 5, Pieter Breughel, South Netherlands (Flemish) painter, died at about 44. (MC, 9/5/01) 1569 nend Oct 3, Battle of Montcontour the Duke of Anjou beat the Huguenots. (MC, 10/3/01) 1569 nend Nov 16, Paul Sartorius, composer, was born. (MC, 11/16/01) 1569 nend Dec 9, Martinus de Porres, saint (patron of social justice), was born in Peru. (MC, 12/9/01) 1569 nend Dec 18, Jakob Hassler, composer, was born. (MC, 12/18/01) 1569 nend Dec 23, St. Philip, metropolitan of Moscow, was martyred by Ivan the Terrible. (MC, 12/23/01) 1569 nend Alfonso de Ercilla y Zuniga published about this time the first part of a Spanish epic on the conquest of Chile, "La Araucana." (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1569 nend Lithuania and Poland formed the Union of Lublin for protection against the growing power of Muscovite Russia. The new federation established an elective monarchy and Lithuania lost its separate institutions and was gradually submerged into Poland as a province. The Union of Lublin merged Lithuania, Poland and Lublin under Sigismund II of Poland. (Compuserve, Online Encyclopedia)(TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1569 nend Don John of Austria put down the Morisco rebellion in Granada. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1569 nend Tycho Brahe, Danish astronomer, built a quadrant measuring 5.8 meters, and a celestial globe with a diameter of 1.5 meters at Augsburg. (TL-MB, 1988, p.21) 1569 nend Gerhardus Mercator (1512-1594), Flemish geographer, produced his "Map of the World" for the use of navigators on the projection that bears his name to this day. He was the first to use the term "atlas" for a collection of maps. In 2004 Andrew Taylor authored ?The World of Gerard Mercator.? (TL-MB, 1988, p.21)(WSJ, 11/5/04, p.W9) 1569 nend Burmese King Bayinnaung invaded Thailand and took as hostage Princess Suphankalaya. It was later believed that the princess gave up her freedom in exchange for her kingdom's independence from Burma. In 1999 The Thai government offered to help Burma restore a palace in exchange for information about the princess. (SFEC, 7/4/99, p.A11) 1569 1583 In India Akbar was informed by a holy man that he would soon be a father. A Muslim wife bore him a son and Akbar built a walled city, Fatehpur Siskri, in Sikri, the home village of the holy man. The local water table could not meet the demands of the city and after about 14 years the capital was moved back to Agra. (HT, 4/97, p.23) 1570 nend Jan 2, Tsar Ivan the Terrible began a march to Novgorod. (MC, 1/2/02) 1570 nend Jan 9, Ivan the Terrible killed 1000-2000 residents of Novgorod. Ivan the Terrible, Tsar of Muscovy, sacked the city of Great Novgorod, massacring most of its inhabitants during a five-week reign of terror. (TL-MB, p.22)(MC, 1/9/02) 1570 nend Feb 25, Pope Pius V issued the bull Regnans in Excelsis which excommunicated Queen Elizabeth the First of England. This absolved her subjects from allegiance. Elizabeth responded by hanging and burning Jesuits. (TL-MB, p.22)(AP, 2/25/98)(HN, 2/25/99)(MC, 2/25/02) 1570 nend Mar 4, Spain?s King Philip II banned foreign Dutch students. (SC, 3/4/02) 1570 nend Apr 14, Polish Calvinists, Lutherans, Hernhutters unified against the Jesuits. (MC, 4/14/02) 1570 nend Apr 24, Spanish troops battled followers of Sultan Suleiman. (MC, 4/24/02) 1570 nend Apr 27, Pope Pius V excommunicated Queen Elizabeth I [see Feb 25]. (AP, 4/27/07) 1570 nend Jul 3, Antonio Paleario (67), Italian humanist, was executed by the inquisition. (MC, 7/3/02) 1570 nend Aug 8, Charles IX of France signed the Treaty of St. Germain (Peace of St. Germain-en-Laye), ending the third war of religion and giving religious freedom to the Huguenots. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22)(HN, 8/8/98) 1570 nend Nov 2, A tidal wave in the North Sea destroyed the sea walls from Holland to Jutland. Over a thousand people are killed. (HN, 11/2/98)(www.metoffice.com/education/secondary/students/flood.html) 1570 nend Dec 5, Johan Friis, chancellor of Denmark (b.1532), died. his share of spoliated Church property had made him one of the wealthiest men in Denmark. Under King Frederick II (1559-1588), who understood but little of state affairs, Friis was well-nigh omnipotent. He was largely responsible for the Scandinavian Seven Years' War (1562-1570), which did so much to exacerbate the relations between Denmark and Sweden. (http://tinyurl.com/7vnad) 1570 nend Dec 15, The Peace of Stettin was concluded in Livonia. Denmark recognized the independence of Sweden in the Peace of Stettin. Sweden gave up her claim to Norway. (TL-MB, p.22)(http://depts.washington.edu/baltic/papers/livonianwar.htm) c 1570 nend Pieter Bruegel the Elder created his paintings "Spring" and "Summer." (WSJ, 10/1/01, p.A22) 1570 nend El Greco (1541-1614) arrived in Rome where he resisted and absorbed the lessons of Michelangelo. He stayed for a half dozen years and settled in Toledo, Spain, in 1577. (WSJ, 6/18/01, p.A16) 1570 nend Nicholas Hilliard painted his famous portrait of Elizabeth I. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1570 nend Melchior Lorch made an ink drawing. (SFEM, 6/29/97, p.4) 1570 nend Jacopo Zucchi, a mannerist artist, painted "The Bath of Bathsheba." (WSJ, 4/28/98, p.A16) 1570 nend George Owen wrote his "History of Pembrokeshire," wherein he clearly set forth the orderly principle of geological stratigraphy; but the work was not published until 1796. (RFH-MDHP, p.7) 1570 nend The Scholemaster, a treatise on education by the English scholar Roger Ascham, was published posthumously. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1570 nend Palladio published "I Quattro Libri dell?Architettura," a summary of classical architecture. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1570 nend The Convento de Penha was built on a 164-meter cliff overlooking Vitoria in the state of Espiritu Santo, Brazil. (USA Today, OW, 4/22/96, p.13) 1570 nend The Whitechapel Bell Foundry was founded in London, England. Philadelphia?s Liberty Bell was later cast there. Big Ben was cast there in 1858. (SFC, 4/11/08, p.A16) 1570 nend The Berlin Staatskapelle formed. In 2004 it performed Schumann in San Francisco. (SFC, 1/14/04, p.D3) 1570 nend In Carrara, Italy, Alberigo, son of the mad Marquis Alberigo Cybo Malaspina, Lord of Carrara, inaugurated the use of gunpowder for quarrying marble. (SFEC,10/19/97, p.T4) 1570 nend The Japanese opened the port of Nagasaki to overseas trade. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1570 nend Lutherans, Calvinists and Moravian brethren united against the Jesuits in Poland in the Consensus of Sendomir. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1570 nend Seville, Spain, by this time stood as the 3rd largest city in Europe, behind Rome and Venice, as it reaped the rewards of trade rights, granted in 1503, with the New World. (SSFC, 8/15/10, p.M4) 1570 nend Spanish Jesuits established the Ajacan mission on the York River, a few miles from Jamestown would be established 37 years later. The priests were all killed in 1571 and the site was abandoned. (AH, 6/07, p.31) 1570 nend In Switzerland the hotel Crusch Alva in Zuoz in the Engadine dates back to this time. (Hem., 2/97, p.28) 1570 nend The Mexican city of Vallodalid, later Morelia, was laid out. (SSFC, 11/17/02, p.C11) 1570 nend Jul 3, The Turks began their attack on Nicosia, Cyprus, after Venice refused to surrender the island. no_source 1570 nend Sep 23, The Turks began their attack on Famagusta, Cyprus, which was fortified by Venetian commander Marcantonio Bragadino (1523-1571). no_source 7 nend /21/08, p.A11) no_source 1570 1612 The first modern atlas, Theatrum orbis terrarum, was published by Abraham Ortelius of Amsterdam in 1570. The Flemish mapmaker compiled it using the best maps available and issued dozens of editions in this period. [see 1602] (TL-MB, 1988, p.22)(WSJ,11/24/95, p.B-8) 1570 1628 Salamone Rossi, Jewish court composer in Mantua. (SFC, 2/28/98, p.B3) 1570 1670 Portuguese forces attacked Monomutapa in order to gain control over the markets and gold mines there. The Portuguese forces suffered losses to malaria and their conquest was unsuccessful. For the next 100 years they continued to promote civil wars and weakened the Monomutapa power. By the late 1600s the southern kingdoms were able to conquer Monomutapa completely. (ATC, p.148) 1571 nend Jan 27, Shah Abbas, King of the Safavid dynasty in Persia (1587-1629), was born. He established a monopoly on the production and sale of silk and used the wealth to develop the city of Isfahan. Fearful of assassination he turned on his own family, executed one son, and blinded 2 sons, his father and his brothers. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8)(http://4dw.net/royalark/Persia/safawi3.htm) 1571 nend Feb 2, All eight members of a Jesuit mission in Virginia were murdered by Indians who pretended to be their friends. (HN, 2/2/99) 1571 nend Feb 9, Algonquin Indians attacked the Jesuit mission on the Virginia peninsula killing Fr. Juan Bautista de Segura and 4 other remaining priests. (AH, 2/06, p.15) 1571 nend Feb 14, Benvenuto Cellini (b.1500), Florentine goldsmith and sculptor, writer (Perseus), died. His 1545 autobiography greatly influenced the Renaissance. (HN, 11/1/00)(WSJ, 2/14/00,p.A20)(www.boglewood.com/cornaro/xcellini.html) 1571 nend Feb 15, Michael Praetorius, composer (Syntagma music), was born in Kreuzberg, Germany. (MC, 2/15/02) 1571 nend Mar 19, Spanish troops occupied Manila. [see May 19] (MC, 3/19/02) 1571 nend May 19, Miguel Lopez de Lagazpi founded the city of Manila in the Philippines and encountered Chinese settlements. [see Mar 19] (DTnet, 5/19/97)(WSJ, 12/26/02, p.A1) 1571 nend May 20, Venice, Spain & Pope Pius formed an anti-Turkish Saint League. (MC, 5/20/02) 1571 nend Aug 8, John Ward, English composer, was born in Canterbury. (MC, 8/8/02)(Internet) 1571 nend Sep 1, Famagusta, Cyprus, surrendered to Mustafa Pasha commander of the Turkish forces after nearly a one year siege. The terms of surrender appeared agreeable to Venetian Gov. Marcantonio Bragadino (b.1523), but Mustafa Pasha turned on Bragadino and had him violently tortured and finally flayed alive. no_source 1571 nend Oct 7, Spanish, Genoese and Venetian ships of the Christian League defeated an Ottoman fleet in the naval Battle of Lepanto, Greece. In the last great clash of galleys, the Ottoman navy lost 117 ships to a Christian naval coalition under the overall command of Spain's Don Juan de Austria. (AP, 10/7/07)(www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-religion/1760264/posts) 1571 nend Dec 27, Johannes Kepler (d.1630), German astronomer known as the "father of modern astronomy," was born. Working with the data gathered by Tycho Brahe, he established the three laws of planetary motion: a) The planets do not travel in concentric circles, but in ellipses, with the sun at one of the two foci of the ellipse. b) A radius vector joining a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times. c) The third law asserted a mathematical relation between the periods of revolution of the planets and their distance from the sun. (V.D.-H.K.p.199)(HN, 12/27/98) 1571 nend Alessandro Vittoria created his bust of "Tomaso Rangone." (WSJ, 1/29/02, p.A18) 1571 nend Mughal emperor Akbar moved his court from Agra (India), to Fatehpur Sikri, where he built a sandstone palace in the middle of nowhere. (Econ, 3/7/09, p.82) 1571 nend In Malta the Palace of the Grand Masters was begun. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.40) 1571 nend Along with the Common Book of Prayer, the Thirty-nine Articles constitute the doctrinal statements of the Church of England. Developed from the Forty-two Articles written by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer in 1553 "for the avoiding of controversy in opinions." When Mary became queen in 1553 and restored Catholicism, the Forty-two Articles were eliminated. Upon the reign of Elizabeth I in 1558 a new statement of doctrine was needed. The 1563 Canterbury Convocation drastically revised the Forty-two Articles and a final revision resulted in the Thirty-nine articles in 1571, approved by the Queen and imposed on the clergy. They deal briefly with the doctrines accepted by Catholics and Protestants alike and more fully with the points of controversy. (HNQ, 10/20/98) 1571 nend Charles IX of France had a reconciliation with the Huguenots. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1571 nend John Lyon founded Harrow School in England. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1571 nend Hugh Price founded Jesus College at Oxford. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1571 nend Pope Pius V signed an alliance with Venice and Spain to fight the Turks. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1571 nend A British law was so set that a man could be fined for not wearing a wool cap. (NG, 5.1988, pp. 574) 1571 nend A permanent gallows in London drew gawkers and became a source of entertainment and profit. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1571 nend Potters from Antwerp introduced Delft ware to England about this time. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1571 nend The Jesuits in Chesapeake Bay were wiped out by the Indians, resulting in the complete withdrawal of all Jesuits from Florida. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1571 nend Moscow was sacked by Tartars from Crimea. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1571 nend Siam?s Naresuan the Great (8) was taken hostage by Burmese invaders. It was the custom of the time for the victorious nation in a battle to take a royal child of the defeated monarch home as insurance against further aggression. (www.muaythaionline.org/disciplines/naresuan1.html) 1571 nend Turks sacked the St. Sophia Cathedral in Old Nicosia, Cyprus, and turned it into the Selimiye Mosque. (CNT, 3/04, p.153) 1571 1610 Michelangelo Merisi de Caravaggio, Italian painter. He painted the "Beheading of St. John" that was kept in Malta and recently sent to Florence for restoration. Paintings from the school of Caravaggio include "The Chastisement of Love." In 1996 the oil painting "A Boy Peeling an Apple" was rediscovered. [see 1571, 1573] (SFC, 6/11/96, p.E2)(AAP, 1964)(SFC, 11/19/96, p.B1)(Econ, 2/26/05,p.82) 1572 nend Feb 14, Hans Christoph Haiden, composer, was born. (MC, 2/14/02) 1572 nend Apr 1, The Sea Beggars under Guillaume de la Marck landed in Holland and captured the small town of Briel. (HN, 4/1/99) 1572 nend May 1, Pius V (Antonio Ghislieri), grand inquisitor, Pope (1566-72), died. He was succeeded by Gregory XIII. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22)(MC, 5/1/02) 1572 nend Jun 9, Willem van Orange's army occupied Gelderland. (MC, 6/9/02) 1572 nend Jun 11, Ben Jonson (d.1637), English playwright and poet, was born. "Very few men are wise by their own counsel; or learned by their own teaching. For he that was only taught by himself, had a fool to his master." (AP, 1/4/98)(HN, 6/11/01) 1572 nend Jun 24, Adrianus van Gouda (lay brother), was hanged along with Cornelis van Diedt, Daniell van Arendonck (clergyman), Joannes van Naarden (priest) and Ludovicus Voets (priest). (MC, 6/24/02) 1572 nend Jul 9, In Gorinchem, Netherlands, 19 Catholics were executed during the Dutch war for independence. They became known as ?The Martyrs of Gorkum.? (SFC, 3/5/11, p.E2)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martyrs_of_Gorkum) 1572 nend Jul 18, William of Orange was recognized as viceroy of Holland, Friesland and Utrecht. (MC, 7/18/02) 1572 nend Aug 24, The slaughter of French Protestants at the hands of Catholics began in Paris as Charles IX of France attempted to rid the country of Huguenots. Charles, under the sway of his mother Catherine de Medici, believed the Huguenot Protestants were plotting a revolution. France?s fourth war of religion started with the Massacre of St. Bartholomew?s Day, in which 50,000 Huguenots and their leader, Admiral Gaspard de Chastillon, Count the Coligny, were killed in and around Paris. Meyerbeer's 1836 opera "Les Huguenots" was centered on the struggle. The House of Guise played a leading role in the massacre. In 2009 Stuart Carroll authored ?Martyrs and Murderers: The Guise Family and the Making of Europe.? (AP, 8/24/97)(HN, 8/24/98)(WSJ, 11/23/99, p.A21)(Econ, 11/7/09, p.78) 1572 nend Sep 30, Francisco Borgia, Jesuit theologian and saint, died at 61. (MC, 9/30/01) 1572 nend Oct 5, The Spanish army under Duke of Alva's son Don Frederik plundered Mechelen (Flanders). (MC, 10/5/01) 1572 nend Nov 11, A supernova was observed in constellation known as Cassiopeia. Tycho Brahe, Danish astronomer, discovered a nova in the constellation of Cassiopeia. It is described in detail in his book "De Nova Stella." The light eventually became as bright as Venus and could be seen for two weeks in broad daylight. After 16 months, it disappeared. (V.D.-H.K.p.197)(www.seds.org/~spider/spider/Vars/sn1572.html)(AP,12/4/08) 1572 nend Nov 23, Agnolo di Cosimo (b.1503), Italian Renaissance painter and poet (aka Bronzino), died. He had worked as the court artist to Cosimo de? Medici, Duke of Florence. His work included a portrait of "Eleonora of Toledo and her son." (MT, Spring 02, p.23)(Econ, 10/2/10,p.92)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronzino) 1572 nend Nov 24, John Knox (67), Scottish preacher, died. (MC, 11/24/01) 1572 nend Dec 30, Galeazzo Alessi (60), Italian architect (Palazza Marino, Milan), died. (MC, 12/30/01) 1572 nend Dec, The Dutch town of Naarden surrendered to Imperial Spanish troops under the Duke of Alba (1507-1582). The town was then burned and the entire population massacred. Alba?s attempt to impose a 10% sales tax on commodities stirred resistance that led to the Dutch independence. In 2004 Henry Kamen authored ?The Duke of Alba.? (WSJ, 7/1/04, p.D8) 1572 nend Luis Vaz de Camoes, Portuguese poet, published his epic poem about Vasco da Gama?s voyages: "Os Lusiadas." (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1572 nend The first book privately printed in England, "De Antiquitate Britannicae Ecclesiae" by Matthew Parker, was published. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1572 nend The Privy Council of Queen Elizabeth I, refused to grant patent protection to new knives with bone handles because the improvement was marginal. (Econ, 5/5/07, p.78) 1572 nend One of the earliest cellos was made by Andrea Amati in Cremona. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1572 nend The Society of Antiquaries was founded in London. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1572 nend The British Parliament passed the Act for Punishment as Vagabonds. It required entertainers to obtain a noble patron for support. It led to the emergence of permanent theaters. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1572 nend A refurbished Turkish fleet captured Cyprus. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1572 nend Michel de Montaigne, French philosopher, observed that ?there are men on whom the mere sight of medicine is operative.? (Econ, 11/1/08, p.92) 1572 nend Ambroise Pare, French surgeon, introduced more humane treatment for battlefield wounds. He substituted egg yolk and turpentine for boiling oil, and introduced arterial ligature instead of cauterization. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1572 nend Dutch warships, Beggars of the Sea, effectively harried Spanish shipping in the English Channel and fueled the Dutch War of Independence. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1572 nend The Dutch used carrier pigeons during the Spanish siege of Haarlem. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1572 nend On the death of Sigismund II, the Polish monarchy became elective. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1572 nend Fray Luis de Leon, Spanish scholar and poet at Salamanca, was denounced as a heretic and served 5 years in prison. (SSFC, 6/8/03, p.C8) 1573 nend Jan 28, In Warsaw a confederation act acknowledged freedom of religion in Lithuania and Poland. (LHC, 1/28/03) 1573 nend Jan 31, Giulio Cesare Monteverdi, composer, was born. (MC, 1/31/02) 1573 nend Feb 11, Sir Francis Drake 1st saw the Pacific Ocean from Panama. (MC, 2/11/02) 1573 nend Feb 28, Elias Hill, German architect, city builder (Augsburg), was born. (MC, 2/28/02) 1573 nend Mar 14, Claude II of Lotharingen, duke of Aumale, died. He murdered Huguenot leader Adm. Coligny. (see Aug 24, 1572] (MC, 3/14/02) 1573 nend Apr 26, Marie de'Medici, Queen of France, was born. (MC, 4/26/02) 1573 nend May 11, Henry of Anjou became the first elected king of Poland. (HN, 5/11/98) 1573 nend Jul 15, Inigo Jones (d.1652), father of English classical architecture, was born in London. He restored St. Paul's Cathedral. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.14)(MC, 7/15/02) 1573 nend Jul 20, Lancelot of Brederode (Netherlands), water beggar, was beheaded. (MC, 7/20/02) 1573 nend Aug 7, Francis Drake?s fleet returned to Plymouth. (MC, 8/7/02) 1573 nend Sep 28, Caravaggio (d.1610), painter, was born in Italy. His emphasis on the play of light and shadow invoked greater realism and set a new trend in painting. His paintings included "Boy Bitten by Lizard." In 1999 Helen Langdon published "Caravaggio, A Life." [see 1565-1609 & 1571-1610] (SFEM, 8/31/97, p.8,13)(SFEC, 7/11/99, BR p.6)(MC, 9/28/01) 1573 nend Oct 7, William Laud, English archbishop of Canterbury (1633-45), was born. (MC, 10/7/01) 1573 nend Nov 7, Solomon Luria (Maharshal), talmudic author (Yam Shel Shelomo), died. (MC, 11/7/01) 1573 nend Tycho Brahe, Danish astronomer, published a monograph on his discovery of a new star. His observations were denied by Roman Catholic divines, but Tycho was Lutheran, independently rich, and lived in a Lutheran country whose king was a staunch Protestant, so he didn?t care. Tycho settled down to "leave to posterity a collection of astronomical observations sufficiently accurate so that future generations would be able to depend on them. " (V.D.-H.K.p.197) 1573 nend Paolo Cagliari Veronese (1528-1588), Venetian painter, was hauled before the Inquisition and accused of painting profanities. (WUD, 1994, p.1588)(TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1573 nend Don John of Austria captured Tunis from the Turks. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1573 nend Sir Francis Drake captured a huge shipment of Spanish silver as it was being transported across the Isthmus of Panama. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1573 nend The city of Potosi, Bolivia, at the foot of Cerro Rico grew to surpass Seville, Madrid, Rome or Paris. (NH, 11/96, p.38) 1573 nend Sir Francis Walsingham began serving as principal secretary for Queen Elizabeth I. He founded a vast espionage network to protect the queen and served her until 1590. In 2005 Stephen Budiansky authored ?Her Majesty?s Spymaster,? and account of Walsingham?s efforts. (WSJ, 8/17/05, p.D14) 1573 nend Wan-Li of China began a 47-reign as emperor of the Ming dynasty. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1573 nend The first maps in England were made by Christopher Saxton. He produced an atlas with 37 county maps and a large country map. (SFC, 8/14/96, z-1 p.5) 1573 nend France?s Fourth War of Religion ended with the Pacification of Boulogne. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1573 nend The Huguenots gained an amnesty and were promised freedom of conscience. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1573 nend The first German cane-sugar refinery was established at Augsburg. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1573 nend Venice and Turkey signed the Peace of Constantinople whereby Venice surrendered Cyprus and paid Turkey a large indemnity. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1573 nend Japan?s Ashikaga shogunate ended after 237 years with Shogun Yoshiake routed in his challenge of ruler Nobunaga Oda. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1573 nend The Portuguese crown began administering Principe. (AP, 7/18/03) 1573 1577 In Malta the Cathedral of St. John was built. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.40) 1573 1615 The Momoyama period of Japan. It coincided with the ascendancy of 3 warlords and represented a time of temporary peace with the opening of the country to Western influence. (WSJ, 9/25/96, p.A20) 1574 nend Feb 23, The 5th War of Religion, against the Huguenots, broke out in France. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22)(HN, 2/23/98)(MC, 2/23/02) 1574 nend Feb 28, On the orders of the Holy Office of the Inquisition, two Englishmen and an Irishman were burnt for heresy. (HN, 2/28/99) 1574 nend Mar 5, William Oughtred, mathematician and inventor of the slide rule, was born. (HN, 3/5/98) 1574 nend Mar 7, John Wilbye, composer, was born. (MC, 3/7/02) 1574 nend Apr 21, Cosimo d' Medici (~54), Italian duke of Toscane, died. (MC, 4/21/02) 1574 nend Oct 1-2 A storm broke a Leiden dike and 20,000 Spanish soldiers drowned. Spanish forces in the Netherlands besieged Leyden, but William the Silent (Willem of Orange) breached the dykes to flood the land. This allowed his ships to sail up to the walls and lift the siege. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22)(PCh, 1992, p.198)(MC, 10/1/01) 1574 nend Oct 21, Nicolo Rubini, composer, was born. (MC, 10/21/01) 1574 nend Justus Lipsius, Flemish scholar, edited "The Histories and The Annals of Tacitus." (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1574 nend Giorgio Vasari, completed Florence?s Uffizi Palace after 14 years of building. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1574 nend In India the 4th Sikh guru founded the city of Amritsar. (WSJ, 10/12/01, p.W17) 1574 nend The Univ. of Berlin was founded. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1574 nend An auto-da-fe (a public announcement of sentence imposed on persons tried by the Inquisition) took place in Mexico for the first time. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1574 nend Spanish forces in the Netherlands besieged Leyden, but William the Silent breached the dykes to flood the land. This allowed his ships to sail up to the walls and lift the siege. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1574 nend Turkish troops captured Tunis from the Spaniards. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1574 nend The Portuguese began to settle in Angola. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1574 nend Juan Fernandez, Spanish navigator, discovered a group of islands, to be named after him, 400 miles off the west coast of South America. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1574 nend In France Charles IX died and was succeeded by his brother Henry of Valois, Henry III. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1574 1595 Selim II, Sultan of Turkey, died and was succeeded by his son, Murad III in the Ottoman House of Osman. Murat III expanded the palace at Topkapi and built the famous harem there. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R37)(Ot, 1993, xvii) 1575 nend Jan 22, English queen Elizabeth I granted Thomas Tallis and William Byrd a music press monopoly. (MC, 1/22/02) 1575 nend Sep 21, A major hurricane hit Puerto Rico on the feast day of St. Matthew and became known as the San Mateo hurricane. (SSFC, 8/6/06, Par p.24) 1575 nend Jul 25, Christoph Scheiner, astronomer, was born in Germany. (SC, 7/25/02) 1575 nend Nov 8, French Catholics and Huguenots signed a treaty. (MC, 11/8/01) c 1575 nend Titian painted "The Flaying of Marsyas." (SFC, 8/27/98, p.E3) 1575 nend Torquatto Tasso, Italian poet, wrote "Jerusalem Liberated," an epic of the First Crusade. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1575 nend The Dresden Court Orchestra undertook its first concert tour. (WSJ, 4/30/96, p.A-12) 1575 nend Thomas Tallis and Wm. Byrd, English organists and composers, published their Cantiones, a collection of 34 motets, after being granted a royal license to print and sell music. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1575 nend Stephen Bathory was elected King of Poland, after the defection of Henry, who became King of France. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1575 nend William of Orange, facing defeat, offered the sovereignty of the Netherlands to Queen Elizabeth, who declined the offer. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1575 nend Hungarian mines abolished child labor. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1575 nend In India the Mughal Emp. Akbar conquered Bengal. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1575 nend In Japan a battle was fought that arrayed 3,000 guns against men on horseback using stirrups. The gun force won and changed the course of Japanese fighting. (WSJ, 6/9/99, p.A27) 1575 nend The first European porcelain was produced in Florence, but it was much inferior to the Chinese original. Janet Gleason later published "Arcanum: The Extraordinary Story of the Invention of European Porcelain." (TL-MB, 1988, p.23)(WSJ, 8/28/98, p.W10) 1575 nend Plague swept through Italy and Sicily. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1575 nend Leyden Univ. was founded to commemorate the great siege. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1575 nend The Bols family arrived in Amsterdam to open ?het Lootsje? where they would distill liqueurs. This was the starting point of what would become the world?s oldest distillery. Bols began producing Genever, a Dutch style of gin, in 1664. In 2007 it opened a House of Bols museum in the museum quarter in the Dutch capital. It was dedicated to the history of Jenever (also known as genever or jeniever), the juniper-flavored alcoholic liquor from which gin evolved. The museum is housed on two floors of the Bols headquarters at 14 Paulus Potterstraat. Originally sold as a remedy for lumbago muscular pain, the traditional Dutch and Flemish drink was allegedly invented at the end of the 16th century by Sylvius de Bouve, a chemist, alchemist, renowned scholar and professor at the university of Leyden. no_source 5 nend /31/08, p.A12) no_source 1575 nend Spain faced bankruptcy and could not pay its troops in the Netherlands. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1575 1649 In Mexico the construction of La Immaculada Concepcion cathedral in Puebla. (SFEC, 11/8/98, p.T8) 1576 nend Jan 19, Hans Sachs (81), cobbler, poet, composer, inspiration for Wagner's "Die Meistersinger", died. (MC, 1/19/02) 1576 nend Feb 3, Henry of Navarre (future Henry IV) escaped from Paris. (MC, 2/3/02) 1576 nend Feb 5, Henry of Navarre renounced Catholicism at Tours. (MC, 2/5/02) 1576 nend May 6, The peace treaty of Chastenoy ended the fifth war of religion. (HN, 5/6/98) 1576 nend Mar 8, Diego Garcia de Palacios, a representative of Spain's King Felipe II, wrote to the crown with news of the ruins at Copan in western Honduras. (AP, 3/7/05) 1576 nend May 29, Spanish army under Mondragón conquered the Zierik sea. (SC, 5/29/02) 1576 nend Jul 28, Martin Frobisher, English navigator, discovered Frobisher Bay in Canada. He explored the Arctic region of Canada and twice brought tons of gold back to England that was found to be iron pyrite. Michael Lok, textile exporter, led the financing for the 1st expedition which was made to find a route to China. Lok was later sued for losses from 3 expeditions. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22)(SFEM, 11/15/98, p.26)(ON, 12/03, p.7) 1576 nend Aug 27, The Venetian painter Titian (Tiziano Vecelli), born about 1488, died of the plague. His handling of color and mastery of new oil techniques made him one of the greatest painters of the Renaissance. (Reuters, 8/28/01)(www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tita/hd_tita.htm) 1576 nend Oct 12, Rudolf II, the king of Hungary and Bohemia, succeeded his father, Maximillian II, as Holy Roman Emperor. (HN, 10/12/98) 1576 nend Nov 8, All 17 provinces of the Netherlands united in the Pacification of Ghent in the face of Spanish occupation. The 17 provinces of the Netherlands formed a federation to maintain peace. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22)(HN, 11/6/98) 1576 nend Jean Bodin, French political theorist, published his Six Books of the Commonwealth, wherein he argues that the basis of any society is the family. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1576 nend Carolus Clusius, French botanist, published his treatise on the flowers of Spain and Portugal. It was the first modern work on botany. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1576 nend The basilica of San Petronio was erected by Egnatio Danti, a mathematician and Dominican friar who worked for Cosimo I dei Medici, the Grand Duke of Tuscany. The structure included a solar observatory. Danti also advised Pope Gregory on calendar reform. (SFC, 10/25/99, p.A4) 1576 nend The Theater in Shoreditch, London, was built by James Burbage (d.1597). It was the 1st permanent playhouse in England. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22)(ON, 11/03, p.1) 1576 nend The Fifth War of Religion in France ended with the Peace of Monsieur. The Huguenots were granted freedom of worship in all places except Paris. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1576 nend Francois Viete, French mathematician, introduced the use of letters for quantities in algebra. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1576 nend An epidemic of plague Venice. In 2006 a well-preserved skeleton was found on the Lazzaretto Nuovo island, north of the lagoon city, amid other corpses buried in a mass grave. Experts said the remains of a woman with a brick stuck between her jaws indicated that she was believed to be a vampire. (AP, 3/14/09) 1576 nend Rudolf II was crowned King of the Holy Roman Empire and moved the Imperial Court from Vienna to Prague. (WSJ, 7/10/97, p.A13) 1576 nend In Mexico the town of Mineral de Pozos was founded as a mining town. In 1982 the Mexican government declared it a national historic treasure. (SSFC, 11/30/08, p.E5) 1576 nend Mutinous Spanish forces sacked Antwerp in "the Spanish Fury." (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1576 nend Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emp., died and was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, Rudolf II. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1577 nend Feb 8, Robert Burton (d.1640), writer, Anglican clergyman (Anatomy of Melancholy), was born. "A mere madness, to live like a wretch and die rich." (AP, 8/19/98)(MC, 2/8/02) 1577 nend Feb 26, Erik XIV Wasa (43), King of Sweden (1560-69), died. (SC, 2/26/02) 1577 nend Jun 28, Pietro Paul Rubens (d.1640), Flemish painter, was born in Germany, the child of protestants exiled from Antwerp. His work included "Helene Fourment" and "The Abduction of the Daughters of Leucippus." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.1250)(HN, 6/28/01) (Econ, 5/15/04, p.81) 1577 nend Sep 23, William of Orange made his triumphant entry into Brussels, Belgium. (HN, 9/23/98) 1577 nend Oct 17, Cristofano Allori, Italian painter (Judith), was born. (MC, 10/17/01) 1577 nend Nov 15, Sir Francis Drake aboard Pelican began his travel from Chile to Washington. [see Dec 13] (MC, 11/15/01) 1577 nend Dec 13, Sir Francis Drake of England set out with five ships on a nearly three-year journey that would take him around the world. His mission was to find Terra Australis and raid their Spanish colonies on the west coast of South America. He raided Spanish ships in the Pacific and returned with a 4,500% profit on his investment. [see Nov 15] (TL-MB, 1988, p.22)(AP, 12/13/97)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49)(SFC,10/29/99, p.A6) 1577 nend Painter El Greco (36), born in Crete as Domenikos Theotokopoulos, went to Spain and settled there permanently in Toledo. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22)(WSJ, 6/18/01, p.A16) 1577 nend Raphael Holinshed published his "Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland." (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1577 nend London?s second playhouse, The Curtain, opened in Finsbury. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1577 nend Javanese fled the spread of Islam and reached Bali where they kept alive early traditions of Indonesian music. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1577 nend The Sixth War of Religion erupts in France. After five months it ends with the Peace of Bergerac. The Huguenots gain more concessions. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1577 nend Francisco Hernandez, Spanish explorer traveling through Mexico?s highlands, noted the many uses of the maguey (agave) plant. He cited it as a useful fuel, a material for cloth and ropes, with sap used to make vinegar and wine. (Arch, 9/02, p.32) 1577 nend Don John of Austria, Governor of the Netherlands, issued his Perpetual Edict by which all Spanish troops were to be withdrawn from the Netherlands and ancient liberties restored. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1577 nend Danzig surrendered to Stephen Bathory, King of Poland. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1577 nend Tsar Ivan the Terrible sent an army to the Volga region with orders to kill as many Cossacks as possible. Robbing bands of Cossacks, including a group under Yermak, had seriously disrupted Russian commerce in the area. (ON, 2/04, p.1) 1577 nend Cossacks under Yermak migrated northeast and negotiated a deal with the Stroganoff brothers to serve as "frontier guards" in the Ural Mountains. (ON, 2/04, p.1) 1577 nend Fray Luis de Leon, Spanish scholar and poet at Salamanca, was released from prison after serving 5 years for heresy. He greeted his students with the words: "As I was saying, yesterday..." (SSFC, 6/8/03, p.C8) 1578 nend Jan 28, Cornelis Haga, Dutch lawyer, ambassador to Constantinople (1611-39), was born. (MC, 1/28/02) 1578 nend Feb 9, Giambattista Andreini, Italian playwright, actor (L'adamo), was born. (MC, 2/9/02) 1578 nend Mar 31, Juan de Escobedo, secretary of Spanish land guardian Don Juan, was murdered. (MC, 3/31/02) 1578 nend Apr 1, William Harvey England (d.1657), discoverer of blood circulation, was born. (HN, 4/1/99)(WUD, 1994, p.648) 1578 nend Apr 14, Philip III, king of Spain and Portugal (1598-1621), was born. (HN, 4/14/97) 1578 nend Jul 11, England granted Sir Humphrey Gilbert a patent to explore and colonize US. (MC, 7/11/02) 1578 nend Dec 5, Sir Francis Drake sailed into the port of Valparaiso. He had renamed his flagship, the Pelican, to the Golden Hind, and ravaged the coasts of Chile and Peru on his way around the world. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22)(ON, 7/03, p.7) 1578 nend Li Shih-Chen summed up Chinese pharmacology in his "Great Pharmacopoeia." (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1578 nend John Lely (Lyly), English dramatist and novelist, began "Eupheus [Euphues], the Anatomy of Wit," an early novel of manners. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22)(Ot, 1993, p.25) 1578 nend Sebastian, King of Portugal, invaded Morocco and was killed along with the King of Fez and the Moorish Pretender in the Battle of Alcazar. He is succeeded by Cardinal Henry. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1578 nend The catacombs of Rome were discovered by accident. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1578 nend Faience, a tin-glazed earthenware, was manufactured at Nevers, France, by the Conrade brothers. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1578 nend Don John of Austria died of fever. He was succeeded as Governor of the Netherlands by Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1578 1657 William Harvey, English physician, discovers the way the heart pumps blood through the arteries and veins of the body. (V.D.-H.K.p.197) 1579 nend Jan 6, The Union of Atrecht (French: Arras) was an accord signed in Atrecht (Arras), under which the southern states of the Spanish Netherlands, today in Wallonia and the Nord-Pas-de-Calais (and Picardy) regions in France, expressed their loyalty to the Spanish king Philip II and recognized the landlord, Don Juan de Austria. It is to be distinguished from the Union of Utrecht, signed later in the same month. The Peace of Arras ensured that the southern provinces of The Netherlands were reconciled to Philip II. It joined the Low Country Walloons (Catholics) with those of Hainaut and Artois. (http://en.allexperts.com/e/u/un/union_of_atrecht.htm)(PCh, 1992, p.200) 1579 nend Jan 25, The Union of Utrecht brought together seven northern, Protestant provinces of the Netherlands against the Catholics. Known as the United Provinces, they become the foundation of the Dutch Republic. The Treaty of Utrecht was signed, marking the beginning of the Dutch Republic. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22)(AP, 1/25/98) 1579 nend Mar 1, Sir Francis Drake waylaid a Spanish treasure galleon, the Nuestra Senora de la Concepcion, off the coast of Panama. (ON, 7/03, p.7) 1579 nend Mar 23, Friesland joined the Union of Utrecht. (SS, 3/23/02) 1579 nend Jun 17, Sir Francis Drake sailed into San Francisco Bay and proclaimed English sovereignty over New Albion (California). Some claim that Sir Francis Drake sailed into the SF Bay. Sir Francis Drake claimed San Francisco Bay for England. It may have been Drake?s Bay or Bolinas Lagoon. In 1999 there were 17 proposed locations for his landing with the latest set in Oregon and described by Bob Ward in the book "Lost Harbor Found." A brass plate, allegedly left by Drake, was found in 1993, but determined to be a fake in 1977. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22)(SFEC, 2/9/97, p.W4)(HN, 6/17/98)(SFEC, 8/22/98,p.T6) (SFC, 10/29/99, p.A3)(SFC, 2/15/03, p.A1) 1579 nend Jun 17, There was an anti-English uprising in Ireland. (MC, 6/17/02) 1579 nend Jul 26, Francis Drake left SF to cross Pacific Ocean. (MC, 7/26/02) 1579 nend Jul 29, Spain's King Philip II arrested plotters Antonio Perez and Princess of Eboli. (MC, 7/29/02) 1579 nend Nov 21, Thomas Gresham (b.1519), English merchant and financier, died. He worked for King Edward VI of England and for Edward's half-sister Queen Elizabeth I of England. Gresham?s Law: "Bad money drives out good." Gresham's law is commonly stated as: "When there is a legal tender currency, bad money drives good money out of circulation." Or, more accurately, "Money overvalued by the State will drive money undervalued by the State out of circulation." (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Gresham) 1579 nend Dec 20, John Fletcher, Elizabethan dramatist (Phylaster) was baptized. (MC, 12/20/01) 1579 nend Giambologna began the "Rape of the Sabine," a remarkable example of Mannerist sculpture. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1579 nend Plutarch?s Lives, biographies of noble Greeks and Romans of the first and second centuries AD, were translated into English from the French. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1579 nend Edmund Spenser, English poet, wrote "The Shepheardes Calender," an eclogue (pastoral or idyllic poem) for each month of the year. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1579 nend Christopher Saxton published a map of England. His maps were the first to show England in any detail. (Econ, 4/4/09, p.85) 1579 nend Portuguese merchants set up trading stations in Bengal. (TL-MB, 1988, p.22) 1579 nend Portuguese explorer Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo discovered San Diego Bay. His mate, Bartolome Ferrelo, continued exploring north. [see 1542] (SFEC, 3/1/98, p.W34) 1579 nend Roshan of Afghanistan was killed in a battle with the Moghuls, but his struggle for independence continued. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1580 nend Jan 18, Antonio Scandello (63), Italian composer (Passion of John), died. (MC, 1/18/02) 1580 nend Mar 15, Spanish king Philip II put 25,000 gold coins on head of Prince William of Orange. (MC, 3/15/02) 1580 nend Apr 18, Thomas Middleton, English playwright (Game of Chess), was born. (MC, 4/18/02) 1580 nend Jun 10, Luis Camoes (b.1524), Portuguese poet, died. He fought in colonial battles in Morocco and India and lost one eye. He was arrested in a street brawl in Lisbon and left for India. He traveled to Macao and Mozambique after which he published "Os Lusiadas" (The Lusiads, 1572), a poem that glorified Vasco da Gama and the history of Portugal. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_de_Cam%C3%B5es)(SFC, 6/4/99,p.D6)(SSFC, 3/10/02, p.M3) 1580 nend Jun 18, States of Utrecht outlawed Catholic worship. (MC, 6/18/02) 1580 nend Jun 27, Duke of Alba's army occupied Portugal. (MC, 6/27/02) 1580 nend Jul, Some 540 Cossacks under Yermak invaded the territory of the Vogels, subjects to Kutchum, the Khan of Siberia. They were accompanied by 300 Lithuanian and German slave laborers, whom the Stroganoffs had purchased from the Tsar. (ON, 2/04, p.2) 1580 nend Aug 19, Andrea Palladio (b.1508), Renaissance architect, writer (Il Redentore, Venice), died. He designed the Teatro Olimpico in Vincenza just before his death. It was completed by Vincenzo Scamozzi. Palladio authored "The Four Books on Architecture." In 2002 Witold Rybczynski authored "The Perfect House," on the villas of Palladio. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Palladio)(WSJ, 12/10/98,p.A20)(WSJ, 11/8/02, p.W12) 1580 nend Aug 25, Spain defeated Portugal in the Battle of Alcantara. (chblue.com, 8/25/01) 1580 nend Sep 26, Francis Drake returned to Plymouth, England, at the end of his voyage to circumvent the globe. Drake was knighted and awarded a prize of 10 thousand pounds. His crew of 63 split a purse of 8 thousand pounds. (TL-MB, p.23)(HN, 9/26/99)(ON, 7/03, p.8) 1580 nend Nov 9, Spanish troops landed in Ireland. (MC, 11/9/01) 1580 nend Nov 26, French Huguenots and Catholics signed a peace treaty. France?s 7th War of Religion broke out and ended with the Peace of Fleix. (TL-MB, p.23)(PCh, 1992, p.200)(MC, 11/26/01) 1580 nend Wu Bin (d.1643), Ming Dynasty painter, was born. His work included "Pine Lodge Amid Tall Mountains." (SFC, 3/13/03, p.E1) c 1580 nend Lavinia Fontana of Bologna painted her "Portrait of a Noblewoman." Her father was Prospero Fontana who collaborated with Giorgio Vasari on decorations for the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence. (SFC, 3/30/98, p.D1) 1580 nend Michel de Montaigne, French scholar and nobleman, wrote his personal essays entitled "essais." (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1580 nend Longleat Estate, Wiltshire, England, originally an Augustinian priory, was completed as an Italianate mansion. Longleat was built by Robert Smythson. (NG, Nov. 1985, M. Girouard, p.685)(TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1580 nend Edmund Campion and Robert Parsons began a Jesuit mission in England. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1580 nend Carlo Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan, established the first Sunday schools. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1580 nend Austrian Archduke Karl created a royal stud farm for horses in Lipizza. (SFC, 7/6/02, p.D2) 1580 nend John Dee, mathematician and warden of Manchester College in England, invented the crystal ball. (SFEC, 1/3/99, z1 p.8) 1580 nend Sir Francis Drake rounded the promontory of what later became Cape Town, South Africa. (SFEC, 10/15/00, p.T8) 1580 nend A 2nd Buenos Aires was founded near the mouth of the Rio de la Plata. (SSFC, 10/14/01, p.T5) c 1580 nend Tupac Amuru, an Inca leader, held out against the Spanish conquest after most of the empire had been subdued. (SFC, 12/20/96, p.B4) 1580 nend In Slovenia 6 stallions were brought from Spain to the stable at Lipica (Lipizza) by a Hapsburg duke. The breed mixed with the Karst horse, native to the region since Roman times, and with others horses to forge the Lipizzaners. (WSJ, 12/22/98, p.A16) c 1580 nend The Songhai controlled West Africa?s wealthiest empire. (ATC, p.122 ) 1580 nend The Duke of Alba invaded Portugal and put it under Spain?s rule. Spain?s Philip II was proclaimed King Philip I of Portugal and united the colonial empires of Spain and Portugal. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23)(PCh, 1992, p.200) 1581 nend Guillaume Postel, French intellectual, mathematician and Kabbalist, died. In 1957 William James Bouwsma (d.2004) authored "The Career and Thought of Guillaume Postel (1510-1581)." (Internet) 1580 1640 The Azores was occupied by Spain and bullfighting was introduced. (SFEC, 5/24/98, p.A10) 1580 1850 A Little Ice Age gripped the Northern Hemisphere during this period. (SFC, 2/10/06, p.A6) 1581 nend Jan 4, James Ussher (d.1656), Irish prelate and scholar, Archbishop of Armagh, was born. According to Ussher and Dr. John Lightfoot of Cambridge, the world was created on Oct 23, 4004BC, a Sunday, at 9 a.m. (WUD, 1994, p.1574)(NG, Nov. 1985, edit. p.559)(HN, 10/23/98)(MC,1/4/02) 1581 nend Jan 14, The city of Riga joined the Polish-Lithuanian union. (LHC, 1/14/03) 1581 nend Jan 16, English parliament passed laws against Catholicism. (MC, 1/16/02) 1581 nend Mar 1,The Warsaw government accepted the statutes of the Lithuanian high tribunal. (LHC, 3/1/03) 1581 nend Apr 4, Frances Drake completed the circumnavigation of the world and was made a knight. (HN, 4/4/98)(MC, 4/4/02) 1581 nend May 6, Frans Francken, the Younger, painter, was born. (MC, 5/6/02) 1581 nend Jun 18, Sir Thomas Overbury, English poet and courtier who became involved in numerous scandals in London, was born. (HN, 6/18/98) 1581 nend Jul 14, English Jesuit Edmund Campion was arrested. (MC, 7/14/02) 1581 nend Oct 15, Commissioned by Catherine De Medici, the 1st ballet "Ballet Comique de la Reine," was staged in Paris. (MC, 10/15/01) 1581 nend Oct 19, Dimitri Ivanovitch, Russian son of Ivan IV "the Terrible," was born. (MC, 10/19/01) 1581 nend Dec 1, Edmund Campion (41), English Jesuit was hanged drawn and quartered at Tyburn, England, for sedition, after being tortured. Other Jesuits were also executed. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23)(HN, 12/1/99)(PCh, 1992, p.200) c 1581 nend Franz Hals (d.1666), painter, was born. (WUD, 1994 p.640)(SFEC, 9/3/00, p.T7) 1581 nend Adriaen de Vries (1556-1620), Dutch sculptor, turned up in Florence and began working under the sculptor Giovanni Bologna. Here he mastered the art of bronze casting. (WSJ, 1/6/98, p.A20)(WSJ, 12/7/99, p.A24) 1581 nend The first dramatic ballet, "Ballet Comique de la Reyne," was performed at Versailles. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1581 nend The flageolet (a small flutelike instrument having a cylindrical mouthpiece, four finger holes, and two thumb holes) was invented by Sieur Juvigny. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1581 nend Converts to Roman Catholicism in England were subject by law to penalties of high treason. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1581 nend Pope Gregory XIII attempted in vain to reconcile the Roman and Orthodox churches. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1581 nend The seven northern provinces of the Netherlands renounced their allegiance to Philip II of Spain. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1581 nend The Portuguese Cortes (national assembly) submitted to Philip II of Spain. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1581 nend Akbar, Mughal Emperor of India, conquered Afghanistan. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1581 nend Stephen Bathory, King of Poland, invaded Russia. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1581 nend Russia?s Tsar Ivan IV killed his son in a dispute over his son?s bride. (HC, 9/5/04) 1581 nend Russia began the conquest of Siberia. Cossacks under Yermak subdued Vogul towns and captured a tax collector of Khan Kutchum. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23)(ON, 2/04, p.2) 1581 nend Bernal Diaz del Castillo (b.1492/93), Spanish conquistador and governor of Santiago de los Caballeros (Antigua, Guatemala), died. He wrote ?Verdadera Historia de la Conquista de Nueva España? (True History of the Conquest of New Spain) in response to claims made in the earlier work by Cortes? chaplain. It was not published until his manuscript was found in Madrid in 1632. (SSFC, 5/21/06,p.M3)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernal_Diaz_del_Castillo) 1581 nend Sweden and Poland overran Livonia (a territory that included southern Latvia and northern Estonia). (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1581 nend Galileo Galilei, Italian scientist, discovered the isochronous (equal time) swing of the pendulum by observing a swinging lamp in Pisa Cathedral. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1582 nend Jan 15, Russia ceded Livonia and Estonia to Poland, and lost access to Baltic. (MC, 1/15/02) 1582 nend Feb 24, Pope Gregory XIII issued a papal bull, or edict, outlining his calendar reforms. The old Julian Calendar had an error rate of one day in every 128 years. This was corrected in the Gregorian Calendar of Pope Gregory XIII, but Protestant countries did not accept the change till 1700 and later. [see 1552 and Oct 4, 1582] (HFA, '96, p.22)(TL-MB, 1988, p.23)(HN, 6/7/98)(SFEC, 2/20/00, Parp.7)(AP, 2/24/02) 1582 nend Apr 8, Phineas Fletcher, poet, was born. (MC, 4/8/02) 1582 nend May, Cossacks under Yermak advanced on the capital of Sibir. A coalition of 6 Tatar princes attacked them but lacked guns and were routed after several days of battle. (ON, 2/04, p.2) 1582 nend Jun 29, Tatar forces attacked invading Cossacks on the Tobol River but Cossack gunfire again repelled them. (ON, 2/04, p.2) 1582 nend Aug 10, Russia ended its 25-year war with Poland. Russia and Poland concluded the Peace of Jam-Zapolski under which Russia lost access to the Baltic and surrendered Livonia and Estonia to Poland. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23)(HN, 8/10/98) 1582 nend Sep 8, A small Belarussian-Lithuanian force overcame a larger Muscovite force. (SFC, 9/2/96, p.A12) 1582 nend Sep, Tatar forces that included Voguls and Ostiaks gathered at Mount Chyuvash to defend against invading Cossacks. (ON, 2/04, p.2) 1582 nend Oct 1, Cossacks attempted to storm the Tatar fort at Mount Chyuvash, but were held off. (ON, 2/04, p.4) 1582 nend Oct 4, The Church Council at Trent, Italy, discussed the error of 10 days in the calendar as referenced to the spring equinox which was used to establish the date for Easter. Pope Gregory announced a correction, "The Gregorian Adjustment," and had Oct. 4 followed by Oct. 15. The calendar is accurate to a day in 3,323 years. [see 1552] (K.I.-365D, p.97)(NG, March 1990, J. Boslough)(SFEC, 2/20/00, Par p.7) 1582 nend Oct 4, Theresa of Avila (b.1515), Spanish mystic writer and saint, died. She co-founded with John of the Cross (1542-1591) the Order of Discalced (barefoot) Carmelites. "Untilled ground, however rich, will bring forth thistles and thorns; so also the mind of man." (CU, 6/87)(WUD, 1994, p.769)(AP, 12/8/97)(MC, 10/4/01) 1582 nend Oct 5, The Gregorian calendar was introduced in Italy, other Catholic countries. Nothing happened. This day was skipped and became Oct 15 to bring the calendar into sync by order of the Council of Trent. In 1998 David Ewing Duncan published "Calendar: Humanity?s Epic Struggle to Determine a True and Accurate Year." In Bohemia the anti-Gregorian astronomer Michael Mestlin proclaimed that the pope was stealing 10 days from everyone?s life. [see Sep 3, 1752] (K.I.-365D, p.97)(NG, March 1990)(SFEC, 9/27/98, BR p.5)(MC, 10/5/01) 1582 nend Oct 5-14, The days when nothing happened. (SFEC, 9/27/98, BR p.5) 1582 nend Oct 15, The Gregorian (or New World) calendar was adopted in Italy, France, Luxembourg, Spain, and Portugal; and the preceding ten days were lost to history. This day followed Oct 4 to bring the calendar into sync. by order of the Council of Trent. Oct 5-14 were dropped. (K.I.-365D, p.97)(NG, March 1990, J. Boslough)(HN, 10/15/98)(SFEC,10/3/99, Par p.27) 1582 nend Oct 23, Cossacks attempted to storm the Tatar fort at Mount Chyuvash for a 4th time when the Tatars counterattacked. Over a 100 Cossacks were killed but their gunfire forced a Tatar retreat allowed the capture of 2 Tatar cannons. (ON, 2/04, p.4) 1582 nend Nov 1, Maurice of Nassau, the son of William of Orange, became the governor of Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht. (HN, 11/1/98) 1582 nend Nov 27, William Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway. (MC, 11/27/01) 1582 nend Nov, Tsar Ivan IV sent an official letter to the Stroganoff brothers accusing them of provoking the Voguls and Ostiaks by sending Yermak and his Cossacks into Siberia. (ON, 2/04, p.5) c 1582 nend Ludovico Carracci, Italian artist, painted "The Lamentation." (WSJ, 9/8/00, p.W8) 1582 nend Richard Hakluyt, English clergyman and geographer, wrote "Divers Voyages Touching the Discovery of America." (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1582 nend Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586) completed his collection of sonnets on one theme, "Astrophil and Stella." He also wrote his "Defense of Poetry" about this time. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1582 nend Joseph Scaliger devised the Julian Period as a way to measure time. He named day 1 after his father, Julius Scaliger, and it begins on Jan. 1, 4713 BC, the most recent time that the three major cycles (28 year solar cycle, 10 year lunar cycle, and the 15 year indication cycle of the Romans) begin on the same day. It will take 7,980 Julian years for the cycle to complete, the product of 28, 19 and 15. (CFA, '96,Vol 179, p.98) 1582 nend William of Orange escaped an assassination attempt. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1582 nend The Univ. of Edinburgh was founded. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1582 nend A Jesuit mission was founded in China. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1582 nend Mapmakers labeled New England in the New World as Norumbega. (SFC,12/5/97, p.C3) 1582 nend Nobunaga, ruler of Japan, was assassinated by Akechi Mitsuhide. He was succeeded by Hideyoshi, who killed Mitsuhide and carried on the work of breaking feudal power. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1582 nend In Spain Fernando Alvarez de Toledo (b.1507), military and political advisor to Philip II, died. In 2004 Henry Kamen authored ?The Duke of Alba.? (WSJ, 7/1/04, p.D8) 1583 nend Feb 9, Jeseph Sanalbo, Jewish convert in Rome, was burned at stake. (MC, 2/9/02) 1583 nend Apr 10, Hugo Grotius (d.1645) of Holland, father of international law, was born. Huig de Groot (Latinized as Hugo Grotius), Dutch jurist and statesman, is generally regarded as the founder of international law because of his influential work "On the Law of War and Peace" published in 1625. He became a member of a diplomatic mission to France at age 15 and began practicing law at 16. A liberal Protestant, de Groot became involved in religious disputes in the Netherlands and was arrested in 1618 and sentenced to life imprisonment. He escaped in 1621 and fled to Paris. He served the Swedish government as ambassador to France from 1634-1644. (HN, 4/10/98)(HNQ, 3/15/00) 1583 nend Aug 5, Humphrey Gilbert, English explorer, annexed Newfoundland in the name of Queen Elizabeth and founded the first English settlement in the New World. His colony disappeared. He drowned this same year at sea in a storm off the Azores. (HFA, '96, p.36)(TL-MB, 1988, p.23)(SFEM, 11/15/98, p.26) 1583 nend Sep 9, Girolamo Frescobaldi (d.1643, Italian composer, was born. (MC, 9/9/01)(WUD, 1994 p.568) 1583 nend Sep 24, Albrecht Eusebius Wenzel von Wallenstein, German general, was born. (MC, 9/24/01) 1583 nend Oct 30, Pirro Ligorio (83), Italian architect, painter and archaeologist, died. (MC, 10/30/01) 1583 nend Nov, Francis Throckmorton (b.1554) was arrested. He made a full confession of the Throckmorton Plot for the overthrow of Queen Elizabeth I and the restoration of papal authority in England after being tortured on the rack. [see Jul 20, 1584] (HNQ, 10/8/98) 1583 nend Albrecht Wenzel von Wallenstein (d.1634), soldier of fortune, was born. He prospered by providing armed regiments to Ferdnand, the Habsburg emperor. He acquired a fortune through marriage to an elderly widow with huge estates in Moravia. He was appointed governor of Bohemia and later was ordered killed by the emperor. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1583 nend Giovanni da Bologna completed the sculpture "The Rape of the Sabine Women" for the court of the Medicis in Florence. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1583 nend Andrea Cesalpino, Italian botanist, published "De Plantis," the first modern classification of plants. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1583 nend The painting ?Newborn Baby in a Crib? by Lavinia Fontana (1552-1614), Italian artist, was completed about this time. (WSJ, 12/23/08, p.D7)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavinia_Fontana) 1583 nend Sir Edmund Tilney, Master of the Revels, formed the Queen?s Company of Players in London. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1583 nend Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598), Japan?s unifier and folk hero, laid the foundation for Osaka Castle. It was completed in 1587. Civil war and fire destroyed the castle several times. The castle was rebuilt in 1931 and refurbished in 1997. (Hem, 9/04, p.41) 1583 nend The first known life insurance policy was issued in England on the life of Londoner William Gibbons. His life was insured for L383 6s 8d at a premium of eight per cent per annum. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1583 nend Veronica Franco, a courtesan, was later described in a 1992 dissertation titled "The Honest Courtesan: Veronica Franco, Citizen & Writer in 16th Century Venice" by Margaret F. Rosenthal. In 1997 it was made into the film "Dangerous Beauty" with Catherine McCormick. The film was set in Venice of this year during the annual courtesan festival. (SFEC, 1/4/98, DB. p.38)(SFC, 2/20/98, p.C8)(WSJ, 11/18/97, p.B1) 1583 nend Rudolf II moved the Imperial Court of the Holy Roman Empire from Vienna to Prague. (WSJ, 7/10/97, p.A13) 1583 nend The Duke of Anjou sacked Antwerp in the "French Fury," but failed to capture it and retired from the Netherlands to France. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1583 nend Galileo discovered the parabolic nature of trajectories. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1583 nend De Espejo explored along the Colorado River. (NG, 5.1988, Mem For) 1583 nend Matteo Ricci, an Italian Jesuit, entered China. He was later accused of "going native," and ignoring his mandate to spread the faith. (WSJ, 9/4/98, p.W12) 1583 nend Envoys of Yermak reached Tsar Ivan IV and presented him with valuable bundles of furs from Siberia. Ivan wrote a full pardon for Yermak and his men and promised to send reinforcements and supplies to Siberia. (ON, 2/04, p.5) 1584 nend Jan 7, This was the last day of the Julian calendar in Bohemia & Holy Roman empire. The 1582 Gregorian (or New World) calendar was adopted by this time in Belgium, most of the German Roman Catholic states and the Netherlands. (SFEC, 10/3/99, Par p.27)(MC, 1/7/02) 1584 nend Mar 18, Ivan IV (53), the terrible, Russian tsar (1547-84), died. He was succeeded by his weak-minded son, Fyodor I. Boris Godunov, Fyodor?s brother-in-law, assumed general control. During his rule Ivan replaced the sale of beer and mead with vodka at state-run taverns. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23)(MC, 3/18/02)(SFC, 9/5/03, p.A8) 1584 nend Mar 25, Sir Walter Raleigh, English explorer, courtier, and writer, renewed Humphrey Gilbert's patent to explore North America. He went on to settle the Virginia colony on Roanoke Island (North Carolina), naming it after the virgin queen. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23)(MC, 3/25/02) 1584 nend Apr 29, Melchior Teschner, composer, was born. (MC, 4/29/02) 1584 nend Jul 10, William of Orange (1533-1584), Prince of Orange (1544-1584), Count of Nassau (1559-1584), and first stadholder of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, was assassinated by Burgundian Balthasar Gerard (25) with a handgun. Philip II of Spain had called for a volunteer assassin due to William?s reluctance take a public stand on religious issues. William was succeeded by his 17-year-old son, Maurice of Nassau. In 2006 Lisa Jardine authored ?The Awful End of Prince William the Silent.? (TL-MB, 1988, p.23)(WSJ, 4/5/06, p.D8) 1584 nend Jul 20, Francis Throckmorton was executed. He was the central figure in the conspiracy involving France and Spain, which called for a French invasion of England and the release from prison of Mary, Queen of Scots. [see Nov, 1583] (HNQ, 10/8/98) 1584 nend Nov 23, The English parliament expelled the Jesuits. (MC, 11/23/01) 1584 nend Dec 4, John Cotton, English-born Puritan clergyman who wrote "The Way of the Church of Christ in New England," was born. (HN, 12/4/98) c 1584 nend Miles Standish, head of the Mayflower colonists, was born in England. His precise place of birth was still under dispute in 2004. (WSJ, 11/24/04, p.A1) 1584 nend Lavinia Fontana of Bologna painted her "Portrait of the Gozzadini Family." (SFC, 3/30/98, p.D1) 1584 nend Sir Philip Sidney began the radical revision of his pastoral romance "Arcadia." (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1584 nend The oldest surviving lighthouse (wave-swept) was begun at Cordonau, by the mouth of the Gironde River in France. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1584 nend A Dutch trading post was established at the Russian port of Archangel. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1584 nend Portugal dominated the world?s sugar trade and sold Brazilian sugar to Europe. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1584 nend A European public banking system was begun with the establishment of the Banco di Rialto in Venice. (TL-MB, 1988, p.23) 1584 nend The San Lorenzo del Escorial Palace in Madrid, begun in 1563, was completed. It was consecrated in 1586 (www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia) 1584 1652 John Cotton, US clergyman, colonist and author. (WUD, 1994, p.331) 1585 nend Apr 5, Clemens Crabbeels became bishop of Hertogenbosch. (MC, 4/5/02) 1585 nend Jun 7, English sea captain John Davis set sail from Dartmouth to search for a Northwest passage linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. (ON, 11/05, p.8) 1585 nend Jul 7, King Henri III & Duke De Guise signed the Treaty of Nemours: French Huguenots lost all freedoms. (MC, 7/7/02) 1585 nend Jul 13, A group of 108 English colonists, led by Sir Richard Grenville, reached Roanoke Island, North Carolina. Roanoke Island near North Carolina became England's first foothold in the New World. Sir Walter Raleigh sent a detachment of 108 men to build a fort on the island. The detachment included two scientists, Thomas Hariot, a surveyor, mathematician, astronomer and oceanographer, and Joachim Gans, a metallurgist. John White, English artist and surveyor, was part of the expedition. (NG, Geographica, Jan, 94)(HN, 7/13/98)(ON, 10/01, p.1) 1585 nend Jul 17, English secret service discovered Anthony Babington's murder plot against queen Elizabeth I. (MC, 7/17/02) 1585 nend Aug 7, Tatar forces of Khan Kutchum attacked a sleeping Cossack expedition under Yermak near the mouth of the Vagay River in Siberia. The Cossacks were decimated and Yermak drowned wearing a suit of armor given him by Tsar Ivan. (ON, 2/04, p.5) 1585 nend Sep 9, Duc Armand Jean du Plessis de Richelieu (d.1642), French cardinal and statesman who helped build France into a world power under the leadership of King Louis XIII, was born. He was premier of France from 1624 to 1642. (HN, 9/9/98)(MC, 9/9/01) 1585 nend Sep 9, Pope Sixtus V deprived Henry of Navarre of his rights to the French crown. (HN, 9/9/98) 1585 nend Oct 8, Heinrich Schutz, German composer, was born. [see Oct 14] (MC, 10/8/01) 1585 nend Oct 14, Heinrich Schutz, German royal chaplain master and composer (Daphne), was born. [see Oct 8] (MC, 10/14/01) 1585 nend Nov 23, Thomas Tallis, composer, died. (MC, 11/23/01) 1585 nend Dec 13, William Drummond (d.1649), Scottish poet and laird of Hawthornden, was born. His chief collection, "Poems," appeared in 1616. "He, who will not reason, is a bigot; he, who cannot, is a fool; and he, who dares not, is a slave." (HN, 12/13/99)(AP, 6/22/00) 1585 nend Dec 14, Henry IV, the first Bourbon king of France, was born. He survived the massacre of St. Bartholomew?s by proclaiming himself a Catholic. (HN, 12/14/99) 1585 nend Archduke Karl II, ruler of Styria in eastern Austria, granted the Faculties of Arts and Catholic Theology in Graz an official Univ. charter. He entrusted the Jesuits with the administration. (StuAus, April '95, p.53) 1585 nend The Jesuits founded a university in Graz, Austria. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1585 nend Archbishop of Mexico, Pedro Moya de Contreras, dispatched Spanish captain Francisco Gali to proceed to Manila from Acapulco, and "to reconnoiter down the coast" on his return trip. (SFC,10/17/97, p.A25) 1585 nend An obelisk that had been brought from Egypt to Rome by the emperor Caligula was erected at the Vatican. (RFH-MDHP, p.213, illustration) 1585 nend The War of the Three Henries [Henry III, Henry of Guise, and Henry of Navarre] began when Henry of Navarre, a Huguenot, became heir to the French throne. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1585 nend Elizabeth extended her protection to The Netherlands against Spain to avenge the murder of William of Orange. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1585 nend Antwerp was sacked by the Duke of Parma, resulting in long-lasting loss of trade for that port. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1585 nend Francis Drake attacked the Spanish ports of Vigo and Santo Domingo. English shipping in Spanish ports was then confiscated as a virtual declaration of war by Spain. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1585 nend Sir Francis Drake sailed through the Virgin Islands to plunder Spanish ships. (NG, Jan, 1968, C. Mitchell, p. 69) 1585 nend Simon Stevin, Dutch mathematician and military and civil engineer, introduces decimals into the mathematical calculations of his physics in Die Thiende. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1585 nend The Dutch used the first time-bombs in floating mines actuated by clockwork at the siege of Antwerp. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1585 nend Bartholomew Newsam built the earliest surviving English spring-driven clocks. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1585 nend John Davis, English explorer, discovered the strait named after him between Greenland and Canada. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1585 nend Hideyoshi in Japan established a dictatorship. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24)(Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215) 1585 nend The ruler of Morocco captured the Songhai?s salt mines in Taghaza and puts his eye on the Songhai source of gold. (ATC, p.122) 1585 nend Luca Cambiaso (b.1527), Genovese Renaissance painter, died in San Lorenzo de El Escorial, Spain, where he was working under commission for King Phillip II. (www.artnet.com/artist/3516/luca-cambiaso.html) 1586 nend Jan 1, Francis Drake, who left England on a new voyage to America last September, made a surprise attack on the heavily fortified city of Santo Domingo in Hispaniola, forcing the governor to pay a large ransom. (HN, 1/1/99) 1586 nend Jun 19, English colonists sailed from Roanoke Island, N.C., after failing to establish England's first permanent settlement in America. (AP, 6/19/97) 1586 nend Jan 20, Johann Hermann Schein, German composer (Fontana d'Israel), was born. (MC, 1/20/02) 1586 nend Jan 25, Lucas Cranach "the Younger" (70), German painter, died. (MC, 1/25/02) 1586 nend Feb 8, Jacob Praetorius, composer, was born. (MC, 2/8/02) 1586 nend Apr 11, Pietro Della Valle, composer, was born. (MC, 4/11/02) 1586 nend Apr 17, John Ford (d.1640), English dramatist ('Tis Pity She's a Whore), was born. (WUD, 1994 p.554)(MC, 4/17/02) 1586 nend May 7, English sea captain John Davis set sail from Dartmouth with 3 ships in a 2nd attempt to find a Northwest passage linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. When Davis returned in October he learned that one ship, the North Star, had been lost with all hands in a gale near the coast of Ireland. (ON, 11/05, p.9) 1586 nend Jun 18, English colonists sailed from Roanoke Island, N.C., after failing to establish England's first permanent settlement in America. The Roanoke colonists returned to England with 2 friendly Indians. They left behind 15 well-provisioned men to maintain the English claim. (AP, 6/18/07)(ON, 10/01, p.1) 1586 nend Jun 23, Sir Francis Drake encountered the Roanoke Island Hurricane off the Atlantic coast. Harsh weather caused Drake to evacuate the settlers back to England. (SFC, 6/23/09, p.D8) 1586 nend Jul 27, Sir Walter Raleigh returned to England from Virginia with the 1st samples of tobacco. (HN, 7/27/01)(MC, 7/27/02) 1586 nend Jul 28, Sir Thomas Harriot introduced potatoes to Europe. (SC, 7/28/02) 1586 nend Sep 10, Hans Hannibal Hutter von Hutterhofen, Austrian nobleman, was born. Johannes Kepler later drew up his horoscope. (SFC, 3/3/99, p.A7) 1586 nend Sep 20, Anthony Babington, page and conspirator to Mary Stuart, was executed at 24. (MC 9/20/01) 1586 nend Oct 14, Mary, Queen of Scots, went on trial in England, accused of committing treason against Queen Elizabeth the First. Mary was beheaded in February 1587. (AP, 10/14/06) 1586 nend Oct 17, Philip Sidney (b.1554), English poet and diplomat, died in battle at 32. His work included "Astrophel and Stella" and "Defense of Poesy." In 2002 Alan Stewart authored "Philip Sidney: A Double Life." (MC, 10/17/01)(SSFC, 1/20/02, p.M4) 1586 nend Adriaen de Vries left Florence for Milan where he began working on the high altar for the Escorial near Madrid. (WSJ, 1/8/99, p.C13) 1586 nend El Greco began to paint "The Burial of Count Orgaz." This depicted the miracle of the saintly count?s funeral, where St. Augustine and St. Stephen personally descend from heaven to bury the corpse with their own hands. (TL-MB, p.24)(WSJ, 11/6/03, p.D10) 1586 nend In Japan Kabuki theater began. [see 1603] (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1586 nend The Lateran Church of St. John, Rome, was rebuilt on the orders of Pope Sixtus V, who succeeded the late Gregory XIII. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1586 nend In America relations with the local Indians soured after the English soldiers attacked a village, and soon the English returned home. (NG, Geographica, Jan, 94) 1586 nend Sir Francis Walsingham, principal secretary to Queen Elizabeth I, uncovered a conspiracy by Mary, Queen of Scots, that called for a rebellion of Catholics, the landing of a foreign army and the assassination of the queen. (WSJ, 8/17/05, p.D14) 1586 nend Ralph Fitch, the first Englishman to record his impressions of Burma, took note of the qualities of the Schwedagon. Archeologists later said the 320-foot high golden pagoda was built in the 10th century by the Mon people. (WSJ, 2/23/08, p.W14) 1586 nend Akbar, the greatest Mughal Emperor of India, attempted to establish "Din Illahl" as a universal religion acceptable to his many Hindu subjects. The movement eventually collapsed under the 18th-century Muslim revival. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1586 nend In Mexico the Mina El Eden (Eden Mine) opened in Zacateca. It yielded a bounty of silver, gold, iron and zinc for over 3 centuries. (SFEC, 11/10/96, p.T3) 1586 nend Spanish Captain Francisco Gali died in Manila and Pedro de Unamuno took command of his 2 ships to return to Acapulco. He stopped in Macao where his ships were confiscated by the Portuguese. He obtained a loan from Father Martin Ignacio de Loyola, the nephew of the founder of the Jesuit order, and purchased a small ship to return to Acapulco with 2 priests, a few soldiers, and a crew of Luzon Indians. (SFC,10/17/97, p.A25) 1586 nend Stephen Bathory, King of Poland, died and was succeeded by Sigismund III. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1586 nend The Turks attacked the Hungarian fortress at Eger again. The mercenary occupants capitulated. (Hem., 6/98, p.126) 1586 1618 In Chile the San Francisco Church was built in Santiago. (SFEC, 10/27/96, p.T8) 1587 nend Jan 8, Johannes Fabricius, astronomer who discovered sunspots, was born in Denmark. (HN, 1/8/99)(MC, 1/8/02) 1587 nend Feb 1, Elizabeth I, Queen of England, signed the Warrant of Execution for Mary Queen of Scots. (HN, 2/1/99) 1587 nend Feb 8, Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots (1560-67), was beheaded at age 44 in Fotheringhay Castle for her alleged part in the conspiracy to usurp Elizabeth I. In 2004 Jane Dunn authored "Elizabeth and Mary: Cousins, Rivals, Queens." In 2006 studies identified an oil painting of Mary as the only one made of Mary as queen. (HN, 2/8/99)(PCh, 1992, p.203)(USAT, 2/5/04, p.5D)(SFC, 8/18/06, p.E2) 1587 nend Mar 1, Peter Wentworth, English parliament leader, was confined in London Tower. [see Mar 12] (SC, 3/1/02) 1587 nend Mar 12, Peter Wentworth, English parliament leader, was confined in London Tower. [see Mar 1] (MC, 3/12/02) 1587 nend Apr 19, Sir Frances Drake sailed into Cadiz, Spain, and sank the Spanish fleet. (MC, 4/19/02) 1587 nend May 18, Felix van Cantalice, Italian saint, died. (SC, 5/18/02) 1587 nend May 19, English sea captain John Davis set sail from Dartmouth with 3 ships in a 3rd unsuccessful attempt to find a Northwest passage linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. 2 ships spent the journey fishing and managed to cover expenses. (ON, 11/05, p.9) 1587 nend Jul 22, A second English colony of 114-150 people under John White, financed by Sir Walter Raleigh, was established on Roanoke Island off North Carolina. The colony included 17 women and 9 children. Croatoan Indians informed them that Roanoke Indians had killed the men from the previous expedition. A three-year draught, the worst in 800 years, peaked during this time. (AP, 7/22/97)(SFC, 4/24/98, p.A3)(SFEM, 11/15/98, p.23)(ON, 10/01, p.1) 1587 nend Jul 25, Japanese shogun Toyotomi Hideyoshi banned Christianity in Japan and ordered all Christians to leave. Although the order was not immediately enforced. A decade later, the crackdown began, and 26 Christians were crucified. (HN, 7/25/98)(AP, 11/21/08) 1587 nend Aug 13, Gov. White rewarded Manteo, a Croatoan Indian who had accompanied him to England and back, for his many services and declared him Lord of the Roanoke and Dasamonquepeio. (ON, 10/01, p.2) 1587 nend Aug 14, Gugliemo Gonzaga (b.1538), Italian composer, died. (MC, 8/14/02) 1587 nend Aug 18, In the Roanoke Island colony, Ellinor and Ananias Dare became parents of a baby girl whom they name Virginia Dare, the first English child born on what is now Roanoke Island, N.C., then considered Walter Raleigh?s second settlement in Roanoke, Virginia. Virginia Dare, born to the daughter of John White, became the first child of English parents to be born on American soil. However, the colony she was born into ended up mysteriously disappearing. (HN, 8/18/98)(PC, 1992, p.203)(AP, 8/18/07) 1587 nend Aug 19, Sigismund III was chosen to be the king of Poland. (HN, 8/19/98) 1587 nend Oct 17, Francesco de' Medici (46) died 11 days after he fell ill and a few hours before his wife. In 2007 forensic experts reported evidence that they had died of arsenic poisoning. Francesco had ruled from 1574. By all accounts his wife had been his mistress while he was married to his first wife, who is also believed to have died of poisoning. (AP, 1/3/07) 1587 nend Oct 18, Spanish Captain Pedro de Unamuno discovered California. He landed at a place he called Port San Lucas, later identified as Morro Bay City, while sailing from Macao to Acapulco with a crew of Luzon Indians. (SFC,10/17/97, p.A25) 1587 nend Oct 20, In France, Huguenot Henri de Navarre routed Duke de Joyeuse's larger Catholic force at Coutras. (HN, 10/20/98) 1587 nend Nov 3, Samuel Scheidt, composer, was born. (MC, 11/3/01) 1587 nend Nov 4, Samuel Scheidt, German organist and composer, was baptized. (MC, 11/4/01) 1587 nend Nicholas Hilliard painted the miniature "Young Man Among Roses." (SFEC, 12/1/96, BR p.4) 1587 nend Giles Everard, a Dutch doctor, authored ?Panacea,? extolling the virtues of tobacco. The Latin version was made available in English in 1659. (WSJ, 11/22/08, p.W11) 1587 nend A collection of stories about the ancient magi appeared. These stories had been retold during the Middle Ages about such reputed wizards as Merlin, Albertus Magnus, and Roger Bacon. In the first Faustbuch all of these deeds were attributed to Faust... According to the story, Faust had sold his soul to the devil, and he would have to pay for his triumphs by suffering eternal damnation. (V.D.-H.K.p.238) 1587 nend Johann Spies completed the "Historia von D. Johann Fausten," the first published version of the Faust legend. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1587 nend Christopher Marlowe?s "Tamburlaine the Great" was first produced on stage and published three years later. Marlowe established blank verse as a dramatic form. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1587 nend In London the open-air Rose Theater was built. It was demolished after 1606 when the Globe Theater surpassed it in popularity. An office building, later constructed over the site, was suspended by girders to preserve the site. Its exact location was lost until 1989. (SFC, 4/15/99, p.E5)(Econ, 5/21/05, p.89) 1587 nend Claudio Monteverdi, Italian composer, published his first book of madrigals. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1587 nend An early collection of Jewish songs was published in Zeminoth, Israel. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1587 nend Inigo Jones, English architect and theatrical designer, began building Cobham Hall in Kent. It was finished by the Adam brothers. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1587 nend In London the open-air Rose Theater was built. It was demolished after 1606 when the Globe Theater surpassed it in popularity. An office building, later constructed over the site, was suspended by girders to preserve the site. (SFC, 4/15/99, p.E5) 1587 nend Virginia was initially called Windgancon, meaning "what gay clothes you wear." The names Cape Fear, Cape Hatteras, the Chowan and Neuse rivers, Chesapeake and Virginia, were all names that date to the first colony there. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.23) 1587 nend Osaka Castle, Japan, whose foundation had been laid by Hideyoshi in 1583 was completed with the help of 30,000 workers. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1587 nend The Rialto Bridge in Venice was begun by the Italian architect, Antonio da Ponte. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1587 nend Pope Sixtus V proclaimed a Catholic crusade for the invasion of England. Philip II prepared an invasion fleet but was interrupted by Francis Drake, who "singed the king?s beard" by burning 10,000 tons of shipping in Cadiz harbor. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1587 nend Portuguese missionaries were banned from Japan by Hideyoshi. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1587 nend Sir Edward Stafford, English ambassador in Paris, contacted the Spanish ambassador and offered to provide news of Queen Elizabeth?s plans and to offer the English disinformation concerning Spanish plans. Stafford?s brother-in-law was Lord Howard Effingham, commander in chief of the English fleet. (WSJ, 11/24/98, p.A20) 1587 nend Hai Rui (b.1514), Chinese statesman during the mid Ming dynasty, died. He is still revered as an impartial judge, reputed to be an honest and fearless official, who dared to give controversial advice to the emperor. He later became subject of a 1960s play, "Hai Rui Dismissed from Office," that provided Mao Zedong with the pretext to launch the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. (www.chinaetravel.com/attraction/att10a.html)(http://tinyurl.com/cwsrs) 1587 nend Abbas I (16) became Shah of Persia following the forced abdication of his father, Shah Muhammad Khodabandeh. A revolt by Qizilbash leaders finally removed Khodabandeh from power and installed his son Abbas as shah. no_source 1587 nend Mohammad Khodabandeh, Shah of Persia, died. (PC, 1992 ed, p.203) 1587 1590 The Lost Colony of Roanoke Island disappeared during this period. It consisted of 116 colonists and included Virginia Dare, the first English child born in the New World. When the Roanoke Island colony was running out of supplies, John White was sent back to England for help. His return was delayed by the Spanish Armada?s attacks against England. When he arrived on Roanoke Island in 1591, the only trace of the colonists were the cryptic messages "CRO" and "CROATOAN" carved on a tree and a palisade post, respectively. (NG, Geographica, Jan, 94)(HNQ, 7/3/00) 1587 1945 A 3-volume history of Americans of this period was completed by J.C. Furnas (d.2001 at 95) in 1991. (SFC, 6/14/01, p.A27) 1588 nend Jan 28, King Sigismund Vaza upheld the 3rd Lithuanian Statute that until 1795 stood as the fundamental code of law. In practice it was active until 1840. (LHC, 1/28/03) 1588 nend Feb 12, John Winthrop, English attorney, puritan, 1st gov of Massachusetts Bay Colony, was born. (HN, 1/12/99)(MC, 2/12/02) 1588 nend Feb, King Philip II (61) appointed Don Alonzo Perez de Guzman el Bueno (37), the Duke of Medina Sedonia, as Captain General of the High Seas and ordered him to take charge of the Spanish Armada. Philip intended to restore England to Catholicism (ON, 3/02, p.1) 1588 nend Apr 5, Thomas Hobbes (d.1679), English philosopher (Leviathan), was born. "The reputation of power IS power." (HN, 5/5/97)(AP, 5/31/99) 1588 nend Apr 9, Paolo Veronese (b.1528), Italian painter, died in Venice. His paintings included ?The Choice Between Virtue and Vice.? He was the son of sculptor Gabriele Caliari. (WSJ, 6/15/06, p.D7)(http://cgfa.sunsite.dk/veronese/veronese_bio.htm) 1588 nend May 9, Duke Henri de Guise's troops occupied Paris. (MC, 5/9/02) 1588 nend May 11, The Spanish Armada of 130 ships with 30,000 men left Lisbon for England. [see May 19] (ON, 3/02, p.2) 1588 nend May 12, King Henry II fled Paris after Catholic League under duke Henry of Guise entered the city. The people of Paris rose against Henry III, who fled to Chartres. Seven months later he had Henry of Guise and his brother, Cardinal de Guise, assassinated. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24)(HN, 5/12/98)(MC, 5/12/02) 1588 nend May 19, The Spanish Armada set sail to Lisbon bound for England; it was soundly defeated by the English fleet the following August. [see May 11] (AP, 5/19/97)(DTnet, 5/19/97) 1588 nend May 30, Spanish Armada under Medina-Sidonia departed Lisbon to invade England. (MC, 5/30/02) 1588 nend Jul 20-22, The Spanish Armada, after month in Corunna, set sail for England. The Duke of Medina Sedonia sailed in the flagship San Martin with Admiral Juan Martinez de Recalde. (HN, 7/20/01)(ON, 3/02, p.2) 1588 nend Jul 23, English army assembled at Tilbury to repel invasion of England by Spanish Armada. (AP, 7/23/97) 1588 nend Jul 26, Captain John Hawkins was knighted by Queen Elizabeth. (MC, 7/26/02) 1588 nend Jul 27, The Spanish anchored off Calais in a crescent-shaped, tightly-packed defensive formation, not far from Parma's army of 16,000, which was waiting at Dunkirk. (http://wapedia.mobi/en/Spanish_Armada#1.1.) 1588 nend Jul 29, At midnight of July 28th the English set eight fireships (filled with pitch, gunpowder, and tar) alight and sent them downwind among the closely-anchored Spanish vessels. The English attacked the Spanish Armada in the Battle of Gravelines, resulting in an English victory. (ON, 3/02, p.3)(http://wapedia.mobi/en/Spanish_Armada#1.1.)(AP, 7/29/08) 1588 nend Jul 30, The English exchanged fire with the Spanish Armada. (ON, 3/02, p.3) 1588 nend Aug 1, Sir Francis Drake captured the Nuestra Senora del Rosario, one of the largest Spanish Armada galleons. (ON, 3/02, p.4) 1588 nend Aug 2, The English and Spanish fleets exchanged fire all day. The English used up all their ammunition and sailed into nearby ports. (ON, 3/02, p.4) 1588 nend Aug 4, The English and Spanish fleets exchanged fire all day off the Isle of Wight. (ON, 3/02, p.4) 1588 nend Aug 8, The English Navy destroyed the Spanish Armada. 600 Spaniards were killed in the day?s fighting and 800 badly injured. The Duke of Medina Sidonia led the "invincible" Spanish Armada from Lisbon against England. It was shattered around the coasts of the English Isles by an English fleet under the command of Lord Howard of Effingham with the help of Sir Francis Drake, Sir John Hawkins, and a violent storm (see Aug 18). The victory opened the world for English trade and colonization. In 1959 Garrett Mattingly authored ?The Armada.? In 1998 Geoffrey Parker published "The Grand Strategy of Phillip II." In 2005 Neil Janson authored ?The Confident Hope of a Miracle: The True Story of the Spanish Armada,? and James McDermott authored ?England & the Spanish Armada: The necessary Quarrel.? (ON, 3/02, p.5)(SSFC, 2/20/05, p.B2)(Econ, 5/28/05, p.85) 1588 nend Aug 10, The remnants of the Spanish Armada sailed north to avoid the English fleet. (ON, 3/02, p.6) 1588 nend Aug 18, A storm struck the remaining 60 ships of the Spanish Armada under the Duke of Medina Sidonia after which only 11 were left. Many of the ships went to Ireland where most of the Spaniards were killed by the English. 600 Spaniards wrecked in Scotland were later returned to Spain. In 1978 Niall Fallon authored "The Armada in Ireland." (ON, 3/02, p.6) 1588 nend Sep 10, Nicholas Lanier, composer, was born. (MC, 9/10/01) 1588 nend Sep 10, Thomas Cavendish returned to England, becoming the third man to circumnavigate the globe. (HN, 9/10/98) 1588 nend Sep 21, Medina Sidonia's Spanish Armada flagship, the San Martin, arrived at Santander, Spain. Almost half of the 130 ships were lost. 20k of 30k men died. 1,500 died in battle, the rest from shipwreck, massacre, starvation or disease. In 1981 David Howarth authored "The Voyage of the Armada." In 1988 Peter Kemp authored "The Campaign of the Spanish Armada." (ON, 3/02, p.6) 1588 nend Sep 25, A heavy storm drove 3 Spanish ships onto the coast of Ireland. Francisco de Cuellar, an officer on the galleon Lavia, spent the next 6 months evading English forces and getting to Scotland and then the Netherlands. His letter from Antwerp to King Philip on Oct 4, 1589, was later valued for its descriptions of Ireland. (ON, 5/02, p.12) 1588 nend Oct 23, Medina Sidonia's Spanish Armada returned to Santander. [see Sep 21] (MC, 10/23/01) 1588 nend Dec 23, Henri de Guise (37), French leader of Catholic League, was murdered. (MC, 12/23/01) 1588 nend Dec, Sir William Fitzwilliam, the English Lord Deputy of Ireland, planned an attack against the McClancy clan led by chieftain Dartry. Francisco de Cuellar and a group of stranded Spanish Armada soldiers successfully held the clan?s Rossclogher Castle under a 17-day siege. (ON, 5/02, p.11) 1588 nend An eye-witness account of the New World was provided by "A Briefe and True Account of the New Found Land of Virginia," written by Thomas Harriot. It recounted English attempts from 1584-1588 to colonize what later became known as eastern North Carolina and encouraged further settlement and investment there. In 1590 Flemish engraver Theodor de Bry published an illustrated edition featuring paintings by English colonist John White. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24)(Arch, 5/05, p.26) 1588 nend The first shorthand manual, "An Arte of Shorte, Swifte, and Secrete Writing by Character," was published by English clergyman Timothy Bright. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1588 nend The Bible was translated into Welsh by Bishop William Morgan. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1588 nend A volume of funeral orations for Duke August of Saxony and his wife was published. (Econ, 1/20/07, p.93) 1588 nend Domenico Fontana, Italian architect and engineer, completed the Vatican library in Rome. He also completed the cupola and lantern of St. Peter?s in Rome. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1588 nend The British started trading with the Gambians. (http://www.nationbynation.com/Gambia/history2.html) 1588 nend Tycho Brahe, Danish astronomer, had his financial support cut by a new Danish king and moved to Prague where his student, Johannes Kepler, aided him and to whom he left all his astronomical data. (V.D.-H.K.p.197) 1588 nend Frederick II of Denmark died and was succeeded by his 10 year-old son, Christian IV. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1588 nend Jacques Le Moyne de Morgues (b.~1533), French artist, died in England. He had painted watercolors of the flora and fauna of Florida, which were lost during a Spanish attack in 1565. Back in France he created new paintings, which were also lost, but engravings made by a Flemish publisher survived. In 2008 Miles Harvey authored ?Painter in a Savage Land.? (WSJ, 7/18/08,p.W8)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Le_Moyne_de_Morgues) 1588 1629 Hendrick ter Brugghen was an artist of the Utrecht School. His paintings included: "St. Sebastian Tended by Irene." (SFEM, 8/31/97, p.7) 1588 1652 Giuseppe de Ribera, painter. He painted "St. Jerome." (AAP, 1964) 1588 1653 Sir Robert Filmer, author of "Patriarcha," a vindication of the absolute right of kingship. The book was used in the 1670s to shore up proponents for the so-called divine right of kings. (V.D.-H.K.p.219) 1589 nend Jan 5, Catherine de Medici (b.1519), Queen Mother of France, died at age 69. In 2005 Leonie Frieda authored ?Catherine de Medici: Renaissance Queen of France.? (TL-MB, 1988, p.24)(AP, 1/5/98)(WSJ, 8/10/05, p.D12) 1589 nend Mar 19, William Bradford, governor of Plymouth colony for 30 years, was born (baptized). (HN, 3/19/98)(MC, 3/19/02) 1589 nend Aug 1, Monk Jacques Clement attempted to murder French King Hendrik III. [see Aug 2] (MC, 8/1/02) 1589 nend Aug 2, Henry III, King of France, was assassinated by a Jacobin monk, Jacques Clement. Last of the House of Valois, he named Henry (1553-1610), King of Navarre, to succeed him. During France's religious war, a fanatical monk stabbed King Henry II to death. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24)(WUD, 1994, p.662)(HN, 8/2/98) 1589 nend Aug 10, Pietro Antonio Tamburini, Italian composer, was born. (MC, 8/10/02) 1589 nend Sep 21, The Duke of Mayenne of France, head of the Catholic League, was defeated by Henry IV of England at the Battle of Arques. (HN, 9/21/98)(MC, 9/21/01) 1589 nend Oct 4, Francisco de Cuellar, a Spanish Armada officer from the wrecked galleon Lavia, wrote a letter from Antwerp to King Philip that was later valued for its descriptions of Ireland. He had spent 6 months evading English forces to get to Scotland where after 6 more months he reached the Netherlands. (ON, 5/02, p.12) 1589 nend Michelangelo Merisi de Caravaggio, Italian artist and leader of the Naturist movement, made skilful use of light in his Bacchus to bring into focus many details of suggestive power. He painted the "Beheading of St. John" that was kept in Malta and sent to Florence for restoration. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24)(SFC, 6/11/96, p.E2) 1589 nend Thomas Nashe, English satirical pamphleteer and dramatist, wrote "Anatomie of Absurdities," a criticism of contemporary literature. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1589 nend Richard Hakluyt wrote the "Principle Navigations, Voyages and Discoveries of the English Nation." (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1589 nend Thoinot Arbeau published "Orchesographie," an early treatise on dancing, with tunes. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1589 nend Francis Drake with 150 ships and 18,000 men failed in his attempt to capture Lisbon. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1589 nend Bernard Palissey, a Huguenot, expressed the opinion that fossils were the remains of living creatures. He was locked up in the dungeons of the Bastille for his opinions and died there. (SFC, 9/20/97, p.E3) 1589 nend William Lee, English clergyman, invented the stocking frame, the first knitting machine. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1589 nend Sir John Harrington, Elizabethan poet, designed the first water closet and installed it at his country house near Bath. In 1596 he installed one at the palace of his godmother Queen Elizabeth I. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24)(SFC, 7/14/99, p.3) 1589 nend Boris Godunov asserted Moscow?s Independence from Constantinople. (TL-MB, 1988, p.24) 1589 nend The first Russian patriarch, lov, was consecrated by Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias of Constantinople under pressure from Boris Godunov, the brother-in-law of Feodor, the Russian Tsar. (WSJ, 7/16/97, p.A23) 1589 1610 Henry (1553-1610), King of Navarre, as Henry IV became the first Bourbon King of France, Henry the Great. He switched from Protestantism to Catholicism. "Paris is well worth a Mass." (TL-MB, 1988, p.24)(WUD, 1994, p.662)(Hem., 1/97, p.101) 1590 nend Mar 4, Mauritius of Nassau's ship reached Breda, Netherlands. (SC, 3/4/02) 1590 nend Apr 6, Francis Walsingham (b.~1532), English secretary of state, died. He had ensnared Mary, Queen of the Scots and forced her execution. He is remembered as the "spymaster" of Queen Elizabeth I of England. In 2007 Robert Hutchinson authored ?Elizabeth?s Spymaster: Francis Walsingham and the Secret War That Saved England.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Walsingham)(WSJ, 7/26/08, p.W8) 1590 nend Apr 18, Ahmed I, 14th sultan of Turkey (1603-17), was born. (MC, 4/18/02) 1590 nend Apr 25, The Sultan of Morocco launched his successful attack to capture Timbuktu. Morocco sent 4,000 soldiers under the Muslim Spaniard Judar Pasha to conquer Songhai. After a five month journey across the Shara, Pasha arrived with only 1,000 men, but his soldiers carried guns. The 25,000 men of the Songhai were no match for the guns and Gao, Timbuktu and most of Songhai fall. (ATC, p.122)(HN, 4/25/98) 1590 nend Jul 6, English admiral Francis Drake took the Portuguese Forts at Taag, Angola. (MC, 7/6/02) 1590 nend Aug 15, A fleet commanded by John Wattes arrived at the Outer Banks of the Carolinas. Roanoke Gov. John White was a passenger in the fleet. (ON, 10/01, p.3) 1590 nend Aug 16, Captain Spicer and 6 men drowned when their landing boat capsized in heavy surf off Roanoke Island. (ON, 10/01, p.3) 1590 nend Aug 17, John White, the leader of 117 colonists sent in 1587 to Roanoke Island (North Carolina) to establish a colony, returned from a trip to England to find the settlement deserted. No trace of the settlers was ever found. White returned to England and died there around 1606. (ON, 10/01, p.4)(HN, 8/18/02) 1590 nend Oct 16, Carlo Gesualdo (~1566-1613), prince of Venosa, murdered his bride and her lover after catching them in flagrante delicto. In 1995 Werner Herzog covered this in his purported documentary ?Death for Five Voices.? In 2010 Glenn Watkins authored ?The Gesualdo Hex: Music, Myth, and Memory.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo_Gesualdo)(Econ, 1/23/10, p.79) 1590 nend Nov 8, Francesco Gonzaga, composer, was born. (MC, 11/8/01) 1590 nend Dec 20, Ambroise Pare (80), French surgeon, died. (MC, 12/20/01) 1590 nend In Prague Adriaen de Vries began his sculpture "Psyche Born Aloft by Putti." It was completed in 1592. (WSJ, 12/7/99, p.A24) 1590 nend Sir Philip Sidney, brother to the second Countess of Pembroke, composed his prose romance ?Arcadia.? In 2008 the idea of Arcadia was examined by Adam Nicolson in his book ?Earls of Paradise: England and the Dream of Perfection.? (www.luminarium.org/renlit/sidbib.htm) 1590 nend Fray Jose de Acosta, Spanish Jesuit priest, authored ?Historia Natural y Moral de las Indies.? In it he suggested that the Americas were populated by people from Asia. (Arch, 9/00, p.72) 1590 nend The microscope was invented. (SFC, 8/16/97, p.E3) 1590 nend Bernard Pallissy (b.1510), French ceramicist, painter and writer, died. Pallisy produced his designs by attaching casts of dead lizards, snakes, and shellfish to traditional ceramic forms such as basins, ewers, and plates. He then painted these wares in blue, green, purple, and brown, and glazed them with runny lead-based glaze to increase their watery realism. The style became known as Pallisy ware. (www.palissy.com/) 1590 nend Prince Naresuan (35) became King upon the death of his father (the puppet monarch). Naresuan continued to drive the Burmese from the Kingdom of Ayutthaya (Siam-Thailand). (www.chiangmai-chiangrai.com/two-great-kings.html) 1590 nend s A six paneled screen painting by Kano Eitoku depicted mythological Chinese lions. (WSJ, 9/25/96, p.A20) c 1590 1600 In late 16th century Prague Rabbi Judah Bezalel Loew, the Maharal, used clay and the mysticism of the Kabbalah to fashion the Golem, a human-like creature to help avenge Jewish persecution. (WSJ, 4/17/02, p.D7) 1591 nend Mar 1, Pope Gregory XIV threatened to excommunicate French king Henri IV. (SC, 3/1/02) 1591 nend May 15, Dimitri Ivanovitch (9), Russian son of czar Ivan IV, was murdered. (MC, 5/15/02) 1591 nend Jun 21, Aloysius [Luigi] Gonzaga, Prince, Italian Jesuit saint, died. (MC, 6/21/02) 1591 nend Jul 20, Anne Hutchinson, religious liberal who was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony for her views, was born. (HN, 7/20/98) 1591 nend Aug 24, Robert Herrick, English poet (Gather ye rosebuds) was baptized. (MC, 8/24/02) 1591 nend Sep 12, Richard Grenville (b.1542), English vice-admiral and cousin of Sir. Walter Ralegh, died in battle against Spanish ships at age 49. He made 2 voyages to Roanoke Island in 1585 and 1586. (MC, 9/12/01)(www.nps.gov/fora/grenville.htm) 1591 nend Sep 21, French bishops recognized Henri IV as king of France. (MC, 9/21/01) 1591 nend Dec 14, San Juan de la Cruz (b.1542), Spanish poet, died. He is remembered for his treatise ?Dark Night of the Soul.? (SSFC, 9/3/06, p.M3)(www.newadvent.org/cathen/08480a.htm) 1591 nend Giuseppe Arcimboldo painted a portrait of Emperor Rudolf II as Vertumnus, the Roman god of seasons. (WSJ, 9/9/06, p.P9) 1591 nend Flemish engraver Theodor de Bry published ?A Brief Narration of Those Things Which Befell the French in the Province of Florida? in Latin and Germany editions. It focused on the 1564-1565 French settlement of Fort Caroline. The book included 42 engravings said to be based on water color paintings by Jacques de Moyne de Morgues (d.1588), who had accompanied the French expedition. Moyne also provided a narrative and a map. In 1946 Stefan Lorant translated Moyne?s text into English and reproduced his engravings and map in ?The New World.? (Arch, 5/05, p.28) 1591 nend Korean Admiral Yi Sun Sin (1545-1598) developed his ironclad "turtle ships.? They were characterized by multiple canons and a fully covered deck designed to deflect cannon fire and keep enemy combatants from boarding. (LSA, Spring, 2009, p.17) 1591 nend Philip II of Spain bought the Hieronymus Bosch painting "the Garden of Earthly Delights." It hung in the Escorial from this time to 1939 when it was moved to the Prado. (WSJ, 8/25/98, p.A12) 1591 nend Moroccan invaders sacked Timbuktu (Mali). (AM, 7/04, p.36) 1591 nend The encierro (running of the bulls) at Pamplona, Spain, began as a means of moving the bulls to the bull fighting arena. It became known as Los San Fermines. [see 1521] (SSFC, 6/16/02, p.C6)(SSFC, 7/7/02, p.A2) 1592 nend Jan 5, Shah Jahan, Mughal emperor of India (1628-58), was born. He later built the Taj Mahal. (MC, 1/5/02) 1592 nend Mar 10, Michiel Coxcie, Flemish court painter, carpet designer, died. (MC, 3/10/02) 1592 nend Apr 14, Abraham Elsevier, book publisher, was born. (MC, 4/14/02) 1592 nend Apr 28, George Villiers, 1st duke of Buckingham, English admiral, was born. (MC, 4/28/02) 1592 nend Aug 3, The Earl of Cumberland, et al, took the Madre de Dios, A Spanish carrack carrying the largest treasure ever captured for Queen Elizabeth. The earl?s sailors got out of hand and looted items intended for the queen, including a large diamond which eventually found its way to Goldsmith?s Row, London. (AOL, tlc@shore.net) 1592 nend Sep 13, Michel Eyquem de Montaigne, French philosopher (L'Amiti), died at 59. (MC, 9/13/01) 1592 nend Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593), English dramatist and poet. He wrote "The Tragical History of Dr. Faustus." (WUD, 1994, p.878) 1592 nend De Plantis Aegypti by Prosper Alpini published the first picture of a coffee plant. (WSJ, 7/7/98, p.A14) 1592 nend Juan de Fuca, a Greek sailing for Spain, sailed into a strait that later became the border between Canada?s Vancouver Island, BC, and the Olympic Peninsula of Washington state. The waterway was later named the Strait of Juan de Fuca. (NG, 7/04, p.66) 1592 nend Trinity College in Dublin, Ireland, was founded after small group of Dublin citizens obtained a charter from Queen Elizabeth incorporating Trinity College juxta Dublin. (www.tcd.ie/info/trinity/history/) 1592 nend Toyotomi Hideyoshi sent an army to invade Korea after Korea refused to help him invade China. This set off a war that lasted 6 years. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215)(www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Article/455711) no_source 1592 nend Korea defenders led by Gen. Jeong Mun-bu scored a victory over an invading Japanese army at Bukgwan. A monument with a description of the fight was raised a century later. During the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-1905 a Japanese general shipped the monument to Japan where it was set in the Yasukuni shrine. It was recognized by a South Korean in 1978 and in 2005 Shinto priests agreed to return it to Seoul. (Econ, 10/15/05, p.46) 1592 1598 Korean Adm. Yi Sun Sin (1545-1598) employed his ironclad "turtle ships" to fight off an invasion by Japan. Hundreds of Japanese vessels were sunk during the prolonged Japanese invasion. (www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Article/455711) 1592 1605 Pope St. Clement VIII led the Church. (ITV, 1/96, p.61) 1592 1656 Gerard van Honthorst was an artist of the Utrecht School. His paintings included "The Denial of St. Peter." (SFEM, 8/31/97, p.8) 1592 1670 The Moravian prelate Jan Komensky wrote in Latin and German and was offered the presidency of Harvard. (WSJ, 11/18/96, p.A10) 1593 nend Jan 27, Vatican opened a 7 year trial against scholar Giordano Bruno. (MC, 1/27/02) 1593 nend Mar 19, Georges de la Tour (d.1652), French painter, was born. His night painting "The Penitent Magdelene" features a seated woman contemplating a flame with one hand resting on a skull. (NH, 10/96, p.39)(MC, 3/19/02) 1593 nend Mar 23, English Congressionalist Henry Barrow was accused of slander. (SS, 3/23/02) 1593 nend Apr 3, George Herbert (d.1633), English metaphysical poet (5 Mystical Songs), was born. "The best mirror is an old friend." (AP, 4/16/98)(MC, 4/3/02) 1593 nend Apr 6, Henry Barrow, English puritan, was hanged. (MC, 4/6/02) 1593 nend Apr 6, John Greenwood, English Congressionalist, was hanged. (MC, 4/6/02) 1593 nend May 29, John Penry English congressionalist, was executed. (SC, 5/29/02) 1593 nend May 30, Christopher Marlowe (b.Feb 26, 1564), British dramatist (Tamburlaine the Great), poet, was murdered. Marlowe reportedly died in a barfight. It was later speculated that his death was faked and that he fled to Italy and continued writing plays that were produced by Shakespeare. In 2004 Rodney Bolt authored ?History Play: The Lives and Afterlife of Christopher Marlowe.? (SFC, 1/2/03, p.E11)(www.canterbury.co.uk)(Econ, 9/4/04, p.78) 1593 nend Jul 11, Giuseppe Arcimboldo (b.1527), Italian painter, died. Arcimboldo painted representations of objects, such as fruits and vegetables, on the canvas arranged in such a way that the whole collection of objects formed a recognizable likeness of the portrait subject. He painted a portrait of Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II composed entirely of vegetables. (WUD, 1994, p.78)(WSJ, 7/10/97,p.A13)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe_Arcimboldo) 1593 nend Jul 25, France's King Henry IV converted from Protestantism to Roman Catholicism. (AP, 7/25/97) 1593 nend Aug 9, Izaak Walton (d.1683), biographer, fisherman, writer (Compleat Angler), was born in England. "That which is everybody's business is nobody's business." (AP, 8/29/98)(MC, 8/9/02) 1593 nend Aug 23, Fulvio Testi, Italian poet (Pianto d'Italia), was born. (MC, 8/23/02) 1593 nend Sep 20, Gottfried Scheidt, composer, was born. (MC 9/20/01) 1593 nend The Minhogimbukh, a Jewish version of the old Farmers? Alamanac, was written in Yiddish and published in Venice. (SFC, 12/6/04, p.B1) 1593 nend Michel Mercatus, physician to Pope Clement VIII, died. He left manuscripts on his study of Ceraunia, or ancient stone tools which had been thought to be rocks hurled down from the sky by lightning bolts, or rocks struck by lightning. (RFH-MDHP, p.70) 1593 nend In Puebla, Mexico, the Convent de La Concepcion was built. It was later turned into the Hotel Camino Real Puebla. (SSFC, 1/27/08, p.E5) 1593 nend In Mexico Capt. Don Francisco de Urdiqola started the first vineyard in the valley of Tlaxcaltecas at his El Rosario Hacienda. (SFEC, 11/7/99, p.T8) 1593 1652 /3 Artemisia Gentileschi, whose first known work is "Susanna and the Elders" (1610), was a follower of Caravaggio and his style of dramatic realism. Artemisia, the daughter of Orazio Gentileschi (also influenced by Caravaggio), was taught to paint by her father and landscape artist Agostino Tassi. In 1616, she joined the Academy of Design in Florence. She traveled to various cities, from Rome to London--the latter to visit her father. While there she also gained acclaim as a portrait artist. She eventually settled in Naples. (HNQ, 3/8/01) 1593 1817 The period of the Spanish Inquisition in Mexico. (SFC, 9/18/96, p.A1) 1594 nend Feb 2, Giovanni Perluigi da Palestrina (68), Italian composer, died. (MC, 2/2/02) 1594 nend Apr 15, Flemish painter Pieter Stevens was appointed royal painter of Rudolf II in Prague. (MC, 4/15/02) 1594 nend May 31, Jacopo Tintoretto (b.1518), Italian artist, died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tintoretto) 1594 nend Jun 3, Michel Renichon, priest, was executed. (MC, 6/3/02) 1594 nend Jun 7, Roderigo Lopez was executed at Tyburn, England, on charges of spying for the king of Spain. (WSJ, 9/24/04, p.W7) 1594 nend Jun 14, Orlando di Lasso (b.~1532), Franco-Flemish composer, died in Munich. He was the most famous and influential musician in Europe at the end of the 16th century. Along with Palestrina (of the Roman School), he is considered to be the chief representative of the mature polyphonic style of the Franco-Flemish School. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlande_de_Lassus) 1594 nend Oct 16, William Allen (62), English cardinal and founder of the seminary of Douai, died. (MC, 10/16/01) 1594 nend Nov 22, Martin Frobisher, English vice-admiral and explorer, died. (MC, 11/22/01) 1594 nend Dec 2, Gerardus Mercator (82), Flemish philosopher and cartographer, died. Mercator's dream was to publish a volume of maps, which would also give a history of the world since creation. Called the 'Atlas', the first section came out in 1569. It contained a chronology from creation to 1568. (www.navis.gr/men/mercator.htm) 1594 nend Dec 9, Gustavus II Adolphus (d.1632), king who made Sweden a major power (1611-32), was born. (MC, 12/9/01) 1594 nend Nicolas Poussin (d.1665), known as the founder of French Classicism, was born. (WSJ, 2/26/96, p.A-10)(AAP, 1964)(SFC,11/22/97, p.D5) c 1594 nend Caravaggio painted "The Ecstacy of St. Francis." (WSJ, 4/28/98, p.A16) 1594 nend In England James Burbage won the patronage of Lord Chamberlain and established the 25 member Lord Chamberlain's Men. The group included William Shakespeare. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) c 1594 nend Sir Walter Raleigh married Elizabeth Throckmorton (1565-1647), a maid of honor to Queen Elizabeth. Her secret marriage and pregnancy led to her being banished from the court. (WSJ, 1/6/04, p.D10) 1594 nend The first act of Henry of Navarre, when he entered Paris as Henry IV, was to touch 600 scrofulous [tuberculytic] persons. (WP, 1951, p.7) 1594 nend In France Henry IV proposed his "Grande Dessein" to join the Louvre with the nearby Tuileries palace, which had been built under Catherine de Medici. (WSJ, 10/7/98, p.A20) 1594 nend The baths at Novi Pazar were built in Serbia?s Sandzak region. (Econ, 6/7/08, p.65) c 1594 1595 Caravaggio painted "The Cardsharps." (WSJ, 4/28/98, p.A16) 1595 nend Feb 21, Robert Southwell, English-Jesuit poet, was hanged for "treason" being a Catholic. (HN, 2/21/99)(MC, 2/21/02) 1595 nend Feb 24, Mathias Casimir Sarbievius, poet and prof. at Vilnius Univ., was born in Sarbev, Poland. He died in Warsaw Apr 2, 1640. (LHC, 2/23/03) 1595 nend Apr 2, Cornelis de Houtman's ships departed to Asia around Cape of Good Hope. (MC, 4/2/02) 1595 nend May 26, Philippus Nerius (79), [Filippo Neri], Italian merchant, Jesuit, saint, died. (MC, 5/26/02) 1595 nend May 28, It was a shaken and demoralized English column that returned to its northern Irish base at Newry. (HN, 8/1/98) 1595 nend Jun 5, Henry IV?s army defeated the Spanish at the Battle of Fontaine-Francaise. (HN, 6/5/98) 1595 nend Jul 9, Johannes Kepler inscribed a geometric solid construction of universe. (MC, 7/9/02) 1595 nend Jul 23, Spanish soldiers landed at Cornwall, England, and burned Mousehold and Penzance before returning to their ships. (AP, 7/23/97) 1595 nend Jul, The galleon San Augustin left Philippines with 130 tons of cargo and 70 men. (SFC, 9/26/97, p.A21) 1595 nend Aug 24, Thomas Digges, English astronomer (Universe Infinite), died. (MC, 8/24/02) 1595 nend Oct 28, Battle at Giurgevo: Sigmund Bathory of Transylvania beat the Turks. (MC, 10/28/01) 1595 nend Nov 12, John Hawkins (63), English navigator and treasurer of the Navy, died. (MC, 11/12/01) 1595 nend Nov, The San Augustin, a Manila galleon, sank off the coast of northern California near Point Reyes with a load of silks and porcelains from the Orient. (SFC, 9/26/97, p.A21) 1595 nend Bogdan Khmelnitsky (d.1657), leader of the Ukrainian Cossacks, was born. (SSFC, 2/9/03, p.C14) 1595 nend Queen Elizabeth sent Sir Francis Drake to capture treasure from a wrecked Spanish galleon stored at La Forteleza. Drake failed and returned to Panama. (HT, 4/97, p.30) 1595 nend Sir Walter Raleigh explored the South American coast from the Orinoco River to the mouth of the Amazon, an area that he called "Guiana." (WSJ, 1/6/04, p.D10) 1595 nend John Smith on a whaling expedition mapped the eastern seaboard and named the area new England. The area had earlier been called Norumbega. On his return he gave the map to heir apparent Charles Stuart (16) and instructed him to rename the "barbarous" place names. Thus Cape Elizabeth, Cape Anne, the Charles River and Plymouth. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.23) 1595 1603 Mehmed III succeeded Murad III in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii) c 1595 1624 Dirck van Baburen was an artist of the Dutch Utrecht School. (SFEM, 8/31/97, p.8) 1596 nend Jan 28, English navigator Sir Francis Drake died off the coast of Panama of a fever; he was buried at sea. (HT, 4/97, p.30)(AP, 1/28/98) 1596 nend Mar 31, Rene Descartes (d.1650), French philosopher, was born in La Haye, France. He proposed a numerical index that represented fundamental notions. He made consciousness the defining feature of the self. Descartes died in Sweden. In 1997 Paul Strathern published: "Descartes in 90 Minutes," and Keith Devlin published "Goodbye Descartes: The End of Logic and the Search for a New Cosmology of the Mind." In 1998 the French biography by Genevieve Rodis-Lewis was translated to English: "Descartes: His Life and Thought." (V.D.-H.K.p.203)(Wired, 8/96, p.86)(WSJ, 3/18/97, p.A20)(AP,3/30/97) (WSJ, 7/23/98, p.A14)(WSJ, 8/21/98, p.W13) 1596 nend May 18, Willem Barents left Amsterdam for Novaya Zemlya. (SC, 5/18/02) 1596 nend Jun 21, Mikhail Feodorovich Romanov (d.1645), 1st Romanov Tsar of Russia (1613-45), was born. (WUD, 1994 p.1242)(MC, 6/21/02) 1596 nend Jul 1, An English fleet under the Earl of Essex, Lord Howard of Effingham and Francis Vere captured and sacked Cadiz, Spain. (HN, 7/1/98) 1596 nend Aug 3, David Fabricius discovered light variation of Mira (1st variable star). (SC, 8/3/02) 1596 nend Aug 19, Elisabeth Stuart, English daughter of James I, was born. (MC, 8/19/02) 1596 nend Sep 3, Nicolo Amati (d.1684), Italian violin maker, was born. He was the grandson of violin maker Andrea Amati and taught Antonio Stradivari and Andrea Guarneri. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R53)(MC, 9/3/01) 1596 nend Oct 25, The Spanish fleet sailed from Lisbon to Ireland. (MC, 10/25/01) 1596 nend Dec 8, Luis de Carabajal, 1st Jewish author in America, was executed in Mexico. The nephew of Luis Carvajal, a Jewish convert to Catholicism and governor of the province of Nuevo Leon, was accused of relapsing into Judaism. He was tried by Spanish Inquisitors and under torture gave out 116 names of other Judaizers that included his mother and 23 sisters. They were eventually strangled with iron collars and burned to death. A 1997 opera by Myron Fink was composed based on his story. Monterey, Mexico was founded by conquistador Don Luis de Carvajal. He fell in love the wrong man?s daughter and was later denounced to the Mexican Inquisition because of his Jewish heritage. (SFC, 8/16/96, p.A19)(SFC, 9/18/96, p.A11)(WSJ, 2/25/97, p.A20)(MC,12/8/01) 1596 nend In Mexico City the Casa de los Azulejos or House of Tiles (a.k.a. Sanborn's) was constructed. It was an ornate mansion with hand-painted blue and white tiles. (Hem., 1/96, p.50) 1596 nend Ruthenian members of an Orthodox religious group entered into communion with the Roman Catholic Church and became the Uniate Church of the Little Russians. (WUD, 1994, p.1256) 1596 nend The first documented official contact between the Cambogee and the West took place. The king of Angkor, Barom Reachea, in fear of attack, sent to the Spanish governor general at Manila a request for the assistance of his musket-armed soldiers. The Spanish governor complied and sent a small expedition to the king of Angkor. (SFEC, 10/20/96, T5) 1596 nend Abraham Ortelius, Flemish mapmaker, recorded his belief that the continents had not always been fixed in their positions. (NH, 10/02, p.79) 1596 nend The Marquesas Islands were visited by a Spanish ship. (SFEC, 8/25/96, p.T5) 1596 1597 Italian artist Caravaggio painted "A Boy Bitten by a Lizard." (SFC, 9/12/97, p.C8) c 1596 1597 Shakespeare wrote his tragedy "King John." (WUD, 1994, p.788) 1597 nend Jun 9, Jose de Anchieta, Spanish Jesuit, missionary, died. (MC, 6/9/02) 1597 nend Jun 20, Willem Barents, Dutch explorer who discovered Spitsbergen & Bereneil, died. In 1995 Rayner Unwin authored "A Winter Away from Home," an account of Barents? Arctic voyages. (WUD, 1994 p.120)(SSFC, 12/10/00, p.C17)(MC, 6/20/02) 1597 nend Aug 11, Germany threw out English salesmen in "a noble experiment." (MC, 8/11/02) 1597 nend Sep 28, In Japan the Mimizuka, or Ear Mound, was dedicated in Kyoto. In it was buried the collected ears and noses of victims from the Japanese invasion of Korea that began in 1592. (SFEC, 9/14/97, p.A25) 1597 nend El Greco (1541-1614), Spanish artist, completed his visionary ?View of Toledo? about this time. (WSJ, 6/28/08, p.W12) c 1597 nend The "Materia Medica Pharmacopeia" was written and detailed some 1,900 herbs, minerals and animals used by the Chinese to treat ailments through the ages. (WSJ, 12/3/97, p.A1) 1597 nend Giovanni Gabrieli composed "Sonata pian? e forte," a piece for two antiphonal brass quartets. (SFC, 1/9/98, p.D7) 1597 nend Britain?s Tudor establishment, deeply concerned by the possibility of social upheaval brought on by an agricultural crisis and increasing urban migration, introduced the Charitable Uses Act, first in 1597, then a revised act in 1601 to promote philanthropy amongst the country's aristocracy and burgeoning merchant classes. (www.pnnonline.org/article.php?sid=2398&mode=thread&order=0) 1597 nend In Amsterdam the Spinhuis (spinning house) was opened as a workhouse for fallen women. (SSFC, 1/7/01, p.T9) 1597 nend In Nagasaki 26 Japanese and Western Christians were crucified. These martyrs were beatified in 1627 and became saints in 1862, among the 42 people from Japan who have been canonized, or reached sainthood. (SSFC, 8/10/03, p.C11)(AP, 11/21/08) c 1597 nend The Sao Paulo church in Macao was constructed by Portuguese colonists. (WSJ, 5/6/97, p.A19) 1597 nend King Philip II issued a land grant to Don Lorenzo Garcia to start the first official winery for the new world at the San Lorenzo Hacienda in Mexico. (SFEC, 11/7/99, p.T8) 1597 1602 Adriaen de Vries, Dutch sculptor, supplied Augsburg, Germany, the cast for the "Hercules Fountain." (WSJ, 1/8/99, p.C13) 1597 nend /8-1671 Jan van Bijlert, Dutch painter. He traveled to Rome and was influenced by the work of Caravaggio. (SFEM, 8/31/97, p.13) 1598 nend Jan 7, Theodorus I (40), [Feodor Ivanovitch], czar of Russia (1584-98), died. Boris Godunov seized the Russian throne on death of Feodor I. (MC, 1/7/02) 1598 nend Jan 8, Genoa, Italy, expelled its Jews. (MC, 1/8/02) 1598 nend Feb 17, Boris Godunov, the boyar of Tatar origin, was elected czar in succession to his brother-in-law Fydor. (HN, 2/17/99) 1598 nend Apr 13, King Henry IV of France endorsed the Edict of Nantes, which granted political rights to French Huguenots. (The edict was abrogated in 1685 by King Louis XIV, who declared France entirely Catholic again.) no_source 1598 nend May 2, Henry IV signed the Treaty of Vervins, ending Spain's interference in France. (HN, 5/2/98) 1598 nend Jun, A 5-ship Dutch expedition to Japan departed Rotterdam with Will Adams, English ship pilot, as chief navigator. (ON, 11/02, p.8) 1598 nend Aug 15, Hugh O'Neill, the Earl of Tyrone, led an Irish force to victory over the British at Battle of Yellow Ford. (HN, 8/15/98) 1598 nend Sep 1, Spanish king Philip II ("Scourge of Heretics") received his last rites sacrament. [see Sep 13] (MC, 9/1/02) 1598 nend Sep 13, Philip II (71), King of Spain (1556-98), died. He had ordered the 1588 Spanish Armada attack on England. After its failure he dispatched 3 smaller armadas, but they all failed. (MC, 9/13/01)(ON, 3/02, p.6) 1598 nend Sep 18, Toyotomi Hideyoshi (b.1536), Japan?s unifier and folk hero, died. His death left two main rivals for power, Ishida Mitsunari and Tokugawa Ieyasu. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyotomi_Hideyoshi) 1598 nend Sep 25, In Sweden, King Sigismund was defeated at Stangebro by his Uncle Charles. (HN, 9/25/98) 1598 nend Oct 15, Spanish general strategist Bernardino de Mendoza occupied Fort Rhine. (MC, 10/15/01) 1598 nend Dec 7, Giovanni "Gian" Lorenzo Bernini (d.Nov 28, 1680), Italian sculptor, painter, architect, was born. He was the greatest sculptor of the 17th century and worked under the patronage of Pope Urban VII. His work included the "Ecstasy of St. Teresa," "David" and "Daphne and Apollo." (WSJ, 12/4/97, p.A20)(WSJ, 9/15/98, p.A20)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R53) 1598 nend Dec 28, Richard and Cuthbert Burbage led a crew to begin the demolition of the Theater in London. They and partners that included William Shakespeare used the timbers to build a new theater. The Globe opened in 1599. (ON, 11/03, p.2) 1598 nend The first opera was performed in Florence, Italy, in the 16th century. On Jul 3-5, 1998 Vienna celebrated the 400th anniversary of opera. Opera emerged as musicians sought to revive Greek theater. (SFEC, 5/10/98, p.T3)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1598 nend In China Tang Xianzu, dramatist, wrote his 55-act Kunju opera "The Peony Pavilion." Kunju is the oldest of China?s 360 opera forms. (WSJ, 6/22/98, p.A20) 1598 nend Iranian emperor Shah Abbas (1571-1629) moved his capital to Isfahan. English brothers Anthony and Robert Shirley (~1581-1628) soon arrived in Iran with 26 followers and joined the Persian service under Abbas and remaining for a number of years. (Econ, 2/21/09, p.86)(http://tinyurl.com/cbrsb9) 1598 nend Sir George Clifford, the third Earl of Cumberland, led an attack on Puerto Rico. He landed east of San Juan at Boqueron Inlet and attacked. The English prevailed and plundered San Juan but their food spoiled and 400 died of dysentery. The survivors burned San Juan and sailed away. (HT, 4/97, p.30) 1598 nend The Spanish governor of Manila sent a 2nd small expedition to the king of Angkor in what is now Cambodia. (SFEC, 10/20/96, T5) c 1598 nend A party of Iberian conquistadors overthrew the Cambodian king and set themselves up as governors in the Mekong delta. (Econ, 1/3/04, p.29) 1598 1599 Caravaggio painted "Narcissus." (WSJ, 4/28/98, p.A16) 1598 1663 ? Francisco de Zurbaran, Spanish painter. His work included St. Agatha, which depicted the mutilated martyr with her severed breasts on a tray. (WUD, 1994, p.1663)(SFEC, 2/16/97, BR p.10) 1598 1666 Nicolas Francois Mansart, French architect. The mansard roof is named after him. (WUD, 1994, p.873)(SFC, 8/25/99, Z1 p.7) 1599 nend Feb 13, Alexander VII, Roman Catholic Pope, was born. (HN, 2/13/98) 1599 nend Feb 22, Anthony Van Dyck, painter, was born in Antwerp, Belgium. [See Mar 22] (MC, 2/22/02) 1599 nend Mar 13, Johannes Berchmans, Jesuit, saint, was born in Belgium. (MC, 3/13/02)(de Winkler Prins encyclopedia) 1599 nend Mar 22, Sir Anthony Van Dyck, Flemish artist, was born. He gave his name to the Vandyke beard. [See Feb 22] (AP, 3/22/99) 1599 nend Mar 23, Thomas Selle, composer, was born. (SS, 3/23/02) 1599 nend Mar 27, Robert Devereux became Lt-general of Ireland. (MC, 3/27/02) 1599 nend Apr 25, Oliver Cromwell (d.1658) was born. He was an English military, political and religious leader, and dictator as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth from 1653-1658. (CFA, '96, p.44)(AHD, p.315)(HN, 4/25/98) 1599 nend Jun 6, Velazquez (d.1660), Diego Rodriguez de Silva, Spanish painter of Portuguese ancestry, was born. He painted "Count Duke of Olivares" and "Rokeby Venus" (1647-51) The Venus is at the London National Gallery. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez)(SFEC, 2/1/98,p.T8)(WSJ, 1/5/07, p.W12) 1599 nend Jul 23, Caravaggio received his 1st public commission for paintings. (MC, 7/23/02) 1599 nend Sep 7, Earl of Essex and Irish rebel Tyrone signed a treaty. (MC, 9/7/01) 1599 nend Sep 21, The Globe Theater had its first recorded performance. The 20-sided timber building for Shakespeare?s plays was constructed on the South Bank of the Thames, England. The troupe Lord Chamberlain's Men built the Globe Theater. Timbers came from a dismantled old theater and the new structure held some 3,000 spectators in 3 galleries. In 2005 James Shapiro authored ?A Year in the Life of William Shakespeare: 1599.? (Hem, Mar. 95, p.138)(WSJ, 6/17/97, p.A16)(WSJ, 1/11/99,p.R34)(Econ, 11/5/05, p.92) 1599 nend In Ecuador Andres Sanchez Gallque painted the New World?s first signed and dated portrait: ?Don Francisco de la Robe and His sons Pedro and Domingo? (The Mulatto Gentlemen of Esmeraldas). (WSJ, 9/21/06, p.D6)(http://tinyurl.com/zn644) 1599 nend Adriaen de Vries, Dutch sculptor, supplied Augsburg, Germany, the cast the "Mercury Fountain." (WSJ, 1/8/99, p.C13) 1599 nend Canon Mikalojus Dauksa published his "Postille Catholicka" in Vilnius. He was the first author of Lithuanian Proper. (DrEE, 9/21/96, p.4) 1599 nend Jesuits published a guidebook for Jesuit education titled ?Ratio Studiorum.? It was revised in 1832. (GenIV, Winter 04/05) 1599 nend Jacob Cornelius Van Neck returned to Holland from the Mascarene Islands. A narrative of the Dutch voyage first mentioned the dodo bird. (NH, 11/96, p.24) 1599 nend The Dutch East India Company dates to this time. [see 1602-1798] (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1599 nend The Takeda family, which controlled Hokkaido, changed its name to Matsumae, built a castle by that name and allied itself with Ieyasu Tokugawa, who was on the verge of establishing his Shogunate in Japan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 218) 1599 nend Spain sent 400 soldiers, 46 cannon and a new governor, Alonso de Mercado, to rebuild San Juan, Puerto Rico. (HT, 4/97, p.31) 1599 nend Francesco Borromini (d.1667), Italian Baroque architect and sculptor, was born. (SFEC, 7/12/98, p.B9)(WSJ, 6/27/00, p.A28) 1599 1600 ?As You Like It,? a pastoral comedy by William Shakespeare, is believed to have been written about this time and first published in the folio of 1623. It included a monologue that begins with the phrase "All the world's a stage" and catalogues the seven stages of a man's life, sometimes referred to as the seven ages of man: infant, schoolboy, lover, soldier, justice, pantaloon, and second childhood, "sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_the_world%27s_a_stage) 1600 nend Feb 4, Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler met for 1st time near Prague. (MC, 2/4/02) 1600 nend Feb 8, Vatican sentenced scholar Giordano Bruno to death. (MC, 2/8/02) 1600 nend Feb 17, Giordano Bruno (b.1548), Italian philosopher, occasional alchemist and advocate of Copernican theory, was burned at stake by the Catholic Church. In 2008 Ingrid D. Rowland authored ?Giordano Bruno: Philosopher / Heretic.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giordano_Bruno)(WSJ, 8/21/01,p.A17)(WSJ, 12/19/08, p.A15) 1600 nend Feb 18, Arequipa, Peru, was destroyed by an earthquake. Huaynaputina was the site of a monogenetic silicic eruption that ranks greater than 1883 Krakatau and 1991 Mt. Pinatubo in magnitude. A 26 hour-long plinian eruption devastated the socioeconomic fabric of southern Peru and neighboring Chile and Bolivia. (SSFC, 6/24/01, p.A16)(http://tinyurl.com/ydmwzba) 1600 nend Apr 19, The Dutch ship Liefde, piloted by Will Adams, reached Japan with a crew of 24 men. 6 of the crew soon died. 4 other ships in the expedition were lost. (ON, 11/02, p.8) 1600 nend Oct 21, Tokugawa leyasu defeated his enemies in the battle of Sekigahara and affirmed his position as Japan's most powerful warlord. The win enabled Ieyasu to found a 265-year ruling dynasty. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sekigahara)(Econ, 10/31/09,p.54) 1600 nend Nov 19, Charles I of England was born. Charles I, ruled Great Britain from 1625-1649. He was executed by Parliament in 1649. (WUD, 1994, p.249)(HN, 11/19/98) 1600 nend Dec 12, John Craig, Scottish church reformer and James VI's court vicar, died. (MC, 12/12/01) 1600 nend Dec 31, The British East India Company (d.1874) was chartered by Queen Elizabeth I in London to carry on trade in the East Indies in competition with the Dutch, who controlled nutmeg from the Banda Islands. (WUD, 1994, p.449)(WSJ, 1/11/99,p.R49)(www.theeastindiacompany.com/history.html) c 1600 nend Mahmud al-Kati authored the Tarikh al-Fattash, a history of the Sudan up to the late 16th century. (AM, 7/04, p.36) 1600 nend William Gilbert authored ?On the Loadstone And Magnetic Bodies.? He pioneered the scientific method of testing hypothesis by experiment. (WSJ, 4/14/07, p.P10) 1600 nend Dona Maria, a Timucua Indian woman, was chief of Nombre de Dios, a Spanish Franciscan mission town in Florida. 6 years later she inherited the position of chief of San Pedro de Mocama on Cumberland Island, Georgia. (AM, 7/01, p.22) 1600 nend Hartheim Castle was built at Alkoven in Upper Austria. During WWII it became one of several notorious institutions that Adolf Hitler and his regime turned into the main venues for what they called "euthanasia" and where individuals who did not meet their ideals were gassed or given lethal injections. (AP, 11/5/10)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schloss_Hartheim) 1600 nend A clock was built in Augsburg, Germany, that shows a king riding in an elephant pulled chariot. His huge belly has a tiny clock placed where his navel would be. When the clock strikes, the king rolls his eyes, licks his lips and drinks from a tankard, while elephants pull the chariot along a table and other figures built around the chariot dance. On exhibit at the Time Museum in Rockford, Ill. (SF E&C, 1/15/1995, T-10) 1600 nend A sculptor, later known as Furienmeister (master of the furies), worked in Florence, Vienna and perhaps Dresden about this time. In 2006 only about 25 works were attributed to the artist who carved in ivory. (Econ, 5/13/06, p.96) 1600 nend Caravaggio signed a contract with Tibor Cerasi, Pope Clement VIII?s treasurer-general, to decorate the Cerasi Chapel of Rome?s Church of Santa Maria Del Popolo with 2 paintings. One would depict the ?Martyrdom of St. Peter? and the other the conversion of Paul. (WSJ, 10/15/05, p.P11) c 1600 nend The Tairona civilization, coerced by the Spaniards to convert to Christianity, fled from their coastal settlements and moved to the mountains. They were skilled masons, farmers, weavers and goldsmiths. They had established the city now known as Ciudad Perdida (lost city) east of Santa Maria in the 5th century BCE, whose ruins were only rediscovered in 1975. The indigenous Arhuaco, Assario, and Kogi Indians are thought to be their descendants. (WSJ, 7/28/97, p.A16)(AM, 11/04, p.19) c 1600 nend French fishermen and their families settled the islands of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon off the coast of Newfoundland. The 9-island was later made a French territory. (WSJ, 6/30/00, p.B4) c 1600 nend Spanish explorers Alvaro de Mendana and Pedro Fernandez de Quiros visited the Cook Islands but overlooked Rarotonga, the largest one. (SFEC, 1/5/97, p.T5) c 1600 nend Christian missionaries arrived in India with the first European traders. (SFC, 11/6/99, p.A14) 1600 nend Rudolph II, King of the Holy Roman Empire, ruled from Prague and lured the astronomer, Tycho Brahe, from Denmark as well as his student Johannes Kepler. (WSJ, 9/24/96, p.A18) 1600 nend Cardinal Filippo Spinelli, Pope Clement VIII?s ambassador in Prague, wrote to the Pope that Emperor Rudolf II was bewitched by the devil. (WSJ, 9/9/06, p.P9) 1600 nend s The Kongo kingdom broke apart as a result of the Portuguese induced revolts and slave trade. (ATC, p.153) 1600 nend s In France the contractor Jean-Christophe Marie built bridges on the Seine to the Ile St.-Louis and laid out lots on straight streets for sale. (SFEC, 6/22/97, p.T8) 1600 nend s In Japan the ancient art of Sumo wrestling became a professional sport. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1600 nend s Pirates Anne Bonny and Mary Read plundered the Caribbean region. (SFEC, 2/14/99, p.T4) 1600 nend s Portuguese traders brought the cassava root to Africa from Brazil to feed their slaves. (NH, 7/96, p.13) 1600 1603 Sir Walter Raleigh (1552-1618) governed Jersey, a British Channel Island. (Econ, 5/23/09, p.59) 1600 1681 Pedro Calderon de la Barca, Spanish baroque master dramatist. His work included: "Life Is a Dream." "Cuando amor no es locura, no es amor." (When love is not madness, it is not love). (WSJ, 10/20/95, p. A-12)(WSJ, 4/5/96, p.A-6)(AP, 10/30/98) 1600 1700 In late 2007 Timothy Brook authored ?Vermeer?s Hat: The Seventeenth Century and the Dawn of the Global World.? (SFC, 2/14/08, p.E3) c 1600 1700 In Early America, fire buckets were typically made out of leather. Because the man at the top of the bucket brigade had to toss empty buckets back down to be refilled, the buckets had to be unbreakable and soft enough so they wouldn?t injure anyone standing below. (HNQ, 1/13/00) 1600 1700 Brazil?s Ouro Preto which means Black Gold in Portuguese, was founded in the 17th century after huge gold deposits were discovered under its steep hills. (AP, 4/19/03) 1600 1700 Cognac 1st appeared when Dutch sea merchants found that they could better preserve white wine shipped from France to northern Europe by distilling it. They then learned the wine got better as it aged in wooden barrels. (WSJ, 7/14/03, p.A1) 1600 1700 Shabettai Zvi [Sabbatai Zevi], a Kabbalist from the Ottoman Empire, became the central figure in a widespread Messianic craze. He declared himself the Messiah and caused an uproar throughout the Jewish world. (WSJ, 5/22/98, p.W11)(SFEC, 3/12/00, BR p.2)(Econ, 10/16/04, p.80) 1600 1700 Grass mats called kunaa were made on the island of Gadu and sent by the Maldivian sultan as part of an annual tribute to the kingdom of Sri Lanka. "The Fine Mat Industry of the Suvadiva Atoll" by Andrew Forbes was publ. by the British Museum. (WSJ, 7/22/96, p.A12) 1600 1700 The Windsor chair originated in Windsor, England. (WSJ, 8/15/97, p.A1) 1600 1700 Britain waged wars against the Dutch. The English fleet sailed in three segments, the 3rd of which was commanded by a Rear Admiral. (SFEC, 8/3/97, Z1 p.3) 1600 1700 In England the Roundheads were members or adherents of the Parliamentarians or Puritan party during the civil wars of the 17th century. They were called roundheads by the Cavaliers in derision because they wore their hair cut short. (WUD, 1994, p.1248) 1600 1700 In Colombia legend held that U?wa Indians led by Chief Guaiticu committed mass suicide to protest Spanish colonialism. A historical record was lacking. (SFC, 4/25/97, p.A3) 1600 1700 A Jesuit priest wrote in Latin the first recorded description of the magic lantern, a forerunner of later movie and slide projectors: "Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae." (SFC, 10/28/96, p.A24) c 1600 1700 Marin Mersenne, French monk and mathematician. Mersenne numbers, which come from multiplying 2 over and over and subtracting one, are named after him. A small percentage of mersenne numbers are also prime numbers. (SFC, 11/23/98, p.A3) c 1600 1700 In Naples Giovan Battista Basile wrote his classic collection of folktales known as the "Pentamerone." It included "La Gatta Cennerentola," or "Cinderella the Cat." (SFC,11/4/97, p.B3) c 1600 1700 In Norway a local commander in Varda burned over 70 women alive as witches. (WSJ, 6/6/00, p.A1) 1600 1700 Ladakh was a West Tibetan kingdom of this time with lands that extended into what is now Nepal. (SFEC,12/14/97, p.T4) 1600 1700 In the 17th century the Geluk sect of Buddhism cultivated the Mongols under Altyn Khan. The Khan named the Geluk Lama Sonam Gyatso, "dalai," in reference to his oceanic wisdom. The 4th Dalai Lama was discovered in the great-grandson of Altyn Khan. The Gelukpa school gained power over the Kagyud (Black Hat) school of Tibetan Buddhism. (SFEM, 12/20/98, p.19)(Econ, 12/24/05, p.56) 1600 1750 The Baroque Era in music, as practiced by its greatest figures, has pronounced mannerist qualities: mysticism, exuberance, complexity, decoration, allegory, distortion, the exploitation of the supernatural or grandiose, all commingled. The baroque saw the rise of four-part harmony and the figured bass, in which numerals indicated the harmonies to be used. In 1968 Claude Palisca authored "Baroque Music." The Baroque style (1620-1680) extended to art, architecture and theater, represented by a spirit of opulence, drama and sensuality. (LGC-HCS, p.24-25)(SFC, 1/23/01, p.C2)(Econ, 4/11/09, p.86) c 1600 1800 The period of the enlightenment, a philosophical movement characterized by the power of human reason and by innovations in political, religious and educational doctrine. Peter Gay later wrote a 2-volume history of the Enlightenment. (WUD, 1994, p.474)(SFEC, 1/11/98, BR p.9) 1600 1800 About two-thirds of the Albanians converted to Islam. (www, Albania, 1998) 1600 1800 In the Southern American colonies, large land accumulation was fostered by headrights, a program where generally 50-acres per head was awarded to each person who transported an emigrant to America at his own expense. The systems fostered land accumulation and speculation in land warrants, often raising the price of land beyond the means of servants who had worked out their time. (HNQ, 1/25/99) 1600 1800 A mass migration of nearly 1 million people from Holland in the 17th and 18th century led to the decline of this small nation. (SFC, 3/31/98, p.F4) 1600 1867 The Tokugawa (or Edo) Period in Japan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215) 1600 1868 The cosmopolitan Edo period, the heyday of the woodblock print. (WSJ, 4/24/96, A-12) 1600 1681 Pedro Calderon de la Barca, Spanish dramatist: "Cuando amor no es locura, no es amor." (When love is not madness, it is not love.) (AP, 10/30/98) 1600 1900 In Benin a succession of 12 kings ruled from Abomey and each one built a lavish palace. (SFEC, 8/28/98, p.T4) 1600 1972 This period was covered by R.F. Foster in "Modern Ireland 1600-1972" (1989). (WSJ, 11/13/96, p.A22) 1601 nend Jan 7, Robert, Earl of Essex led a revolt in London against Queen Elizabeth. (MC, 1/7/02) 1601 nend Jan 17, The Treaty of Lyons ended a short war between France and Savoy. (HN, 1/17/99) 1601 nend Feb 8, The armies of Earl Robert Devereux of Essex drew into London. (MC, 2/8/02) 1601 nend Feb 13, John Lancaster led the 1st East India Company voyage from London. (MC, 2/13/02) 1601 nend Feb 25, Robert Devereux (b.1566), 2nd earl of Essex, was beheaded following a conviction of treason. His plan to capture London and the Tower had failed. no_source 2 nend /25/99) no_source 1601 nend Mar 19, Alonzo Cano, Spanish painter, sculptor (Cathedral Granada), was born. (MC, 3/19/02) 1601 nend May 2, Athanasius Kircher, German Jesuit, inventor (magic lantern), was born. (MC, 5/2/02) 1601 nend Aug 17, Pierre de Fermat (d.1665), French mathematician, was born. [There is some dispute as to his exact birthdate.] (WSJ, 11/25/96, p.A16)(SFEC,12/797, BR p.5)(SC, 8/17/02) 1601 nend Aug 22, Georges de Scudery, French writer (Observations sur le Cid), was born. (MC, 8/22/02) 1601 nend Sep 27, Maria de Medicis (1575-1642), the 2nd wife of King Henry IV of France, gave birth to Louis XIII, who later became king of France (1610-43). Henry IV, in honor of the birth, revived a tapestry scheme by poet Nicholas Houel and artist Antoine Caron, that had been conceived in honor of Caterina de Medici (1519-1589). Louis ascended to the throne at the age of nine following the assassination of his father. At 17, he seized control of the empire from his mother Marie de' Medici. Louis XIII proved to be a strongly pro-Catholic ruler. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_de%27_Medici)(Econ, 11/1/08, p.98) 1601 nend Oct 13, Tycho Brahe, astronomer, died in Prague. (MC, 10/13/01) 1601 nend Adriaen de Vries, Dutch sculptor, supplied Augsburg, Germany, the cast the "Man Pouring Water From a Conch Shell." (WSJ, 1/8/99, p.C13) 1601 nend Caravaggio painted "Supper at Emmaus." (WSJ, 8/4/04, p.D8) 1601 nend Dutch artist Joachim Wtewael painted "Mars and Venus Discovered by Vulcan." (SFEM, 8/31/97, p.8) 1601 nend A British measure, funded by taxes, provided jobs for the able-bodied poor and apprentice programs for children. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1601 nend Large portions of Russia received heavy rains in the summer of 1601, and by the end of the growing season it was clear that most crops would fail. This was later related to a major earthquake in Peru in 1600. (http://faculty.arec.umd.edu/hleathers/August%202008.htm) 1601 nend Ottoman Sultan Mehmed III issued an order for the seizure of able youths aged 10-20 to be trained as janissaries, his special forces. "The infidel parents or anybody else who resists are to be hanged at once in front of their house gate, their blood being considered of no importance whatsoever." (WSJ, 9/17/01, p.A20) 1601 1658 Baltasar Gracian, Spanish philosopher: "You should avoid making yourself too clear even in your explanations." (AP, 8/13/00) 1602 nend Jan 2, Battle at Kinsale, Ireland: English army beat the Spanish. (MC, 1/2/02) 1602 nend Feb 9, Franciscus van de Enden, Flemish Jesuit, free thinker, tutor of Spinoza, was born. (MC, 2/9/02) 1602 nend Feb 14, Pier Francesco Cavalli, Italian opera composer, was born. (MC, 2/14/02) 1602 nend Mar 20, The Dutch East India Company was chartered to carry on trade in the East Indies. The company traded to 1798 whereupon its possessions were dissolved into the Dutch empire. In 2010 a student found a share in the company issued to an official named Pieter Harmenz dating to Sep 9, 1606. (WUD, 1994, p.449)(Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215)(HNQ, 7/23/00)(SFC,9/10/10, p.A2) 1602 nend Apr 2, Maria de Jesus de Agreda (Maria Coronel), Spanish Franciscan, was born. (MC, 4/2/02) 1602 nend Apr 11, Johann Neukrantz, composer, was born. (MC, 4/11/02) 1602 nend Apr 30, William Lilly, astrologer, author, almanac compiler, was born in England. (MC, 4/30/02) 1602 nend May 15, Bartholomew Gosnold, English navigator, discovered Cape Cod. (AP, 5/15/97)(HN, 5/15/98) 1602 nend May 21, Martha's Vineyard was first sighted by Captain Bartholomew Gosnold. (HN, 5/21/98) 1602 nend May, Sebastian Vizcaino, a Basque merchant, led 4 small ships north from Acapulco, Mexico, to chart the coast of California. (SFC, 11/13/02, p.A8) 1602 nend Jul 14, Jules Mazarin, French cardinal, French 1st Minister (1642-61), was born. (MC, 7/14/02) 1602 nend Jul 29, The Duke of Biron was executed in Paris for conspiring with Spain and Savoy against King Henry IV of France. (HN, 7/29/98) 1602 nend Nov 12, The Vizcaino expedition held Mass on the feast day of San Diego de Alcala. He named the California landing port after the saint. (SFC, 11/13/02, p.A8) 1602 nend Nov 20, Otto von Guericke, inventor (air pump), was born. (MC, 11/20/01) 1602 nend Dec 5, Giulio Caccini's "Euridice," premiered in Florence. (MC, 12/5/01) 1602 nend Dec 16-Jan 3, The Vizcaino expedition stopped at Monterey, Ca., and grizzly bears were seen feeding on a whale carcass. Sebastian Vizcaino, Spanish Explorer, discovered an island off the coast of California that he named San Nicolas. It is the outermost of the eight Channel Islands about 75 miles southwest of Los Angeles. It was later used as the site for Scott O'Dell?s novel: "Island of the Blue Dolphins." [see 1835-1853] Santa Barbara was named by the Vizcaino expedition. (Pac. Disc., summer, ?96, p.12)(IBD, 1960, p.183)(Via, 3-4/99, p.38) 1602 nend Caravaggio painted "The Taking of Christ." In 2005 Jonathan Harr authored ?The Lost Painting: The Quest for a Caravaggio Masterpiece.? (WSJ, 5/13/99, p.A28)(SSFC, 12/11/05, p.M6) 1602 nend An atlas made by the Flemish mapmaker Abraham Ortelius, bound in vellum with text in Spanish, was one of dozens issued between 1570 and 1612. It is available in 1995 for $160,000 from New York dealer W.G. Arader III. (WSJ, 11/24/95, p.B-8) 1602 nend Matteo Ricci, a Jesuit missionary from Italy, created the first Chinese map to show the Americas, at the request of Emperor Wanli. The map identified Florida as "the Land of Flowers" and put China at the center of the world. Ricci was among the first Westerners to live in what is now Beijing in the early 1600s. He became known for introducing Western science to China. In October, 2009, one such Ricci maps, one of only two in good condition, was purchased by the James Ford Bell Trust for $1 million, making it the 2nd most expensive rare map ever sold. (AP, 1/12/10) 1602 nend Bartholomew Gosnold camped for a few months in a party of 24 gentlemen and 8 sailors on Cuttyhunk Island, Mass. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.23) 1602 nend Denmark imposed a strict trade monopoly and cut off Iceland's products from lucrative markets. (SFEC, 9/19/99, p.A18) 1602 nend Japan?s Shogun Ieyasu seized the Dutch ship Liefde and granted its crew allowances to live in Japan. (ON, 11/02, p.9) 1602 1603 In Russia agricultural failure in 1601 led to widespread starvation in both 1602 and 1603. It claimed the lives of an estimated 2 million people, or about one-third of the population, and more than 100,000 died in Moscow alone. Government inability to alleviate both the calamity and the subsequent unrest eventually led to the overthrow of Czar Boris Godunov, a defining event in Russian history. (http://faculty.arec.umd.edu/hleathers/August%202008.htm) 1602 1674 Phillipe de Champaigne, painter. His work included the "Portrait of Arnauld D?Andilly." (AAP, 1964) 1602 1686 Otto von Guericke helped to overthrow the guesswork physics of Aristotle through experiments with air pressure. (SFC, 10/2/97, p.E5) 1603 nend Jan 1, The Spanish party of Sebastion Vizcaino sighted a point off the Central California coast that they named Ano Nuevo. (SFEC, 2/27/00, p.T8) 1603 nend Mar 24, Tudor Queen Elizabeth I (69), the "Virgin Queen," died. She had reigned from 1558-1603. Scottish King James VI, son of Mary, became King James I of England in the union of the crowns. In 2006 Leanda de Lisle authored ?After Elizabeth.? (WSJ, 4/16/97, p.A13)(HN, 3/24/99)(WSJ, 2/4/06, p.P9) 1603 nend Mar 30, Battle at Mellifont: English army under Lord Mountjoy beat the Irish. (MC, 3/30/02) 1603 nend Apr 3, William Smith, composer, was born. (MC, 4/3/02) 1603 nend Apr 5, New English king James I departed Edinburgh for London. (MC, 4/5/02) 1603 nend Jul 17, Sir Walter Raleigh (1552-1618) was arrested. He was prosecuted by Sir Edward Coke. James I suspended his death sentence and had him incarcerated in the Tower of London for 13 years during which time he wrote his "History of the World." (www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/TUDrayleigh.htm)(WSJ, 1/6/04, p.D10) 1603 nend Jul 29, Bartholomew Gilbert was killed in the colony of Virginia by Indians, during a search for the missing Roanoke colonists. (HN, 7/29/98) 1603 nend Oct 20, A Chinese uprising in the Philippines failed after 23,000 killed. (MC, 10/20/01) 1603 nend Nov 5, Irini Fedorovna, Russian daughter of Czar Boris Godunov, died. (MC, 11/5/01) 1603 nend Dec 27, Thomas Cartwright (~68), English Presbyterian publicist, died. (MC, 12/27/01) 1603 nend Roger Williams (d.1683) was born in London. After a brief period as a Baptist, the founder of the Rhode Island Colony and colonial religious leader, became a Seeker?one who adhered to the basic tenets of Christianity but refused to recognize any creed. Williams was the first champion of complete religious toleration in America. (HNQ, 5/1/99)(WSJ, 6/21/05, p.D10) 1603 nend King James I of England allowed the public limited access to Hyde Park. (SFEM, 3/21/99, p.8) 1603 nend Following the London plague in this year weekly Bills of Mortality began to be published. (Econ, 12/22/07, p.97) 1603 nend Galileo invented the thermometer. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1603 nend In Prague Adriaen de Vries made a bust of Emperor Rudolf. (WSJ, 12/7/99, p.A24) 1603 nend Kabuki theater started in Japan when a shrine maiden named Okuni traveled to Kyoto and performed a dance of ecstasy dressed in men?s clothing while chanting Buddha?s name. [see 1586] (SFC, 7/12/01, p.A23) 1603 nend In Japan the wooden Nihonbashi bridge, half way between Edo Bay and Edo Castle, was built. In 1911 it was replaced by a stone version. (Econ, 10/7/06, p.52) 1603 nend The Nijo Castle was built in Kyoto, Japan, as a residence for the Shogun. The castle's Ninomaru Palace is famous for its "nightingale" (creaking) floors that warn of intruders. (Hem., 2/96, p.60) 1603 nend Tokyo replaced Kyoto as the administrative center of Japan. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R51) 1603 1617 Ahmed I succeeded Mehmed III in the Ottoman House of Osman. Ahmet I had the Blue Mosque constructed to show that Muslim architects could rival the Byzantine glories of the Haghia Sophia. Construction was completed in 1616, a year before Ahmet I died at age 27. (Ot, 1993, xvii)(AP, 11/30/06) 1603 1868 The founding and era of the Tokugawa Shogunate. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215)(AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.34) 1604 nend Apr 4, Thomas Churchyard, poet, pamphleteer, died. (MC, 4/4/02) 1604 nend May 4, Claudio Merulo (71), Italian organist, composer, died. (MC, 5/4/02) 1604 nend May 18, (OS)England and Spain agreed signed the Treaty of London ending the 19 year Anglo-Spanish war. (AH, 6/07,p.31)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_London_%281604%29) 1604 nend Jun 26, French explorer Samuel de Champlain, Pierre Dugua and 77 others landed on the island of St. Croix and made friends with the native Passamaquoddy Indians. It later became part of Maine on the US-Canadian border. (PacDis, Spring/'94, p. 43)(SSFC, 6/20/04, p.D10) 1604 nend Sep 20, After a two-year siege, the Spanish retook Ostend [NW Belgium], the Netherlands, from the Dutch. (WUD, 1994, p.1019)(HN, 9/20/98) 1604 nend Oct 9, "Kepler's Nova" was 1st sighted. Kepler saw the supernova on Oct 17. (www.seds.org/~spider/spider/Vars/sn1604.html) 1604 nend Nov 1, William Shakespeare's tragedy "Othello" was first presented at Whitehall Palace in London. (AP, 11/1/99) 1604 nend Claude Lorrain (b.1682), French painter (also known as Claude Gelée), was born. (WSJ, 11/6/02, p.D8) 1604 nend Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (1547-1616) published the first part of "The Ingenious Hidalgo Don Quixote de la Mancha." Don Quixote and his friend Sancho Panza seek what a modern poet has called an impossible dream, a dream of justice in an earthly paradise, a contradiction in terms, as practical men have always known... Cervantes was the first to see that the new world coming into being needed such heroes; otherwise it would go mad." In 2006 Manuel Duran and Fay R. Rogg authored ?Fighting Windmills.? (V.D.-H.K.p.150)(HN, 9/29/02)(WSJ, 6/10/06, p.P8) 1604 nend The ?Moor of Venis? (Othello) by Shaxberd (Shakespeare) was performed in London. (http://ise.uvic.ca/Library/SLTnoframes/plays/othsubj.html)(WSJ,10/22/05, p.P13) 1604 nend Johannes Kepler, German astronomer, observed a supernova with his naked eye. He also worked out an elliptical orbit for Mars. (NG, 5/88, p.619)(SFC, 11/29/96, p.A16) 1604 nend Christopher Marlowe, English writer, published his version of the "Tragical History of Dr. Faustus." (V.D.-H.K.p.238) 1604 nend The first official condemnation of tobacco was made by King James I, who cited the health hazards of smoking in his Counterblaste to Tobacco. (HNQ, 11/10/98) 1604 nend Juan de Onate, Spanish colonizer of New Mexico, explored along the Colorado. (NG, 5.1988, Mem For) 1604 nend Samuel de Champlain sailed into the river estuary at what later became the seaport of St. John in New Brunswick, Canada. (SFEC, 7/30/00, p.T5) c 1604 nend Arjun, the 5th Sikh guru, compiled the sacred book "Granth Sahib," a compilation of over 6,000 hymns meant to be sung to classical Indian ragas. Arjun was responsible for the Harimandir (temple of God) in the city of Amritsar. Arjun was later executed by Muslim rulers in Lahore. In 2004 Sikhs marked the 400th anniversary of the book?s arrival to Amritsar. (WSJ, 10/12/01, p.W17)(AP, 9/1/04) 1604 1605 Caravaggio painted "St. John the Baptist in the Wilderness." (WSJ, 4/28/98, p.A16) 1604 1606 Caravaggio painted "Madonna di Loreto." (WSJ, 2/8/00, p.A20) 1604 1634 Ligdan Khan (reigned 1604-34), the last great Mongol leader, ruled. He united many Mongol tribes to defend their homeland against the rising power of the Manchu. (www.gobiexpeditions.com) 1604 1690 Reverend John Eliot was an English missionary in Massachusetts called the "Apostle to the Indians." The Puritan Eliot learned the Algonquian language and preached to the Indians. He translated the Bible into Algonquian and published it in 1663 in Cambridge, Mass. (HNQ, 6/7/98)(WSJ, 8/7/98, p.W13) 1605 nend Apr 8, Philip IV king of Spain and Portugal (1621-65) ), was born. (HN, 4/8/98) 1605 nend Apr 8, Louis de Vadder, Flemish painter, was born. (MC, 4/8/02) 1605 nend Apr 12, Boris Godunov, Tsar of Russia (1598-1605), died. (MC, 4/12/02) 1605 nend Apr 16, New Mexico?s Gov. Don Juan de Onate passed by the sandstone bluff of El Morro where he left his mark in the stone. He was returning from an expedition to the Gulf of California, which he called the South Sea. (SSFC, 4/10/05, p.F9) 1605 nend Apr 18, Giacomo Carissimi, composer, was born. (MC, 4/18/02) 1605 nend Jun 10, False Dimitri was crowned Russian tsar for 1st time. (MC, 6/10/02) 1605 nend Jun 15, Thomas Randolph, English poet and playwright, was born. (HT, 6/15/00) 1605 nend Jun, Pierre Dugua moved the French settlement at St. Croix, Maine, to Nova Scotia at a site named Port Royal. (SSFC, 6/27/04, p.A2) 1605 nend Sep 27, Jan Karol Chodkiewicz (1560-1621), Lithuanian Hetman (Jonas Karolis Katkevi?ius-Katkus), led Lithuanian and Polish forces to victory against a Swedish army at Kircholm, Latvia. Chodkiewicz carried the day in a victory that, taking into account the disparity of power and strategic result, was huge. It is estimated that 6000 Swedes died. Sweden?s King Charles IX was wounded. (www.kismeta.com/diGrasse/images/kircholm_27_sept.htm) 1605 nend Oct 19, Thomas Browne, British writer (Garden of Cyrus), was born. (MC, 10/19/01) 1605 nend Nov 5, The Gunpowder Plot was planned in response to strict enforcement of anti-Catholic laws by King James I. Several prominent English Catholics plotted to blow up Parliament when the King was to address the House of Lords. Robert Catesby gathered a dozen young men to smuggle barrels of gunpowder into the basement of the House of Parliament. 36 barrels of gunpowder were placed in the cellar. The plot was discovered and one of the conspirators, Guy Fawkes, was arrested as he entered the cellar before the planned explosion. Fawkes was supposed to light the fuse but was caught and horribly tortured. Fawkes, after persuasion on the rack in the White Tower of London, confessed to trying to blow up Parliament. Fawkes and other conspirators were tried, convicted and executed. November 5 is known as Guy Fawkes Day in England and is celebrated by shooting firecrackers and burning effigies of Fawkes. The story is told in the 1996 book "Faith and Treason: The Story of the Gunpowder Plot" by Antonia Fraser. In 2005 Alice Hogge authored ?God?s Secret Agents: Queen Elizabeth?s Forbidden Priests and the Hatching of the Gunpowder Plot.? (NG, V184, No. 4, 10/1993, p. 54)(AP, 11/5/97)(HNQ, 3/15/00)(Econ,11/5/05, p.92) 1605 nend Dec 1, Juan de Padilla, composer, was born. (MC, 12/1/01) 1605 nend Dec 27, English sea captain John Davis was killed by Japanese pirates whose ship he had captured off the coast of Sumatra. In 1889 Clements Markham authored ?A Life of John Davis, the Navigator, 1550-1605, Discoverer of Davis Straits.? (ON, 11/05, p.9) 1605 nend The painting "Death of Samson," attributed to Peter Paul Rubens, may have been done by a student and completed as late as 1650. The work was later purchased by the Getty Museum for $6 million through Italian art dealers from the Corsini family and contested whether or not it was a national treasure. (WSJ, 4/2/99, p.W12) 1605 nend Bacon published his "Advancement of Learning." (V.D.-H.K.p.139) 1605 nend Pope Paul V (d.1621) was elected following Clement VIII. After 2 months he elevated his young law-student nephew, Scipione Borghese, to the office of cardinal. (WSJ, 9/15/98, p.A20)(WSJ, 2/8/00, p.A20) 1605 nend The American Indian Tisquantum, aka Squanto, was picked up by seafarer George Weymouth and taken to England. He spent 9 years there and returned to the New World as the interpreter for John Smith. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.28) 1605 nend The first scientific description of the dodo bird was made by the Dutch botanist Carolus Clusius from an observation of a dodo at the home of the anatomist Peter Paauw. (NH, 11/96, p.24) 1605 nend In France Henry IV and his minister, Duc de Sully, decided to build a square over the former site of the Hotel Royal des Tournelles. The new square was named the Place Royale until the Revolution when it was renamed the Place des Vosges after the first administrative department, Les Vosges, that paid taxes. (SFEM, 3/15/98, p.16) 1605 nend Henry IV established a building code that set architectural themes and specified that pavilions had to owned by a single family. (SFEM, 3/15/98, p.35) 1605 nend In India Akbar the Great died. He was succeeded by Juhangir the ineffectual and his "evil queen" Nur Jahan. (HT, 4/97, p.23) 1605 nend Japan?s Shogun Ieyasu allowed some of the Dutch crew of the ship Liefde to return home, but kept Will Adams in Japan. Adams soon married Magoma Oyuki, a young noblewoman. (ON, 11/02, p.10) 1605 1612 Don Pedro de Zuniga served as the Spanish ambassador to England. Zuniga actively engaged in espionage while serving as ambassador to England, sending various reports and maps concerning the English colony in Virginia to the Spanish court. (AH, 6/07, p.31)(www.she-philosopher.com/ib/bios/zuniga.html) 1605 1704 Marc-Antoine Charpentier, French composer. His work included "Antiennes "O" de l?Avent." (WSJ, 11/27/01, p.A20) 1606 nend Jan 31, Guy Fawkes, convicted for his part in the "Gunpowder Plot" against the English Parliament and King James I, was hanged, drawn and quartered. (AP, 1/31/98)(HN, 1/31/99) 1606 nend Apr 12, England's King James I decreed the design of the original Union Flag (also referred to as the Union Jack), which combined the flags of England and Scotland. (HN, 4/12/98)(AP, 4/12/06) 1606 nend May 6, Lorenzo Lippi, [Perlone Zipoli], poet, painter, was born. (MC, 5/6/02) 1606 nend Jun 6, Pierre Corneille (d.1684), French dramatist, poet and writer of Le Cid, was born: "Guess, if you can, and choose, if you dare." (AP, 3/28/98)(HN, 6/6/98) 1606 nend Jul 15, The painter Rembrandt (d.1669) Harmenszoom van Rizn (Rijn), was born in Leiden, Netherlands. His paintings included "Old Woman Cutting Her Nails," "Night Watch," "Self Portrait Leaning Forward" (1628), "Two Studies of Saskia Asleep" (1635-1637), "Jupiter and Antiope" (1659) and "Aristotle Contemplating the Bust of Homer." He started making etchings in the 1620s when the medium was barely a 100 years old. (WSJ, 10/1/96, p.A20)(SFC, 10/12/96, p.E3)(SFC, 5/17/97, p.E1)(AP, 7/15/97) no_source 1606 nend Dec 20, Virginia Company settlers left London to establish Jamestown. (HFA, '96, p.44)(MC, 12/20/01) c 1606 nend Caravaggio painted "St. John the Baptist." (WSJ, 4/28/98, p.A16) 1606 nend Caravaggio fled Rome after he accidentally killed a man. (Econ, 2/26/05, p.82) c 1606 nend Peter Paul Rubens painted "The Massacre of the Innocents." In 2002 it sold for $76.7 million at auction. (WSJ, 7/11/02, p.B8) 1606 nend Shakespeare wrote the tragedy "King Lear." William Shakespeare wrote "Antony and Cleopatra." He also wrote "The Tragedy of Macbeth." A shorter version was made in 1623 Folio. (WUD, 1994, p.788)(WSJ, 3/13/97, p.A12)(WSJ, 10/27/97, p.A1) 1606 nend Dona Maria, a Timucua Indian woman, inherited the position of chief of San Pedro de Mocama on Cumberland Island, Georgia. She had been chief of Nombre de Dios, a Spanish Franciscan mission town in Florida. (AM, 7/01, p.22) 1606 nend The order of the Sisters of Ursula was founded in France. Like their Jesuit brethren they try to fuse contemplative withdrawal with worldly engagement. (WSJ, 12/3/98, p.W17) 1606 nend Venice expelled the Jesuits as part of a larger jurisdictional dispute with the Vatican. (WSJ, 5/5/07, p.P10) 1606 1612 A drought in the American southeast was the worst in 770 years and caused the deaths of many Jamestown colonists in 1910. (SFC, 4/24/98, p.A3) 1607 nend Jan 30, A sudden flood around the Bristol Channel in southwest Britain killed at least 2,000 people. It was the worst natural disaster ever recorded in Britain. (Econ, 5/5/07, p.101) 1607 nend Feb 24, Claudio Monteverdi's opera "Orfeo," premiered at the Court Theater in Mantua. (WSJ, 6/19/97, p.A16)(AP, 2/24/07) 1607 nend Mar 8, Johann Rist, composer, was born. (MC, 3/8/02) 1607 nend Apr 26, Ships under the command of Capt. Christopher Newport sought shelter in Chesapeake Bay. The forced landing led to the founding of Jamestown on the James River, the first English settlement. An expedition of English colonists, including Capt. John Smith, went ashore at Cape Henry, Va., to establish the first permanent English settlement in the Western Hemisphere. (NG, Sept. 1939, p.356)(AP, 4/26/98)(HN, 4/26/98) 1607 nend May 13, English colonists landed near the James River in Virginia. They went shore the next day and founded a colony named Jamestown. In 1996 archeologist discovered the original Jamestown Fort and the remains of one settler, a young white male who died a violent death. In 2003 David A. Price authored "Love and Hate in Jamestown." (SFC, 9/13/96, p.A2)(AP, 5/13/97)(HN, 5/24/98)(WSJ, 11/25/03,p.D8)(AP, 5/13/07) 1607 nend May 14, Some 104 men and boys filed ashore from the small sailing ships Susan Constant, Godspeed, and Discovery, onto what English adventurers came to call Jamestown Island in Virginia. Capt. John Smith (27) was among the Englishmen who founded Jamestown. (HN, 10/3/00)(AP, 5/14/97)(SFEC, 10/15/00, p.T12)(ON, 2/07, p.7) 1607 nend May 24, Captain Christopher Newport and 105 followers founded Jamestown on the mouth of the James River in Virginia. They had left England with 144 members, 39 died on the way over. The colony was near the large Indian village of Werowocomoco, home of Pocahontas, the daughter Powhatan, an Algonquin chief. In 2003 archeologists believed that they had found the site of Werowocomoco, where Powhatan resided from 1607-1609. (HN, 5/24/99)(SFC, 5/7/03, p.A2)(Arch, 1/06, p.27) 1607 nend May 26, Some 200 Indian warriors stormed the unfinished stockade at Jamestown, Va. 2 settlers were killed and 10 seriously wounded before they were repulsed by cannon fire from the colonists? 3 moored ships. (ON, 2/07, p.7) 1607 nend Jun 15, Colonists in North America completed James Fort in Jamestown. Hostilities with the Indians ended as ambassadors said their emperor, Powhatan, had commanded local chiefs to live in peace with the English. (HN, 6/15/98)(ON, 2/07, p.7) 1607 nend Jun 21, The Church of England Episcopal Church, the 1st Protestant Episcopal parish in America, was established at Jamestown, Va. The 39 articles of the Episcopal Faith included the statement: "There is but one living and true God, everlasting, without body, parts, or passions; of infinite power, wisdom and goodness; the Maker, and Preserver of all things both visible and invisible." (SFC, 7/21/97, p.A11)(MC, 6/21/02)(WSJ, 6/20/03, p.W15) 1607 nend Jul 7, "God Save the King" was 1st sung. (MC, 7/7/02) 1607 nend Aug 14, The Popham expedition reached the Sagadahoc River in the northeastern North America (Maine), and settled there. (HN, 8/14/98) 1607 nend Sep 28, Samuel de Champlain and his colonists returned to France from Port Royal Nova Scotia. (HN, 9/28/98) 1607 nend Nov 26, This day is believed to be the birth date of London-born clergyman John Harvard, the principal benefactor of the original Harvard College in Cambridge, Mass. (AP, 11/26/07) 1607 nend ?The Knight of the Burning Pestle,? a play by Francis Beaumont (1584-1616), was first performed. It was first published in a quarto in 1613. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Knight_of_the_Burning_Pestle) 1607 nend In Aceh Sultan Iskandar Muda fielded the largest fighting force of the region with an army that had Persian horses an elephant corps and 800-man galleys to control the seas. (SFC, 1/20/00, p.A12) 1607 nend In China the Great Wall?s largest stone tower, Zhenbeitai, was built at Yulin, near the border of Inner Mongolia. (SSFC, 9/1/02, p.C6) 1607 nend Francisco de Rojas Zorrilla (d.c1660), Spanish dramatist, was born at Toledo. He became a knight of Santiago in 1644. The exact date of his death is unknown. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_de_Rojas_Zorrilla) 1607 1677 Wenceslaus Hollar, Bohemian artist. He made an engraving of old St. Paul?s Cathedral in London. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.14) 1608 nend Jan 7, An accidental fire devastated the Jamestown settlement in the Virginia Colony. (AP, 1/7/08) 1608 nend Jan 28, Giovanni Alfonso Borelli, mathematician, astronomer, was born in Naples. (MC, 1/28/02) 1608 nend Jan, John Smith met with the Indian emperor Powhatan at Werocomoco on the Pamunkey River. He studied the Powhattan language and culture. The Powhattans were an aggressive tribe and under Chief Powhatan?s leadership, they had conquered and subjugated more than 20 other tribes. Pocahontas was a Powhattan Indian girl of 10-11 years when she new Smith in Virginia. Records of the colony were kept by William Strachey, its official historian. The Powhattans were an aggressive tribe and under Chief Powhattan?s leadership, they conquered and subjugated more than 20 other tribes. Before coming to Virginia, John Smith had served as a mercenary in Hungary and was wounded, captured and sold into slavery by his Turkish adversaries; he escaped by killing his owner. (WSJ, 6/13/95, p.A-18)(ON, 2/07, p.8) 1608 nend May 19, The Protestant states formed the Evangelical Union of Lutherans and Calvinists under the direction of the elector of Brandenburg. (HN, 5/19/99) 1608 nend May 28, Claudio Monteverdi's "Arianna," premiered in Mantua. (MC, 5/28/02) 1608 nend Jun 4, Francesco Caracciolo (44), Italian religious founder, saint, died. (MC, 6/4/02) 1608 nend Jul 3, The city of Quebec was founded as a trading post by Samuel de Champlain. The French adventurer Etienne Brule accompanied Champlain to North America and was reportedly eaten by the Huron Indians. (AP, 7/3/97)(www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1608champlain.html) 1608 nend Aug 13, John Smith's story of Jamestown's 1st days was submitted for publication. (MC, 8/13/02) 1608 nend Sep 1, Giacomo Torelli, composer, was born. (MC, 9/1/02) 1608 nend Sep 10, John Smith was elected president of the Jamestown colony council in Virginia. Records of the colony were kept by William Strachey, its official historian. (WSJ, 6/13/95, p.A-18)(AP, 9/10/97) 1608 nend Sep 25, Hans Lipperhey applied to the government of Zeeland for a patent for the telescope. In 2005 Fred Watson authored ?Stargazer: The Life and Times of the Telescope.? (SSFC, 8/14/05, p.F2)(http://tinyurl.com/93lb6) 1608 nend Oct 1, Some 200 new settlers arrived at the Jamestown colony, including Dutch and Polish glass-makers, artisans and the first European women in the colony. (http://spuscizna.org/spuscizna/1608.html)(AH, 6/07, p.27) 1608 nend Oct 2, Jan Lippershey, spectacle maker, formally offered to the Estates of Holland his new spyglass for warfare. He was the 1st to file a patent claim for a spyglass. (www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9048449)(CW, Spring ?99, p.33) 1608 nend Dec 6, George Monck (Monk), English general and gov. of Scotland, was born. (MC, 12/6/01) 1608 nend Dec 9, English blind poet and polemical pamphleteer John Milton (1608-1674) was born in London. His work included "Paradise Lost," Paradise Regained," and "Samson Agonistes." Milton lost one eye at 36 and the other when he was 44. In 1996 Paul West wrote a novel: "Sporting with Amaryllis," that begins in 1626 and gives a fictional account of his life. In 1997 Peter Levy wrote a biography of Milton titled: "Eden Renewed." (WUD, '94, p.911)(WSJ, 5/6/97, p.A20)(AP, 12/9/97) 1608 nend Rubens painted "Adoration of the Shepherds." (WSJ, 2/8/00, p.A20) 1608 nend Shakespeare wrote his play "Pericles." It was about a prince who journeys through evil kingdoms until he meets his bride and then loses her at sea. (WSJ, 11/11/98, p.A21) 1608 nend Monteverdi wrote his opera "Arianna." It was based on a libretto by Ottavio Rinuccini. Only fragments survived into the 20th century when Alexander Goehr composed a contemporary version that premiered in 1998 in St. Louis. (WSJ, 7/2/98, p.A20) 1608 nend Bowling in Jamestown was banned after workers were found bowling instead of building the fort. (SFC, 7/28/97, p.A3) 1608 nend Capt. John Smith seeking passage to the Pacific and the South Seas sailed through a Chesapeake Bay tributary and was amazed at Indian skill in building log canoes. (NG, Sept. 1939, J. Maloney p.357) 1608 nend Settlers in Jamestown, Virginia, shipped distilled tar back to its sponsors in England, the first manufactured item exported from the US. (SFEC, 7/6/97, Z1 p.6) 1608 nend Robert Hunt (b.1568), the 1st chaplain at Jamestown, Va., died. (http://tinyurl.com/2jv6qq) 1608 nend Bushmills Distillery in Northern Ireland acquired a license for whiskey production. They had been producing whiskey since the 1100s. (SFEC, 1/10/99, p.T8) 1608 nend Shakespeare?s theater group, The King?s Men, incorporated technical changes in their plays with the acquisition of the indoor Blackfriars theater. (WSJ, 5/1/97, p.A16) 1608 nend Inigo Jones built an oak-paneled hall for Queen Elizabeth?s ambassador to France. The room was later bought intact by William Randolph Hearst and shipped to New York. It was later purchased by the developer of the SF Cannery and shipped to SF. It was set up as the interior of Jack?s. (SFEC, 7/12/98, DB p.32) 1608 nend In England Bess of Hardwick died at age 80. Know as the Dowager Countess of Shrewsbury, she built the Hardwick Hall in Derbyshire. Bess had married and disposed of four husbands, each leaving her richer than the last. She had been a moneylender, property dealer, exploiter of iron works, coal mines, and glass works, and ended up the richest woman in England after the Queen. She only had children by her second husband, Sir William Cavendish. Her fortune was divided between two sons, William and Charles. (NG, Nov. 1985, M. Girouard, p.662,671)(SFEM, 10/11/98, p.20) 1608 nend Shogun Ieyasu ordered Will Adams to go to the Philippines to invite the Spanish Gov. Don Diego Vevero y Velasco to compete with the Portuguese for trade with Japan. (ON, 11/02, p.10) 1609 nend Feb 7, Ferdinand I, cardinal, ruler of Tuscany, died. (MC, 2/7/02) 1609 nend Feb 10, John Suckling, English Cavalier poet, dramatist, courtier, was born. (MC, 2/10/02) 1609 nend Feb 28, Paul Sartorius (39), composer, died. (MC, 2/28/02) 1609 nend Mar 21, Jan II Kazimierz, cardinal, King of Poland (1648-68), was born. (MC, 3/21/02) 1609 nend Mar 25, Henry Hudson embarked on an exploration for Dutch East India Co. (MC, 3/25/02) 1609 nend Jul, Emperor Rudolf II granted Bohemia freedom of religion with his Letter of Majesty (Majestatsbrief). (www.historylearningsite.co.uk/Bohemia_30YW.htm) 1609 nend Jul 10, The Catholic states in Germany set up a league under the leadership of Maximillian of Bavaria. (HN, 7/10/98) 1609 nend Jul 15, Annibale Carracci (b.1560), Italian Baroque painter, died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annibale_Carracci) 1609 nend Jul 25, Admiral William Somers, head of a 7-ship fleet enroute to Virginia, spied land after being blown off course and soon drove his ship, the Sea Venture, onto the reefs of Bermuda. William Strachey (1572-1621), was also aboard the Sea Venture and later sent a letter to England that described the event. The letter is thought by many to have been the inspiration for Shakespeare?s "Tempest." Strachey became secretary of the colony at Jamestown, Virginia, after his arrival there on May 23, 1610. In 2009 Hobson Woodward authored: A Brave Vessel: The True Tale of the Castaways Who Rescued Jamestown and Inspired Shakespeare?s ?The Tempest.? (AM, May/Jun 97 p.29)(SFC, 8/18/09,p.E2)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_Venture) 1609 nend Aug 25, Galileo demonstrated his 1st telescope to Venetian lawmakers. Galileo Galilei had improved the newly invented telescope and pointed it at the moon. (V.D.-H.K.p.200)(Econ, 8/15/09, p.12) 1609 nend Aug 28, Henry Hudson discovered Delaware Bay. (AP, 8/28/97) 1609 nend Sep 3-4, Henry Hudson discovered the island of Manhattan. The exact date is not known. (MC, 9/3/01)(www.hudsonriver.com) 1609 nend Sep 12, English explorer Henry Hudson sailed his ship, the Half Moon, into the river that later took his name. Hudson sailed for the Dutch East India Company in search of the Northwest Passage, a water route linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. (AP, 9/12/97)(Econ, 7/4/09, p.28) 1609 nend Oct 12, The song "Three Blind Mice" was published in London, believed to be the earliest printed secular song. (HN, 10/12/00) 1609 nend Nov 30, Galileo began observing the moon with his perspicullum from Padua, Italy. (CW, Spring ?99, p.34) 1609 nend Caravaggio (1571-1610) completed his "Adoration of the Shepherds," during a brief stay in Messina, Sicily. (AP, 10/7/09) c 1609 nend Peter Paul Rubens painted ?Samson and Delilah.? (SFC, 3/5/05, p.E1) c 1609 nend Rubens painted "The Head of St. John the Baptist." In 1998 it sold for $5.5 mil to Alfred Bader. (SFC, 2/3/98, p.E3) 1609 nend Ben Johnson wrote his play "The Silent Woman." (WSJ, 2/7/03, p.W2) 1609 nend Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), German astronomer and mathematician, authored ?Astronomia Nova.? Written in 1605, but not published until 1609, it discussed how Mars moves in an elliptical orbit. (SFC, 10/25/99, p.A4)(Econ, 8/15/09,p.75)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Kepler) 1609 nend Shakespeare wrote his play "Cymbeline." It was based on the story of Cymbeline, king of Britain during the reign of Augustus Caesar in Rome. (WSJ, 6/10/98, p.A16)(WSJ, 8/19/98, p.A16) 1609 nend The original text of Shakespeare's 154 sonnets was published. In 1997 a poem-by-poem commentary was published by Helen Vendler: "The Art of Shakespeare's Sonnets." A new Arden edition: "Shakespeare?s Sonnets" to elucidate the context of the poems was also published in 1997. (WSJ, 11/12/97, p.A20) 1609 nend The song "Three Blind Mice" was published in London. (SFC,12/5/97, p.C3) 1609 nend The British attempted to settle Grenada. (http://worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/namerica/caribb/gd.htm) 1609 nend Henry Hudson gave brandy to the local Indians and their chief passed out. The place was renamed "Manahachtanienk," meaning "where everybody got drunk." Authorities say that "Manhattan" came form an Indian word meaning "high island." (SFEC, 1/25/98, Z1 p.8) 1609 nend Capt. John Smith returned to England from Jamestown (Virginia) after being wounded in an accidental explosion of gunpowder. (ON, 2/07, p.9) 1609 nend The 1st newspaper was published in Germany. (SFC, 7/26/04, p.F4) 1609 nend Forces from the Japanese feudal domain of Satsuma invaded the Ryukyu Islands and took the king hostage. Heavy tribute was soon demanded. (NH, 9/01, p.56) 1609 nend Rabbi Loew (b.1525), also known as the Maharal of Prague, died. He became well-remembered for a legend about him creating a clay figure known as Golem, which he is said to have brought to life to protect Prague's Jewish community from attacks. (AP, 8/5/09) 1609 nend Sultan Ahmet commissioned the Blue Mosque to rival the other mosques of Istanbul, Turkey. (CAM, Nov. Dec. '95, p.29) 1609 nend Don Alonzo Perez de Guzman el Bueno, the Duke of Medina Sedonia and head of the failed Spanish Armada, died. (ON, 3/02, p.6) 1609 1610 A dry spell that began in 1606 was responsible for "the starving time" at the Jamestown colony. Nearly half of the 350 colonists alive in June, 1610, were dead by the end of the summer. (SFC, 4/24/98, p.A17) 1609 1611 The painting "The Massacre of the Innocents" was attributed to Peter Paul Rubens in 2002 and expected to sell for $5.7-8.5 million. (SFC, 3/7/02, p.D12) 1610 nend Jan 7, The astronomer Galileo Galilei sighted four of Jupiter's moons. Galileo discovered the 1st 3 Jupiter satellites, Io, Europa & Ganymede. He discovered mountains and valleys on the moon, that Jupiter has a moon of its own, and that the sun has spots which change. Galileo discovered multiple moons around Jupiter. He also observed Mars. (V.D.-H.K.p.200)(SFC, 11/5/96, p.A4)(SFC, 11/29/96, p.A16)(AP,1/7/98)(MC, 1/7/02) 1610 nend Feb 14, Polish king Sigismund III forced Dimitri #2 and the Romanov family to sign covenant against Czar Vasili Shuishki (sequel to story of "Boris Godunov"). (MC, 2/14/02) 1610 nend Feb 28, Thomas West, Baron de La Mar, was appointed governor of Virginia. (HN, 2/28/98)(MC, 2/28/02) 1610 nend Mar 13, Galileo published his observations of the night sky under the title ?Siderius Nuncius? (Starry Messenger). (CW, Spring ?99, p.36) 1610 nend Mar 21, King James I addressed the English House of Commons. (MC, 3/21/02) 1610 nend Apr 18, Robert Parsons (63), English Jesuit leader, plotter, died. (MC, 4/18/02) 1610 nend Apr 22, Alexander VIII, [Pietro Ottoboni], Italian lawyer, Pope (1689-91), was born. (MC, 4/22/02) 1610 nend May 11, Matteo Ricci, Italian Jesuit missionary (China), died. (MC, 5/11/02) 1610 nend May 14, King Henri IV, Henri de Navarre (56), Bourbon King of France (1572, 89-1610) was assassinated by a fanatical monk, François Ravillac. Henri IV was succeeded by 11-year-old Louis XIII, under the eye of Cardinal Richelieu. Henry?s legacy included straight roads flanked by arbres d?alignement on both sides. (SFEM, 3/15/98, p.17)(HN, 5/14/99)(MC, 5/14/02)(Econ, 2/14/04, p.48) 1610 nend May 15, Parliament of Paris appointed Louis XIII (8) as French king. (MC, 5/15/02) 1610 nend May 24, Sir Thomas Gates instituted "laws divine moral and marshal, " a harsh civil code for Jamestown, Va. (HN, 5/24/99) 1610 nend Jun 3, Jacob Neefs, Flemish engraver, publisher, was baptized. (MC, 6/3/02) 1610 nend Jun 10, The 1st Dutch settlers arrived from NJ to colonize Manhattan Island. (MC, 6/10/02) 1610 nend Jun 10, English Lord De La Ware and his supply ships arrived at Jamestown allowing the colony to recover and survive. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_West,_3rd_Baron_De_La_Warr) 1610 nend Jul 4, Battle at Klushino: King Sigismund II [III] of Poland beat Russia & Sweden. (Maggio) 1610 nend Jul 18, Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (b.1571), Italian artist, died in Porto Ercole at age 38. His paintings included ?David With the Head of Goliath,? in which he used his own image for Goliath. In 1999 Helen Langdon authored the biography: "Caravaggio: A Life." In 2000 Peter Robb authored the biography: "M: The Man Who Became Caravaggio." In 2010 Andrew Graham-Dixon authored ?Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane.? (Econ, 2/26/05, p.82)(WSJ, 5/4/05,p.D8)(http://tinyurl.com/8jjs6)(SFC, 7/22/10, p.79) 1610 nend Aug 3, Henry Hudson of England discovered a great bay on the east coast of Canada and named it for himself. (HN, 8/3/98)(HNQ, 7/23/00) 1610 nend Aug 27, Polish King Wladyslaw was crowned king of Russia. (MC, 8/27/01) 1610 nend Ben Jonson wrote his satirical play: "The Alchemist." It was about 3 creative crooks in London bilking everyone in sight. (SFC, 4/26/97, p.E3) 1610 nend Shakespeare?s play ?The Winter?s Tale? was first performed. (www.william-shakespeare.info/shakespeare-play-the-winters-tale.htm) 1610 nend Spanish colonists founded Santa Fe. They built the block long adobe El Palacio as a seat for the governor-general. (SFEC, 7/6/97, p.T7)(SSFC, 6/10/01, p.T9) 1610 nend Galileo observed Saturn and noted that it appeared to be triple-bodied. (NH, 10/1/04, p.28) 1610 nend In France Henri IV was killed by an assassin. He was succeeded by 11-year-old Louis XIII, under the eye of Cardinal Richelieu. (SFEM, 3/15/98, p.17) 1610 nend In Ireland the settlement at Derry was colonized by the English, who built a fortress surrounded by stone walls and renamed it Londonderry. (SFC, 12/1/97, p.A14) 1610 nend Retired-Japanese Samurai Hachirobei Mitsui pawned a couple of his swords and started a ribbon and kimono shop. It grew to become the world?s oldest department store, Tokyo?s Mitsukoshi. (SFC, 7/7/96, zone 1 p.5) 1610 nend The Dutch ousted the Portuguese from Indonesia by this time, but the Portuguese retained the eastern half of Timor. (SFC, 9/8/99, p.A17) 1610 nend The first cargo of Asian tea arrived in Amsterdam (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1610 nend Leon, Nicaragua, was buried by the Mombotombo volcano. (SSFC, 4/10/05, p.F5) 1610 nend In Cracow (Krakow), Poland, bagels were listed in the community regulations as a suitable gift for pregnant women. (SFC, 10/16/96, zz1 p.6)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1610 nend Sigismund III ruled Poland. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.29) c 1610 1615 Orazio Gentileschi, the father of Artemisia (one of the most gifted women painters of all time), painted "Judith and her Maidservant With the head of Holofernes." The 1998 film "Artemisia" was based on the life of Artemisia. (WSJ, 4/28/98, p.A16)(SFEC, 5/10/98, DB p.48) 1610 1643 Louis XIII (1601-1643) was King of France. He was the son of Henry IV of Navarre. He started the fashion of men?s wigs do to loss of hair. (WUD, 1994, p.524)(SFC, 12/29/96, zone 1 p.2) 1610 1650 In the Netherlands painters from Utrecht worked in the style of Caravaggio. (WSJ, 10/20/97, p.A19) 1610 1664 The Chinese painter Hong Ren. His work included "Peaks and Ravines at Jiuqi." (WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20) 1610 1680 Baldassare Ferri, the first of the famous Castrato vocalists. Some of them had ranges of four octaves, up to A or even B above high C in full voice. Some of them could sustain a note for well over a minute. (LGC-HCS, p.42) 1611 nend Mar 4, George Abbot was appointed archbishop of Canterbury. (SC, 3/4/02) 1611 nend Apr 1, Gillis van Valkenborch (~72), Flemish painter, was buried. (MC, 4/1/02) 1611 nend Apr 14, Word "telescope" was 1st used by Prince Federico Cesi. (MC, 4/14/02) 1611 nend May 23, Matthias von Habsburg was chosen king of Bohemia. (MC, 5/23/02) 1611 nend Jun 22, English explorer Henry Hudson, his son and several other people were set adrift in present-day Hudson Bay by mutineers. The starving crew of the Discovery, which had spent the winter trapped by ice in Hudson Bay, mutinied against Hudson, who was never seen again. (AP, 6/22/97)(SFEM, 11/15/98, p.26)(MC, 6/23/02) 1611 nend Nov 1, Shakespeare's romantic comedy "The Tempest" was first presented at Whitehall. (AP, 11/1/99) 1611 nend Nov 3, Henry Ireton, English general and MP (Edgehill), was born. (MC, 11/3/01) 1611 nend Dutch artist Joachim Wtewael painted "Andromeda." He and Bloemaert helped transmit the Italian mannerist influence and a preference for figure painting over landscape (SFC, 9/12/97, p.C8) 1611 nend The Aqua Paola aqueduct was built in Rome. (SFEC, 7/2/00, p.T5) 1611 nend The Jamestown settlement in Virginia pushed west with the establishment of Henricus (later Henrico) on the James River. (AH, 6/07, p.27) 1611 nend Don Diego de Molina, a Spanish spy, was taken prisoner in Jamestown. Molina managed to send reports about the colony to agents in London. When he eventually returned to Spain, Molina urged King Philip to eliminate the English presence in Virginia, but Philip again demurred. (AH, 6/07, p.31) 1611 nend Galileo went to Rome to describe his observations to the pontifical court. (V.D.-H.K.p.200) 1611 nend The authorized version of the King James Bible was published and it incorporated the translation of William Tyndale. In 2001 Alister McGrath authored "In the Beginning: The Story of the King James Bible and How It Changed a Nation, a Language and a Culture." In 2003 Adam Nicolson authored "God's Secretaries," which covered the tumult behind the creation of the King James Bible. (WSJ, 12/22/94, A-20)(SSFC, 6/3/01, DB p.71)(WSJ, 5/9/03, p.W10) 1611 nend Matthias, brother of Rudolf II, occupied Prague and captured Rudolf II. (WSJ, 1/8/99, p.C13) 1611 1670 Antonio de Pareda, Spanish allegorist painter. His work included "El Sueño del Caballero" (The Gentleman?s Dream). (WSJ, 1/09/00, p.A20) 1612 nend Jan 20, Rudolf II von Habsburg (59), emperor of Germany (1576-1612), died in Prague and Matthias became Holy Roman Emperor. In 1912 an enigmatic manuscript, once owned by Rudolf II, was acquired by Wilfrid Voynich and came to be known as the Voynich manuscript. In 2006 Peter Marshall authored ?The Magic Circle of Rudolf II.? (WSJ, 1/8/99, p.C13)(www.historylearningsite.co)(Econ, 1/10/04,p.71)(WSJ, 9/9/06, p.P9) 1612 nend Feb 7, Thomas Killigrew, English humorist, playwright, leader (King's Men), was born. (MC, 2/7/02) 1612 nend Feb 8, Samuel Butler (d.1680), England, poet, satirist (Hudibras) was baptized. (MC, 2/8/02) 1612 nend Feb 17, Ernst of Bayern (57), prince, bishop of Luik, archbishop of Cologne, died. (MC, 2/17/02) 1612 nend Aug 12, Giovanni Gabrieli (60), Italian composer (Madrigals), died. (MC, 8/12/02) 1612 nend Sep 12, Russia?s Tsar Vasili IV (b.1552) died. (www.etoile.co.uk/Romanov/Timeline.html) 1612 nend Oct 22, Russian forces, inspired by a vision of the captive Greek Archbishop Arsenios, won a sweeping victory and took the Chinese quarter, and two days later, the Kremlin itself. (www.oca.org) 1612 nend Oct 27, A Polish army which invaded Russia capitulated to Prince Dimitri Pojarski and his Cossacks. (HN, 10/27/98) 1612 nend Nov 4, Russia drove Catholic Poles and Lithuanians out of Moscow. This marked the end of the "Time of Troubles," a period of popular uprisings and fighting between noblemen and pretenders to the throne. Russian Orthodox Church celebrated this day as the victory of the forces of Eastern Orthodoxy over the forces of Western Catholicism. In 2005 Russia chose this day for the new ?People?s Unity Day? holiday. (http://bildt.blogspot.com/2005/11/meaning-of-1612.html)(Econ,11/12/05, p.56)(Econ, 3/17/07, p.65) 1612 nend John Webster, English playwright, wrote his play "The White Devil." It was a tale of treachery, revenge, sexual corruption and murder. (WSJ, 1/09/00, p.A20) 1612 nend Le Carrousel du Roi, an equestrian ballet, was choreographed by Antoine de Pluvinel and scored by Robert Ballard. It was performed as part of an engagement ceremony for Louis XIII of France to Anne of Austria, princess of Spain. An estimated 200,000 people viewed the performance in Paris? Place Royale (later the Place des Vosges). (SFEC, 6/4/00, DB p.38)(SFEC, 6/11/00, p.D9) 1612 nend Shakespeare was commissioned to write a serious play about Henry VIII. The commission was probably made to celebrate the marriage of one of King James? daughters. (WSJ, 6/27/97, p.A13) 1612 nend Shakespeare handed over the role of scriptwriter for the King?s Men to John Fletcher and retired to his hometown of Stratford-upon-Avon. (WSJ, 5/1/97, p.A16) 1612 nend The French explorer Etienne Brule (1592-1632) is believed to be the first European to see the Great Lakes. Brule journeyed to North America with Samuel de Champlain in 1608 and helped found Quebec. Brule explored Lake Huron in 1612 and is believed to have also explored Lakes Ontario, Erie and Superior after 1615. Brule is the first European to live among the Indians and was probably the first European to set foot in what is now Pennsylvania. (HNQ, 6/29/98) 1612 nend In France the Pavillon du Roi, begun under Henri IV, was completed. It was occupied by the king?s court and then the Duc de Sully, after which it was called the Hotel de Sully. (SFEM, 3/15/98, p.17) 1612 nend The square of Esfanan, Persia, was built. (SSFC, 1/14/07, p.G5) 1612 1626 Johannes Kepler, the Imperial Court Mathematician of the Habsburgs, taught at the provincial academy of Linz. Here he published his famous work Harmonices Mundi. (StuAus, April '95, p.79) 1612 1656 Harmen Van Steenwijck, Dutch painter, included skulls in his paintings of objects of everyday life. (NH, 10/96, p.38) 1612 1672 Anne Bradstreet, American poet: "Authority without wisdom is like a heavy ax without an edge, fitter to bruise than polish." (AP, 2/22/99) 1612 1759 The French dominated the interior of America. (SFC, 7/7/96, BR p.7) 1613 nend Jan 28, Thomas Bodley (b.1545), English diplomatist and scholar, died in London. He founded the Bodleian Library at Oxford. (www.nndb.com/people/859/000094577/) 1613 nend Jan 28, Galileo may have unknowingly viewed the undiscovered planet Neptune. (MC, 1/28/02) 1613 nend Feb 21, Mikhail Romanov (17), son of Patriarch of Moscow, was elected czar of Russia. He was crowned Jun 22. The Romanovs began to rule over Russia and lasted until 1917. (PCh, 1992, p.220)(SFC, 4/19/97, p.A3)(http://eefy.editme.com/L18b) 1613 nend Apr 7, Gerard Dou, Dutch painter (Night School), was born. (MC, 4/7/02) 1613 nend Jun 29, Shakespeare's Globe Theater burned down in London. (USAT, 8/16/96, p.8D)(MC, 6/29/02) 1613 nend Jun, Susanna Hall, Shakespeare?s daughter, married Stratford doctor and herbalist John Hall. (WSJ, 12/5/00, p.A24) 1613 nend Sep 8, Carlo Gesualdo (b.~1566), prince of Venosa, died. He was an Italian music composer, lutenist and nobleman of the late Renaissance and became famous for his intensely expressive madrigals. In 1590 he murdered his bride and her lover after catching them in flagrante delicto. In 2010 Glenn Watkins authored ?The Gesualdo Hex: Music, Myth, and Memory.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo_Gesualdo)(Econ, 1/23/10, p.79) 1613 nend Sep 15, Francois, duc de la Rochefoucauld (d.1680), writer (Memoires), was born in Paris, France. "When we cannot find contentment in ourselves it is useless to seek it elsewhere." (AP, 12/2/98)(www.bookrags.com) 1613 nend Sep 15, Thomas Overbury (b.1581), Elizabethan poet, died in London. He was murdered by his wife, Florence Maybrick, who used an enema of arsenic. The murder was arranged by Frances Howard, Lady Essex, who felt attacked by Overbury?s poem ?A Wife.? (WSJ, 6/24/05, p.W9)(http://search.eb.com/shakespeare/micro/445/8.html) 1613 nend Jan Breughel (1568-1625), the Elder, a son of Pieter Breughel, painted the "A Village Street with Carts, Villagers and Gentlefolk." (WSJ, 2/18/00, p.W12) 1613 nend The colonists at Jamestown kidnapped Pocahontas and held her for ransom to force her father to free some English hostages and to return some stolen tools. (ON, 2/07, p.9)(AH, 6/07, p.27) 1613 nend The American Indian Tisquantum, aka Squanto, returned to the New World from England as the interpreter for John Smith. He was freed by Smith but then kidnapped with 19 fellow Indians by an Englishman and carried off to Milaga, Spain. He managed to escape to England. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.28) 1613 nend A fleet of 3 English ships arrived in Japan in response to letters from Will Adams to the English East India Company. (ON, 11/02, p.10) 1613 nend Giovanni Gabrielli (b.1558), Italian composer, died. Some sources place his birth in 1554 and his death in 1612. (http://tinyurl.com/gbznj)(WSJ, 9/21/06, p.D6) 1613 1675 Gerrit Dou, Dutch artist. He was a student of Rembrandt. (SFC, 5/25/00, p.A24) 1613 nend Khushhal Khan Khattak (d.1690), Afghan warrior-poet, was born. He initiated a national uprising against the foreign Moghul government. (www.afghan-network.net/biographies/khattak.html) 1613 1700 Andre Le Notre, French architect and landscape designer. He shaped the gardens at Vaux-le-Vicomte, Versailles, Marly, Chantilly, Saint Germain-en-Laye, Les Tuileries, saint cloud, Sceaux and Courances. (WUD, 1994, p.820)(SFEM, 5/18/97, p.26) 1614 nend Apr 5, American Indian princess Pocahontas (d.1617) married English Jamestown colonist John Rolfe in Virginia. Their marriage brought a temporary peace between the English settlers and the Algonquians. (AP, 4/5/97)(HN, 5/5/97)(SFEC, 10/15/00, p.T12) 1614 nend Apr 5, 2nd parliament of King James I began session (no enactments). (MC, 4/5/02) 1614 nend Apr 7, El Greco (b.1541), Cretan born Spanish painter (View of Toledo), died in Toledo. His paintings included "The Resurrection" (1597). (WSJ, 6/18/01, p.A16)(MC, 4/7/02) 1614 nend May 15, An aristocratic uprising in France ended with the treaty of St. Menehould. (HN, 5/15/98) 1614 nend Jun 7, The 2nd parliament of King James I dissolved passing no legislation. (SC, 6/7/02) 1614 nend Jul 14, Camillus de Lellis (64), Italian soldier, monastery founder, saint, died. (MC, 7/14/02) 1614 nend Aug 22, Trades people under Vincent Fettmilch chased and plunder Jews out of ghetto in Frankfurt. (MC, 8/22/02) 1614 nend Sep 1, Vincent Fettmich expelled Jews from Frankfurt-on-Main, Germany. (SC, 9/1/02) 1614 nend Crispijn de Passe the Younger published "Hortus Floridus" in Holland. (WSJ, 7/7/98, p.A14) 1614 nend John Webster, English playwright, wrote his play "The Duchess of Malfi." It is a "Jacobean melodrama set in an Italy that was viewed as a hotbed of sexual and political depravity." (WSJ, 12/14/95, p.A-12) 1614 nend Portuguese writer Diego do Couto wrote of a king in Cambodia who discovered an abandoned city during an elephant hunt in the middle of the 16th century. The report did not get published until 1958. (SFEC, 7/26/98, p.T6) 1614 nend Inigo Jones (1573-1652), British architect, traveled to Italy and bought a trunk full of Palladio?s architectural drawings. In 1894 they ended up at the Royal Institute of British Architects. (Econ, 9/27/08, p.100)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inigo_Jones) 1614 nend King Louis XIII (13) gave Christophe Marie and his partners the go-ahead to build the Pont Marie linking Paris? Right Bank to the Ile Saint Louis. (SFCM, 10/14/01, p.33) 1614 nend English Jamestown colonist John Rolfe successfully cultivated tobacco for export to England. This guaranteed the colony?s economic survival. (AH, 6/07, p.27) 1614 nend Father Tommaso Caccini denounced the opinions of Galileo on the motion of the Earth from the pulpit of Santa Maria Novella, judging them to be erroneous. Galileo went to Rome and defended himself against charges that had been made against him. In 1616, he was admonished by Cardinal Bellarmino and told that he could not defend Copernican astronomy because it went against the doctrine of the Church. Later, in 1632 he was summoned by the Holy Office to Rome. The tribunal passed a sentence condemning him and compelled Galileo to solemnly abjure his theory. He was sent to exile in Siena. (MC, 1/8/02) 1614 nend Sulayman Pasha, a Turkish general, named the Tehran (later Tirana) as the capital of Albania after the capital of Iran. (SSFC, 12/17/06, p.G5) 1614 nend Shogun Ieyasu ordered all Christian missionaries to leave Japan. All Christian churches were closed and Japanese people were forbidden to practice Christianity on pain of death. (ON, 11/02, p.10) 1614 nend The Don Cossacks made a pact with the Russian Czar and gained self-government in exchange for military service. (SFC,10/28/97, p.A8) 1615 nend Feb 23, The Estates-General in Paris was dissolved, having been in session since October 1614. (HN, 2/23/99) 1615 nend Mar 13, Innocent XII, Roman Catholic Pope, was born. (HN, 3/13/98) 1615 nend Jun 4, The Tokugawa Shogun captured Osaka Castle and eliminated Hide-yoshi's heirs. The fortress of Osaka, Japan, fell to shogun Leyasu after a six month siege. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215)(HN, 6/4/98) 1615 nend Jul 28, French explorer Samuel de Champlain discovered Lake Huron on his seventh voyage to the New World. (HN, 7/28/98) c 1615 nend Artemisia Gentileschi created her painting "Female Martyr." In 1989 Mary D. Garrard authored a book on her life and art. In 2002 Susan Vreeland authored "The Passion of Artemisia," a novel based on the artist?s life. (SSFC, 1/13/02, p.M3) 1615 nend Dutch artist Joachim Wtewael painted the "Judgement of Paris." (SFC, 9/12/97, p.C8) 1615 nend In India prince Shah Jahan, son of Jehangir, returned home after a successful military campaign. (WSJ, 12/16/97, p.A16) 1615 nend In Japan Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu granted land to Hon?ami Koetsu, a calligraphy artist. The property was named Takagamine and became a colony for artists united by their adherence to Buddhism. (SFC, 8/21/00, p.D3) 1615 nend The Persians sacked the monastic complex of David Gareja in Georgia. (Econ, 8/28/10, p.50) 1615 1680 Nicolas Fouquet, treasurer to Louis XIV of France. He used embezzled funds to build his chateau Vaux le Vicomte. [see 1661] (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1616 nend Jan 20, The French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived to winter in a Huron Indian village after being wounded in a battle with Iroquois in New France. (HN, 1/20/99) 1616 nend Feb 24, Qualifiers of the Holy Office concluded that a sun-centered theory was ?foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical, inasmuch as it expressly contradicts the teachings of many passages of Holy scriptures.? (SSFC, 10/31/04, p.B6) 1616 nend Feb 26, Spanish Inquisition delivered an injunction to Galileo. (SC, 2/26/02) 1616 nend Mar 5, The Catholic Church?s Congregation of the Index banned Catholics from reading ?On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres? (1543) by Nicholas Copernicus. ?De Revolutionibus? was not formally banned but merely withdrawn from circulation, pending "corrections." The prohibition was officially lifted in 1835. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium) 1616 nend Mar 6, Francis Beaumont (b.1584), Elizabethan playwright, died. (WUD, 1994 p.131)(MC, 3/6/02) 1616 nend Mar 20, Walter Raleigh was released from Tower of London to seek gold in Guiana. He took along his son Wat (22), who was killed during an attack on a Spanish outpost. (MC, 3/20/02)(WSJ, 1/6/04, p.D10) 1616 nend Apr 23, Miguel de Cervantes (b.1547), Spanish poet and novelist, died in Madrid. (AP, 4/23/97) 1616 nend Apr 23, William Shakespeare (b.1564), poet and playwright, died in Stratford-on-Avon, England. In 2004 Stephen Greenblatt authored ?Will In the World.? In 2006 Colin McGinn authored ?Discovering the Meaning Behind the Plays.? (AP, 4/23/97)(WSJ, 9/24/04, p.W7)(SSFC, 12/24/06, p.M1) 1616 nend Jul 25, Andreas Libavius, German alchemist, died. (SC, 7/25/02) 1616 nend Nov 20, Bishop Richelieu became French minister of Foreign affairs and War. (MC, 11/20/01) 1616 nend Dec 25, Nathaniel Courthope, a British merchant-adventurer under direct orders from James I, landed his ship Swan at the Banda Island of Run. He persuaded the islanders to enter an alliance with the British for nutmeg. He fortified the 1 by 2 mile island and with 30 men proceeded to hold off a Dutch siege for 1,540 days. (WSJ, 5/21/99, p.W7) 1616 nend John Smith authored ?A Description of New England.? It described his exploration of new England following his departure from Virginia in 1614. (WSJ, 11/22/08, p.W11) 1616 nend The collection, "Poems," by William Drummond (b.1585), Scottish laird of Hawthornden, appeared. (HN, 12/13/99) 1616 nend London?s Phoenix Theater in Drury Lane was converted from a cockpit. (Econ, 5/21/05, p.88) 1616 nend The Scornful Lady, a play by Beaumont and Fletcher that features a serving maid named Abigail. (AHD, 1971, p.3) 1616 nend Capt. Samuel Argall, deputy governor of Jamestown and known as the kidnapper of Pocahontas, was appointed to run the colony. Within 2 years the public estate was gone, though his own plantation thrived. The Earl of Warwick sent a ship and Argall loaded his plunder and absconded to England. Argall was knighted 2 years after his return to England and later served as an adviser on the governance of Jamestown. (SSFC, 7/14/02, p.G2) 1616 nend In a letter to Queen Anne, Capt. John Smith recalled that Pocahontas had saved the colony at Jamestown from "death, famine, and utter confusion." (WSJ, 6/13/95, p.A-18) 1616 nend American Indian princess Pocahontas and her husband, Jamestown colonist John Rolfe, sailed to England with their infant son. (ON, 2/07, p.9) 1616 nend The Fuerte de San Diego was built to protect the port of Acapulco, Mexico, from Dutch and English pirates. (SSFC, 11/2/03, p.C6) 1616 nend Galileo was forbidden from continuing his scientific work by the Roman Catholic Church. (NG, March 1990, p. 117) 1616 nend Shogun Ieyasu (b.1642), Japanese general and statesman, died. (WUD, 1994 p.759)(ON, 11/02, p.10) 1616 nend The Dutch became the first to establish colonies in Guyana with Essequibo. Berbice followed in 1627, and then Demerara in 1752. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guyana) 1616 1619 An epidemic, possibly viral hepatitis from contact with Europeans, ravaged the Wampanoag confederacy in Massachusetts. This helped to make possible the Pilgrim settlement in 1620. (Econ, 8/11/07, p.49) 1617 nend Jan 6, Pocahontas, American Indian princess, attended a court masque with King James I and Queen Anne. (ON, 2/07, p.9) 1617 nend Feb 4, Louis Elsevier (~76), Dutch publisher, died. (MC, 2/4/02) 1617 nend Feb 9, Hans Christoph Haiden (44), composer, died. (MC, 2/9/02) 1617 nend Mar 9, The Treaty of Stolbovo ended the occupation of Northern Russia by Swedish troops. (HN, 3/9/99) 1617 nend Mar 21, Pocahontas (Rebecca Rolfe) was buried at the parish church of St. George in Gravesend, England. As Pocahontas and John Rolfe prepared to sail back to Virginia, she died reportedly of either small pox or pneumonia. In 2003 Paula Gunn Allen authored "Pocahontas "Medicine Woman, Spy, entrepreneur, Diplomat." (AP, 4/5/97)(HN, 5/5/97)(SFEC, 10/15/00, p.T12)(HN, 3/21/01)(SSFC,10/19/03, p.M5) 1617 nend Apr 4, John Napier, Scottish mathematician, inventor (logarithms), died. (MC, 4/4/02) 1617 nend May 7, David Fabricius (53), German astronomer, died. (MC, 5/7/02) 1617 nend Aug 23, The 1st one-way streets opened in London. (MC, 8/23/02) 1617 nend Aug 30, Rosa de Lima of Peru became the first American saint to be canonized. (HN, 8/30/98) 1617 nend Simon Vouet painted "The Fortune Teller." (WSJ, 4/28/98, p.A16) 1617 nend Fort San Diego was built to protect Acapulco, a major port for Spanish galleons, against buccaneers. (Hem, Dec. 94, p.25) 1617 nend The Pilgrims decided to leave the Netherlands. They formed a partnership in a joint-stock company with a group of London merchants in a company called John Pierce & Assoc. They received a grant for a plantation in the Virginia colony but ended up landing in Massachusetts. Each adult was to receive a share in the company but earnings would not be divided for 7 years. (WSJ, 11/26/97, p.A14) 1617 nend James VI of Scotland, aka James I of England, made a homecoming to Edinburgh Castle. (SFEC, 11/8/98, p.T3) 1617 1618 Mustafa I succeeded Ahmed I in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii) 1618 nend Jan 7, Francis Bacon became English lord chancellor. (MC, 1/7/02) 1618 nend Mar 8, Johannes Kepler came up with his Third Law of Planetary Motion. (SFC, 6/16/96, PM p.5)(HN, 3/8/98) 1618 nend Apr 2, Francesco M. Grimaldi, mathematician, physicist (light diffraction), was born. (MC, 4/2/02) 1618 nend May 15, Johannes Kepler discovered his harmonics law. (HN, 5/15/98) 1618 nend May 23, The Thirty Years War (1618-1648) ravaged Germany. It began when three opponents of the Reformation were thrown through a window. The "official" Defenestration of Prague was the "official" trigger for the Thirty Year?s War. Local Protestants became enraged when Catholic King Ferdinand reneged on promises of religious freedom and stormed Hradcany Castle and threw 3 Catholic councilors out of the window and into the moat. The conflict spread across Europe with most of the fighting taking place in Germany. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 brought the war to an end and ended the emperor?s authority over Germany outside the Hapsburg domain. The 1939 play "Mother Courage and Her Children" by Bertolt Brecht was set in this period (1624). (V.D.-H.K.p.90)(NH, 9/96, p.18,22)(HN, 5/23/98)(HNQ, 2/28/00)(WSJ,10/23/01, p.A24) 1618 nend Aug, Hugo Grotius, attorney general of Holland, was arrested on the orders of Prince Maurice of Nassau, ruler of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, for conspiring to undermine the authority of the government. (ON, 10/04, p.1) 1618 nend Oct 29, Sir Walter Raleigh, English scholar, poet and historian, was executed for treason. After the death of Queen Elizabeth, Raleigh's enemies had spread rumors that he opposed the accession of King James. In 2003 Raleigh Trevelyan authored "Sir Walter Raleigh," and Anna Beer authored "My Just Desire," a biography of Raleigh's wife, Elizabeth Throckmorton. (HN, 10/29/98)(MC, 10/29/01)(WSJ, 1/6/04, p.D10) 1618 nend Diego Velazquez painted "Old Woman Cooking," a still life on frying eggs. (WSJ, 7/27/95, p.A-10) 1618 nend Pietro da Cortona, artist, made an atlas of human anatomy: "Tabulae Anatomicae." (NH, 10/96, p.37) 1618 nend In London the play "Swetnam the Woman-Hater" introduced the term "misogynist" into the English language. (SFEC, 7/25/99, p.A2) 1618 nend In France one of the first manuals of conversation was published: ?Maximes de la Bienséance en la Conversation.? (Econ, 12/23/06, p.80) 1618 nend In Merida, Mexico, the Iglesia de Jesus was built by Jesuits. (SSFC, 5/6/01, p.T6) 1618 nend Michael Sweerts (d.1664), artist, was born in Brussels. He did much of his important work in Rome, moved to the Netherlands, traveled in Asia with a band of missionaries and died in Goa. (SSFC, 12/24/00, DB p.39)(WSJ, 7/2/02, p.D7) 1618 nend Hendrick Goltzius (b.1558), Dutch Master painter, died. His work included "Danaë." (WSJ, 8/14/03, p.D8) 1618 nend Kana Takanobu (b.1571), Japanese artist, died. (NYT, 10/8/04, p.B35) 1618 1622 Osman II took rule in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii) 1618 1680 Sir Peter Lely, English court painter. (Ind, 12/26/98, p.5A) 1618 1689 The Chinese painter Gong Xian. His work included "Summer Mountains After Rain." (WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20) 1618 1707 Aurangzeb, Moghul ruler of India. His wealth was said to be 10 times that of Louis XIV. The empire reached its greatest size during his rule but his persecution of Hindu subjects weakened Muslim Moghul control. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1618 1945 The Dutch ruled Indonesia. They were drawn to Jakarta, a fishing village which they called Batavia, for the spice trade. (SFEC, 4/27/97, p.T7) 1619 nend Feb 24, Charles Le Brun, painter, designer, was born in Paris. (MC, 2/24/02) 1619 nend Mar 1, Thomas Campion (53), English physician, composer, poet (Poemata), died. (SC, 3/1/02) 1619 nend Mar 6, Cyrano de Bergerac (d.1655), French poet, playwright (Voyage to the Moon), swordsman, was born. His radical writings prefigured Voltaire and Diderot. His noted nose was an invention of the poet Theophile Gautier introduced in an 1844 book. Edmond Rostand?s play on Cyrano was unveiled in 1897. (SFEC, 4/27/97, DB p.3)(MC, 3/6/02) 1619 nend Apr 16, Denijs Calvaert (Caluwaert), [Dionisio Fiamingo], Flemish painter, died. (MC, 4/16/02) 1619 nend May 13, Johan van Oldenbarnevelt (b.1547), Dutch lands advocate, was beheaded. (MC, 5/13/02) 1619 nend May 18, Hugo the Great (1582-1645), Hugo de Groot or Grotius, Dutch scholar, the "Father of Int?l. Law" and author of the 1st treatise on the law of the sea, Mare liberum," was sentenced to life in prison. (SC, 5/18/02)(Internet) 1619 nend Jul 30, The first representative assembly in America the House of Burgesses, became the first legislative assembly in America when it convened at Jamestown, Va. (AP, 7/30/97)(HN, 7/30/98) 1619 nend Aug 20, The 1st African slaves arrived to North America aboard a Dutch privateer. It docked in Jamestown, Virginia, with twenty human captives among its cargo. (SFC, 12/18/96, p.A25)(HN, 8/20/98)(PC, 1992, p.224) 1619 nend Dec 4, A group of settlers from Bristol, England, arrived at Berkeley Hundred in present-day Charles City County, Va., where they held a service thanking God for their safe arrival. Some suggest this was the true first Thanksgiving in America, ahead of the Pilgrims' arrival in Massachusetts. (AP, 12/4/08) 1619 nend The first election in America was held to elect the members of the Virginia assembly. (BD emp. letter, 9/27/96) 1619 nend The Virginia Company of London, sponsor of the Jamestown settlement, built a blast furnace for working iron. Ruins of the furnace were found in 2007 along Falling Creek in Chesterfield County, Va. (AH, 6/07, p.16) 1619 nend In England Tisquantum joined a new exploratory mission to the New England coast and returned to find that his tribe had been wiped out by the plague. It was he who later communicated with the first Pilgrims at Plymouth. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.29) 1619 nend Amsterdam opened a stock exchange. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1619 nend Catholic Hapsburg Ferdinand became Holy Roman Emperor as Ferdinand II. [see 1620] (HNQ, 2/28/00) 1620 nend Jan 31, Virginia colony leaders wrote to the Virginia Company in England, asking for more orphaned apprentices for employment. (HN, 1/31/99) 1620 nend Feb 10, Supporters of Marie de Medici, the queen mother, who had been exiled to Blois, were defeated by the king?s troops at Ponts de Ce, France. (AP, 2/10/99) 1620 nend Feb 15, Francois Charpentier, French scholar, archaeologist, was born. (MC, 2/15/02) 1620 nend Feb 16, Frederick William, founder of Brandenburg-Prussia, was born. (HN, 2/16/98) 1620 nend Mar 9, Aegidius Albertinus (59), German writer (Lucifer's Kingdom), died. (MC, 3/9/02) 1620 nend Apr 24, John Graunt, statistician, founder of science of demography, was born. (HN, 4/24/98) 1620 nend May 17, The 1st merry-go-round was seen at a fair in Philippapolis, Turkey. (MC, 5/17/02) 1620 nend Jul 21, Jean Picard, French astronomer, was born. (MC, 7/21/02) 1620 nend Jul 22, The Pilgrims set out from Holland destined for the New World. The Speedwell sailed to England from the Netherlands with members of the English Separatist congregation that had been living in Leiden, Holland. Joining the larger Mayflower at Southampton, the two ships set sail together in August, but the Speedwell soon proved unseaworthy and was abandoned at Plymouth, England. The entire company then crowded aboard the Mayflower, setting sail for North America on September 16, 1620. (HNQ, 3/4/00)(MC, 7/22/02) 1620 nend Jul 29, New Mexico?s Gov. Don Juan de Eulate passed by the sandstone bluff of El Morro on return from the pueblos of Zuni. He left his mark in the stone. (SSFC, 4/10/05, p.F9) 1620 nend Aug 7, Kepler's mother was arrested for witchcraft. (MC, 8/7/02) 1620 nend Aug 7, French king Louis XIII beat his mother Marie de Medici at the Battle at Ponts-the-Ca, Poitou. (MC, 8/7/02) 1620 nend Sep 16, The Pilgrims sailed from England on the Mayflower, finally settling at Plymouth, Mass. The Pilgrims were actually Separatists because they had left the Church of England. The 4 children of William Brewster, who arrived on the Mayflower, were named: Love, Wrestling, Patience, and Fear. In 2006 Nathaniel Philbrick authored ?Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community and War.? (HN, 9/16/98)(SFEM, 11/15/98, p.23)(SFC, 3/20/99, p.B4)(SFC,7/26/06, p.E2) 1620 nend Oct 31, John Evelyn (d.1706), British diarist (Life of Mrs. Godolphin), was born. He was a meditative and sententious English diarist. (WSJ, 6/2/99, p.A24)(MC, 10/31/01) 1620 nend Nov 8, The King of Bohemia was defeated at the Battle of White Mountain, Prague. With Hapsburg support in Bohemia the Catholics defeated the Protestants at the Battle of the White Mountain. Weeks of plunder and pillage followed in Prague and after a few months the victors tortured and executed 27 nobles and other citizens and hung 12 heads on iron hooks from the Bridge Tower. (NH, 9/96, p.24)(HN, 11/6/98)(MC, 11/8/01) 1620 nend Nov 11, Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower, anchored off Massachusetts, signed a compact calling for a "body politick." 102 Pilgrims stepped ashore. 41 men signed the compact calling themselves Saints and others Strangers. One passenger died enroute and 2 were born during the passage. Their military commander was Miles Standish. In 2006 Nathaniel Philbrick authored ?Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community and War.? (AP, 11/11/97)(SFEM, 11/15/98, p.8,23)(Econ, 5/6/06, p.82) 1620 nend Nov 19, The Pilgrims reached Cape Cod. (HN, 11/19/98) 1620 nend Nov 20, Peregrine White was born aboard the Mayflower in Massachusetts Bay -- the first child born of English parents in present-day New England. (AP, 11/20/97) 1620 nend Nov 21, Leaders of the Mayflower expedition framed the "Mayflower Compact," designed to bolster unity among the settlers. The Pilgrims reached Provincetown Harbor, Mass. (HN, 11/21/98)(MC, 11/21/01) 1620 nend Dec 2, An English newspaper headline read: ?The new tidings out of Italie are not yet come.? In 2006 this was reported to be the world?s oldest headline. (Econ, 12/23/06, p.103) 1620 nend Dec 6, A group of passengers and crew left the Mayflower in a shallop to search for a suitable harbor and place to settle. (AM, 11/00, p.18) 1620 nend Dec 11, 103 Mayflower pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock. (MC, 12/11/01) 1620 nend Dec 16, The Mayflower dropped anchor in Plymouth Harbor. (AM, 11/00, p.18) 1620 nend Dec 18, The Captain of the Mayflower 1st went on land at Plymouth Harbor with 3 to 4 sailors. (AM, 11/00, p.18) 1620 nend Dec 21, The Mayflower reached Plymouth, Mass. after a 63-day voyage. Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower went ashore for the first time at present-day Plymouth, Mass. The crew of the ship did not have enough beer to get to Virginia and back to England so they dropped the Pilgrims at Plymouth Rock to preserve their beer stock. (HFA, '96, p.44)(AP, 12/20/97)(Hem., 8/96, p.115)(MC, 12/21/01) 1620 nend Dec 23, French Huguenots declared war on King Louis XIII. (MC, 12/23/01) 1620 nend Georges de La Tour began his painting "The Hurdy Gurdy Player With a Dog." It was completed about 1622. (WSJ, 11/13/96, p.A20) 1620 nend The chronicle of the Pilgrims voyage to and settlement in America was begun by Nathanial Morton, keeper of the records of Plymouth Colony, based on the account of William Bradford, sometime governor thereof... From the two editorials titled: "The Desolate Wilderness" and "And the Fair Land," published annually in the WSJ since 1961. (WSJ, 11/22/95, p.A-10) 1620 nend Bacon published his "Novum Organon." Francis Bacon was said to have noted the striking fit of the opposing coastlines of South America and western Africa. (V.D.-H.K.p.139)(DD-EVTT, p.192) 1620 nend Thomas Tompkins (1572-1656), English royal composer, wrote his madrigal ?When David Heard.? (SFC, 6/4/10, p.F4) 1620 nend The Wampanoag Confederacy of some 50 Algonquin bands stretched across southeastern Massachusetts. (AH, 6/02, p.44) 1620 nend Ferdinand II became emperor of the Holy Roman Empire after the death of Rudolf II and moved the Imperial Court back to Vienna. He sold dozens of paintings collected by Rudolf II that he found "lewd." (WSJ, 7/10/97, p.A13)(WUD, 1994, p.524) c 1620 nend In Canada a settlement was established at Cupers Cove (now Cupids) in Newfoundland. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.23) 1620 nend In England Dutch-born Cornelius Drebbel tested a submarine which cruised 15 feet under the Thames. Cornelis Drebbel also attempted to air-condition Westminster Abbey. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14)(WSJ, 12/10/99, p.W12) 1620 nend In India Jehangir, successor of Akbar, visited the gardens of Kashmir and adopted the "flower style" as opposed to the previous bestiaries. (WSJ, 12/16/97, p.A16) 1620 nend Will Adams, English-Dutch-Japanese ship pilot, died in Japan. (ON, 11/02, p.10) 1620 nend In Spain the Plaza Mayor, a grand, arcaded square in Madrid, dates to this time. (SFEC, 5/31/98, p.T9) 1620 1621 Van Dyck made a portrait of "Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel." (WSJ, 3/9/98, p.A16) c 1620 1630 Marquisa de Rambouillet began inviting acquaintances to her Paris townhouse for weekly conversations giving birth to the Paris salon culture. In 2002 Benedetta Craveri authored ?The Age of Conversation.? An English translation came out in 2005. (WSJ, 5/13/05, p.W6) 1620 1637 Ferdinand II, king of Bohemia and Hungary, ruled as the Holy Roman emperor. (WUD, 1994, p.524) 1621 nend Jan 3, William Tucker was born. He is believed to be first American born African-American. [1624 date also given] (HN, 1/3/99)(MC, 1/3/02) 1621 nend Feb 17, Miles Standish was appointed 1st commander of Plymouth colony. (MC, 2/17/02) 1621 nend Mar 4, Jakarta, Java, was renamed Batavia. (SC, 3/4/02) 1621 nend Mar 16 The first Indian appeared in Plymouth, Mass. Samoset, an English speaking Indian, and his friend Tisquantum of the Wampanoag tribe, became friends with the Pilgrims. (HN, 3/16/98)(SFEM, 11/15/98, p.23) 1621 nend Mar 31, Andrew Marvell, English poet and politician, was born. (HN, 3/31/01) 1621 nend Apr 1, The Plymouth, Massachusetts colonists created the first treaty with Native Americans. (OTD) 1621 nend Apr 5, The Mayflower sailed from Plymouth, Mass., on a return trip to England. By this time 44 of the landing party had died and 54 people, mostly children, were left to build the colony. (AP, 4/5/97)(SFEM, 11/15/98, p.23) 1621 nend May 3, Francis Bacon was accused of bribery. (MC, 5/3/02) 1621 nend May 31, Sir Francis Bacon was thrown into Tower of London for overnight. (MC, 5/31/02) 1621 nend Jun 3, The Dutch West India Company received a charter for New Netherlands, now known as New York. The Dutch West India Co. was formed to trade with America and West Africa. (AP, 6/3/97)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1621 nend Jul 8, Jean La Fontaine, poet and author of Fables, was born. (HN, 7/8/98) 1621 nend Sep 8, Louis II Conde, [Great Conde], duke of Bourbon (Rocroi), was born. (MC, 9/8/01) 1621 nend Sep 21, King James of England gave Canada to Sir Alexander Sterling. (MC, 9/21/01) 1621 nend Oct 16, Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck, organist and composer, died at about 59. (MC, 10/16/01) 1621 nend Oct 25, Gov. Bradford of US Plymouth colony disallowed sport on Christmas Day. (MC, 10/25/01) 1621 nend Oct, The first American Thanksgiving was held in Massachusetts' Plymouth colony in 1621 to give thanks for a bountiful harvest. 51 Pilgrims served codfish, sea bass and turkeys while their 90 Wampanoag guests contributed venison to the feast. After the survival of their first colony through a bitter winter and the subsequent gathering of the harvest in the autumn, Plymouth Colony Governor William Bradford issued a thanksgiving proclamation. During the three-day October thanksgiving the Pilgrims feasted on wild turkey and venison with their Native American guests. American Indians introduced cranberries to the white settlers. In 2006 Godfrey Hodgson, British historian, authored ?A Great and Godly Adventure: The Pilgrims and the Myth of the First Thanksgiving.? American scholars quickly defied Hodgson?s allegation that there were no turkeys in the region. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.122)(SSFC, 11/12/06, p.M1)(SFC, 11/22/06, p.A1) 1621 nend Dec 3, Galileo invented the telescope. [see Aug 25, 1609] (MC, 12/3/01) 1621 nend Dec 13, Emperor Ferdinand II delegated the 1st anti-Reformation decree. (MC, 12/13/01) 1621 nend Dec 18, English parliament unanimously accepted Protestation. (MC, 12/18/01) 1621 nend Dec 25, The governor William Bradford of New Plymouth prevented newcomers from playing cards. The queens later depicted on playing cards were said to be: spades (Pallas), hearts (Judith), diamonds (Rachel), clubs (Elizabeth). (HN, 12/25/98)(SFC, 3/20/99, p.B4)(MC, 12/25/01) 1621 nend Georges de La Tour painted "The Fortune Teller," which showed a young aristocrat getting fleeced while having his palm read. (SFC, 10/16/99, p.D3) 1621 nend Robert Burton authored "Anatomy of Melancholy." In 2001 Andrew Solomon authored "The Doomday Demon: An Atlas of Depression." (NW, 6/11/01, p.56) 1621 nend A letter from the English office of the Virginia Company reports that European honeybees (Apis mellifera) were shipped to America. (NH, 5/97, p.32) 1621 nend In England Bacon was accused of taking bribes in his office of lord chancellor. He was convicted, sentenced to a large fine and imprisoned for a short time in the Tower of London. (V.D.-H.K.p.139) 1621 nend In Germany potatoes, native to the Andes, were first planted. (SFC, 7/14/99, p.3) 1621 nend In Mexico Agustina Ruiz of Quertaro was tried for claiming sexual intercourse with saints. She was sent to a convent by the Inquisition for 3 years of fasting and penance. (SFC, 9/18/96, p.A11) 1621 nend Spices bought in the West Indies for $227 sold for $2 million in Europe. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1621 1623 Orazio Gentileschi painted "Danaë." (WSJ, 3/12/02, p.A24) 1621 1623 Gregory XV served as Pope. (WSJ, 2/8/00, p.A20) 1621 1622 Dutch artist Dirck van Baburen painted "The Mocking of Christ." (SFC, 9/12/97, p.C8) 1622 nend Jan 15, Moliere (d.1673) [Jean Baptiste Poquelin], French actor and comic dramatist, was born. He was the author of "Tartuffe" and "The Misanthrope" (1666). He also did the bilingual experiment "L?Impromptu du Versailles." His last play was "The Imaginary Invalid." "It is a stupidity second to none, to busy oneself with the correction of the world." (WUD, 1994, p.923)(WSJ, 4/5/96, p.A-6)(LSA, Spg/97, p.14)(WSJ,4/2/98, p.A20)(AP, 11/10/98)(HN, 1/15/99) 1622 nend Jan 23, William Baffin (~38), British explorer, died. (MC, 1/23/02) 1622 nend Feb 8, King James I disbanded the English parliament. (MC, 2/8/02) 1622 nend Feb 27, Rembrandt Carel Fabritius (d.1654), Dutch painter, was born. (SFC, 4/4/01, p.C1)(MC, 2/27/02) 1622 nend Mar 12, Ignatius of Loyola (founder of the Jesuits) was declared a saint. (MC, 3/12/02) 1622 nend Mar 22, The Powhattan Confederacy massacred 347-350 colonists in Virginia, a quarter of the population. On Good Friday over 300 colonists in and around Jamestown, Virginia, were massacred by the Powhatan Indians. The massacre was led by the Powhatan chief Opechancanough and began a costly 22-year war against the English. Opechancanough hoped that killing one quarter of Virginia?s colonists would put an end to the European threat. The result of the massacre was just the opposite, however, as English survivors regrouped and pushed the Powhattans far into the interior. Opechancanough launched his final campaign in 1644, when he was nearly 100 years old and almost totally blind. He was then captured and executed. (WSJ, 10/19/98, p.A24)(HNPD, 10/23/98)(AP, 3/22/99) 1622 nend Apr 17, Henry Vaughan (d.1695), English poet and mystic, was born. (WUD, 1994, p.1582)(HN, 4/17/98) 1622 nend Jun 24, The Dutch defeated Macao. (HFA, '96, p.32) 1622 nend Sep 6, A Spanish silver fleet disappeared off Florida Keys; thousands died. The Santa Margarita, discovered off of Key West in 1980 by pioneering shipwreck salvor Mel Fisher, was bound for Spain when it sank in a hurricane in 1622. (MC, 9/6/01)(AP, 6/18/07) 1622 nend Oct 18, French King Louis XIII and the Huguenots signed the treaty of Montpellier. (MC, 10/18/01) 1622 nend Dec 28, Francois de Sales (55), French bishop of Geneva, writer and saint, died. (MC, 12/28/01) 1622 nend Dutch artist Dirck van Baburen painted: "The Procuress." (SFEM, 8/31/97, p.8) 1622 nend William Bradford and Edward Winslow authored ?Mourt?s Relation.? It was published in London and provided an account of the Plymouth colony?s first year. (WSJ, 11/22/08, p.W11)(AM, 11/00, p.18) 1622 nend Thomas Middleton and William Rowley wrote the Jacobean tragedy "The Changeling." (WSJ, 3/6/97, p.A12) 1622 nend Paris Lodron, the Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg, founded the Univ. of Salzburg. (StuAus, April '95, p.87) 1622 nend Powhattan Indians attacked the outlying settlements of Jamestown and destroyed the Henricus settlement. (www.history.org/foundation/journal/Winter04-05/henricus.cfm) 1622 nend The Spaten's company name comes from Munich brewing family Spaeth, which bought a 225 year-old brewery in 1622 and ran the firm for seven generations. (http://spatenusa.com/timeline.html) 1622 nend In Aklmaar [Netherlands] the cheese market officially opened. [see 1366] (SFEC, 6/7/98, p.T10) 1622 nend Safavid Persia ruled Kandahar [aka Afghanistan]. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1622 nend Queen Nzinga of Matamba visited Portuguese officials to plead for peace. (ATC, p.153) 1622 1623 Mustafa I took back the rule in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii) 1622 1623 Nicolas Poussin, French painter, made his ink and wash drawing "The Death of Chione." (WSJ, 2/26/96, p.A-10) 1623 nend Mar 5, The 1st American temperance law was enacted in Virginia. (MC, 3/5/02) 1623 nend Apr 27, Johann Adam Reincken, composer, was born. (MC, 4/27/02) 1623 nend Apr 29, 11 Dutch ships departed for the conquest of Peru. (MC, 4/29/02) 1623 nend Jun 19, Blaise Pascal (d.1662), French mathematician, physicist, religious writer, was born. He affirmed that the heart has its reasons, that reason does not comprehend. The French mathematician invented the roulette wheel in an effort to create a perpetual motion machine. He formulated the first laws of atmospheric pressure, equilibrium of liquids and probability." All the troubles of man come from his not knowing how to sit still." (V.D.-H.K.p.123)(SFEC, 3/23/97, z1 p.7)(AP, 6/19/98)(AP,5/28/99)(HN, 6/19/99) 1623 nend Jul 4, William Byrd (80), English composer (Ave verum corpus), died. (MC, 7/4/02) 1623 nend Aug 6, Anne Hathaway, wife of William Shakespeare, died. (MC, 8/6/02) 1623 nend Sep 10, Lumber and furs were the first cargo to leave New Plymouth in North America for England. (HN, 9/10/98) 1623 nend Nov 9, William Camden (72), English historian: Brittania Annales, died. (MC, 11/9/01) 1623 nend In Prague Adriaen de Vries created his sculpture, "Laocoon and His Sons." It was the first reinterpretation of the Greek masterpiece unearthed in Rome in 1506. (WSJ, 12/7/99, p.A24) 1623 nend Dutch artist Dirck van Baburen painted "Prometheus Chained." (SFC, 9/12/97, p.C1) 1623 nend Velazquez painted the portrait: "Gaspar de Guzman, Count-Duke of Olivares." (WSJ, 12/29/99, p.A12) 1623 nend Ben Jonson, playwright, wrote his poem Shakespeare "Sweet Swan of Avon." (SFC, 4/26/97, p.E3) 1623 nend The 1st folio edition of Shakespeare?s plays was published. (SSFC, 6/3/01, DB p.71) 1623 nend A volume entitled ?Necessary and Useful Rules for Hunting and the Care of Grazing Animals? was published. (Econ, 1/20/07, p.93) 1623 nend In Massachusetts Gov. William Bradford instituted private property so that the pilgrims could cultivate food at a profit. He assigned every family a parcel of land. (WSJ, 11/26/97, p.A12) 1623 nend Avedis Zildjian, alchemist, noted that a particular combination of tin and copper rang very nicely and began making musical cymbals in Constantinople. In 1929 the firm moved to Massachusetts. (WSJ, 5/31/96, p.B1) 1623 nend The young male caretaker of cattle was first called a "cowboy." (SFC, 6/16/96, Zone 1 p.2) 1623 nend In London the Coopers Arm pub, now known as The Lamb and Flag at 33 Rose St., went into business. (SFC, 8/11/96, p.T7) 1623 nend The 1st case of smallpox in Russia was reported. (SFC, 10/19/01, p.A17) 1623 1640 Murad IV succeeded Mustafa I in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii) 1624 nend Jan 15, The people of Mexico rioted upon hearing that their churches were to be closed. (HN, 1/15/99) 1624 nend Mar 5, Class-based legislation was passed in the colony of Virginia, exempting the upper class from punishment by whipping. (HN, 3/5/99) 1624 nend Apr 29, Louis XIII appointed Cardinal Richelieu chief minister of the Royal Council. (HN, 4/29/98) 1624 nend May 24, James I revoked Virginia's charter after years of unprofitable operation and it became a royal colony. (HN, 5/24/99)(AH, 6/07, p.27) 1624 nend Aug 13, French King Louis XIII named Cardinal Richelieu his first minister. (AP, 8/13/97) 1624 nend Sep 12, The 1st submarine was tested in London. (MC, 9/12/01) 1624 nend May 3, Spanish silver fleet sailed to Panama. (MC, 5/3/02) 1624 nend George Fox (d.1691), founder of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), was born in England. (SSFC, 8/5/01, p.C10) 1624 nend In Italy Giovanni Lanfranco painted the "Council of the Gods" on the ceiling of the Galleria Borghese. (WSJ, 9/15/98, p.A20) 1624 nend Nicolas Poussin, French painter, left France and went to Rome. (WSJ, 2/26/96, p.A-10) 1624 nend Velasquez painted a portrait of King Philip IV. (WSJ, 12/16/04, p.D8) 1624 nend Poet John Donne wrote: "Any man?s death diminishes me, because I am involved in Mankind; and therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for thee?" (SFC, 7/15/00, p.B3) 1624 nend Capt. John Smith published his General Historie of Virginia. His exciting adventures are pictured in the book?s engravings. (NG, Sept. 1939, J. Maloney p.359) 1624 nend Artisans of Louis XIII completed the 1st generation of the Louvre. (SFC, 7/15/00, p.B3) 1624 nend Cafe Chris opened in Amsterdam and served the construction workers of the nearby Westerkerk. (SFEC, 3/2/97, p.T5) 1624 nend The Dutch conquered Salvador, Brazil. (SFEC, 8/8/99, p.T8) 1624 nend Dutchman Cornelius Drebbel encased a wooden frame in a greased leather sheath and pushed it underwater to create what?s claimed to be the world?s 1st submarine. (SFC, 7/15/00, p.B3) 1625 nend Mar 5, James I (VI), Stuart king of Scotland (1567), England (1603-25), died. (MC, 3/5/02)(PCh, 1992, p.228) 1625 nend Mar 27, Charles I (d.1649) became the English king. He was King of England, Ireland and Scotland until he was beheaded. (AP, 3/27/97)(WSJ, 6/13/96, p.A12)(MC, 3/27/02) 1625 nend Apr 7, Albrecht von Wallenstein was appointed German supreme commander. (MC, 4/7/02) 1625 nend May 15, In Upper Austria 16 rebellious farmers were hanged in Varcklamarkt. (MC, 5/15/02) 1625 nend May 18, Francisco Gómez de Sandoval y Rojas, Spanish marquis of Denia, died. (SC, 5/18/02) 1625 nend Jun 5, Orlando Gibbons (41), English organist, composer (Silver Swan), died. (MC, 6/5/02) 1625 nend Jun 8, Giovanni Domenico Cassini, discoverer of four satellites of Saturn, was born in Perinaldo, Italy. Gian Domenico Cassini was an astrologer and then became an astronomer and was known in France as Jean-Dominique Cassini. At the Paris observatory he discovered the wide gap in the rings of Saturn now called the Cassini division, as well as four of the planet?s moons. (SFEC, 10/5/97, Z1 p.4)(HN, 6/8/98)(SFCM, 3/17/02, p.29) 1625 nend Jul 2, The Spanish army took Breda, Spain, after nearly a year of siege. (HN, 7/2/98) 1625 nend Aug 20, Thomas Corneille, French playwright, was born. (MC, 8/20/02) 1625 nend Sep 13, 16 Rabbis (including Isiah Horowitz) were imprisoned in Jerusalem. (MC, 9/13/01) 1625 nend Sep 24, Dutch Gen?l. Bowdoin Hendrik and his fleet of 17 ships sailed into San Juan, Puerto Rico, and attacked El Morro. He held the garrison under siege for 3 weeks and then set the town to flames. This infuriated the Spanish who attacked and sent the Dutch fleeing. (HT, 4/97, p.31-33)(MC, 9/24/01) 1625 nend Nov 14, Giulio C. Procaccini, Italian sculptor and painter, died. (MC, 11/14/01) 1625 nend Dutch artist Hendrick ter Brugghen painted "Saint Sebastian Attended by Saint Irene." (SFC, 9/12/97, p.C8) 1625 nend Rutilio Manetti painted "Lot and His Daughters." (WSJ, 4/28/98, p.A16) 1625 nend Rembrandt depicted himself as a bit player in his painting "The Stoning of St. Stephen." (WSJ, 8/11/99, p.A16) 1625 nend John Donne, English poet, wrote his "Westmoreland Manuscript" (WSJ, 12/15/95, p.A-16) 1625 nend Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) of Holland published his influential work "On the Law of War and Peace." Huig de Groot (Latinized as Hugo Grotius), Dutch jurist and statesman, is generally regarded as the founder of international law. "It is lawful to kill who is preparing to kill." (HN, 4/10/98)(HNQ, 3/15/00)(Econ, 11/22/03, p.25) 1625 nend The first apple orchard in the US was planted on Boston?s Beacon Hill. (T&L, 10/1980, p.40) 1625 nend An English colonizing group founded the Mount Wollaston settlement, 25 miles north of Plymouth. It later became Quincy, Mass. Thomas Morton, a London lawyer, was part of the group. (ON, 3/00, p.11) 1625 nend St. Croix island in the West Indies was settled by the Dutch and English. (NG, Jan, 1968, C. Mitchell, p. 83) 1626 nend Feb 2, Charles I was crowned King of England. His wife was Queen Henrietta Maria. (HN, 2/2/99)(WSJ, 10/31/02, p.D6) 1626 nend Feb 6, Huguenot rebels and the French signed the Peace of La Rochelle. (HN, 2/6/99) 1626 nend Feb 20, John Dowland, composer, died. (MC, 2/20/02) 1626 nend Feb 28, Cyril Tourneur (c51), English poet, dramatist, died. (MC, 2/28/02) 1626 nend Apr 5, Jan van Kessel (d.1679), Flemish painter, was born. He was the grandson of Jan Breughel. He is known for his small paintings on copper and wood. His "Study of Butterflies, Spiders, Lizards, a Beetle, an Ant, a Grasshopper and Other Insects" sold at a Sotheby?s auction in 2000 for $1,655,750. (WSJ, 6/9/00, p.W10)(MC, 4/5/02) 1626 nend May 4, Dutch explorer Peter Minuit landed on what is now Manhattan island. Peter Minuit became director-general of New Netherlands. Indians sold Manhattan Island for $24 (1839 dollars) in cloth and buttons. The 1999 value would be $345. The site of the deal was later marked by Peter Minuit Plaza at South Street and Whitehall Street. (AP, 5/4/97)(HN, 5/4/98)(WSJ, 11/19/99, p.W10)(MC, 5/4/02) 1626 nend Jul 30, An earthquake hit Naples and some 10,000 died. (MC, 7/30/02) 1626 nend Aug 27, The Danes were crushed by the Catholic League in Germany, marking the end of Danish intervention in European wars. (HN, 8/27/98) 1626 nend Oct 4, Richard Cromwell (d.1659), lord protector of England (1658-59), was born. (MC, 10/4/01) 1626 nend Nov 7, Peter Schager of Amsterdam informed the States General that the ship "The Arms of Amsterdam" had arrived with a cargo of furs and timber from New Netherlands and that the settlers there had bought the Island of Manhattes for 60 guilders. (WSJ, 11/19/99, p.W10) 1626 nend Nov 15, The Pilgrim Fathers, who settled in New Plymouth, bought out their London investors. (HN, 11/15/98) 1626 nend Nov 18, Pope Urban VIII consecrated St. Peter?s Cathedral in Rome. Construction had begun in 1506. (HN, 11/18/98)(SSFC, 2/18/07, p.A2) 1626 nend Dec 1, Pasha Muhammad ibn Farukh, tyrannical governor of Jerusalem, was driven out. (MC, 12/1/01) 1626 nend Dec 8, Christina (d.1689), queen of Sweden, was born. She negotiated the Peace of Westphalia, ending the Thirty Years' War. "Fools are more to be feared than the wicked. "Dignity is like a perfume; those who use it are scarcely conscious of it." (AP, 7/8/97)(AP, 1/14/99)(HN, 12/8/99) 1626 nend Andrea Guarneri (d.1698), violin maker, was born. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R53) 1626 nend In London Queen Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I, was presented Jeffrey Hudson (7), whom she made her royal dwarf. In 2002 Nick Page authored "Lord Minimus," a biography of Hudson. (HN, 2/2/99)(WSJ, 10/31/02, p.D6) 1626 nend In Prague Adriaen de Vries began his last sculpture, "Hercules." It was completed in 1627. (WSJ, 12/7/99, p.A24) 1626 nend Rembrandt van Rijn depicted part of himself in his painting "History Piece." (WSJ, 8/11/99, p.A16) c 1626 nend Peter Paul Rubens painted ?The Succession of the Popes (Allegory of Eternity).? (SFC, 3/5/05, p.E1) 1626 nend Domenico Zampieri (Domenichino) painted the 7-foot-long "The Rebuke of Adam and Eve." (WSJ, 1/21/00, p.W12) 1626 nend The F.E. Trimbach winery was established in Ribeauville, Alsace. (SFC, 3/31/05, p.F2) c 1626 1627 Dutch artist Hendrick ter Brugghen painted "The Concert." (SFEM, 8/31/97, p.12) 1626 1636 Francois Mansart, French royal architect, built the Chateau de Balleroy in Normandy. (SSFC, 6/6/04, D6) 1626 1679 Jan Steen, Dutch painter. His work includes Girl Offering Oysters. "He specialized in painting scenes, such as tavern brawls, seductions and family turmoil, that satirized human weaknesses." (SFC, 6/4/96, p.E5) 1627 nend Mar 3, Piet Heyn conquered 22 ships in Bay of Salvador, Brazil. (SC, 3/3/02) 1627 nend May 29, Anne of Orléans, duchess of Montpensier (Grand Mademoiselle), was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1627 nend Jul 10, English fleet under George Villiers reached La Rochelle, France, a Huguenot stronghold. (MC, 7/10/02)(WUD, 1994, p.808) 1627 nend Jul 20, English fleet under George Villiers reached La Rochelle. [see Jul 10] (MC, 7/20/02) 1627 nend Jul 23, Sir George Calvert arrived in Newfoundland to develop his land grant. (HN, 7/23/98) 1627 nend Aug 10, Cardinal Richelieu began a siege of La Rochelle. (MC, 8/10/02) 1627 nend Sep 25, Jacques-Benigne Bossuet, theologian, was born. (MC, 9/25/01) 1627 nend Oct 28, Djehangir (Jahangir), great mogul of India, died. (MC, 10/28/01) 1627 nend James Morton changed the name of the New England Mount Wollaston settlement to Merrymount and organized a trading company to compete with Plymouth for the Indian trade in beaver pelts. (ON, 3/00, p.11) 1627 nend In Norway the stave church at Vaga was rebuilt by architect Werner Olsen. His design included a few fragments of the original building. (WSJ, 8/27/96, p.A12) 1627 nend Two Portuguese Jesuits arrived in Bhutan, the first westerners to do so. (WSJ, 3/6/97, p.A8) 1627 nend Japan banned contact with foreigners and closed its ports except for limited trade with Holland. [see 1639] (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1627 nend The last wild cow in Poland died. (SFC, 12/4/94, p. S-4) 1627 nend Luis de Gongora y Argote (b.1561), Spanish poet, died. (SSFC, 9/3/06, p.M3)(www.spanish-books.net/literature/i_gongora.htm) c 1627 1628 Dutch artist Hendrick ter Brugghen painted "Melancholia." (SFC, 9/12/97, p.C1) 1627 1637 In northern Pakistan Jahangir?s mausoleum on the right bank of the Navi River in Lahore was built by his son Shah Jahan. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.C) 1628 nend Jan 13, Charles Perrault, lawyer, writer (Mother Goose), was born in France. (MC, 1/13/02) 1628 nend Mar 10, Constantine Huygens Jr., Dutch poet, painter, cartoonist, was born. (MC, 3/10/02) 1628 nend Mar 19, Massachusetts colony was founded by Englishmen. (MC, 3/19/02) 1628 nend May 1, A May festival in Quincy, Mass., degenerated into an orgy with Indian women. (MC, 5/1/02) 1628 nend Jun 9, Thomas Morton of Mass. became the 1st person deported from what is now US. (MC, 6/9/02) 1628 nend Aug 1, Emperor Ferdinand II demanded that Austria Protestants convert to Catholicism. (MC, 8/1/02) 1628 nend Aug 1, Francesco Gonzaga (37), composer, died. (MC, 8/1/02) 1628 nend Aug 10, The Swedish 228-foot warship Vasa capsized and sank in Stockholm harbor on her maiden voyage because the ballast was insufficient to counterweight the 64 guns and ballast. The wreckage was found in 1956. It opened as part of a the Vasa museum in 1990. Twenty-five men and women drowned when the ship sank. Vasa was the most expensive and richly ornamented warship of its time in Sweden. She was recovered in 1961 and the skeletal remains were exhumed in 1989. (NG, 5/95, Geographica)(WSJ, 7/21/00, p.W12)(HN, 8/10/00) 1628 nend Aug 25, There was as assault on sultan of Mantarams of Batavia (the former name of Djakarta, Indonesia). (chblue.com, 8/25/01)(WUD, 1994 p.420) 1628 nend Sep 6, Puritans landed at Salem, from the Mass. Bay Colony. (MC, 9/6/01) 1628 nend Sep 8, John Endecott arrived with colonists at Salem, Massachusetts, where he would become the governor. (HN, 9/8/98) 1628 nend Oct 14, Iacopo Nigreti (b.~1548-50), prolific and facile Venetian Mannerist painter, died. He is best known as Jacopo Palma il Giovane or simply Palma Giovane ("Young Palma"). His paintings included ?Yael Killing Sisera,? a depiction of the Book of Judges Biblical story of the heroine, Yael of Jael, who killed Sisera to deliver Israel from the troops of king Jabin. She was the wife of Heber the Kenite. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yael) 1628 nend Oct 28, After a fifteen-month siege, the Huguenot town of La Rochelle surrendered to Cardinal Richelieu's Catholic forces. John Tradescant, an English gardener who accompanied Duke George Villiers to rescue the Huguenots, had designed siege trenches prior to the surrender. (HN, 10/28/98)(MC, 10/28/01)(WSJ, 4/3/08, p.B19) 1628 nend Nov 24, John Ford (1586-1640) had the premier of his play: "Lover's Melancholy" in London. (MC, 11/24/01)(WUD, 1994 p.554) 1628 nend Nov 28, John Bunyan, English preacher and writer who wrote Pilgrim?s Progress, was born. (HN, 11/28/98) 1628 nend Abraham Bloemaert, Dutch mannerist, painted his "Virgin and Child." (SFEM, 8/31/97, p.13) 1628 nend Rembrandt Harmenszoom van Rizn (Rijn)(1606-1669), Dutch painter, painted "Self Portrait Leaning Forward." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.1213)(WSJ, 10/1/96, p.A20) 1628 nend Gerrit van Honthorst painted "Portrait of Charles I." (WSJ, 2/29/00, p.B16) 1628 nend The Reformed Protestant Dutch Church was established by settlers in New York. In 1867 it became the Reformed Church of America. (SFEC, 4/20/97, Par p.18)(SFC, 7/21/97, p.A11) 1628 nend Margherita de Medici was wed to Duke Odoardo Farnese in the Teatro Farnese in Parma. Music was composed by Claudio Monteverdi. (SFEC, 9/15/96, p.T6) 1628 nend Charlestown was founded in the New World. Much of it was burned in the Revolutionary War. (HT, 3/97, p.34) 1628 nend The Petition of Right was established in England (MT, Dec. '95, p.16) 1628 nend Peter Paul Rubens, Flemish painter, was called upon to broker a peace between Catholic Spain and Protestant England. (Econ, 5/15/04, p.81) 1628 1658 Shah Jahan (1592-1666), a descendent of the Moghuls, ruled India. He was India?s 3rd Mughal emperor. The manuscript "Padshahnama" (King of the World) by Abdul-Hamid Lahawri documents the reign of Shah Jahan. In 1997 Wheeler Thackston made a new translation. (WUD, 1994, p.1309)(HT, 4/97, p.22)(WSJ, 12/4/97, p.A20) 1628 1695 Enku was an Japanese artist-priest who took a vow to sculpt 120,000 images of the Buddha. (WSJ, 12/1/98, p.A20) 1629 nend Jan 21, Abbas I (b.1571), Shah of Persia (1588-1629), died. (http://4dw.net/royalark/Persia/safawi3.htm) 1629 nend Jan 27, Hieronymus Praetorius (68), composer, died. (MC, 1/27/02) 1629 nend Mar 2, English King Charles I fleeced the house of commons. (SC, 3/2/02) 1629 nend Mar 10, England's King Charles I dissolved Parliament and did not call it back for 11 years. (AP, 3/10/98) 1629 nend Mar 14, A Royal charter was granted to the Massachusetts Bay Company. About 1,000 puritans under the leadership of John Winthrop received a charter from King Charles I to trade and colonize between the Charles and Merrimack rivers. The official seal to the document was reported found in 1997. [see 1684, Oct 17, 1691] (SFC, 7/12/97, p.A21)(HN, 3/14/98)(HNQ, 11/23/00) 1629 nend Mar 19, Aleksei M. Romanov, Romanov tsar of Russia, was born. (MC, 3/19/02) 1629 nend Apr 14, Christian Huygens (d.1695), Dutch astronomer, discoverer of Saturn's rings, was born. He invented the pendulum and along with Newton showed that any body revolving around a center is actually accelerating constantly toward that center, even though the rate of rotation remains constant. (TNG, Klein,p.30)(http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bl_huygens.htm) 1629 nend Apr 30, John Endecott became governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. (http://38.1911encyclopedia.org/E/EN/ENDECOTT_JOHN.htm) 1629 nend May 29, Arnold Baert (~74) Flemish lawyer, member of Great Council, died. (SC, 5/29/02) 1629 nend Jun 18, Piet Heyn (51), lt. admiral (Spanish silver fleet), died in battle. (MC, 6/18/02) 1629 nend Jul 31, Johann Jakob Lowe von Eisenach, composer, was born. (MC, 7/31/02) 1629 nend Oct 13, Dutch West Indies Co. granted religious freedom in West Indies. (MC, 10/13/01) 1629 nend Oct 30, King Charles I gave the Bahamas to Sir Robert Heath. (MC, 10/30/01) 1629 nend Peter Paul Rubens, Flemish painter, created an allegorical design depicting "Honor and Virtue." The painting was commissioned in this year and in 1998 was part of the collection of the Prince of Liechtenstein. A separate small oil sketch for the painting was first made and made public in 1998. Rubens also made a copy of Titian?s "The Rape of Europa," and he painted the portrait of "Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel." (SFC, 2/19/98, p.E4)(WSJ, 3/9/98, p.A16) 1629 nend In New Mexico construction began on the Mission church of San Esteban del Rey at the Acoma Pueblo mesa. It took 14 years to complete and required more than 20,000 tons of earth and rock to be hauled up the mesa on foot. (SSFC, 9/24/06, p.G6) 1629 nend The weekly Bills of Mortality in London, begun in 1603, began to include causes of death. (Econ, 12/22/07, p.97) 1629 nend In Japan women performers were banned in Kabuki theaters to prevent prostitution and were replaced by young boys. The ban spawned a new breed of male actors. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34)(SFC, 6/14/05, p.B3) 1629 nend The Batavia, a Dutch East India ship, struck a reef off the western coast of Australia. Some 300 survivors made it to a tiny island in the Houtman Abrolhos archipelago, where Jeronimus Cornelisz, a junior officer, took power after a vicious struggle. He ran a regime of murder, rape and torture for 3 months when helped arrived from the Dutch colony on Java. 70 of the 300 initial survivors were still alive. Cornelisz was quickly tried and executed. In 2005 Simon Leys authored ?The Wreck of the Batavia.? (WSJ, 1/10/06, p.D8) 1629 1684 Pieter de Hooch, Dutch painter of contemplative scenes of everyday life. (WSJ, 2/2/99, p.A20) 1630 nend Feb 22, Indians introduced pilgrims to popcorn at Thanksgiving. (MC, 2/22/02) 1630 nend Mar 22, The first American legislation prohibiting gambling was enacted in Boston. (HN, 3/22/97) 1630 nend Mar 23, French troops occupied Pinerolo, Piedmont. (SS, 3/23/02) 1630 nend Apr 17, Christian I, ruler of Anhalt-Bernburg (battle of White Mt), died. (MC, 4/17/02) 1630 nend May 17, Italian Jesuit Niccolo Zucchi saw the belts on Jupiter's surface. (HN, 5/17/98) 1630 nend May 29, Charles Stuart (d.1685), later Charles II, king of England (1660 to 1685), was born. He was the son of Charles I. Charles II was restored to the English throne after the Puritan Commonwealth. Charles made a deal with George Monck, a general of the New Model Army, and with the old parliamentary foes of his father. The British experiment with republicanism came to an end with the restoration of Charles II. (V.D.-H.K.p.218)(WUD, 1994, p.249)(SFC, 5/25/96, p.A12)(WSJ, 5/6/97,p.A20)(HN, 5/29/98)(WSJ, 2/28/00, p.A36) 1630 nend May 29, Gov. John Winthrop began his "History of New England." (SC, 5/29/02) 1630 nend Jun 12, John Winthrop aboard the Isabella, landed at North River near Salem. Winthrop eventually decided to locate the colony in Charlestown because of its proximity to the harbor. (www.bostonhistory.org/faq.html) 1630 nend Jun 25, The fork was introduced to American dining by Gov. Winthrop. (MC, 6/25/02) 1630 nend Jul 12, New Amsterdam's governor bought Gull Island from Indians for cargo and renamed it Oyster Island. It later became Ellis Island. (MC, 7/12/02) 1630 nend Aug 13, Emperor Frederick II of Bohemia fired Albrecht von Wallenmanders, his best military commander. (HN, 8/13/98) 1630 nend Sep 7, The Massachusetts town of Trimontaine (Shawmut), was renamed Boston, and became the state capital. It was named after a town of the same name in Lincolnshire, England. (HN, 9/7/98)(www.bostonhistory.org/faq.html) 1630 nend Sep 11, John de White, Calvinist banker to Prague, committed suicide. (MC, 9/11/01) 1630 nend Sep 30, John Billington, one of the original pilgrims who sailed to the New World on the Mayflower, became the first criminal in the American colonies to be executed for murder. He was hanged for having shot John Newcomin following a quarrel. (HN, 9/30/01)(MC, 9/30/01) 1630 nend Oct 19, In Boston the 1st general court was held. (MC, 10/19/01) 1630 nend Nov 1-1630 Nov 30, In Italy 12,000 inhabitants of Venice died of plague. 80,000 people died over a period of 17 months. (WSJ, 9/7/05, p.D14)(www.turismovenezia.it/eng/dynalay.asp?PAGINA=913) 1630 nend Nov 10, In France there was a failed palace revolution against Richelieu government. (MC, 11/10/01) 1630 nend Nov 15, Johann Kepler (b.1571), German astronomer, died at 58. (MC, 11/15/01) 1630 nend Nov 19, Johann Hermann Schein (44), German composer (Opella Nova), died. (MC, 11/19/01) 1630 nend Frans Hals painted his "Portrait of a Man." (WSJ, 7/16/02, p.D6) 1630 nend Georges de La Tour began his masterwork painting "The Cheat With the Ace of Clubs." It was completed about 1634. (WSJ, 11/13/96, p.A20) c 1630 nend Poussin completed his painting "Rinaldo and Armida" and the "Plague at Ashdod." (WSJ, 7/20/01, p.W11)(SFC, 6/17/02, p.D1) 1630 nend Tirso de Molina, Spanish dramatist, wrote the tragic drama "The Seducer of Seville", wherein Don Juan was first given a literary personality, though it was already an old myth of libertinism from the medieval past. (V.D.-H.K.p.235) 1630 nend John Winthrop made his famous sermon ?A Model of Christian Charity,? also known as his ?City Upon a Hill? sermon. The speech was likely made in England prior to his departure for Massachusetts. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_on_a_Hill) 1630 nend The Boston Common was first used by the Pilgrims as a common grazing ground for their livestock. It remained open to livestock until 1830. (AH, 10/07, p.72) 1630 nend Staten Island was acquired by Dutch settlers. [see 1659] (WSJ, 11/19/99, p.W10) 1630 nend The southern wall of the Wallenstein Garden in central Prague was built as part of Gen. Albrecht von Wallenstein?s palace complex. (WSJ, 8/7/07, p.D10) 1630 nend In Hungary Mate Szepsy Laczko described the method for producing Tokaj wine made from botrytized grapes. (WSJ, 10/5/00, p.A24) c 1630 nend The widow of a samurai set up a business that grew to become the Kikkoman Corp., the world?s leading maker of soy sauce. (WSJ, 12/27/99, p.A1)(Econ, 12/18/04, p.105) 1630 nend s Inigo Jones built the portico of London?s Old St. Paul?s Cathedral. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.14) 1630 1631 There was a great famine in India. Records indicate that cannibalism became so rampant that human flesh was sold on the open market. (SFC, 7/6/96, p.E4) 1631 nend Feb 5, A ship from Bristol, the Lyon, arrived with provisions for the Massachusetts Bay Colony (Massachusetts Bay Company). Puritan Roger Williams, proponent of religious freedom and later founder of Rhode Island, arrived with his wife in Boston from England and joined the Separatist colony at Plymouth. (http://tinyurl.com/m6czns)(AP, 2/5/97)(WSJ, 6/21/05, p.D10)(AH,4/07, p.25) 1631 nend Mar 31, John Donne (b.1572), British metaphysical poet, died in London. In 2006 John Stubbs authored ?Donne: The Reformed Soul.? (www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/donne/donnebio.htm)(Econ, 9/9/06, p.79) 1631 nend Apr 6, Vincenzo De Grandis, composer, was born. (MC, 4/6/02) 1631 nend May 4, Mary I Henriette Stuart, daughter of Charles I (later queen of England), was born. (MC, 5/4/02) 1631 nend May 17, Earl Johann Tilly attacked Magdeburg. (MC, 5/17/02) 1631 nend May 18, English colony of Massachusetts Bay granted Puritans voting rights and John Winthrop was elected 1st governor of Massachusetts. (SC, 5/18/02) 1631 nend May 20, A German army under earl Johann Tilly conquered Magdeburg. (MC, 5/20/02) 1631 nend Jun 17, Mumtax Mahal, wife of Shah Jahan of India, her tomb (Taj Mahal), died. Arjumand Shah Begum (aka Mumtaz Mahal -Jewel of the Palace), was the 2nd wife of Shah Jahan. She had bore him 14 children and died in childbirth. He build the Taj Mahal (1654) in her memory. The project took 22 years and cost $18 million. (HT, 4/97, p.22)(SFEC, 5/21/00, p.T8) 1631 nend Jun 21, John Smith (b.1580), English sailor, soldier and author, died in England. He had helped found the English colony at Jamestown, Va. (ON, 2/07, p.9)(www.virtualjamestown.org/jsmith.html) 1631 nend Jun 26, Justinus van Nassau, Italian admiral (Armada), died. (MC, 6/26/02) 1631 nend Jul 19, Cesare Cremonini (b.1550), Italian philosopher and lecturer at Padua Univ., died. His skepticism influenced the culture of the late Renaissance. In 2007 Edward Muir authored ?The Culture Wars of the Late Renaissance.? (WSJ, 5/5/07, p.P10) 1631 nend Jul 23, Sweden's King Gustavus II Adolfus repulsed an imperialist force at Werben, Russia. (AP, 7/23/97) 1631 nend Aug 9, John Dryden, the 1st official poet laureate of England (1668-1700), was born at Aldwinkle, Northamptonshire. (HN, 8/9/02) 1631 nend Sep 17, At the Battle of Breitenfeld (Leipzig) Sweden?s King Gustaaf Adolf led a Saxon-Swedish army and defeated Gen. Tilly. (MC, 9/17/01)(PCh, 1992, p.231) 1631 nend Oct 10, A Saxon army occupied Prague. (MC, 10/10/01) 1631 nend Oct 14, The ship Our Lady of Juncal set sail from the Gulf coast port of Veracruz, as part of a 19-ship fleet bearing described only as "a valuable shipment of the goods obtained by the king's ministers to feed the Spanish empire." Most of the fleet never made it. (AP, 2/17/09) 1631 nend Nov 7, Pierre Gassendi observed a transit of Mercury as predicted by Kepler. (MC, 11/7/01) 1631 nend Dec 6, The 1st predicted transit of Venus took place. It had been predicted by Kepler, but he died a year before the event. (MC, 12/6/01)(Econ, 5/29/04, p.78) 1631 nend Dec 16, In Italy Mount Vesuvius erupted and destroyed 6 villages. Some 3.5-4,000 people were killed. (SFEC, 5/2/99, p.T8)(MC, 12/16/01) 1631 nend The General Court of Massachusetts gave voting rights only to Puritan church members. (AH, 4/07, p.30) 1631 nend Marco d'Aviano, an itinerant preacher for the Capuchins, a branch of the Franciscan friars, was born in Aviano, northern Italy. He led Catholics and Protestants in prayer on the eve of the 1683 battle for Vienna, Austria, which was critical in stopping the advance of Turkish soldiers in Europe. (AP, 4/27/03) 1631 nend Barker and Lucas, the king?s printers at Blackfriars were fined 300 pounds for their bible misprint that omitted "not" from the 7th commandment. The fine helped to ruin the printer. The edition was called "The Wicked Bible." A list of variant bible editions due to misprints is in Brewer?s Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (SFC, 8/11/97, p.D8) 1632 nend Feb 18, Giovanni Battista Vitali, composer, was born. (MC, 2/18/02) 1632 nend Feb 20, Thomas Osborne, Duke of Leeds, English PM (1690-94)/founder (Tories), was born. (MC, 2/20/02) 1632 nend Feb 28, Jean-Baptiste Lully, composer, was born in Florence, Italy. [see Nov 28] (MC, 2/28/02) 1632 nend Apr 15, Swedish and Saxon army beat Earl Tilly. (MC, 4/15/02) 1632 nend Apr 16, Albrecht von Wallenstein was appointed supreme commander of Holy Roman Empire forces. (MC, 4/16/02) 1632 nend Apr 20, Nicolas Antione, converted to Judaism, was burned at the stake. [see Dec 20] (MC, 4/20/02) 1632 nend May 25, Albrecht von Wallenstein recaptured Prague on Saksen. (SC, 5/25/02) 1632 nend Jun 20, Britain granted 2nd Lord Baltimore rights to Chesapeake Bay area. (MC, 6/20/02) 1632 nend Aug 29, English philosopher John Locke was born in Somerset, England. The philosopher of liberalism influenced the American founding fathers and was famous for his treatise "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding." It was he who stated that the child is born with a tabula rasa, a blank state. On it, he said, experience wrote words, and thus knowledge and understanding came about, through the interplay of the senses and all that they perceived. "New opinions are always suspected, and usually opposed, without any other reason but because they are not already common." (V.D.-H.K.p.64,219)(AP, 8/4/97)(AP, 8/29/97)(HN, 8/29/98) 1632 nend Sep 3, Battle at Nuremberg: Duke Wallenstein beat Sweden. (MC, 9/3/01) 1632 nend Oct 20, Sir Christopher Wren (d.1723), astronomer and architect, was born. He designed the current St. Paul?s Cathedral in London. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.14)(HN, 10/20/98) 1632 nend Oct 24, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, Dutch naturalist, was born. (HN, 10/24/00) 1632 nend Oct 30, Henri de Montmorency, French duke and plotter, was beheaded. (MC, 10/30/01) 1632 nend Oct 31, [Johannes] Jan Vermeer (d.1675), tavern keeper and Dutch painter (Procuress, Astronomer), was born in Delft. Only 35 of his pictures are known to survive. These include: "Girl With a Pearl Earring" (1665-1666), "The Little Street" (1657), "Saint Praxedis" (1655), "Allegory of Faith" (1671) and "The Artist in His Studio." His wife was Catharina Bolnes. (WSJ, 11/15/95, p.A-20)(AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.1587)(MC, 10/31/01) 1632 nend Nov 6, Gustavus II Adolphus (37), king of Sweden, died in battle. (MC, 11/6/01) 1632 nend Nov 16, Battle at Lutzen: Sweden beat the imperial armies under Wallenstein. (MC, 11/16/01) 1632 nend Nov 24, Baruch (Benedict) de Spinoza (d.1677), Dutch rationalist philosopher, was born in Amsterdam. "Fear cannot be without hope nor hope without fear." (AP, 9/24/99)(MC, 11/24/01) 1632 nend Nov 28, Jean-Baptiste Lully, composer, was born in Florence, Italy. [see Feb 28] (MC, 11/28/01) 1632 nend Dec 20, Nicolas Antoine, French Catholic pastor who converted to Judaism, was executed. [see Apr 20] (MC, 12/20/01) 1632 nend Rembrandt van Rijn painted his work "Europa" and "Portrait of a Lady Aged 62." The portrait sold for $28.7 million in 2000. (WSJ, 3/9/98, p.A16)(SFC, 12/15/00, p.C15) 1632 nend Galileo?s book "Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems" was published with the full backing of the church censors. It was soon recognized to support Copernican theory and Galileo was put under house arrest for life. (BHT, Hawking, p.180) 1632 nend John Tuttle arrived from England to a settlement near the Maine-New Hampshire border, using a small land grant from King Charles I to start a farm. In 2010 the 134-acre Tuttle Farm went on the market for $3.35 million. (AP, 8/1/10) 1632 nend Colonial Williamsburg, Virginia, a small city between the York and James rivers was founded. (www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Colonial_Williamsburg) 1632 nend Cardinal Richelieu ordered the construction of the Palais Royale in Paris, France. It was expanded by the Duke of Orleans, who in the 1800s gave it its present form by enclosing the garden on three sides with buildings filled with commercial shops and income-producing apartments. (Hem., 10/'95, p.109) 1632 nend The British colonized Montserrat. (NH, Jul, p.20) 1632 nend Olivier Le Jeune (7), a black boy born in Madagascar, was sold to a clerk in the future province of Quebec. He was later considered the first known black enslaved in Canada. (SFC, 2/12/10, p.A18) 1632 nend Tartu Univ. was founded in Tartu, on the banks of the Emajogi River. (Hem, 4/96, p.23) 1632 nend The French explorer Etienne Brule was killed by the Huron Indians for unknown reasons. (HNQ, 6/29/98) 1632 nend In India Arjumand Shah Begum (aka Mumtaz Mahal -Jewel of the Palace), 2nd wife of Shah Jahan, died. She had bore him 14 children and died in childbirth. He build the Taj Mahal in her memory. The project took 22 years and cost $18 million. (HT, 4/97, p.22,24) 1632 nend In Poland King Ladislas IV began his rule. (PCh, 1992, p.241) 1632 nend Pope Urban VIII's nephew stole two altar paintings from a provincial church and smuggled them to Rome. The clandestine move from the central Italian city of Urbino on the back of a mule, hid the link between the two paintings and their creator, Dominican friar Fra Carnevale. (AP, 10/30/04) 1632 1635 Velazquez painted "The Jester Pablo de Vallodolid." (WSJ, 4/16/03, p.D10) 1633 nend Feb 1, The tobacco laws of Virginia were codified, limiting tobacco production to reduce dependence on a single-crop economy. (HN, 2/1/99) 1633 nend Feb 13, Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei arrived in Rome for trial before the Inquisition. (AP, 2/13/98) 1633 nend Feb 23, Samuel Pepys (d.1703), English diarist, was born. Pepys was an informal and spontaneous English diarist. In 1999 Ferdinand Mount wrote the novel "Jem (and Sam)," about Pepys and his drinking partner Jeremiah Mount. In 1999 Sara George authored "The Journal of Mrs. Pepys," a novel based on Pepys' young wife Elizabeth. (WSJ, 6/2/99, p.A24)(HN, 2/23/01) 1633 nend Apr 10, Werner Fabricius, composer, was born. (MC, 4/10/02) 1633 nend May 1, Sebastien le Prestre de Vauban, French fortress architect, was born. (MC, 5/1/02) 1633 nend Jun 21, Galileo Galilei was tortured and threatened by Inquisition to "abjure, curse, & detest" his Copernican heliocentric views. (JST-TMC,1983, p.7)(MC, 6/21/02) 1633 nend Jun 22, Galileo Galilei was again forced by the Pope to recant that the Earth orbits the Sun. On Oct 31, 1992, the Vatican admitted it was wrong. (MC, 6/22/02) 1633 nend Oct 14, James II Stuart, king of England and Scotland (James VII) (1685-88), was born. (MC, 10/14/01) 1633 nend Nov 7, Cornelis Drebbel, physicist, chemist, inventor (submarine), died. (MC, 11/7/01) 1633 nend Dec 18, Willem van de Velde the Younger, Dutch marine painter, was baptized. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem_van_de_Velde_the_Younger) 1633 nend Rembrandt van Rijn painted the "Portrait of a Bearded Man in a Red Coat." It sold for $9.1 million in 1998. (SFC, 2/3/98, p.E3) 1633 nend Francisco de Zurbaran (1598-1644), Spanish artist, painted his ?Still Life With Lemons Oranges and a Rose," later described as symbolic objects to the Virgin Mary. It was the work that Zurbaran ever signed and dated. In 1998 it was held by the Los Angeles Norton Simon Museum of Art. (SFEC, 1/11/98, p.D7)(WSJ, 2/21/09, p.W7) 1633 nend Captain John Davis wrote "Seamans Secrets." (WSJ, 7/2/03, p.D8) 1633 nend Rene Descartes wrote "Le Monde" in which he upheld the theories of Copernicus but halted publication to prevent conflict with the Church. (Dr, 7/20/96, supl p.1) 1633 nend In Oberammergau, Germany, plague victims swore an oath to portray the suffering and death of the Lord every 10 years. Their first Passion Play was performed in 1634. (www.passionplay-oberammergau.com/index.php?id=127) 1633 nend The Blessing, a ferry carrying gold and silver of King Charles I and 30 passengers, sank in Scotland?s Firth of Forth. A documentary of the story for TV was shown in 1996 on the Discovery Channel titled: "The Lost Treasure of King Charles I." (WSJ, 6/13/96, p.A12) 1634 nend Feb 17, William Prynne (1600-1669), English Puritan leader and pamphleteer, was tried in Star Chamber for publishing "Histrio-masti." (WUD, 1994 p.1159)(MC, 2/17/02) 1634 nend Feb 18, Emperor Ferdinand II ordered General Albrecht von Wallenstein's execution. (MC, 2/18/02) 1634 nend Feb 19, At the Battle at Smolensk Polish king Wladyslaw IV beat the Russians. [see Mar 1] (MC, 2/19/02) 1634 nend Feb 22, Petrus "Pieter" van Schooten, fortress architect, was born. (MC, 2/22/02) 1634 nend Mar 1, Battle at Smolensk; Polish King Wladyslaw IV beat the Russians. [see Feb 19] (SC, 3/1/02) 1634 nend Mar 4, Samuel Cole opened the first tavern in Boston, Massachusetts. (HN, 3/4/99) no_source 1634 nend Mar 13, Academie Francaise was established. Its task was to preserve the purity of the French language, which included maintaining a dictionary. Members came to be known as the "immortals" and by 1998 they were struggling to with masculine nouns of positions held by women who desired feminine endings. (SFC, 1/17/98, p.A12)(MC, 3/13/02) 1634 nend Mar 25, English colonists sent by Cecil Calvert, the second Lord Baltimore, arrived in present-day Maryland. Maryland was founded as a Catholic colony. (HN, 3/24/98)(AP, 3/25/08)(AH, 4/07, p.30) 1634 nend May 31, Massachusetts Bay colony annexed the Maine colony. (MC, 5/31/02) 1634 nend Jul 14, Pasquier Quesnel, French theologian, Jansenist (Jesus-Christ Penitent), was born. (MC, 7/14/02) 1634 nend Sep 5, Battle at Nordlingen: King Ferdinand III & Catholic Spain beat Sweden & German protestants. (MC, 9/5/01) 1634 nend Sep 18, Anne Hutchinson, the first female religious leader in American colonies, arrived at the Massachusetts Bay Colony with her family. She preached that faith alone was sufficient for salvation. As her following grew, she was brought to trial and found guilty of heresy against Puritan orthodoxy and banished from Massachusetts. She left with 70 followers to Providence, Rhode Island, Roger Williams's colony based on religious freedom. (MC, 9/18/01) 1634 nend Gov. John Winthrop of the Massachusetts Bay Colony estimated the local population rather counting it directly. (Econ, 12/22/07, p.97) 1634 nend Luca Giordano (d.1705), Neapolitan baroque painter, was born. (WSJ, 1/15/02, p.A14) 1634 nend Rembrandt van Rijn painted "Portrait of a Woman." It hangs in the Speed Museum of Louisville, Ky. (WSJ, 12/18/97, p.A20) 1634 nend French explorer Jean Nicolet, looking for Cathay, traveled the western shores of Lake Michigan and landed on Wisconsin soil. (www.wisconsinhistory.org/museum/exhibits/framed/landfall.asp)(Econ,6/27/09, p.38) 1634 nend In Oberammergau, Germany, a re-enactment of the last days of Jesus began to be performed. The Passion Play was performed from then on every ten years with a few rare exceptions. In 1633 plague victims had sworn an oath to portray the suffering and death of the Lord every 10 years. (WSJ, 5/18/00, p.A1)(www.passionplay-oberammergau.com/index.php?id=127) 1634 nend Ligdan Khan (reigned 1604-34), the last great Mongol leader, died. After his death, the Mongols were subdued by the Manchu and became part of the Ch?ing (Manchu) dynasty of China. (www.gobiexpeditions.com) 1634 1637 The Dutch tulip craze was known as the "tulipomania." A futures market was created for tulip bulbs in Dutch taverns and prices crashed 95% in the end. In 2000 Peter M. Garber authored "Famous First Bubbles," and restored a sense of proportion to the inflated notions of the mania. (WSJ, 7/7/98, p.A14)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42)(WSJ, 1/18/00, p.C14)(WSJ,8/2/00, p.A20) 1634 1644 Hugo Grotius (d.1645) of Holland, father of international law, served the Swedish government as ambassador to France. (HN, 4/10/98)(HNQ, 3/15/00) 1635 nend Feb 22, King Louis XIII at the urging of Cardinal Richelieu granted letters patent to formally establish the Academie Francaise in Paris. The Académie française was responsible for the regulation of French grammar, orthography, and literature. (http://tinyurl.com/4nq46) 1635 nend Feb 13, In Massachusetts the oldest public school in the United States, the Boston Public Latin School, was founded. (SFC,12/11/97, p.A1)(AP, 2/13/98) 1635 nend Apr 16, Frans van Mieris, the Elder, Dutch painter, was born. (MC, 4/16/02) 1635 nend Apr 28, Virginia Governor John Harvey was accused of treason and removed from office. (HN, 4/28/98) 1635 nend May 5, Philippe Quinault, French playwright (L'amant indiscret), was born. (MC, 5/5/02) 1635 nend May 19, Cardinal Richelieu of France intervened in the great conflict in Europe by declaring war on the Hapsburgs in Spain. (DTnet, 5/19/97)(HN, 5/19/99) 1635 nend Jun 3, A French dramatist whose popular librettos included Amadis, Roland and Armida, was born. (HN, 6/3/99) 1635 nend Jun 28, The French colony of Guadeloupe was established in the Caribbean. (HN, 6/28/98) 1635 nend Aug 27, Lope Felix de Vega (72), playwright, poet (Angelica, Arcadia), died. (MC, 8/27/02) 1635 nend Sep 6, Adrian A. Metius, mathematician and fort architect, died at 63. (MC, 9/6/01) 1635 nend Sep 7, Pal Esterhazy, composer, was born. (MC, 9/7/01) 1635 nend Oct 9, Religious dissident Roger Williams was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony (Mass. Bay Company). He became a founder of Rhode Island. Enforcement was delayed until the following January due to illness. (AP, 10/9/01)(AH, 4/07, p.26) 1635 nend Dec 1, Melchior Teschner (51), composer, died. (MC, 12/1/01) 1635 nend Dec 25, Samuel de Champlain (b.1575), French navigator and founder of Quebec City, died in Quebec. In 2008 David Hackett Fischer authored ?Champlain?s Dream.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_de_Champlain)(WSJ, 10/11/08, p.W8) 1635 nend European ships carrying African slaves to the West Indies sank off the coast of St. Vincent. The surviving salves escaped and gradually intermarried with the island?s Carib Indian natives. (SFEC, 5/4/97, p.T11) 1635 nend A Cistercian nunnery and surrounding villages of Sorbs in Germany?s Upper Lusatia remained Catholic after Protestant Saxony priced the land away from Bohemia. (Econ, 6/28/08, p.59) 1635 1637 Rembrandt Harmenszoom van Rizn (Rijn)(1606-1669), Dutch painter, painted "Two Studies of Saskia Asleep." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.1213)(WSJ, 10/1/96, p.A20) 1635 1682 Johann Joachim Becher, German alchemist. ""It is always better to sell goods to others than to buy goods from others, for the former brings a certain advantage and the latter inevitable damage." (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R50) 1635 1703 Robert Hooke, English scientist, and friend of Newton suggested that the properties of matter, especially gases, could be understood in terms of the motion and collision of atoms. (V.D.-H.K.p.324) 1636 nend Mar 26, University of Utrecht held its opening ceremony. (SS, 3/26/02) 1636 nend Apr 29, Esaias Reusner, composer, was born. (MC, 4/29/02) 1636 nend Jul 4, City of Providence, Rhode Island, was formed. (Maggio) 1636 nend Jul 20, John Oldham, trader in Mass., was murdered by Indians. (MC, 7/20/02) 1636 nend Aug 8, The invading armies of Spain, Austria and Bavaria were stopped at the village of St.-Jean-de-Losne, only 50 miles from France. (HN, 8/8/98) 1636 nend Sep 8, Harvard College, the first college in America, was founded as Cambridge College. It changed its name two years later in honor of the Reverend John Harvard, who gave the institution three hundred books and a large sum of money for the day. [see Oct 28] (MC, 9/8/01) 1636 nend Sep 18, Pietro Sanmartini, composer, was born. (MC, 9/18/01) 1636 nend Oct 4, The Massachusetts Plymouth Company drafted its 1st law. (MC, 10/4/01) 1636 nend Oct 28, The General Court of Massachusetts passed a legislative act establishing Harvard College in Cambridge, Mass. It was the first corporation in the US. Harvard Univ. was named after John Harvard who bequeathed books to the Univ. that included ?The Christian Warfare Against the Devil World and Flesh? by John Downame. Englishman George Downing was the first graduate. London?s Downing St. was named after him. [see Sep 8] (SFEC, 6/28/98, Z1 p.8)(HN, 10/28/98)(SFEC, 12/6/98, Z1p.10)(AP,10/28/07) 1636 nend Nov 1, Nicholas Boileaus, French poet and historian, was born. (HN, 11/1/00) 1636 nend Nov 17, Henrique Dias, Brazilian general, won a decisive battle against the Dutch in Brazil. (HN, 11/17/98) 1636 nend Rembrandt van Rijn made his etching "Self-portrait with Saskia." (HT, 5/97, p.60) 1636 nend Peter Paul Rubens painted ?Aurora and Cephalus.? (SFC, 3/5/05, p.E1) 1636 nend Henry Adams reached Massachusetts and settled on 40 acres of land in Braintree and fathered eight sons. He was the great-grandfather of John Adams, 2nd president of the US. (A&IP, Miers, p.17) 1636 nend The first militia units in the Massachusetts Bay Colony were formed. (SFC, 5/17/06, p.A11) 1636 nend Tung Ch?ich?ang (b.1555), Chinese painter, died. (SFC, 12/8/05, p.E12) 1636 nend Westerners in Japan were sequestered on the man-made island of Dejima in Nagasaki's harbor as the government cracked down on all things foreign. The island later disappeared in land reclamation projects. (SSFC, 8/10/03, p.C11) 1636 nend In Mexico a city wall was built around Veracruz. (SFEC, 5/17/98, p.T12) 1637 nend Feb 15, Ferdinand II (58), King of Bohemia, Hun, German Emperor (1619-37), died. Ferdinand III succeeded him as Holy Roman Emperor. (440 Int?l., 2/15/99)(MC, 2/15/02) 1637 nend Mar 5, John van der Heyden, Dutch painter, inventor (fire extinguisher), was born. (MC, 3/5/02) 1637 nend May 13, Cardinal Richelieu of France created the table knife. (MC, 5/13/02) 1637 nend May 26, The Connecticut English militia and their Mohegan allies killed over 600 Pequot Indians at their village at Mystic. The survivors were parceled out to other tribes. Those given to the Mohegans eventually became the Mashantucket Pequots. (AH, 6/07, p.18)(www.dowdgen.com/dowd/document/pequots.html) 1637 nend Jul 23, King Charles of England handed over the American colony of Massachusetts to Sir Fernando Gorges, one of the founders of the Council of New England. (HN, 7/23/98) 1637 nend Aug 6, Ben Johnson (65), English dramatist and poet, died. In 1960 Jonas Barish wrote "Ben Jonson and the Language of Prose Comedy." (AP, 1/4/98)(WUD, 1994, p.771)(SFC, 4/4/98, p.A24)(MC, 8/6/02) 1637 nend Oct 20, Nicolaas van der Veken, Flemish sculptor (confessional chairs), was born. (MC, 10/20/01) 1637 nend Nov 7, Anne Hutchinson was banished from the Mass Bay colony as a heretic. (MC, 11/7/01) 1637 nend Nov 20, Peter Minuit & 1st Dutch and Swedish immigrants to Delaware sailed from Sweden. Peter later purchased Manhattan Island for 60 guilders. (MC, 11/20/01) 1637 nend Dec 7, Barnardo Pasquini, composer, was born. (MC, 12/7/01) c 1637 nend Poussin completed his painting "The Nurture of Jupiter." (WSJ, 7/20/01, p.W11) 1637 nend James Morton published "New English Canaan," a satiric book describing his encounters with the New England Pilgrims. (ON, 3/00, p.12) 1637 nend A King James version of the Bible was printed with only 14 known copies made. (Ind, 12/26/98, p.5A) 1637 nend To solve any problem, it is helpful to divide the question into a set, or series, of smaller problems, and solve each one in turn. Descartes, "Discourse on Method." (V.D.-H.K.p.329) 1637 nend John Tradescant the younger, a widower with a son and daughter, undertook the first of three voyages from England to Virginia ?to gather up all raritye of flowers, plants, shells.? The King?s request to search for useful trees and herbs, no doubt played a role in Tradescant?s decision to take this trip during what must have been a very difficult time. (www.bayjournal.com/article.cfm?article=2942) 1637 nend Rene Descartes, French mathematician, began using the final letters of the alphabet to represent unknowns. He published his 6 tome "Discours de la Methode" in Leyden. (Alg, 1990, p.115) 1637 nend The Dutch tulip bulb craze crashed as futures prices became too high for speculators to pay off and take delivery. (WSJ, 7/7/98, p.A14)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42)(WSJ, 1/18/00, p.C14) 1637 nend The Dutch attacked and captured Elmina (Ghana), which up to that point was the centre of Portuguese activity in West Africa. (www.moxon.net/ghana/cape_coast.html) 1637 nend Ferdinand II Holy Roman emperor, king of Bohemia and king of Hungary, died. (WUD, 1994, p.524) 1637 nend Gekkeikan began making sake in Kyoto, Japan. The company began supplying the imperial household in 1909. (SSFC, 9/26/04, p.D12) c 1637 1638 Peter Paul Rubens painted ?The Elevation of the Cross.? (SFC, 3/5/05, p.E1) 1637 1638 The Christians of Shimabara, Japan, rebelled. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215) 1637 1707 Dietrich Buxtehude, German composer. He was a transitional figure between early and later baroque. Bach made a legendary journey on foot to hear the aging composer perform. Handel also journeyed to see him 3 years before Bach. His works include Jubilate Domino and the Trio Sonata for violin, gamba and continuo. (EMN, 1/96, p.1) 1638 nend Jan 5, Petition in Recife, Brazil, led to the closing of its two synagogues. (MC, 1/5/02) 1638 nend Feb 28, Scottish Presbyterians signed the National Covenant at Greyfriars, Edinburgh. (MC, 2/28/02) 1638 nend Feb 28, Henri duc de Rohan, French soldier, Huguenot leader, died. (MC, 2/28/02) 1638 nend Mar 3, Duke Bernard van Saksen-Weimar occupied Rheinfelden. (SC, 3/3/02) 1638 nend Mar 22, Religious dissident Anne Hutchinson was expelled from the Massachusetts Bay Colony. (AP, 3/22/97) 1638 nend Mar 23, Frederik Ruysch, Dutch anatomist, was born. (SS, 3/23/02) 1638 nend Mar 29, The first permanent white settlement was established in Delaware. Swedish Lutherans who came to Delaware were the first to build log cabins in America. The first English colonists did not know how to build houses from logs but those who lived in the forests of Scandinavia, Germany and Switzerland did. German pioneers who settled in Pennsylvania built the first log cabins there in the early 1700s. The Scotch-Irish immigrants who settled in the Appalachian highlands after 1720 made the widest use of log cabins and by the time of the American Revolution, log cabins were the mainstay among settlers all along the western frontier. (HNQ, 9/15/99)(AP, 3/29/08) 1638 nend Apr 13, Duke Henri II (58), French Huguenot leader, died. (MC, 4/13/02) 1638 nend May 6, Cornelius Jansen, theologian (Jansenism), died. (MC, 5/6/02) 1638 nend Jun 1, The first earthquake was recorded in the U.S. at Plymouth, Mass. (DTnet, 6/1/97) 1638 nend Aug 9, Jonas Bronck of Holland became the 1st European settler in the Bronx. (MC, 8/9/02) 1638 nend Sep 5, Louis XIV, "The Sun King" (1643-1715) of France, was born. He built the palace at Versailles. [see Sep 16] (HN, 9/5/98) 1638 nend Sep 16, France's King Louis XIV, the Sun King, was born. He ruled from 1643-1715 and died in 1715. [see Sep 5] (WUD, 1994, p.848)(AP, 9/16/97) 1638 nend Dec 18, Pere Joseph (Francois du Tremblay, b.1577), French Capuchin friar, confidant and agent of Cardinal Richelieu, died. He was the original éminence grise -- the French term ("grey eminence") for a powerful advisor or decision-maker who operates secretly or unofficially. Richelieu was known as Éminence Rouge (red eminence); from the colors of their respective habits. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Leclerc_du_Tremblay) 1638 nend Dec 24, The Ottomans under Murad IV recaptured Baghdad from Safavid Persia. (HN, 12/24/98) 1638 nend Rembrandt van Rijn painted the "Portrait of Willem Bartolsz Ruyter," a Dutch actor. (SFC, 10/12/96, p.E3) 1638 nend Galileo smuggled out his book "Dialogue Concerning Two New Sciences" to a publisher in Holland. (BHT, Hawking, p.180)(NH, 2/05, p.19) 1638 nend Monteverdi composed the madrigal "Il Combattimento de Tanncredi e Corinda." (WSJ, 7/22/99, p.A24) 1638 nend Thomas Emerson came from England and settled in Ipswich, Massachusetts. Ralph Waldo Emerson came along 5 generations later. (WP, 1952, p.39) 1638 nend John Harvard, a Massachusetts Puritan minister, bequeathed his 260-volume library to Harvard College. (SFCM, 12/10/00, p.11) 1638 nend John Tradescant (b.1570), English gardener and father of John Tradescant (1608-1662), died. In 2008 Jennifer Potter authored ?Strange Blooms: The Curious Lives and Adventures of the John Tradescants. (WSJ, 4/3/08, p.B19) 1638 nend Joachim Wytawael (Wtewael, b.1566), Dutch mannerist painter, died. His work included "The Adoration of the Shepherds." (SFEM, 8/31/97, p.13)(SFEM, 9/17/00, p.96) 1638 1686 Nils Steenson, Danish doctor, better known as Nicolaus Steno, explained stratigraphy. He was convinced that fossils are the remains of ancient organic forms. (RFH-MDHP, p.7) 1638 1709 Meindert Hobbema, Dutch painter. He painted "The Avenue." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.675) 1638 1715 Louis XIV, the French Sun King. He ruled from 1643-1715. (WUD, 1994, p.848) 1638 1715 Dom Perignon, a French monk. He introduced blending, vineyard and cellaring practices that made champagne a better wine. (Hem., 10/97, p.104) 1639 nend Jan 6, Virginia became the 1st colony to order surplus crops (tobacco) destroyed. (MC, 1/6/02) 1639 nend Jan 14, (Julian Calendar) "Fundamental Orders," the first constitution of Connecticut, was adopted [see Jan 24]. (AP, 1/14/98)(www.constitution.org/bcp/fo_1639.htm) 1639 nend Jan 23, Francisco Maldonado da Silva Solis, Peruvian poet, was burned at stake. (MC, 1/23/02) 1639 nend Jan 24, (Gregorian Calendar) The Fundamental Orders, the first constitution in the New World, was adopted in Connecticut [see Jan 14]. (HN, 1/24/99)(www.constitution.org/bcp/fo_1639.htm) 1639 nend Feb 7, Academie Francaise began its Dictionary of French Language. (MC, 2/7/02) 1639 nend Mar 13, Cambridge College was re-named Harvard University for clergyman John Harvard. (AP, 3/13/98)(MC, 3/13/02) 1639 nend May 8, William Coddington founded Newport, RI. (MC, 5/8/02) 1639 nend May 20, Dorchester, Mass., formed the 1st school funded by local taxes. (MC, 5/20/02) 1639 nend Jun 6, Massachusetts granted 500 acres of land to erect a gunpowder mill. (MC, 6/6/02) 1639 nend Jun 10, The 1st American log cabin at Fort Christina (Wilmington, Delaware). (MC, 6/10/02) 1639 nend Aug 10, "Ten fair pippins" were planted on Governor?s Island in Boston Harbor. (WSJ, 9/9/96, p.A16) 1639 nend Sep 25, The 1st printing press in America began operating. (MC, 9/25/01) 1639 nend Nov 3, Martinus de Porres (69), Peru saint (patron of social justice), died. (MC, 11/3/01) 1639 nend Nov 5, 1st post office in the colonies opened in Massachusetts. (MC, 11/5/01) 1639 nend Nov 24, A 2nd predicted transit of Venus occurred. Jeremiah Horrocks of England predicted and observed the event with his friend William Crabtree. (MC, 11/24/01)(Econ, 5/29/04, p.78) 1639 nend Descartes published his "Discourse on Method." It is here that his famous statement "I doubt; therefore I am," was expounded. "He then proceeded to discover a method of achieving similar certainty in other realms, based on the reduction of all problems to a mathematical form and solution." He invented analytic geometry in order to reduce the description of phenomena to a set of numbers. His Discourse was placed by Catholic theologians on the Index of forbidden books. (V.D.-H.K.p.204) 1639 nend Francois Citois, the physician of Cardinal Richelieu, published a book that described the disease colica Pictonum, and noted the prevalence of the disease to the wine region of Poitou, where tart wines needed sweetening. (NH, 7/96, p.48) 1639 nend Roger Williams of Providence, Rhode Island, embraced the Baptist faith long enough to help found the first Baptist church in America. After 4 months he abandoned the Baptist congregation and left organized religion behind. (AH, 4/07, p.27) 1639 nend Hugel Corp. first bottled wine in France. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R46) 1639 nend In India the walled city of Old Delhi, the 6th Delhi city, was erected by Shah Jahan. It came to be called Shajahanabad after the construction of new Delhi by the British. (SFEC, 5/21/00, p.T1) 1639 nend Japan was closed to the outside world except for a Dutch trading post. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215) 1639 nend Jesuit Father Petro Kassui Kibe, a convert to Christianity, was captured, tortured and martyred in Tokyo. He had initially managed to escape persecution and traveled to Rome, where he became a Jesuit and was ordained to the priesthood. He then returned to Japan to minister to other oppressed Christians. The 188 other martyrs included four Jesuit priests, other priests, brothers and nuns, lay men and women, all killed in different cities between 1603 and 1639 after the Japanese government outlawed Christianity. In 2007 Pope Benedict XVI approved recognition of their martyrdom. (www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/0603392.htm)(AP, 6/2/07) 1639 1699 Racine, French dramatist. His plays included "Phedre" and "Ariadne?s Thread" based on Greek myths. (WUD, 1994, p.1184)(WSJ, 10/8/02, p.D8) 1640 nend Jan 25, Robert Burton, author (Anatomy of Melancholy), died. (MC, 1/25/02) 1640 nend Feb 9, Murad IV (27), sultan of Turkey (1623-40), died in Baghdad. Ibrahim (1640-1648) succeeded Murad IV in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii)(MC, 2/9/02) 1640 nend Mar 9, Pierre Corneille?s "Horace," premiered in Paris. (MC, 3/9/02) 1640 nend Apr 10, Agostino Agazzari (61), Italian composer, died. (MC, 4/10/02) 1640 nend May 5, English Short Parliament united. (MC, 5/5/02) 1640 nend May 30, Peter Paul Rubens (b.1577), Flemish painter, died in Antwerp. (www.newadvent.org/cathen/13214c.htm)(Econ, 5/15/04, p.81) 1640 nend Jun 9, Leopold I, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (1658-1705), was born. (HN 6/9/98)(MC, 6/9/02) 1640 nend Aug 28, The Indian War in New England ended with the surrender of the Indians. (HTNet, 8/28/99) 1640 nend Aug 29, English King Charles I signed a peace treaty with Scotland. (MC, 8/29/01) 1640 nend Nov 11, John Pym, earl of Strafford, was locked in Tower of London. (MC, 11/11/01) 1640 nend Nov 25, Giles Farnaby, composer, died. (MC, 11/25/01) 1640 nend Nov 26, Carl Rosier, composer, was born. (MC, 11/26/01) 1640 nend Dec 1, Spain lost Portugal as the Duke of Braganza was proclaimed João IV (John IV), king of Portugal. (HoS, p.267) 1640 nend Dec 6, Matthijs Elsevier (75), Flemish-Dutch book publisher and merchant, died. (MC, 12/6/01) 1640 nend Dec 9, Settler Hugh Bewitt was banished from the Massachusetts colony when he declared himself to be free of original sin. (MC, 12/9/01) 1640 nend Rembrandt van Rijn painted his "Portrait of a Man Seated in an Armchair" about this time. (WSJ, 11/3/95, p.A-12) c 1640 nend In Connecticut Roger Williams prepared the first primer of the Algonquian Indian language. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.23) c 1640 nend The Great Tulip Book, an album with 158 illustrations used by a merchant and grower to show available varieties, was created. (WSJ, 4/24/01, p.A22) 1640 nend Monteverdi composed his opera "The Return of Ulysses." (WSJ, 11/15/01, p.A24) 1640 nend The towns of Southampton and East Hampton, NY, were founded. (In 2004 Steven Petrow authored ?The Lost Hamptons.? (SSFC, 7/18/04, p.M2) 1640 nend English colonists founded Greenwich, Connecticut. It evolved into an exclusive retreat from nearby NYC. (WSJ, 4/12/08, p.A6) 1640 nend The Massachusetts Bay Company sent 300,000 codfish to market. (SFC, 5/24/97, p.E3) 1640 nend Chemical lighters came out in London that used phosphorus and sulfur. (SFC, 5/17/97, p.E3) 1640 nend John Ford (b.c1586) English playwright, died. In 1944 Prof. Sensabaugh (d.2002 at 95) authored "The Tragic Muse of John Ford." (WUD, 1994 p.554)(SFC, 2/28/02, p.A20) 1640 nend The Cathedral of Morelia, Mexico, 185 miles northwest of Mexico City, was begun. It was completed 100 years later and is considered to be Mexico's best example of Platersque architecture, an ornate style that resembles silverwork. (Hem, Nov.'95, p.144) 1640 nend Spain?s medieval kingdom of Aragon rebelled against Madrid. (Econ, 11/8/08, SR p.10) 1640 nend Pope Urban VIII ordered Spanish priests to stop smoking cigars. (SFC, 5/24/97, p.E3) 1640 nend Russia completed its conquest of Siberia and reached the Pacific Ocean. (ON, 2/04, p.5) 1640 nend s In England the parliamentary battles that led up to the English Civil War were recorded in 7 tomes known as Rushworth's Collections. (WSJ, 3/10/99, p.A22) 1640 nend s In England an agrarian commune was created by Gerard Winstanley, a merchant turned pamphleteer whose elegant prose derided the class system. The 1975 film "Winstanley" was co-directed by Andrew Mollow and Kevin Brownlow was based on Winstanley. (SFEC, 1/30/00, DB p.42) 1640 nend s In Sweden the violin was introduced, possibly by French musicians at the court of Queen Christina. (NH, 4/97, p.32) 1640 nend s The Fifth Dalai Lama (1617-1682) invented a unique institution to rule his country, a collaboration of monastics and aristocrats. It gradually accomplished demilitarization and elevated monasticism with an emphasis on education and spiritual development. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R55) 1640 1688 Elector Friedrich Wilhelm acquired a collection of paintings by Titian, Rubens, Rembrandt and others at his home in Oranien. His nephew was Frederick the Great. (WSJ, 7/29/98, p.A13) 1640 1945 In 1955 Stanford Prof. Gordon A. Craig (1913-2005) authored ?The Politics of the Prussian Army, 1640-1945.? (SFC, 11/9/05, p.B11) 1641 nend Jan 3, Jeremiah Horrocks (22), English astronomical prodigy, died. (MC, 1/3/02) 1641 nend Feb 16, English king Charles I accepted the Triennial Act. (MC, 2/16/02) 1641 nend May 12, Thomas Wentworth (48), chief advisor to Charles I and English viceroy of Ireland, was beheaded in the Tower of London. (HN, 5/12/01)(MC, 5/12/02)` 1641 nend Sep 23, Adrian "Aart" van Wijck, theologian, was born. He fought Jansenism. (MC, 9/23/01) 1641 nend Oct 21, A Catholic uprising took place in Ulster. Thousands of English and Scots were killed. [see Oct 23] (MC, 10/21/01) 1641 nend Oct 23, Catholics in Ireland, under Phelim O'Neil, rose against the Protestants and cruelly massacred men, women and children to the number of 40,000 (some say 100,000). [see Oct 21] (HN, 10/23/98) 1641 nend Dec 1, Massachusetts became the 1st colony to give statutory recognition to slavery. It was followed by Connecticut in 1650 and Virginia in 1661. (MC, 12/1/01)(HNQ, 5/20/02) 1641 nend Dec 9, Anthonie "Antoon" van Dyck (42), Flemish painter, died. (MC, 12/9/01) 1641 nend The "Pharmacopoeia medicochymica" by Johann Schroder was first printed in Ulm. (NH, 6/00, p.28) 1641 nend Cristoval de Acuna, a Jesuit missionary, first wrote about the Amazon River to the king of Spain. (SFC, 12/16/00, p.A22) 1641 nend Puritans wrote a statute that enjoined husband from beating their wives: the Massachusetts Body of Liberties. (WSJ, 4/1/02, p.A13) 1641 nend The Spanish warship Nuestra Senora de la Concepcion sank off of the coast of Florida. (AM, Jul-Aug/99, p.8) 1641 nend The English Court of Star Chamber was abolished. It had been used by unpopular kings to enforce unpopular policies. (ON, 11/04, p.10) 1641 nend In Ireland a Catholic uprising in Ulster was suppressed. English Gen?l. Oliver Cromwell took away the land rights of 44,000 Catholics in Ulster and adjacent counties. (SFEC, 12/22/96, Z1 p.6) 1641 nend Japan designated an artificial island in Nagasaki harbor as the only place that foreigners could live. (Econ, 11/24/07, p.47) 1641 nend Gerritt van Wuysthoff, a Dutchman, struggled up the Mekong River through Cambodia and reached Vientiane, Laos. (Econ, 1/3/04, p.29) 1642 nend Jan 4, King Charles I attacked the English parliament with 400 soldiers. (MC, 1/4/02) 1642 nend Jan 8, Astronomer Galileo Galilei (77) died in Arcetri, Italy. Galileo had 2 daughters consigned to a nunnery and one son, whom he got married into a rich Florentine family. In 1614, Father Tommaso Caccini denounced the opinions of Galileo on the motion of the Earth from the pulpit of Santa Maria Novella, judging them to be erroneous. Galileo went to Rome and defended himself against charges that had been made against him. In 1616, he was admonished by Cardinal Bellarmino and told that he could not defend Copernican astronomy because it went against the doctrine of the Church. Later, in 1632 he was summoned by the Holy Office to Rome. The tribunal passed a sentence condemning him and compelled Galileo to solemnly abjure his theory. He was sent to exile in Siena. Galileo spent his last years almost totally blind and poor. In 1999 Dava Sobel published "Galileo's Daughter." (BHT, Hawking, p.180)(AP, 1/8/98)(WSJ, 10/19/99, p.A24)(MC, 1/8/02) 1642 nend Jan 10, King Charles I and his family fled London for Oxford. (MC, 1/10/02) 1642 nend Feb 25, Dutch settlers slaughtered lower Hudson Valley Indians in New Netherland, North America, who sought refuge from Mohawk attackers. (HN, 2/25/99) 1642 nend Mar 1, Georgeana (York), Maine, became the first American city to incorporate. (HN, 3/1/98)(SC, 3/1/02) 1642 nend Mar 12, Abel Tasman became the 1st European to land in New Zealand. [see Nov 24, Dec 13] (MC, 3/12/02) 1642 nend May 6, Frans Francken, the Younger, Flemish painter, died on 61st birthday. (MC, 5/6/02) 1642 nend May 17, Paul de Chomedy de Maisonneuve landed on the Island of Montreal and gave the name Ville-Marie to the town he constructed at the foot of Mont Royal. (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/16059b.htm) 1642 nend May 18, The Canadian city of Montreal was founded by French colonists. (AP, 5/18/08) 1642 nend Jul 3, Maria de' Medici (~69), French queen-mother, died. (MC, 7/3/02) 1642 nend Aug 13, Christian Huygens discovered the Martian south polar cap. (MC, 8/13/02) 1642 nend Aug 22, Civil war in England began as Charles I declared war on the Puritan Parliament at Nottingham. Charles I went to the House of Commons to arrest some of its members and was refused entry. From this point on no monarch was allowed entry. (HN, 8/22/98)(SFC, 10/16/98, p.D3)(ON, 12/00, p.1) 1642 nend Sep 12, Cinq Mars, French plotter, was executed. (MC, 9/12/01) 1642 nend Sep 23, Giovanni Maria Bononcini, composer, was born. (MC, 9/23/01) 1642 nend Sep 23, Harvard College in Cambridge, Mass., held its first commencement. (AP, 9/23/97) 1642 nend Oct 23, The Battle of Edgehill was the first major clash between Royalist and Parliamentary forces in the English Civil Wars. King Charles I and 11-15,000 Cavaliers held the high ground against 13-15,000 Roundheads led by the Earl of Essex and Oliver Cromwell. The conflict began with a smattering of cannon exchanges. The Royalist artillery was hampered by its uphill position, rendering its cannons largely ineffective against the enemy below. As a result, Royalist cavalry, led by the King?s nephew, Prince Rupert, swept down the hill toward the Parliamentarians, decimating a large section of their ranks. The Royalists did not capitalize on this initial success, however, as the troops became more interested in plundering the town than in finishing the fight. This allowed Parliamentarian troops to regroup and break up enemy formations. After several hours of hard fighting, both sides withdrew to their original positions, leaving a field scattered with debris and casualties. (HNQ, 6/16/01) 1642 nend Oct 23, Sir Edmund Verneys rode into the battle of Edgehill as the standard bearer of Charles I and died there. In 2007 Adrian Tinniswood authored ?The Verneys: A True Story of Love, War and Madness in Seventeenth-Century England.? (Econ, 3/3/07, p.87) 1642 nend Nov 13, Battle at Turnham Green, London: King Charles I vs. English parliament. (MC, 11/13/01) 1642 nend Nov 24, Abel Janszoon Tasman (d.1659) discovered Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania). (MC, 11/24/01) 1642 nend Dec 4, Cardinal Armand-Jean Duplessis Richelieu (57), French statesman and bishop of Luzon, died. "If you give me six lines written by the most honest man, I will find something in them to hang him." "He did too much harm to be praised, and too much good to be damned." (MC, 12/4/01)(WSJ, 9/24/02, p.D8)(Econ, 1/24/04, p.75) 1642 nend Dec 13, Dutch navigator and explorer Abel Janszoon sighted present-day New Zealand. He fled after Maori cannibals feasted on the ?friendship party? he sent ashore. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.196)(SFEC, 10/4/98, p.T4)(AP, 12/13/07) 1642 nend Dec 25, (OS) Isaac Newton (d.1727), English physicist, mathematician and scientist, was born in Woolsthorpe (Grantham), Lincolnshire, England. He enunciated the laws of motion and the law of gravity [see Jan 4, 1643]. (V.D.-H.K.p.205)(HN,12/25/98)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton) 1642 nend Descartes published: "Meditationes de prima philosophia, in quibus Dei Existentia et animae humanae a corpore distinctio demonstrantur." [2nd source says 1841] (Dr, 7/20/96, supl p.1)(WSJ, 3/18/97, p.A20) 1642 nend Rembrandt van Rijn painted "Night Watch." (WSJ, 3/904, p.D8) no_source 1642 nend London's Globe theater closed as the Puritan-controlled British Parliament suppressed theaters and other forms of popular entertainment. (ON, 11/03, p.2) 1642 nend In England Speaker William Lenthall refused Charles I?s request that he identify 5 uppity MPs, whom the king had come to the House of Commons to arrest. (Econ, 12/6/08, p.75) 1642 nend Monteverdi composed "L?Incoronazione di Poppea." (WSJ, 6/1/98, p.A16) 1642 nend Le Vau, the French royal architect, built the Hotel Lambert on the Ile of Saint Louis. (SFCM, 10/14/01, p.32) 1642 nend A diamond, said to be stolen from a Hindu statue, was acquired in India by Jean Baptiste Tavernier, a noted French traveler. The 45.52 carat steel blue diamond was found in India back in remote times as a rough crystal weighing 112 carats. Tavernier later sold to King Louis XIV of France. The diamond, known as the French Blue or the Tavernier Blue, disappeared. For many years it was not heard from at all. In 1830, a large steel blue diamond of a different shape, and weighing only 44.50 carats appeared on the market in England and was purchased by Henry Thomas Hope, an English banker. It changed hands a number of times and in 1911 it was sold to Evelyn Walsh McLean of Washington, DC, who had it placed in a Cartier setting. (http://famousdiamonds.tripod.com/hopediamond.html)(SSFC, 12/20/09,p.N7) c 1642 nend Gretje Reyniers had sailed to New Amsterdam [now New York] from Holland and built a life as a prostitute, moneylender and pelt dealer. Her story was expanded in a 1996 novel by Michael Pye titled "The Drowning Room." (SFC, 6/3/96, BR p.14) 1642 nend Curacao became a colony of the Netherlands. (Econ, 6/19/04, p.72) 1642 nend In France Blaise Pascal invented a calculating machine to ease the drudgery of his tax-collector father. It was considered too complicated. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1642 1648 The English civil war severely damaged St. Paul?s Cathedral in London. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.14) 1642 1651 Period of English civil wars. (V.D.-H.K.p.218) 1643 nend Jan 4, (NS) Sir Isaac Newton, scientist, was born. He developed the laws of gravity and planetary relations [See Dec 25, 1642]. (HN, 1/4/01)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton) 1643 nend Mar 1, Girolamo Frescobaldi (59), Italian composer, organist, died. (SC, 3/1/02) 1643 nend Apr 20, Christoph Demantius (75), composer, died. (MC, 4/20/02) 1643 nend May 13, Battle at Grantham: English parliamentary armies beat royalists. (MC, 5/13/02) 1643 nend May 14, Louis XIV became King of France at age 4 upon the death of his father, Louis XIII. (AP, 5/14/97) 1643 nend May 18, Queen Anne, the widow of Louis XIII, was granted sole and absolute power as regent by the Paris parliament, overriding the late king's will. (HN, 5/18/99) 1643 nend May 19, Delegates from four New England colonies, Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut and New Harbor, met in Boston to form a confederation: the United Colonies of New England. (AP, 5/19/97) 1643 nend May 19, A French army destroyed Spanish army at the Battle at Rocroi - Allersheim in France (DTnet, 5/19/97)(HN, 5/19/98) 1643 nend Jun 30, Battle at Atherton Moor: Royalists beat parliamentary armies. (MC, 6/30/02) 1643 nend Jul 5, 1st recorded tornado in US was at Essex County, Massachusetts. (MC, 7/5/02) 1643 nend Jul 13, In England, the Roundheads, led by Sir William Waller, were defeated by royalist troops under Lord Wilmot in the Battle of Roundway Down. (HN, 7/13/98) 1643 nend Jul 27, Cromwell defeated the Royalists at the Battle of Gainsborough. (MC, 7/27/02) 1643 nend Nov 22, Rene R. Cavelier, sieur de La Salle, French explorer, was born. [see Dec 22] (MC, 11/22/01) 1643 nend Nov 29, Claudio Giovanni Monteverdi (76), Italian composer (L'Arianna), died. (MC, 11/29/01) 1643 nend Dec 8, John Pym (59), English House of Commons member, died. (MC, 12/8/01) 1643 nend Dec 22, Rene-Robert Cavelier La Salle, French explorer (Louisiana), was born. [see Nov 22] (MC, 12/22/01) 1643 nend Roger Williams of Providence, Rhode Island, published ?A Key into the Language of America,? a dictionary of the Narragansett Indian language and a commentary on the culture and customs of the southern New England Indians. The work was printed in England by Gregory Dexter. (AH, 4/07, p.27) 1643 nend Ann Radcliffe established the first scholarship at Harvard Univ. (SFC, 4/21/99, p.A2) 1643 nend In England the bloody battle of Chalgrove Field occurred. Royalist strategy meetings were held at the Horsenden Manor at Buckinghamshsire. (WSJ, 7/19/96, p.B6) 1643 nend Wu Bin (b.1580), Ming Dynasty painter, died. His work included "Pine Lodge Amid Tall Mountains." (SFC, 3/13/03, p.E1) 1643 nend A novel by Umberto Eco, Italian philosopher and novelist, written in 1995 was set in this period. It was titled "The Island of the Day Before," (Harcourt Brace, 513 pp., $25). (WSJ, 11/27/95, p.A-1) 1643 nend The opera "Il Capricio" with libretto by Francesco Buti and music by Marco Marazzoli had its first performance at the home of the French ambassador in Rome. The sole manuscript then languished in the Vatican library until a revived performance in SF in 1997. (SFC, 3/10/97, p.D2) 1643 nend The great marble dome of the Taj Mahal was first completed. (WSJ, 3/31/07, p.P10) 1643 nend Piotr Golovin, the Cossack governor of Russia?s Yakutsk province, sent an expedition under Vasily Poyarkov into the far eastern Amur watershed. After 3 winters Poyarkov returned to Yakutsk with fewer than a quarter of his 160 men. (Econ, 12/19/09, p.71) 1643 1715 Louis XIV was King of France. "L'etat c'est moi" (I am the state). Francois Michelle Le Tellier, the Marquis de Louvois, was his secretary of state for war. A portrait of the Marquis was painted by Herault. (WUD, 1994, p.848)(SFC,10/23/97, p.E1)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R12) 1644 nend Jan 18, 1st reported UFO sighting in America was made by perplexed pilgrims in Boston. (MC, 1/18/02) 1644 nend Feb 5, The 1st US livestock branding law was passed by Connecticut. (MC, 2/5/02) 1644 nend Mar 7, Massachusetts established 1st 2-chamber legislature in colonies. (MC, 3/7/02) 1644 nend Mar 14, Roger Williams of Providence, Rhode Island, was issued a charter in the name of the king, which connected the towns of Providence, Portsmouth, and Newport under the title of "the Incorporation of Providence Plantations in the Narragansett Bay in New England." A March 24 date is also common for this and reflects later use of the new style calendar. (www.publicbookshelf.com/public_html/Our_Country_Vol_1/rhodeisl_fe.html) 1644 nend Apr 25, The Ming Chongzhen emperor committed suicide by hanging himself as Beijing fell to the bandit and rebel leader Li Dzucheng (39). The Qing, or Chi?ing, dynasty of China began when the Manchus invaded from Northeast China and overthrew the 300-year-old Ming Dynasty. (WSJ, 9/13/96, p.B8)(HN, 4/25/98)(PCh, 1992, p.239) 1644 nend Jul 2, Lord Cromwell crushed the Royalists at the Battle of Marston Moor near York, England. Cromwell came from minor gentry in Huntingdon and had served in Parliament before the wars, during which he commanded the Ironsides, a cavalry regiment famous for its discipline and tenacity. Although he had had no previous military experience, he showed amazing courage and tactical brilliance, particularly at the Battle of Marston Moor. (HN, 7/2/98)(HNQ, 8/8/00) 1644 nend Jul 2, William Gascoigne (24), introduced telescopic sights, was killed. (SC, 7/2/02) 1644 nend Jul 11, A Florentine scientist described the invention of barometer. (MC, 7/11/02) 1644 nend Aug 12, Heinrich Ignaz Franz von Biber, composer, was born. (MC, 8/12/02) 1644 nend Aug 12, Georg Christoph Leuttner, composer, was born. (MC, 8/12/02) 1644 nend Sep 2, At the Battle at Lostwithiel: Robert Devereux's infantry surrendered. (MC, 9/2/01) 1644 nend Sep 25, Olaus Rímer, 1st to accurately measured speed of light, was born in Denmark. (MC, 9/25/01) 1644 nend Oct 1, Jean Rousseau, composer, was born. (MC, 10/1/01) 1644 nend Oct 1, Alessandro Stradella, Italian violinist and composer, was born. (MC, 10/1/01) 1644 nend Oct 14, William Penn, founder of Pennsylvania, or Penn's Woods, was born. (HN, 10/14/98) 1644 nend Oct 27, The 2nd Battle at Newbury: King Charles I beat parliamentary armies. (MC, 10/27/01) 1644 nend Dec 23, Tomas de Torrejon y Velasco, composer, was born. (MC, 12/23/01) 1644 nend Antonio Stradivari (d.1737), violin maker, was born. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R53) 1644 nend Velazquez painted the portrait: "King Philip IV of Spain." (WSJ, 12/29/99, p.A12) 1644 nend Principia Philosophiae by Rene Descartes was published in Amsterdam. (Dr, 7/20/96, supl p.1) 1644 nend Johan Baptista von Helmont, Flemish alchemist and physician, had a manuscript published post mortem where he described invisible spirits bubbling from flasks in his laboratory. He coined the word "Gas" from the Greek word for chaos to describe the invisible spirits. One of the gases he studied was carbon dioxide which he called gas sylvestris, or spirit of wood. (NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.16) 1644 nend Poet John Milton published "Areopagitica," an essay in defense of a free press. (SFC, 1/21/04, p.D2) 1644 nend Roger Williams published ?The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution,? a sweeping condemnation of Massachusetts?s intolerance and a manifesto defending the rights of each individual to decide, according to his own conscience, how best to worship god without interference from any civil authority. (AH, 4/07, p.27) 1644 nend A house was constructed for the Reverend John Lothrop, the founder of Barnstable, Mass. It later formed the original part of the Sturgis Library, the oldest Library building in the United States. The building is also one of the oldest houses remaining on Cape Cod." http://home.capecod.net/~sturgis/history.html no_source 1644 nend Pope Innocent X was elected Pope. He was from the noble Roman Pamphili family. (SFC, 11/20/00, p.A20) 1644 nend A land grant for "The Beach" was given for a fifty acre tract that covers the present harbor area of St. Michaels on the Chesapeake Bay. (SMBA, 1996) 1644 nend Lambert Jochemse Van Valckenburg and his wife Annetje arrived in New Amsterdam and promptly purchased a house and 50 acres. (SFEC, 8/11/96, p.A17) 1644 nend Trongsa Dzong was built. Trongsa was the ancestral home of Bhutan?s royal family. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trongsa) 1644 nend The Globe Theater in London was dismembered. (SFC, 8/20/96, p.E4) 1644 nend The Manchu emperors of China ordered all subjects to shave the top of their heads and wear the rest of their hair in a braid. The men complied until 1911 but the women did not. (SFEC, 9/8/96, Z1 p.6) c 1644 nend In China the later Zhengyici Theater in Beijing started as a temple in the late Ming period. (WSJ, 1/9/97, p.A8) 1644 nend Many Chinese mandarins fled to the port of Hoi An, Vietnam, when the Ming Dynasty was overthrown. Hoi An at this time was known as Faifo. (SFEC, 4/26/98, p.T4) 1644 nend In Sikkim the beginning of a 330 year dynasty. (WSJ, 3/6/97, p.A1) 1644 1694 Basho Matsuo, Japanese poet. His work include "The Narrow Road." [see 1690] One of his poems celebrated the entrancing cry of the cicada. (SFC, 11/28/96, p.C16)(WUD, 1994, p.124)(SFC, 7/29/97, p.C3) 1644 1911 The Qing Dynasty by Nie Chongzheng is the 4th section of Wu Hung?s 1997 "The Origins of Chinese Painting." The period is marked by the emergence of the literati-amateur movement. (WSJ, 1/2/98, p.6) 1644 1912 The period of the Ching dynasty of China. Others end it at 1911. (WSJ, 9/19/96, p.A18)(SFC, 10/14/96, p.B3) 1645 nend Jan 10, William Laud (71), the Archbishop of Canterbury, was beheaded on Tower Hill, accused of acting as an enemy of the Parliament. (HN, 1/10/99) 1645 nend Feb 14, Robert Ingle, commissioned by the English Parliament and captain of the tobacco ship Reformation, sailed to St. Mary?s (Maryland) and seized a Dutch trading ship. This marked the beginning of what came to known as ?The Plundering Time.? (Arch, 1/05, p.48) 1645 nend Apr 2, Robert Devereux resigned as parliament supreme commander. (MC, 4/2/02) 1645 nend Apr 7, Michael Cardozo became the 1st Jewish lawyer in Brazil. (MC, 4/7/02) 1645 nend Jun 14, Oliver Cromwell?s army routed the King?s army at Naseby. (HN, 6/14/98) 1645 nend Aug 9, Settlers in New Amsterdam gained peace with the Indians after conducting talks with the Mohawks. (HN, 8/9/98) 1645 nend Aug 16, Jean de la Bruyere, French writer and moralist famous for his work "Characters of Theophratus," was born. (HN, 8/16/98) 1645 nend Aug 28, Hugo Grotius, Dutch jurist and politician, died. In 1917 Hamilton Vreeland authored ?Hugo Grotius: The Father of Modern Science and International Law.? (RTH, 8/28/99)(ON, 10/04, p.4) 1645 nend Aug 30, Dutch & Indians signed peace treaty in New Amsterdam (NY). (MC, 8/30/01) 1645 nend Sep 20, Louis Joliet, French-Canadian explorer in the New World, was born. (MC, 9/20/01) 1645 nend Sep 24, The Battle of Rowton Heath took place during the English Civil War between the Parliamentarians, commanded by Sydnam Poyntz, and the Royalists under the personal command of King Charles I. The result was a significant defeat for the Royalists, with heavy losses and Charles prevented from relieving the Siege of Chester. William Lawes (b.1602), Cavalier composer, died at the Battle of Rowton Heath. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Rowton_Heath)(Econ, 4/16/11,p.90) 1645 nend The construction of Saint Sulpice in Paris, France, began over a Romanesque church and graveyard. (SSFC, 1/25/04, p.C12) 1645 nend The San Marcoul Hospital was established in Rheims, France, by a devout woman for the care of scrofulous [tubercular] patients. (WP, 1951, p.7) 1645 nend Mikhail Guryev, a Russian trader, founded the Ural River port city known as Guryev. The Kazakhstan oil town was later named Atyrau. (WSJ, 7/25/01, p.A1) 1646 nend George Fox (b.1624) abandoned the church in England and began following the "inner light." He told listeners that the truth could be found by listening to an inner voice of God speaking directly to the soul. His teachings formed the basis to the Religious Society of Friends, aka Quakers. Believers reportedly sat and quivered waiting for the Holy Spirit to move them to speak. (SSFC, 8/5/01, p.C10) 1645 nend In Sweden the Post Och Inrikes Tidningar began daily publication for bankruptcies, corporate and government announcements. On Jan 1, 2007, the world?s oldest newspaper stopped publishing on paper and moved to the Internet. (WSJ, 1/2/07, p.B4) 1645 nend Turkish invaders of the Ottoman Empire captured Hania on the island of Crete and built a mosque. (SFEC, 8/17/97, p.T10) 1645 1715 The Maunder Minimum. A 70-year period, named after astronomer E.W. Maunder, who documented a lack of solar activity during this time. It also marked the coldest period of the "Little Ice Age" that gripped Europe from c1450-c1890. (SFC, 11/29/02, p.J6)(SFC, 12/8/03, p.A2) 1646 nend Feb 28, Roger Scott was tried in Massachusetts for sleeping in church. (MC, 2/28/02) 1646 nend Mar 6, Joseph Jenkes received the 1st colonial machine patent. (MC, 3/6/02) 1646 nend Apr 27, King Charles I fled Oxford. (MC, 4/27/02) 1646 nend May 5, King Charles I surrendered at Scotland. (MC, 5/5/02) 1646 nend Jul 1, Gottfried Von Leibniz (Leibnitz, d.1716), German philosopher and mathematician, was born. (HN, 7/1/98)(WUD, 1994, p.819) 1646 nend Jul 30, English parliament set the Newcastle Propositions of King Charles I. (MC, 7/30/02) 1646 nend Aug 28, Fulvio Testi (53), Italian poet (Poesie liriche), died. (MC, 8/28/01) 1646 nend Sep 14, Robert Devereux (b.1591), 3rd earl of Essex, died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Devereux,_3rd_Earl_of_Essex) 1646 nend Oct 28, The 1st Protestant church assembly for Indians took place in Massachusetts. (MC, 10/28/01) 1646 nend Gluckel of Hameln was born in Hamburg. She married at 14 and had 12 children and was widowed at age 44. She continued for 3 more decades as a single businesswoman and devoted diarist. Her story was made into a theater production in 1999 by the New York based Great Small Works. (SFC, 10/16/99, p.D1,4) 1646 nend A treaty with Virginia Indians required the state to protect the Mattaponi from "enemies," but only on the reservation in King William County. The peace treaty unraveled the powerful confederation of local Indian tribes and large amounts of land were ceded to English settlers. (SFC, 6/4/97, p.A7)(AH, 6/07, p.27) 1646 nend James Morton, author of the "New English Canaan," died in Maine. (ON, 3/00, p.12) 1646 nend The Cheng Hoon Teng Buddhist temple was built in Malacca, Malaysia. (SFEC, 3/19/00, p.T8) 1646 nend In Satevo, Mexico, at the bottom of the Copper Canyon near Batopilas is a 350 year old church. (SFC, 5/19/96, T-1) 1646 nend Charles I licensed the Silver Cross to serve as both a brothel and drinking establishment. (SFEC, 8/11/96, p.T7) 1646 1707 Jules Hardouin Mansart, French architect. He became the chief architectural director for Louis XIV. (WUD, 1994, p.873) 1647 nend Jan 2, Nathaniel Bacon, leader of Bacon's Rebellion, Va., (1676), was born. (MC, 1/2/02) 1647 nend Jan 23, Scottish Presbyterians sold captured Charles I to English Parliament. (MC, 1/23/02) 1647 nend Jan 30, King Charles I was handed over to the English parliament. (MC, 1/30/02) 1647 nend Mar 14, The 1647 Treaty of Ulm was reached between the French and the Bavarians during the Thirty Years' War. In negotiations with the French, Maximilian I of Bavaria abandoned his alliance with the Holy Roman emperor Ferdinand III through the Treaty of Ulm. In 1648 Bavaria returned to the side of the emperor. (HNQ, 11/7/98) 1647 nend Apr 1, John Wilmot (d.1680) Second Earl of Rochester, poet (A Satyr Upon Mankinde), scandalous pornographer and bawdy playwright, was born. He married Elizabeth Malet, and carried on an affair with the actress Elizabeth Barry. His friend, playwright George Etherege modeled the character Dorimont after him in "Man of Mode." A 1994 play by Stephen Jeffrey titled "The Libertine," is based on Wilmot?s life. (WSJ, 3/28/96,p.A-12)(WSJ, 1/14/98, p.A17) 1647 nend May 11, Peter Stuyvesant (37) arrived in New Amsterdam to become governor of New Netherland. The one-legged professional soldier was sent from the Netherlands to head the Dutch trading colony at the southern end of Manhattan Island. Stuyvesant lost a leg in a minor skirmish in the Caribbean in 1644. (ON, 4/00, p.1)(AH, 10/04, p.74)(AP, 5/11/08) 1647 nend May 26, A new law banned Catholic priests from the colony of Massachusetts. The penalty was banishment or death for a second offense. (HN, 5/26/99) 1647 nend May 27, In Salem, Massachusetts, Achsah Young became the first recorded American woman to be executed for being a "witch." (AP, 5/27/97)(HN, 5/27/98) 1647 nend Jun 4, The English army seized King Charles I as a hostage. (AP, 6/4/97)(HN, 6/4/98) 1647 nend Jun 24, Margaret Brent (d.1671), a niece of Lord Baltimore, was ejected from the Maryland Assembly after demanding a place and vote in the body. Brent, acted as attorney for Lord Baltimore, and saved the colony from mutinous soldiers and from a Protestant revolt against the Catholic government. (AP, 6/24/97)(www.historyswomen.com/MargaretBrent.htm) 1647 nend Aug 22, Denis Papin, inventor of the pressure cooker, was born. (HN, 8/22/00) 1647 nend Nov 8, Pierre Bayle (d.1706), French-Dutch theologian, philosopher, and writer, was born. He authored the "Historical and Critical Dictionary." "If an historian were to relate truthfully all the crimes, weaknesses and disorders of mankind, his readers would take his work for satire rather than for history." (WUD, 1994, p.128)(AP, 11/19/97)(WSJ, 12/2/97, p.A20)(MC, 11/8/01) 1647 nend Nov 10, The all Dutch-held area of New York was returned to English control by the treaty of Westminster. (HN, 11/10/98) 1647 nend Nov 11, Massachusetts passed the 1st US compulsory school attendance law. (MC, 11/11/01) 1647 nend Velazquez (1599-1660) began his painting "Toilet of Venus." It was completed in 1651. (WSJ, 2/24/00, p.A16) 1647 nend William Bradford authored "History of Plymouth Plantation." (ON, 3/00, p.12) 1647 nend Samuel Danforth, a Puritan minister, authored ?An Almanack for the Year of Lord 1647.? It included a 20-year chronology of notable events in the Massachusetts colony. (WSJ, 11/22/08, p.W11) 1647 nend Gian Francesca Abela, vice-chancellor of the Knights of St. John and the father of Maltese historiography, authored "Descrittione di Malta." His antiquities, willed to the College of Jesuit Fathers in Valetta, later formed the nucleus of Malta?s National Museum of Archeology. (AM, 7/97, p.48) 1647 nend Pietro della Valle first published an illustration of a cuneiform inscription. (RFH-MDHP, p.193) 1647 nend L?Orfeo was produced in France. It was composed by Luigi Rossi who was imported by Cardinal Mazarin who sought to bring the Italian operatic tradition to France and mate it with the court orchestra, Les Vingt-Quatre Vuiolons du Roi. (WSJ, 6/19/97, p.A16) 1647 nend Elizabeth Throckmorton (b.1565), wife of Sir Walter Raleigh, died. In 2003 Anna Beer authored her biography "My Just Desire." (WSJ, 1/6/04, p.D10) 1648 nend Jan 21, In Maryland, the first woman lawyer in the colonies, Margaret Brent, was denied a vote in the Maryland Assembly. (HN, 1/21/99) 1648 nend Apr 5, Spanish troops and feudal barons struck down people's uprising in Naples. (MC, 4/5/02) 1648 nend Apr 11, Matthaus Apelles von Lowenstern (53), composer, died. (MC, 4/11/02) 1648 nend Apr 16, John Luyken, poet, etcher (Duytse Lyre), was born. (MC, 4/16/02) 1648 nend Apr 22, English army claimed king Charles I was responsible for bloodshed. (MC, 4/22/02) 1648 nend May 6, Battle at Zolty Wody-Bohdan: Chmielricki's Cossacks beat John II Casimir. (MC, 5/6/02) 1648 nend May 13, Margaret Jones of Plymouth was found guilty of witchcraft and was sentenced to be hanged by the neck. (HN, 5/13/99) 1648 nend May 15, The independence of the Netherlands was finally recognized with the Dutch and Spanish ratification of the Treaty of Munster, initially signed on January 30. (www.oldandsold.com/articles36/netherlands-18.shtml) 1648 nend May 20, In Poland King Ladislas IV died at age 55. His Jesuit brother (39) took rule as John Casimir II. (PCh, 1992, p.241) 1648 nend Jun 18, The Eighty Years? War between the Dutch and Spain ended following the signing of the Treaty of Munster. (www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/t/terborch/1/munster.html) 1648 nend Jun 24, Cossacks slaughtered 2,000 Jews and 600 Polish Catholics in Ukraine. (MC, 6/24/02) 1648 nend Jul 22, Some 10,000 Jews of Polannoe were murdered in a massacre led by Cossack Bogdan Chmielnicki (55). (PC, 1992, p.241)(MC, 7/22/02) 1648 nend Aug 8, Ibrahim, the sultan of Istanbul, was thrown into prison, then assassinated. (HN, 8/8/98) 1648 nend Aug 26, There was a people's uprising, the Fronde, against Anna of Austria, regent for Louis XIV of France, and Cardinal Mazarin (d.1661), the effective ruler. (PC, 1992, p.241)(MC, 8/26/02) 1648 nend Sep 1, Marin Mersenne (59), French mathematician, died. (SC, 9/1/02) 1648 nend Sep 21, In Poland at the Battle at Pilawce Bohdan Chmielricki beat John II Casimir. (PCh, 1992, p.241)(MC, 9/21/01) 1648 nend Oct 4, Peter Stuyvesant established America's 1st volunteer firemen. (MC, 10/4/01) 1648 nend Oct 18, Boston shoemakers were authorized to form a guild to protect their interests; it's the first American labor organization on record. The guild was authorized by the Massachusetts Bay Colony (Mass. Bay Company). (HN, 10/18/98)(AP, 10/18/07) 1648 nend Oct 24, The Peace of Westphalia ended the German Thirty Years War and effectively destroyed the Holy Roman Empire. The Treaties of Osnabruck and Munster, that ended the Thirty Years" War, divided Pomerania, a historic region that once stretched from Stralsund to the Vistula along the Baltic Sea in north-central Europe, into two parts known as Hither Pomerania and Farther Pomerania. Hither Pomerania, the area west of the Oder River, was granted to Sweden. Farther Pomerania was east of the Oder and went to the state of Brandenburg. Hither Pomerania is now part of the German state of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania; Farther Pomerania is now part of Poland. The 30 years war had spread from one end of Germany to the other, and left the country a scene of desolation and disorder, wasted by fire, sword and plague. The war was followed by great scarcity, due to the lack of laborers. San Marino did not attend the conference or sign the treaty because it had not been involved in the fighting, however it was linked to states that were fighting and was therefore still at war with Sweden until 1996 when an official end was declared. The treaty abolished private armies and the nation-state acquired a monopoly on maintaining armies and fighting wars. (AP, 10/24/97)(WSJ, 6/1/99, p.A22)(HNQ, 10/6/99)(Econ, 5/24/08, p.80) 1648 nend Oct 24, Switzerland's independence was recognized with the Peace of Westphalia. (MC, 10/24/01) 1648 nend Nov 2, 12,000 Jews were massacred by Chmielnicki hordes in Narol Podlia (Ukraine). Cossack Bogdan Chmielnicki led the pogrom in quest of Ukrainian independence from the Polish nobility, who employed Jews to collect taxes. (PCh, 1992, p.241)(MC, 11/2/01) 1648 nend Nov 26, Pope Innocent X condemned the Peace of Westphalia, which ended 30 Years War one month earlier. (AP, 11/26/02) 1648 nend Nov 30, English army captured King Charles I. (MC, 11/30/01) 1648 nend Dec 6, Pride's Purge: Thomas Pride prevented 96 Presbyterians from sitting in English Parliament. (MC, 12/6/01) 1648 nend Aldrovandus illustrated an Aztec sacrificial knife with a flaked blade (probably of obsidian) and a Brazilian anchor axe of ground stone set in a wooden haft as examples of stone implements of ancient type but of recent manufacture and used by primitive peoples. (RFH-MDHP, p.71-72) 1648 nend William Blaeu, Dutch master, illustrated 26-inch heaven and Earth orbs and depicted lions in the sky and sea monsters in the Pacific. Their value in 1996 was $825,000. (WSJ, 11/1/96, p.B10) 1648 nend The painting "Holy Family on the Steps," later acquired by the US National Gallery of Art, was initially attributed to Nicolas Poussin. The original turned out to be at the Cleveland Museum of Art and the National Gallery changed the authorship to a "follower of Poussin." (WSJ, 4/9/99, p.W16) 1648 nend Van Ruisdael painted "Dunes at Haarlem." His work this year also included his print "Christ Preaching (The Hundred Guilder Print). (SFEC, 9/3/00, p.T7)(WSJ, 3/904, p.D8) 1648 nend Van Ruisdael painted "Dunes at Haarlem." (SFEC, 9/3/00, p.T7) 1648 nend The French Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture was founded. (AM, 7/05, p.54) 1648 nend At the end of the Thirty years? War the Swedes got to Prague and picked up the remains of works collected by Rudolf II. (WSJ, 7/10/97, p.A13) 1648 nend The island of St. Martin in the Lesser Antilles was divided between the French and Dutch. The southern half went to the Dutch as Sint Maarten, while the northern half, Saint Martin, became part of the French department of Guadeloupe. Legend has it that a Dutchman and a Frenchman stood back to back at the center of the island and paced of their shares. The Dutchman stopped often to drink beer and was left with the smaller share. (NH, 10/96, p.60)(SFEC,2/16/97, p.T6) 1648 1687 Mehmed IV succeeded Ibrahim in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii) 1648 1815 This period of European history was covered by Tim Blanning in his 2007 book ?The Pursuit of Glory: Europe 1648-1815.? (Econ, 6/23/07, p.94) 1649 nend Jan 30, King Charles I of England, who ruled from 1625-1649, was beheaded for treason at Banqueting House, Whitehall, by the hangman Richard Brandon. He lost his capital trial by one vote, 68-67. "For the people, and I truly desire their liberty and freedom as much as anybody whomsoever, but I must tell you that their liberty and their freedom consists in having of government those laws by which their life and their goods may be most their own. It is not for having a share in government, sirs; that is nothing pertaining to them. A subject and a sovereign are clean different things." Charles I was canonized by the church of England 13 years later. Parliament became the supreme power under the rule of Oliver Cromwell, who ruled over Parliament as Lord Protector of the New Commonwealth from 1649-1658. He argued against his soldiers having a voice in government because they owned no property. He stated in so many words that government "has always been, and should always continue to be, of property, by property, and for property." (SFEC, 8/11/96, p.T7)(V.D.-H.K.p.218)(WSJ, 5/6/97, p.A20)(HN,1/30/99)(SFEC, 7/2/00, Z1 p.2)(WSJ, 2/7/03, p.W13) 1649 nend Jan 30, Jester Muckle John lost his job when King Charles 1 was beheaded. (Reuters, 8/7/04) 1649 nend Jan, The prosecution of England?s King Charles I was led by John Cooke (1608-1660), who suffered a horrible death with the Restoration in 1660. (SSFC, 9/24/06, p.M3) 1649 nend Feb 5, The Prince of Wales became king Charles II. Charles II (18), while living in exile at the Hague, was recently informed that his father was beheaded at Whitehall on Jan 30. (WSJ, 2/28/00, p.A36)(MC, 2/5/02) 1649 nend Feb 23, John Blow, composer of 1st English opera (Venus and Adonis), was baptized. (MC, 2/23/02) 1649 nend Feb 27, Johann Philipp Krieger, composer, was born. (MC, 2/27/02) 1649 nend Mar 11, The peace of Rueil was signed between the Frondeurs (rebels) and the French government. (HN, 3/11/99) 1649 nend Mar 26, John Winthrop, Puritan and 1st Gov. of Massachusetts, died. [see Apr 5] (SS, 3/26/02) 1649 nend Apr 3, Joseph-Francois Salomon, composer, was born. (MC, 4/3/02) 1649 nend Apr 5, Elihu Yale (1721), the English philanthropist for whom Yale University is named, was born. (WUD, 1994, p.1652)(AP, 4/5/99) 1649 nend Apr 5, John Winthrop (61), 1st governor of the colony at Mass. Bay, died. [see Mar 26] (MC, 4/5/02) 1649 nend Apr 9, James Scott Duke of Monmouth (d.1685), was born. He was the illegitimate son of Charles II of England and pretender to the throne of James II (HN, 4/9/98)(WUD, 1994, p.925) 1649 nend Apr 21, The Maryland Toleration Act, which provided for freedom of worship for all Christians, was passed by the Maryland assembly. (AP, 4/21/97)(HN, 4/21/98) 1649 nend May 12, Isaac Doreslaer, English lawyer, diplomat, was murdered. (MC, 5/12/02) 1649 nend Sep 1, Descartes departed Amsterdam to go to Sweden at the invitation of Queen Kristina. (Dr, 7/20/96, supl p.1) 1649 nend Sep 6, Robert Dudley, English navigator and writer (Arcano del Mare), died. (MC, 9/6/01) 1649 nend Sep 11, Oliver Cromwell seized Drogheda, Ireland. 3,000 inhabitants were massacred and all Catholic Churches were blown up by cannon. (MC, 9/11/01) 1649 nend Poussin created his painting "Moses Striking the Rock." (WSJ, 1/04/00, p.A16) 1649 nend Salomon van Ruysdael (1602-1670), Dutch landscape artist, created his painting ?Ferry on a River.? (WSJ, 7/2/08, p.D7)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruisdael) 1649 nend The Prins Willem was built in Middelburg, Netherlands, as the flagship of the Dutch East India Company. The 3-masted ship, launched on Jan 1, 1650, sank in 1662 off Madagascar. (AP, 7/30/09)(http://tinyurl.com/mteqbf) 1649 nend Descartes published "Traite des passions de l?ame" in Paris. (Dr, 7/20/96, supl p.1) 1649 nend Gov. Peter Stuyvesant granted Lambert Jochemse Van Valckenburg and his wife Annetje 50 acres, now nine blocks in the heart of Manhattan. (SFEC, 8/11/96, p.A17) 1649 nend Marblehead, Mass., was founded by Cornwall fishermen. (SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T7) 1649 nend Iroquois attacks and starvation decimated the Huron nation from some 12,000 to a few hundred. (AH, 4/01, p.33) 1649 nend Alessandro Turchi (b.1578), Italian painter, died in Rome. His work included ?The Lamentation Over the Dead Christ? (1617). (http://gallery.euroweb.hu/html/t/turchi/) 1649 nend In Russia serfs were made part of the land that they inhabited. A later edict allowed them to be sold with the land. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1649 nend In Seville, Spain, one in three died of the Black Plague. (SFEC, 10/13/96, p.T6) 1649 1743 Hyacinthe Rigaud, painter. Painted the "Portrait of Louis XIV." (AAP, 1964) 1649 1815 In 2004 N.A.M. Rodger authored ?The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649-1815.? (Econ, 11/20/04, p.88) 1650 nend Feb 1, Rene Descartes, philosopher: "I think therefore I am", died. [see Feb 11] (MC, 2/1/02) 1650 nend Feb 2, Nell [Eleanor] Gwyn, English actress, mistress to King Charles II, was born. (MC, 2/2/02) 1650 nend Feb 11, Rene Descartes (b.1596), French mathematician and philosopher: "I think therefore I am", died in Stockholm. [see Feb 1] (Dr, 7/20/96, supl p.1)(MC, 2/11/02) 1650 nend Apr 27, Scottish general Montrose was defeated. (MC, 4/27/02) 1650 nend May 21, James, Marquis of Montrose, Scottish general, was hanged. (MC, 5/21/02) 1650 nend May 24, John Churchill, 1st duke of Marlborough, English general strategist, was born. (MC, 5/24/02) 1650 nend May 28, Gilles Hayne (59), composer, died. (MC, 5/28/02) 1650 nend Jun 28, Lord Cromwell set off for Scotland at the head of an army of 16,354 men. (HNQ, 8/8/00) 1650 nend Jun, Jean Rotrou (b.1609), French playwright, died of the plague. In his day he was considered second only to Corneille. (SFC, 12/31/08, p.E2)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Rotrou) 1650 nend Sep 3, The English under Cromwell defeated a superior Scottish army under David Leslie at the Battle of Dunbar. (HN, 9/3/98) 1650 nend Sep, Peter Stuyvesant traveled from New Amsterdam to Hartford, Conn., to negotiate boundaries for their colonies. (ON, 4/00, p.1) 1650 nend Oct 3, The English parliament declared its rule over the fledgling American colonies. (MC, 10/3/01) 1650 nend Oct 21, Jean Bart, French captain and sea hero, was born. He escaped from Plymouth. (MC, 10/21/01) 1650 nend Nov 4, William III, Prince of Orange and King of England, was born. [see Nov 14] (HN, 11/4/98) 1650 nend Nov 14, William III, King of England (1689-1702), was born. [see Nov 4] (HN, 11/14/98) 1650 nend Nov 24, Manuel Cardoso (83), composer, died. (MC, 11/24/01) c 1650 nend Dutch artist Jan Baptist Weenix painted "Mother and Child in an Italian Landscape." (SFEM, 8/31/97, p.12) c 1650 nend Velazquez painted the portrait: "Juan de Pareja." (WSJ, 12/29/99, p.A12) 1650 nend The Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi, fountain of Four Rivers, in Rome?s Piazza Navona was designed by Bernini. (SFEC, 7/2/00, p.T5) 1650 nend The Khaju bridge in Esfahan, Persia (Iran), was built over the Zayandeh Rood river. (SSFC, 1/14/07, p.G5) c 1650 nend The Kagyupa sect of Buddhism, known as the "Black Hats," under the leadership of the Karmapa was supplanted by the Gelupga school of the Dalai Lamas as Tibet's most politically powerful group. (SFC, 1/800, p.A8) c 1650 nend Mother St. John Fontbonne founded the Sisters of St. Joseph. (SFC, 11/13/00, p.A3) 1650 nend Ludlow's Code, Colonial American laws, came about when Connecticut's general court asked Roger Ludlow, a member of the court, to draft a body of laws. Without the impartiality of an established set of laws, Connecticut colonists had complained of the capriciousness of magistrates. (HNQ, 8/4/98) c 1650 nend The Cinder Cone at Mt. Lassen volcano (California) was formed. (SFEC, 8/13/00, p.T1) 1650 nend In Barbados St. Nicholas Abbey was built as a plantation house in the Jacobean style. (SFEC, 2/15/98, p.T10) c 1650 nend Andres Manso de Contreras of Cuba built a vast fortune by intercepting Caribbean pirates in the mid-17th century. In 1704 and 1776 his heirs sailed to London and allegedly deposited the equivalent of some $60 million in gold at a London bank at 5% interest. (WSJ, 4/20/01, p.A1) 1650 nend Portuguese rule ended in Oman. (SSFC, 3/30/08, p.E4) 1650 nend s In Massachusetts the Puritans ordered Obadiah Holmes to be "well whipped" for holding a Baptist service. (SFC, 6/24/96, p.A19) 1650 1695 St. Croix island in the West Indies was taken over by the French and then abandoned. (NG, Jan, 1968, C. Mitchell, p.84) 1650 1700 This period marks the approximate end of the Renaissance and the beginning of the Age of Revolution. In 2006 Theodore K. Rabb authored ?The Last Days of the Renaissance.? (WSJ, 5/27/06, p.P8) 1650 1700 Germany during the last half of the 1600s was composed of 234 independent countries, 51 free cities and some 1,500 knightly manors governed by their lords. (SFEC, 8/29/99, Z1 p.8) 1651 nend Jan 1, Charles II (Stuart) was crowned king of Scotland at Scone. (PC, 1992, p.243) 1651 nend Apr 15, Domenico Gabrielli, composer, was born. (MC, 4/15/02) 1651 nend Apr 30, Jean-Baptiste de la Salle, French priest, theorist, saint, was born. (MC, 4/30/02) 1651 nend Aug 6, Francois Fenelon (d.1715), French theologian and writer (Playing for Time), was born. "Nothing is more despicable than a professional talker who uses his words as a quack uses his remedies." (AP, 11/27/98)(MC, 8/6/02) 1651 nend Aug 13, Litchfield, Connecticut, was founded. (MC, 8/13/02) 1651 nend Sep 3, Battle at Worcester- Oliver Cromwell destroyed English royalists. Charles II led the Scots Covenanters to a disastrous defeat at the battle of Worcester. (WSJ, 2/28/00, p.A36)(ON, 12/00, p.1)(MC, 9/3/01) 1651 nend Oct 14, Laws were passed in Massachusetts forbidding the poor to adopt excessive styles of dress. (HN, 10/14/98) 1651 nend Oct 15, Charles II boarded the ship Surprise to cross the Channel to France. (ON, 12/00, p.5) 1651 nend Oct 17, Future King Charles II fled from England. [see Oct 15] (MC, 10/17/01) 1651 nend Oct 22, Jacob Praetorius (65), composer, died. (MC, 10/22/01) 1651 nend Oct 26, Courlander Gambia was established as a Latvian colony. (http://www.vdiest.nl/gambia.htm) 1651 nend Nov 7, King Louis XIV of France (13) was declared of full age. (MC, 11/7/01) 1651 nend Nov 26, Henry Ireton (40), English gen. and parliament leader (Marston Moor), died. (MC, 11/26/01) 1651 nend Dec 25, The General Court of Boston levied a five shilling fine on anyone caught "observing any such day as Christmas." (HN, 12/25/98) 1651 nend Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), English philosopher, authored ?Leviathan.? In it he tried to deduce from 1st principles the shape that society should take. (SSFC, 6/27/04, p.M3) 1651 nend The opera "La Calisto" by Francesco Cavalli was produced. It was based on Ovid?s "Metamorphoses" and the text was by Giovanni Faustini. (WSJ,3/13/95, p.A-13) 1652 nend Feb 17, Gregorio Allegri (67), Italian singer, composer (Miserere), died. (MC, 2/17/02) 1652 nend Mar 28, Samuel Sewall, British colonial merchant and one of the Salem witch trial judges, was born. (HN, 3/28/01) 1652 nend Apr 7, The Dutch established settlement at Cape Town, South Africa. (HN, 4/7/97) 1652 nend May 10, John Johnson, a free black, was granted 550 acres in Northampton, Va. (MC, 5/10/02) 1652 nend May 18, A law was passed in Rhode Island banning slavery in the colonies but it caused little stir and was not enforced. More than 1,000 slave voyages were mounted from Rhode Island, mostly in the 18th century, carrying more than 100,000 Africans into slavery. (HN, 5/18/99)(Reuters, 3/29/07) 1652 nend May 29, English Admiral Robert Blake drove out the Dutch fleet under Lieutenant-Admiral Tromp. (SC, 5/29/02) 1652 nend Jun 27, New Amsterdam (later NYC) passed the 1st speed limit law in US. (MC, 6/27/02) 1652 nend Jun 29, Massachusetts declared itself an independent commonwealth. (HN, 6/29/98) 1652 nend Jul 4, Prince of Cond? started a blood bath in Paris. (Maggio) 1652 nend Jul 22, Prince Conde's rebels narrowly defeated Chief Minister Mazarin's loyalist forces at St. Martin, near Paris. (HN, 7/22/98) 1652 nend Aug 14, Abraham Elsevier (60), Dutch book publisher, publisher, died. (MC, 8/14/02) 1652 nend Sep 17, Bonaventura Elsevier, book publisher and merchant, died at about 69. (MC, 9/17/01) 1652 nend Oct 13, Abraham Verhoeven, Flemish printer and newspaper publisher, died. (MC, 10/13/01) 1652 nend Oct 21, King Louis XIV returned to Paris. (MC, 10/21/01) 1652 nend Michael Sweerts, Flemish artist, painted "Plague in an Ancient City" in Rome. In 1998 it held by the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA). (SFEC, 1/11/98, p.D7) 1652 nend Under the "Liberty Tree," a tulip poplar at St. John's College campus in Annapolis, Md., Virginia Puritans were welcomed as colonists by Lord Baltimore, and smoked peace pipes with the Susquehanna Indians. (NG, Sept. 1939, J. Maloney p.391) 1652 nend A silver sixpence minted in colonial New England was set for auction in 2003 with an estimated value of $33-31k. (SFC, 10/10/03, p.B2) 1652 nend War broke out between the Netherlands and England. (ON, 4/00, p.2) 1652 nend Officials [farmers] of the Dutch East India Company were sent from Europe to run the small victualing station at the cape of South Africa. They were distinguished from the native born Dutch people who are called Afrikaner. It marked the beginning of Cape Town. Jan Van Riebeck, a Dutch ship?s surgeon, founded Dap Town. (NG, Oct. 1988, p. 563)(SFEC, 6/22/97, Z1 p.5)(SFEC, 10/15/00, p.T8) 1652 nend Inigo Jones (b.1573), father of English classical architecture, died. His work included a book titled "Stonehenge Restored," which considered Stonehenge to have been Roman temple. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.14)(ON, 4/02, p.11) 1653 nend Feb 2, New Amsterdam -- now New York City -- was incorporated. (AP, 2/2/97) 1653 nend Apr 20, Oliver Cromwell dissolved the English parliament. ?You have sat too long for any good you have been doing lately?? (www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/glossary/rump-parliament.htm)(Econ,5/8/10, p.60) 1653 nend May 18, Carel Reyniersz (48), Governor-General of Netherlands and East Indies, died. (SC, 5/18/02) 1653 nend Jul 4, British Barebones Parliament went into session. (Maggio) 1653 nend Sep 1, Johann Pachelbel (d.1706), German organist and composer, was born. He is best known for his "Canon in D." (WUD, 1994, p.1034)(SI-WPC, 1997)(MC, 9/1/02) 1653 nend Oct 1, Russian parliament accepted annexation of Ukraine. (MC, 10/1/01) 1653 nend Nov 5, The Iroquois League signed a peace treaty with the French, vowing not to wage war with other tribes under French protection. (HN, 11/5/98) 1653 nend Nov 26, Andreas Anton Schmelzer, composer, was born. (MC, 11/26/01) 1653 nend Dec 1, An athlete from Croydon was reported to have run 20 miles from St. Albans to London in less than 90 minutes. (MC, 12/1/01) 1653 nend Dec 16, Oliver Cromwell took on dictatorial powers with the title of lord protector" of England, Scotland and Ireland. He served as dictator of England to 1658. (CFA, '96, p.44)(AHD, p.315)(AP, 12/16/97)(HN, 12/16/98) 1653 nend Rembrandt van Rijn painted his "Aristotle With a Bust of Homer." (WSJ, 11/3/95, p.A-12) 1653 nend Izaak Walton (b.1593-1683) wrote "The Compleat Angler." (SFEC, 11/3/96, Par p.19) 1653 nend Peter Stuyvesant, governor of New Netherland, ordered a wall built to protect the Dutch settlers from the Indians. The wall gave New York?s Wall Street its name. (WSJ, 10/9/97, p.A16) 1653 nend King Emanuele Filiberto moved Savoy?s capital across the Alps from Chambery to Turin to escape French clutches. (SSFC, 1/22/06, p.E6) 1653 nend Shah Jahan completed the Taj Mahal. Master builders, masons, calligraphers, etc. along with more than 20,000 laborers, worked for 22 years under orders of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan to complete the great mausoleum for the shah's beloved wife. In 2007 Diana and Michael Preston authored ?Taj Mahal? and Ebba Koch authored ?the Complete Taj Mahal.? (WSJ, 3/31/07,p.P10)(www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20030713/spectrum/heritage.htm) 1653 nend Paris physician Louis Morin the thrice-daily temperature and pressure measurements as part of a short-lived international meteorological network created by the Grand Duke of Tuscany. (AP, 9/15/07) 1653 nend The English palace of Oatlands was pulled down by the Commonwealth. John Tradescant and his son John had worked there under Charles 1 as gardeners. In 1790 Duke of York purchased Oatlands House, built in the grounds of Henry VIII's 1537 Oatlands Palace. (WSJ, 4/3/08, p.B19)(www.weybridgesociety.org.uk/History.aspx) 1654 nend Jan 10, Russia?s Czar Alexander announced a war against Lithuania and Poland. It lasted to 1667. (LHC, 1/9/03) 1654 nend Apr 12, England, Ireland and Scotland united. (MC, 4/12/02) 1654 nend Apr 26, Jews were expelled from Brazil. (MC, 4/26/02) 1654 nend May 3, A bridge in Rowley, Mass., was permitted to charge a toll for animals, while people crossed for free. (AP, 5/3/97) 1654 nend Jun 6, Queen Christina of Sweden resigned and converted to Catholicism. (MC, 6/6/02) 1654 nend Jun 7, Louis XIV was crowned King of France in Rheims. (AP, 6/7/97)(HN, 6/7/98) 1654 nend Aug 22, Jacob Barsimson, the 1st Jewish immigrant to US, arrived in New Amsterdam. (MC, 8/22/02) 1654 nend Sep 8, Peter Claver, Spanish saint (baptized 300,000 slaves), died. (MC, 9/8/01) 1654 nend Oct 12, Rembrandt Carel Fabritius, painter, died in an accident. (MC, 10/12/01) 1654 nend Nov 21, Richard Johnson, a free black, was granted 550 acres in Virginia. (MC, 11/21/01) 1654 nend Nov 23, Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), scientist and philosopher, underwent a mystical experience. He entered a hermitage at Port-Royal des Champs and never again published in his own name. He came up with the idea that believing in God is safer than not believing because it might gain one eternal life. He was a Jansenist, and thereby rejected free will in favor of predestination. Pascal and Fermat devised the laws of probability by trying to determine who 2 players should share the stakes when they leave a game of chance uncompleted. (SFC, 9/22/96, Par. p.21)(WSJ, 10/15/98, p.A20) 1654 nend Jacob van Loo painted "An Allegory of Venus and Cupid as Lady World and Homo Bulla." It hangs in the Speed Museum of Louisville, Ky. (WSJ, 12/18/97, p.A20) 1654 nend Rembrandt van Rijn painted a portrait of poet-businessman Jan Six, one of the richest Amsterdammers of his time. His work this year also included "A Woman Bathing in a Stream" and "Flora." His work this year also included the etching and drypoint ?The Descent From the Cross by Torchlight.? (WSJ, 6/19/00, p.A42)(WSJ, 3/904, p.D8)(SFC, 1/28/06, p.E4)(Econ,6/23/07, p.96) c 1654 nend Samuel Stockhausen, a physician in Goslar in the Harz Mountains of Germany, identified the ailment of Huttenkatze as stemming from lead poisoning in the local mining towns. This find later made possible Gockel?s discovery of the cause of colica Pictonum. (NH, 7/96, p.51) 1654 nend The earliest circular coin bearing the inscription "rouble" on it in Russia was struck by Czar Alexiei Mikhailovitch. (VilNews, 12/17/10) 1654 1656 Rembrandt van Rijn painted a medallion portrait of Muhammed Adil Shah of Bijapur. (SFEM, 2/1/98, p.16)(SFC, 2/7/98, p.E8) 1654 1705 Jacob Bernouilli, Swiss mathematician and physicist. The Bernouilli effect is named after him. (WUD, 1994, p.141) 1655 nend Mar 25, Puritans jailed Governor Stone after a military victory over Catholic forces in the colony of Maryland. (HN, 3/25/99) 1655 nend Mar 25, Christiaan Huygens, Dutch inventor and astronomer, discovered Titan, Saturn's largest satellite. (www.xs4all.nl/~carlkop/huyglens.html) 1655 nend Apr 4, Battle at Postage Farina, Tunis: English fleet licked Barbarian pirates. (MC, 4/4/02) 1655 nend Apr 26, Dutch West Indies Co. denied Peter Stuyvesant's desire to exclude Jews from New Amsterdam. (MC, 4/26/02) 1655 nend Apr 28, English admiral Blake beat a Tunisian pirate fleet. (MC, 4/28/02) 1655 nend May 10, Jamaica was captured by English. (MC, 5/10/02) 1655 nend Jul 28, French dramatist and novelist Cyrano de Bergerac, the inspiration for a play by Edmond Rostand, died in Paris. (AP, 7/28/05) 1655 nend Aug 13, Johann Christoph Denner, inventor of the clarinet, was born. (HN, 8/13/00) 1655 nend Aug 28, New Amsterdam & Peter Stuyvesant barred Jews from military service. (MC, 8/28/01) 1655 nend Aug 29, Swedish king Karel X Gustaaf occupied Warsaw. (MC, 8/29/01) 1655 nend Sep 26, Peter Stuyvesant recaptured Dutch Ft. Casimir from Swedish in Delaware. (MC, 9/26/01) 1655 nend Oct 15, Jews of Lublin, Poland, were massacred. (MC, 10/15/01) 1655 nend Nov 24, English Lord Protector Cromwell banned Anglicans. (MC, 11/24/01) c 1655 nend Esteban Murillo (1617-1682), Spanish artist, painted a self-portrait. Some of his mid-century work in Seville portrayed the effects of the Plague that killed 50% of the population in 4 months. [see 1649] (WSJ, 4/9/02, p.D19) 1655 nend Rembrandt van Rijn painted "Polish Rider." (WSJ, 12/5/96, p.A16) 1655 nend Vermeer painted his Saint Praxedis. [see Vermeer, 1632-1675] (WSJ, 11/15/95, p.A-20) 1655 nend In Bologna Domenico Cassini persuaded the builders of the Basilica of San Petronio that they should include a major upgrade of Danti's old meridian with a new entry hole for daylight to track the projected sun on the cathedral floor. Sassini was able to use the observatory to confirm Kepler's version of the Copernican theory. (SFC, 10/25/99, p.A4) 1655 nend In Paris the church of St. Medard was built. Medard was a 6th century counselor to the Merovingian kings who bestowed wreaths of roses upon virtuous maidens. (SSFC, 7/28/02, p.C1) c 1655 nend Archbishop James Usher of Dublin, Ireland, developed a timetable that set the creation of the world to 4004BC, and Noah's landing on Mt. Ararat in 2348BC. (NG, Nov. 1985, edit. p.559) 1655 nend The first slave auction was held in New Amsterdam (later NYC). (SFC, 10/19/98, p.D3) 1655 nend Peter Stuyvesant launched an offensive against Swedish soldiers who had seized control of the fur trade along the Delaware. In his absence Indians attacked New Amsterdam and took dozens of hostages. (ON, 4/00, p.2) 1655 nend The three Cayman Islands came under British control when Oliver Cromwell's army captured nearby Jamaica from the Spanish. (AP, 5/10/03) 1655 nend By this time a house had been built on Ghana?s cape, and over the coming years it was enlarged using slave labor into Carolusburg Fort, named after the then Swedish king. This fort was captured and enlarged by the Danish in 1657, and after a few more shuffles of power the English got their hands on it 1664. In 2006 William St. Clair authored ?The Grand Slave Emporium: Cape Coast Castle and the British Slave Trade. (www.moxon.net/ghana/cape_coast.html) 1655 1660 Rembrandt van Rijn painted his picture called "The Auctioneer." (WSJ, 11/3/95, p.A-12) 1656 nend Jan 8, Oldest surviving commercial newspaper began in Haarlem, Netherlands. (MC, 1/8/02) 1656 nend Mar 10, In the colony of Virginia, suffrage was extended to all free men regardless of their religion. (HN, 3/10/99) 1656 nend Jan 24, Jacob Lumbrozo, 1st Jewish doctor in US, arrived in Maryland. (MC, 1/24/02) 1656 nend Feb 20, James Ussher (76), Irish bible scholar, Anglican archbishop, died. [see Mar 21] (MC, 2/20/02) 1656 nend Feb 22, New Amsterdam was granted a Jewish burial site. (MC, 2/22/02) 1656 nend Mar 13, Jews were denied the right to build a synagogue in New Amsterdam. (MC, 3/13/02) 1656 nend Mar 21, Armagh James Ussher (76), Archbishop (said world began 4004 BC), died. [see Feb 20] (MC, 3/21/02) 1656 nend Jul 1, The 1st Quakers, Mary Fisher and Ann Austin, arrived in Boston and were promptly arrested. (MC, 7/1/02) 1656 nend Jul 26, Rembrandt declared he is insolvent. (MC, 7/26/02) 1656 nend Sep 22, In Patuxent, Md., the first colonial all-female jury heard the case of a woman accused of murdering her child. The jury voted for acquittal. (HFA, '96, p.38)(AP, 9/22/98) 1656 nend Oct 2, US colony Connecticut passed a law against Quakers. (MC, 10/2/01) 1656 nend Oct 3, Myles Standish (b.1654), Plymouth Colony leader, died. (WUD, 1994 p.1386)(MC, 10/3/01) 1656 nend Oct 24, Treaty of Vilnius (Lithuania): Russia and Poland signed an anti-Swedish covenant. (MC, 10/24/01) 1656 nend Oct 25, A party of Oneida Indians killed 3 Frenchmen near Montreal. In response Gov. Gen. Louis d?Ailleboust arrested a hunting party of 12 Mohawks and Onondagas and ordered the arrest of all Iroquois in the French colonies. (AH, 4/01, p.34) 1656 nend Oct 29, Edmund Halley (d.1742), astronomer, was born about this time in Hagerston, Middlesex, England. The birth date is somewhat uncertain because it is not known if at that time in his village the Gregorian or the Julian calendar was in use. There's also some dispute over the year. [see Nov 8] (www.seds.org/messier/xtra/Bios/halley.html) 1656 nend Nov 8, Edmond Halley, mathematician and astronomer who predicted the return of the comet which is named for him, was born. [see Oct 29] (HN, 11/6/98) 1656 nend Dec 14, Artificial pearls were 1st manufactured by M. Jacquin in Paris. They were made of gypsum pellets covered with fish scales. (MC, 12/14/01) 1656 nend Diego de Velazquez painted "Las Meminas." (WSJ, 1/14/00, p.W12) 1656 nend Vermeer created his painting "The Procuress." (WSJ, 11/15/95, p.A-20) 1656 nend Christiaan Huygens interpreted Saturn?s ?ears? as a simple flat ring. (NH, 10/1/04, p.29) 1656 nend Christian Huygens invented the first pendulum clock, as described in his 1658 article "Horologium". It was built by Solomon Coster and was later put on exhibit at the Time Museum in Rockford, Ill. The time-pieces previously in use had been balance-clocks, Chris Huygens' pendulum clock was regulated by a mechanism with a "natural" period of oscillation and had an error of less than 1 minute a day. (http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bl_huygens.htm)(SFE&C, 1/15/1995, T-10) 1656 nend The first performance of an English opera was given in a room at the Smithfield home of Sir William Davenant. (Econ, 11/27/10, p.41) 1656 nend Oliver Cromwell allowed Jews to return to England. They soon established their first synagogue on Creechurch Lane. (WSJ, 10/28/06, p.P16) 1656 nend French King Louis XIV charged the architect Liberal Bruant to build a hospital on the location of a gun powder factory, founding the Hospice de la Salpetriere in Paris. The building was expanded in 1684. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salp%C3%AAtri%C3%A8re) c 1656 nend European settlers arrived at the cape of South Africa. Robben Island in Cape Town?s Table Bay from this time on was variously used as a mental institution, leper colony and prison. (SFC, 9/5/96, p.A10) 1657 nend Feb 11, Bernard Fontenelle, French scientist, writer (Plurality of Worlds), was born. (MC, 2/11/02) 1657 nend Mar 23, France and England formed an alliance against Spain. (HN, 3/23/98) 1657 nend Mar 31, English Humble Petition offered Lord Protector Cromwell the crown. (MC, 3/31/02) 1657 nend Apr 3, English Lord Protector Cromwell refused the crown. (MC, 4/3/02) 1657 nend Apr 20, English Admiral Robert Blake fought his last battle when he destroyed the Spanish fleet in Santa Cruz Bay. (HN, 4/20/99) 1657 nend May 5, Jacques Danican Philidor, composer, was born. (MC, 5/5/02) 1657 nend May 9, William Bradford, Governor (Plymouth Colony, Mass), died. (MC, 5/9/02) 1657 nend Jun 1, 1st Quakers arrived in New Amsterdam (NY). (MC, 6/1/02) no_source 1657 nend Jul 13, Oliver Cromwell constrained English army leader John Lambert. (MC, 7/13/02) 1657 nend Aug 7, Bogdan Chmielnicki (b.1593), Ukraine-born Cossack leader, murderer of 300,000 Jews, died. (Internet) 1657 nend Sep 24, The 1st autopsy and coroner's jury verdict was recorded in the state of Maryland. (MC, 9/24/01) 1657 nend Vermeer painted his "The Little Street" about this time. (WSJ, 11/15/95, p.A-20) 1657 nend Settlers in Vlissingen (later Flushing, Queens, NY) signed a declaration of religious freedom called the Flushing Remonstrance. (SSFC, 4/17/05, Par p.12) 1657 nend By this time the White Tower of London was no longer inhabited by royalty and was almost completely given over to the storage of gunpowder. (Hem, 9/04, p.28) 1658 nend Mar 5, Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, French colonial governor of America, was born. (MC, 3/5/02) 1658 nend Apr 22, Giuseppe Torelli, composer (Concert Grossi op 8), was born in Italy. (MC, 4/22/02) 1658 nend Jun 15, The Mogul emperor Aurangzeb imprisoned his father the Shah, after winning a battle at Samgarh. (HT, 6/15/00) 1658 nend Jun 25, In India Aurangzeb proclaimed himself emperor of the Moghuls. Aurangzeb, son of Shah Jahan, overthrew his father and locked him up in the Jasmine tower. (HT, 4/97, p.24)(HN, 6/25/98) 1658 nend Aug 12, The 1st US police corps formed in New Amsterdam. (MC, 8/12/02) 1658 nend Sep 3, Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of the New Commonwealth, i.e. ruler over England?s Puritan parliament (1653-58), died at age 59. Richard Cromwell succeeded his father as English Lord Protector. (V.D.-H.K.p.218)(AP, 9/3/97)(ON, 12/00, p.5)(MC, 9/3/01)(MC, 9/3/01) 1658 nend Vermeer (1632-1675), Dutch artist, completed his painting ?The Milkmaid? about this time. (Econ, 9/19/09, p.98) 1658 nend In New Amsterdam (later NYC) a night watchman kept a lookout for Indian attacks. (WSJ, 11/3/98, p.A20) 1658 nend Construction began on the Royal Palace in Turin, Italy. (SSFC, 1/22/06, p.E6) 1658 nend In France Moliere was anointed with the patronage of King Louis XIV. (SFC, 6/20/96, p.D2) 1658 1716 Ogata Korin, Japanese artist. The artist created the cartoonish "Gods of Wind and Thunder." (WSJ, 12/1/98, p.A20) 1658 1742 Nicholas Roosevelt, the common ancestor of later US presidents Theodore and Franklin Roosevelt. (WSJ, 12/18/97, p.A20) 1659 nend Jan 18, Benedikt Lechler (64), composer, died. (MC, 1/18/02) 1659 nend Mar 7, Henry Purcell, English organist, composer (Dido & Aeneas), was born. (MC, 3/7/02) 1659 nend Mar 22, The Warsaw parliament decided to issue metal currency, shillings, for Lithuania and Poland. (LHC, 3/22/03) 1659 nend Mar 26, William Wollaston, English philosopher, was born. (SS, 3/26/02) 1659 nend Apr 22, Lord protector Cromwell disbanded the English parliament. (MC, 4/22/02) 1659 nend May 25, Richard Cromwell resigned as English Lord Protector. (SC, 5/25/02) 1659 nend Sep 30, Robinson Crusoe was shipwrecked (according to Defoe). [see Feb 12, 1709] (MC, 9/30/01) 1659 nend Sep 30, Peter Stuyvesant of New Netherlands forbade tennis playing during religious services (1st mention of tennis in US). (MC, 9/30/01) 1659 nend Oct 13, Gen. John Lambert drove out the English Rump government. The "Rump Parliament" was restored in Dec. (PCh, 1992, p.247)(MC, 10/13/01) 1659 nend Oct 10, Able Janszoon Tasman, navigator, died at about 56. He discovered Tasmania. (WUD, 1994 p.1455)(MC, 10/10/01) 1659 nend Oct 12, English Rump government fired John Lambert and other generals. [see Oct 13] (MC, 10/12/01) 1659 nend Oct 13, Gen. John Lambert drove out the English Rump government. The "Rump Parliament" was restored in Dec. [see Oct 12] (PCh, 1992, p.247)(MC, 10/13/01) 1659 nend Rembrandt Harmenszoom van Rizn (Rijn)(1606-1669), Dutch painter, made "Jupiter and Antiope" (1659). (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.1213)(WSJ, 10/1/96, p.A20) 1659 nend Cornelius Meylin, patroon of Staten Island, wrote in his recollections that Staten Island was acquired in 1630 in exchange for "kittles, axes, Hoos, wampum, drilling awles, Jews Harps and diverse small wares." Wampum was also referred to as peag or seawan by Native Americans and consisted of strung cylindrical beads made from polished shells. It was formerly used by some North American Indians as currency and jewelry. It was also used to record events, as a medium of communication and sometimes for ceremonial and spiritual purposes. (WSJ, 11/19/99, p.W10)(HNQ, 3/23/02) 1659 nend Christiaan Huygens published ?Systema Saturnium,? his observations on Saturn. (NH, 10/1/04, p.29) 1659 nend Christien Huygens of Holland used a 2-inch telescope lens and discovered that the Martian day is nearly the same as an Earth day. (SFC, 11/29/96, p.A16) 1659 nend Quaker leader Mary Dyer was sentenced to death by a Puritan court in Massachusetts Bay Colony amid the Salem witch trials. She refused to leave the colony and was hanged in 1660. (SFC, 3/30/97, Z1. p.6)(SFEC, 1/16/00, Z1 p.1) c 1659 nend The British Parliament invoked law that made it a crime, punishable by burning at the stake, to forecast the weather. (SFEC, 8/3/97, Z1 p.2) 1659 nend A London discussion group called the Amateur Parliament met at Miles' coffee house. (Econ, 12/20/03, p.90) 1659 nend In Britain a check was written and made out for 400 pounds (equivalent to around 42,000 pounds in 2009). It was signed by Nicholas Vanacker, made payable to a Mr Delboe and drawn on Messrs Morris and Clayton, scriveners and bankers of the City of London. As of 2009 it was the oldest surviving British check. (AP, 12/16/09) 1659 nend Christian Huygens of Holland used a 2-inch telescope lens and discovered that the Martian day is nearly the same as an Earth day. (SFC, 11/29/96, p.A16) 1659 1661 Michael Sweerts, Flemish painter, created his rosy "Portrait of a Youth." (SFC, 6/17/02, p.D1) 1660 nend Mar 13, A statute was passed limiting the sale of slaves in the colony of Virginia. (HN, 3/13/99) 1660 nend Mar 28, Georg Ludwig, German monarch of Hanover, King George I of Great Britain, was born. (MC, 3/28/02) 1660 nend Apr 16, Hans Sloane, founder of British Museum, was born. (HN, 4/16/98) 1660 nend May 3, Prince Charles, Son of King Charles I, returned to England from France. (ON, 7/06, p.8) 1660 nend May 7, Isaack B. Fubine of Savoy, in The Hague, patented macaroni. (MC, 5/7/02) 1660 nend May 8, The son of the late Charles I is proclaimed King ending 11 years of civil war. (PCh, 1992, p.248) 1660 nend May 26, Charles II (29), returning from exile, landed at Dover. (PCh, 1992, p.248) 1660 nend May 28, George I, king of England (1714-1727), was born. (HN, 5/28/98)(MC, 5/28/02) 1660 nend May 29, Charles II, who had fled to France, was restored to the English throne after the Puritan Commonwealth. Charles made a deal with George Monck, a general of the New Model Army, and with the old parliamentary foes of his father. The British experiment with republicanism came to an end with the restoration of Charles II. (V.D.-H.K.p.218)(WSJ, 5/6/97, p.A20)(HN, 5/29/98)(WSJ, 2/28/00, p.A36) 1660 nend May 29, Gyorgy Rakosi II prince of Transylvania, died in battle. (SC, 5/29/02) 1660 nend May 29, Peter Scriverius (44), lawyer, historian, died. (SC, 5/29/02) 1660 nend Aug 6, Diego Rodriguez de Silva Velasquez (b.1599), Spanish court painter, died. (WSJ, 2/24/00, p.A16)(MC, 8/6/02) 1660 nend Aug 21, Hubert Gautier, engineer, wrote 1st book on bridge building, was born in Nimes, France. (SC, 8/21/02) 1660 nend Sep 27, St. Vincent de Paul, Vincentian founder, died. (MC, 9/27/01) 1660 nend Oct 15, Asser Levy was granted a butcher's license for kosher meat in New Amsterdam. (MC, 10/15/01) 1660 nend Oct 16, John Cooke (b.1608), England?s solicitor-general during the 1649 trial of Charles 1, was hanged as Charles II looked on in approval. Cooke was hanged slowly until he passed out and then was revived to watch as his genitals were sliced off. A length of his bowel was yanked from his body, pulled before his face and set alight as he bled to death. In 2006 Geoffrey Robertson authored ?The Tyrannicide Brief,? an account of Cooke during this period. (WSJ, 9/6/06, p.D10)(www.pepysdiary.com/archive/1660/10/13/) 1660 nend Oct, England?s King Charles II enacted his first Declaration of Indulgence. (www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1327117) 1660 nend Nov 28, The London Royal Society formed. Members included Christopher Wren, William Petty, Robert Boyle, John Wilkins and Lawrence Rooke. (www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.asp?id=2176)(NYTBR, 2/2/03, p.12) 1660 nend Dec 3, Jacques Sarazin (70), French sculptor and painter, died. (MC, 12/3/01) 1660 nend Dec 8, The first Shakespearian actress to appear on an English stage (she is believed to be a Ms. Norris) made her debut as 'Desdemona.' (HN, 12/8/99) 1660 nend Dec 24, Mary I Henriette Stuart (29), queen of England, died. (MC, 12/24/01) 1660 nend Rembrandt van Rijn painted "The Old Woman Cutting Her Nails" about this time. (WSJ, 11/3/95, p.A-12) c 1660 nend The Dutch crafted an early version of a boat they called a "yacht." (SFC, 7/18/98, p.E3) 1660 nend s The British began to dominate the trade in port wine from Portugal after a political spat with the French denied them the French Bordeaux wines. Brandy was added to the Portuguese wines to fortify them for the Atlantic voyage. (SFEC, 1/12/97, p.T7)(SFEC, 7/12/98, p.T8) 1660 nend Bartholomew Sharpe, a British pirate, turned Belize into a base to harvest logwood. British buccaneers settled the coast. (SFC, 11/2/00, p.A12) 1660 nend The Palacio Clavijero was built as a Jesuit temple in Valladolid (later Morelia), Mexico. (SSFC, 5/22/05, p.E6) 1660 nend Pieter Claesz (b.ca.1597), Dutch still-life painter, died. (WSJ, 11/22/05, p.D8) 1660 1685 King Charles II was ruler of Great Britain. He was the son of Charles I. Under his reign the Italian artist Antonio Verrio painted 2 huge frescoes that covered the entire walls and ceiling of what is now St. George?s Hall. One painting depicted Christ healing the sick in the Temple of Jerusalem and the other was of King Charles II. The frescoes were destroyed in the 1820s under King George IV to reflect a new national style. One fresco was rediscovered in 1996 during reconstruction after a fire in 1992. Charles is known as "the Merry Monarch" because of his many mistresses, enthusiasm for parties and mockery of Puritan values. (SFC, 5/25/96, p.A12)(WUD, 1994, p.249)(ON, 12/00, p.4) 1660 1725 Alessandro Scarlatti, Italian musician and composer, father of Domenico. (LGC-HCS, p.40) 1660 1731 Daniel Defoe, English novelist and political journalist. He was born as Daniel Foe and became a successful merchant in woolen goods. For a time he was jailed due to his debts. He became a supporter of William of Orange and wrote over 500 publications on his behalf. Some regard him as the father of modern journalism. Among other works he wrote "Robinson Crusoe," "Moll Flanders," "General Histories of the Robberies and Murders of the Most Notorious Pirates," "A Tour of the Whole Island of Great Britain," and "Journal of the Plague Year." In 1999 Richard West published "Daniel Defoe: The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures." (WUD, 1994, p.379)(WSJ, 8/25/98, p.A12) 1660 1830 In the 1990s literary critic Claude Rawson wrote "Satire and Sentiment: 1660-1830." (WSJ, 1/15/98, p.A17) 1661 nend Mar 9, Cardinal Jules Mazarin (58), the chief minister of France, died, leaving King Louis the 14th in full control. (AP, 3/9/01) 1661 nend Mar 19, English occupied St. Andrew Island and other Courlander possessions in Gambia. They renamed the island James Island with administration by the Royal Adventurers in Africa Company. (http://www.vdiest.nl/gambia.htm) 1661 nend Mar 24, William Leddra became the last Quaker to be hanged in Boston. Quakers were last hanged on Boston Common. Charles II ordered the executions stopped. (WSJ, 4/4/01, p.A18)(MC, 3/24/02) 1661 nend Apr 23, English king Charles II was crowned in London. (MC, 4/23/02) 1661 nend Apr 29, Chinese Ming dynasty occupied Taiwan. (HN, 4/29/98) 1661 nend May 25, English King Charles II married Portuguese princess Catherina the Bragança. (SC, 5/25/02) 1661 nend May 27, Archibald Campbell (~53), Scottish politician, was beheaded. (MC, 5/27/02) 1661 nend Jun 3, Gottfried Scheidt (67), composer, died. (MC, 6/3/02) 1661 nend Jun 5, Isaac Newton was admitted as a student to Trinity College, Cambridge. (http://tinyurl.com/4extmym) 1661 nend Aug 6, Holland sold Brazil to Portugal for 8 million guilders. (MC, 8/6/02) 1661 nend Aug 29, Louis Couperin (b.1626), French composer, died. (Internet) 1661 nend Sep 1, In the 1st yacht race England's King Charles II raced his brother James. [see Oct 1] (MC, 9/1/02) 1661 nend Oct 1, Yachting began in England; King Charles II outsailed his brother James. [see Sep 1] (MC, 10/1/01) 1661 nend Oct 11, Melchior de Polignac, French diplomat (Anti-Lucretius), was born. (MC, 10/11/01) 1661 nend White Virginians who wanted to keep their servants legalized the enslavement of African immigrants. (SFC, 12/18/96, p.A25) 1661 nend The Bourla Theatre of Antwerp, Belgium can be traced back to this date. (Hem., 7/95, p.28) 1661 nend Robert Boyle (1627-1691), English chemist, authored ?The Sceptical Chymist: or Chymico-Physical Doubts & Paradoxes.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sceptical_Chymist) 1661 nend Charles II appointed Christopher Wren (29) assistant to the surveyor general of the king?s works (assistant to the royal architect). (NYTBR, 2/2/03, p.12) 1661 nend Henry Slingsby, master of the London Mint, proposed the "standard solution" a mix of fiat rules and free markets, to resolve the ongoing problem of money supply and coin value. Britain adopted the idea in 1816 and the US followed in 1853. (WSJ, 4/2/02, p.A20) 1661 nend The Paris Opera Ballet was founded. (WSJ, 7/10/96, p.A16) 1661 nend In France Nicolas Fouquet, treasurer to Louis XIV, invited the king to his new chateau Vaux le Vicomte. The king, peeved by the wealth of the nonroyal, ordered his arrest and had him imprisoned for embezzlement. The property was confiscated and Louis hired Fouquet's architects and designers to build Versailles. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1661 nend In Japan the Takanoshi family started producing food seasonings and became known for its soy sauce. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1661 1714 Peter Strudel, Austrian painter. He was a court painter of the Habsburgs and founded an art school that later became the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna. (StuAus, April '95, p.47) 1662 nend Jan 27, 1st American lime kiln began operation in Providence, RI. (MC, 1/27/02) 1662 nend Feb 11, The Prins Willem, built in 1643 as flagship of the Dutch East India Company, sank off Madagascar. A replica, built in the 1980s, burned down at Den Helder in 2009. (AP, 7/30/09)(http://tinyurl.com/mteqbf) 1662 nend Apr 20, Gerard Terborch, the elder, painter, died. (MC, 4/20/02) 1662 nend Apr 23, Connecticut was chartered as an English colony. (MC, 4/23/02) 1662 nend Apr 27, Netherlands and France signed a treaty of alliance in Paris. (http://nla.gov.au/nla.cat-vn1767012) 1662 nend May 3, John Winthrop the Younger, the son of the first governor of Massachusetts was honored by being made a fellow of the Royal Society, England's new scientific society. Winthrop gained a new charter from the king, uniting the colonies of Connecticut and New Haven. (HN, 5/3/99) 1662 nend Jun, Mary Sanford (~39) of Hartford, Connecticut, was convicted of ?familiarity with Satan.? Historians later surmised that she was hanged for her crimes. In 2006 a descendant of Sanford worked on legislation to clear her ancestor as well as a dozen or so other women and men convicted for witchcraft in Connecticut from 1647 to the 1660s. (WSJ, 9/15/06, p.A1) 1662 nend Aug 24, An Act of Uniformity, a part of the Clarendon Code (1661-1665), was passed by the English Parliament and required that England's college fellows and clergymen accept the newly published Book of Common Prayer. Charles II attempted to suspend the operation of the Clarendon Code by issuing a 2nd Declaration of Indulgence, but opposition from Parliament forced him to retract it in 1663. (PC, 1992,p.249)(www.everything2.com/index.pl?node=the%20Clarendon%20Code) 1662 nend Sep 12, Gov. Berkley of Virginia was denied his attempts to repeal the Navigation Acts. (HN, 9/12/98) 1662 nend Oct 26, Charles II of England sold Dunkirk to France. (MC, 10/26/01) 1662 nend Moliere authored his satirical play ?The School for Wives.? (SFC, 8/17/05, p.G9) 1662 nend Edward Collier painted a still life that sold for $442,500 in 1999. (WSJ, 6/4/99, p.W10) 1662 nend Rembrandt depicted himself in a painting as the fifth-century Greek painter Zeuxis. His work this year also included ?The Syndics of the Clothmakers' Guild.? (WSJ, 8/11/99, p.A16)(Econ, 6/23/07, p.96) 1662 nend Cavalli composed his opera "Ercole Amante" (Hercules in Love). It was written to celebrate the marriage of Louis XIV and Maria Theresa of Austria. (WSJ, 6/21/99, p.A24) 1662 nend John Bowne (34) was arrested in Vlissingen (later Flushing, Queens, NY) on orders from Gov. Peter Stuyvesant for aiding and abetting an ?abomination? (Quakerism). In a hearing 19 months later Bowne invoked a 1657 declaration of religious freedom called the Flushing Remonstrance. (SSFC, 4/17/05, Par p.12) 1662 nend The British Parliament approved the Licensing of the Press Act, which censored ?seditious, treasonable and unlicensed Bookes and Pamphlets.? It failed renewal in 1695 and was repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1863. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licensing_of_the_Press_Act_1662) 1662 nend British law established that mourning clothes had to be made of English wool. [see 1667] (NG, 5.1988, pp. 574) 1662 nend Englishman Christopher Merret presented a paper to the Royal Society on making sparkling wine. This was noted in the 1998 "World Encyclopedia of Champagne and Sparkling Wine" by Tom Stevenson. (WSJ, 10/16/98, p.W13) 1662 nend John Tradescant the younger (b.1608), English traveler, horticulturalist, collector and gardener to Queen Henrietta Maria, died. His home in South Lambeth, called The Ark, was filled with his Museum Tradescantianum, a collection of rarities which included birds, fish, shells, insects, minerals, coins, medals and unusual plants. After his death the collection went to Elias Ashmole, who subsequently presented it to Oxford University, where it formed the basis of the Ashmolean Museum. In 2008 Jennifer Potter authored ?Strange Blooms: The Curious Lives and Adventures of the John Tradescants. (www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person.asp?LinkID=mp04533)(WSJ, 4/3/08,p.B19) 1662 nend Kangxi ascended the throne of China as a child. He was the 1st of three Qing emperors who reigned for 133 years until 1795. Kangxi ruled over China until 1722. The film ?Forbidden City: The Great Within,? depicts the period. Kangxi was followed by Yongzheng and Qianlong. (WSJ, 11/2/95, p.A-12)(Econ, 11/5/05, p.90) 1662 nend Dutch fortune seekers killed over 400 members of the Nayar warrior caste in Kerala, India. (SFEM, 7/18/99, p.12) 1662 1938 This period is examined by Judy L. Klein in Statistical Visions in Time: a History of Time Series Analysis: 1662-1938, from Cambridge Univ. Press. (WSJ, 9/28/95, p.A-18) 1663 nend Jan 6, There was a great earthquake in New England. (MC, 1/6/02) 1663 nend Jan 10, King Charles II affirmed the charter of Royal African Company. (MC, 1/10/02) 1663 nend Jan 29, Robert Sanderson, Bishop of Lincoln (1660-63), died. (MC, 1/29/02) 1663 nend Feb 12, Cotton Mather (d.1728), American clergyman and witchcraft specialist, was born. (WUD, 1994, p.884)(MC, 2/12/02) 1663 nend Feb 28, Thomas Newcomen, English co-inventor of the steam engine, was born. (MC, 2/28/02) 1663 nend Mar 7, Tomaso Antonio Vitali, composer, was born. (MC, 3/7/02) 1663 nend Mar 24, Charles II of England awarded lands known as Carolina in America to eight members of the nobility who assisted in his restoration. [see Apr 6] (HN, 3/24/99) 1663 nend Apr 6, King Charles II signed the Carolina Charter. [see Mar 24] (MC, 4/6/02) 1663 nend Apr 10, Samuel Pepys, London-based diarist, noted that he had enjoyed a French wine called Ho Bryan at the Royal Oak Tavern. This same year the Pontacs, a top wine-making family in Bordeaux, founded a fashionable London restaurant called Pontack?s Head. Ho Bryan later came to be called Chateau Haut Brion. (Econ, 12/19/09, p.131) 1663 nend Apr 18, Osman declared war on Austria. (MC, 4/18/02) 1663 nend May 7, Theatre Royal in Drury Lane, London, opened. (MC, 5/7/02) 1663 nend May 20, William Bradford, printer, was born. (HN, 5/20/01) 1663 nend Jul 15, King Charles II of England granted John Clarke a charter for the colony of Rhode Island guaranteeing freedom of worship. He granted the charter giving the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations an elected governor and legislature. Roger Williams (1603-1683) authored the Rhode Island and Providence Plantation Charter, which stated that religion and conscience should never be restrained by civil supremacy. (http://avalon.law.yale.edu/17th_century/ri04.asp)(AH, 4/07, p.21) 1663 nend Jul 27, British Parliament passed a second Navigation Act, requiring all goods bound for the colonies be sent in British ships from British ports. (HN, 7/27/98) 1663 nend Sep 13, The 1st serious American slave conspiracy occurred in Virginia. (MC, 9/13/01) 1663 nend Dec 5, Severo Bonini (80), composer, died. (MC, 12/5/01) 1663 nend Rembrandt depicted himself as a bit player in his painting "The Raising of the Cross." (WSJ, 8/11/99, p.A16) 1663 nend Reverend John Eliot (1604-1690) published the first Bible in North America in the Algonquian language. An English missionary in Massachusetts called the "Apostle to the Indians," the Puritan Eliot learned the Algonquian language and preached to the Indians. He translated the Bible into Algonquian and published it in 1663. (HNQ, 6/7/98) 1663 nend The 1998 historic thriller "An Instance of the Fingerpost" by Iain Pears was set in this year. (WSJ, 3/18/98, p.A20) 1663 nend Robert Boyle (1627-1691), English chemist and author of ?The Sceptical Chymist: or Chymico-Physical Doubts & Paradoxes? (1661), wrote an essay apologizing for his interest in chrysopoeia, the chemical pursuit of transmutation of base metals into gold. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sceptical_Chymist)(Econ, 2/26/11,p.85) 1663 nend London featured 82 coffee houses. (Econ, 12/20/03, p.89) 1663 nend The 1st turnpike was authorized to collect tolls in order to cover maintenance costs. (Econ, 10/23/04, p.78) 1663 nend Quebec became the capital of New France. (HNQ, 10/3/99) 1663 nend Abraham Blauvelt, Dutch pirate, died about this time. In the early 1630's He explored the coasts of Honduras and Nicaragua. Afterwards, he went to England and with a proposal for a settlement at site in Nicaragua, which is near the town and river of Bluefields, Nicaragua. (www.thepirateking.com/bios/blauvelt_abraham.htm) 1663 1665 Jan Steen, Dutch painter, painted "The Drawing Lesson." (SFC, 6/4/96, p.E5) 1663 1742 Jean Baptiste Massillon, French clergyman: "To be proud and inaccessible is to be timid and weak." (AP, 7/23/97) 1663 1789 This period in US history is covered in the 1st volume of the Oxford History of the US by Robert Middlekauff titled: "The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1663-1789." (WSJ, 6/7/96, p.A12) 1664 nend Jan 21, Count Miklos of Zrinyi set out to battle the Turkish invasion army. (MC, 1/21/02) 1664 nend Mar 12, England?s King Charles II granted land in the New World, known as New Netherland (later New Jersey), to his brother James, the Duke of York. (HN, 3/12/98)(AP, 3/12/08) 1664 nend Mar 22, Charles II gave large tracks of land from west of the Connecticut River to the east of Delaware Bay in North America to his brother James, the Duke of York and Albany. The entire Hudson Valley and New Amsterdam was given to James. (AP, 3/22/99)(ON, 4/00, p.2) 1664 nend Apr 4, Adam Willaerts, Dutch seascape painter, died. (MC, 4/4/02) 1664 nend May 28, 1st Baptist Church was organized (Boston). (MC, 5/28/02) 1664 nend May, Benoit Rencorel, a shepherd girl in the French Alps, alleged that she began receiving apparitions of the Virgin Mary. Her apparitions continued to 1718. In 2008 the Vatican officially recognized the ?supernatural origin? of the apparitions and made the site of Notre-Dame-du-Laus an official pilgrimage site. (SFC, 5/5/08, p.A13) 1664 nend Jun 24, New Jersey, named after the Isle of Jersey, was founded. (HN, 6/24/98) 1664 nend Jul 21, Matthew Prior, English poet, was born. (MC, 7/21/02) 1664 nend Jul 23, Wealthy non-church members in Massachusetts were given the right to vote. (HN, 7/23/98) 1664 nend Jul 23, 4 British ships arrived in Boston to drive the Dutch out of NY. (MC, 7/23/02) 1664 nend Aug 1, The Turkish army was defeated by French and German troops at St. Gotthard, Hungary. (HN, 8/1/98) 1664 nend Aug 4, Louis Lully, composer, was born. (MC, 8/4/02) 1664 nend Aug 6, Johann Christoph Schmidt, composer, was born. (MC, 8/6/02) 1664 nend Aug 28, Four English warships under Colonel Richard Nicolls sailed into New Amsterdam. 450 English soldiers disembarked and took control of Brooklyn, a village of mostly English settlers. (ON, 4/00, p.2) 1664 nend Aug 29, Adriaen Pieck/Gerrit de Ferry patented a wooden firespout in Amsterdam. (MC, 8/29/01) 1664 nend Sep 5, After days of negotiation, the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam surrendered to the British, who would rename it New York. The citizens of New Amsterdam petitioned Peter Stuyvesant to surrender to the English. The "Articles of Capitulation" guaranteed free trade, religious liberty and a form of local representation. In 2004 Russell Shorto authored "The Island At the Center of the World," a history of New York's Dutch period. (HN, 9/5/98)(ON, 4/00, p.3)(WSJ, 3/16/04, p.D6) 1664 nend Sep 8, The Dutch formally surrendered New Amsterdam to 300 English soldiers. The British soon renamed it New York. (AP, 9/8/97)(ON, 4/00, p.3) 1664 nend Sep 20, Maryland passed the 1st anti-amalgamation law to stop intermarriage of English women and black men. (MC, 9/20/01) 1664 nend Stephen Blake wrote "The Compleat Gardeners Practices." (WSJ, 7/7/98, p.A14) 1664 nend Moliere wrote Tartuffe, his satire on holier-than-thou hypocrites and their fatuous dupes. (SFC, 8/16/96, p.D1) 1664 nend The Jesuit scholar Athanasius Kircher wrote the "Mundus subterraneus." His work also included an ethnography of China and major treatises on music and magnetism. He also assembled in Rome a natural history collection. (NH, 5/97, p.58)(NH, 6/00, p.32) 1664 nend There was no litigation in London, England due to the Black plague. (SFC, 7/14/96, zone 1 p.2) 1664 nend Michael Sweerts (b.1618), Belgium-born artist, died in Goa, India. He did much of his important work in Rome, moved to the Netherlands, and traveled in Asia with a band of missionaries. His major work included a series depicting the Seven Acts of Mercy. (WSJ, 7/2/02, p.D7) 1664 1667 The Second Anglo-Dutch War. (HN, 6/21/98) 1664 1769 The French East India Company was chartered to carry on trade in the East Indies. (WUD, 1994, p.449) 1665 nend Jan 12, Pierre de Fermat (b.1601), French lawyer, mathematician (Fermat?s Principle), died. His equation xn + yn = zn is called Fermat?s Last Theorem and remained unproven for many years. The history of its resolution and final proof by Andrew Wiles is told by Amir D. Aczel in his 1996 book Fermat?s Last Theorem. "Fermat?s Enigma: The Epic Quest to Solve the World?s Greatest Mathematical Problem" by Simon Singh was published in 1997. In 1905 Paul Wolfskehl, a German mathematician, bequeathed a reward of 100,000 marks to whoever could find a proof to Fermat?s "last theorem." It stumped mathematicians until 1993, when Andrew John Wiles made a breakthrough. (MC, 1/12/02)(SFC, 10/2/02, p.D7) 1665 nend Feb 6, Anne Stuart, queen of England (1702-14), was born. (MC, 2/6/02) 1665 nend Feb 12, Rudolph J. Camerarius, German botanist, physician (sexuality plant), was born. (MC, 2/12/02) 1665 nend Mar 4, English King Charles II declared war on Netherlands. (SC, 3/4/02) 1665 nend Mar 6, Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society started publishing. (MC, 3/6/02) 1665 nend Mar 11, A new legal code was approved for the Dutch and English towns, guaranteeing religious observances unhindered. (HN, 3/11/99) 1665 nend May 15, Pope Alexander VII condemned Jansenism. (MC, 5/15/02) 1665 nend May 31, Jerusalem's rabbi Sjabtai Tswi proclaimed himself Messiah. (MC, 5/31/02) 1665 nend Jun 12, England installed a municipal government in New York, formerly the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam. (AP, 6/12/97) 1665 nend Aug 15-22, The London weekly "Bill of Mortality" recorded 5,568 fatalities with teeth holding the no. 5 spot. 4,237 were killed by the plague. (SFEC, 8/2/98, BR p.7) 1665 nend Aug 27, "Ye Bare & Ye Cubb," the 1st play performed in N. America, was performed at Acomac, Va. (MC, 8/27/01) 1665 nend Sep 22, Moliere's "L'amour Medecin," premiered in Paris. (MC, 9/22/01) 1665 nend Nov 7, The London Gazette, the oldest surviving journal, was first published. (HN, 11/7/98) 1665 nend Dec 4, Jean Racine's "Alexandre le Grand," premiered in Paris. (MC, 12/4/01) c 1665 nend Gerrit Dou, Dutch artist, painted "Woman at the Clavichord" and a "Self-Portrait" in which he resembled Rembrandt. (WSJ, 5/24/00, p.A24) 1665 nend Jacob van Ochtervelt (1634-1682), Dutch artist, painted his ?Street Musicians in the Doorway of a House.? (WSJ, 1/30/09, p.W2)(http://wwar.com/masters/o/ochtervelt-jacob.html) 1665 nend Robert Hooke authored ?Micrographia,? in which he described not only the microscopic world, but also astronomy, geology and the nature of light. This was the first great scientific book written in English. (WSJ, 4/14/07, p.P10) 1665 nend The 1st horse racing track in America was laid out on Long Island. (SFEC, 10/17/99, Z1 p.3) 1665 nend In France Louis XIV began to systematically hollow out formal guarantees to the Protestants until they became little more than scraps of paper. (WSJ, 1/11/98, p.R23) 1665 nend French finance minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert founded the Saint Gobain company to replace imports of Venetian glass with home-made wares. The glass was to be used for the mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. (Econ, 3/25/06, p.71)(Econ, 11/17/07, p.74) 1665 nend The villagers of Eyam in Derbyshire, England, voluntarily isolated themselves so as not to spread the plague. 250 of 350 people died and the town became known as the Plague Village. (SFEM, 10/11/98, p.22) 1665 nend Joseph Smith arrived in North America and became secretary to William Penn. (SFC, 8/21/97, p.C4) 1665 nend The British briefly recaptured the Banda Island of Run from the Dutch. (WSJ, 5/21/99, p.W7) 1665 nend In London at least 68,000 people died of the plague this year. In 1722 Daniel Defoe published his novel ?A Journal of the Plague Year.? The novel posed as a historical document covering the London plague. The Lord Mayor of London exterminated all the city?s cats and dogs, which allowed the rats, the real transmitters of the disease, to increase exponentially. (NG, 5/88, p.684)(WSJ, 9/9/06, p.P8)(WSJ, 10/21/06, p.P8) 1665 nend Nicolas Poussin (b.1594), painter, known as the founder of French Classicism, died. He spent most of his career in Rome which he reached at age 30 in 1624. His Greco-Romanism work includes "The Death of Chione" (1622-1623) and "The Abduction of the Sabine Women." [WUD ends his life in 1655] In 1997 Elizabeth Cropper and Charles Dempsey authored "Nicholas Poussin: Friendship and the Love of Painting." (WSJ, 2/26/96, p.A-10)(AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.1126)(SFC,11/22/97,p.D5)(WSJ, 11/6/02, p.D8)y 1665 1666 Vermeer painted his "Girl With a Pearl Earring" about this time. [see Vermeer, 1632-1675] In 1999 Tracy Chevalier authored the novel "Girl With a Pearl Earring," a fictionalization based on one of Vermeer's models. (WSJ, 11/15/95, p.A-20)(SFEC, 1/2/00, BR p.3) 1665 1666 Over a span of 18 months Isaac Newton invented calculus, explained how gravity works, and discovered his laws of motion. This period came to be called his annus mirabilis. (Econ, 1/1/05, p.59) 1666 nend Jan 22, Shah Jahan died. He had built the Taj Mahal. (HT, 4/97, p.24) 1666 nend Feb 15, Antonio M. Valsalva, Italian anatomist (eardrums, glottis), was born. (MC, 2/15/02) 1666 nend Apr 19, Sarah Kembel Knight, diarist, was born. (HN, 4/1901) 1666 nend Aug 4, Johan Evertsen, Italian admiral of Zeeland, was lynched in Brielle. (MC, 8/4/02) 1666 nend Sep 2, The Great Fire of London, having started at Pudding Lane, began to demolish about four-fifths of London. It started at the house of King Charles II's baker, Thomas Farrinor, after he forgot to extinguish his oven. The flames raged uncontrollably for the next few days, helped along by the wind, as well as by warehouses full of oil and other flammable substances. Approximately 13,200 houses, 90 churches and 50 livery company halls burned down or exploded. But the fire claimed only 16 lives, and it actually helped impede the spread of the deadly Black Plague, as most of the disease-carrying rats were killed in the fire. (CFA, '96, p.54)(AP, 9/2/97)(HNPD, 9/2/98)(HNQ, 12/2/00) 1666 nend Sep 5, The great fire of London, begun on Sep 2, was extinguished. Old St. Paul?s was among the 87 churches burned down. (HN, 9/5/98)(www.stpauls.co.uk) 1666 nend Nov 5, Attilio Ariosti, composer, was born. (MC, 11/5/01) 1666 nend Nov 14, Samuel Pepys reported the on 1st blood transfusion, which was between dogs. (HFA, '96, p.42)(MC, 11/14/01) 1666 nend Dec 5, Francesco Antonio Nicola Scarlatti, composer, was born. (MC, 12/5/01) c 1666 nend Sir Peter Lely painted Barbara Villiers 1640-1709, mistress to King Charles II, as a Shepherdess. Charles had raised her stature to Countess of Castlemaine and later Duchess of Cleveland. (WSJ, 3/7/02, p.A22) 1666 nend Moliere wrote his play The Misanthrope. It condemned the falseness and intrigue of French aristocratic society. (WSJ, 10/11/95, p. A-10) 1666 nend Pierre-Paul Riquet convinced French finance minister Colbert for a canal from the Mediterranean port of Sete to Toulouse and the River Garonne. He oversaw the Canal du Midi project for 15 years and died 6 months before it was completed. (SSFC, 1/14/01, p.T9) 1666 nend John Locke met Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper, later the Earl of Shaftsbury, and served him as physician, secretary and counselor for the next 15 years. (V.D.-H.K.p.219) 1666 nend The plague decimated London and Isaac Newton moved to the country. He had already discovered the binomial theorem at Cambridge and was offered the post of professor of mathematics. Newton formulated his law of universal gravitation. (V.D.-H.K.p.206)(JST-TMC,1983, p.70) 1666 nend The French Academy of Sciences was founded. (Econ, 1/9/10, p.57) 1666 nend Giovanni Domenico Cassini (1625-1712), Italian-born French astronomer, discovered one of the polar ice caps of Mars. (www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/C/CassiniG.html) 1666 nend Giovanni Francesco Barbieri Guercino, Italian painter, died. His work included "Erminia finding the wounded Tancred." In 1996 it was purchased by the Scottish National Gallery for $3.1 million. (TOH, 1982, p.1591d)(SFC, 8/17/96, p.E4) 1666 nend Pier Francesco Mola (b.1612), Italian Baroque artist, died in Rome. (http://wwar.com/masters/m/mola-pier_francesco.html) 1666 nend Franz Hals (b.1581?), painter, died in the Oudemannenhuis almshouse in Haarlem. The almshouse later became the Frans Hals Museum. (SFEC, 9/3/00, p.T7) 1666 nend In Cholula, Mexico, the chapel Nuestra de los Remedios was built atop a Teotihuacan pyramid. (SFEC, 11/8/98, p.T10) 1667 nend Jan 30, Lithuania, Poland and Russia signed a 13.5 year treaty at Andrusov, near Smolensk. Russia received Smolensk and Kiev. (LHC, 1/30/03) 1667 nend Feb 20, David ben Samuel Halevi, rabbi, author (Shulchan Aruch), died. (MC, 2/20/02) 1667 nend Apr 9, 1st public art exhibition (Palais Royale, Paris). (MC, 4/9/02) 1667 nend Apr 29, John Arbuthnot (d.1735), Scottish mathematician, was born. With Alexander Pope, Jonathan Swift, John Gay and Thomas Parnell he founded the Scriblerus Club in 1714, whose purpose was to satirize bad poetry and pedantry. The club was short-lived. (http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Arbuthnot.html) 1667 nend May 6, Johann Jacob Froberger (50), German singer, organist, composer, died. (MC, 5/6/02) 1667 nend May 7, Johann Jakob Froberger (50), German organist, singer, composer, died. (MC, 5/7/02) 1667 nend May 9, Marie Louise de Gonzague-Nevers, French Queen of Poland (1645-48), died. (MC, 5/9/02) 1667 nend May 26, Abraham De Moivre, mathematician, was born. (HN, 5/26/98) 1667 nend Jun 15, Dr. Jean-Baptiste Denys, French doctor, performed the 1st animal to human blood transfusion. He successfully transfused a few ounces of blood from a lamb into boy (15). Another experimental transfusion this year resulted in the patient?s death and Denys was accused of murder. In 2011 Holly Tucker authored ?Blood Work: A Tale of Medicine and Murder in the Scientific Revolution.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_transfusion)(Econ, 3/19/11, p.95) 1667 nend Jun 18, The Dutch fleet sailed up the Thames and threatened London. They burned 3 ships and captured the English flagship in what came to be called the Glorious Revolution, in which William of Orange replaced James Stuart. (HN, 6/18/98)(WSJ, 3/14/00, p.A28) 1667 nend Jul 21, The Peace of Breda ended the Second Anglo-Dutch War and ceded Dutch New Amsterdam to the English. The South American country of Surinam, formerly Dutch Guiana, including the nutmeg island of Run was ceded by England to the Dutch in exchange for New York in 1667 after the second Anglo-Dutch War. (WUD, 1994, p.961)(HN, 7/21/98)(HNQ, 8/21/98)(WSJ, 5/21/99, p.W7) 1667 nend Aug 3, Francesco Borromini (b.1599), Italian Baroque architect and sculptor, died. He designed the San Ivo della Sapienza church in Rome. In 2005 Jake Morrissey authored ?The Genius in the Design: Bernini, Borromini and the Rivalry that Transformed Rome.? (Econ, 7/25/05,p.71)(www.bookrags.com/biography-francesco-borromini/ ) 1667 nend Aug 20, John Milton published "Paradise Lost," an epic poem about the fall of Adam and Eve. (HN, 8/20/98) 1667 nend Aug 31, Johann Rist, composer, died at 60. (MC, 8/31/01) 1667 nend Sep 23, Slaves in Virginia were banned from obtaining their freedom by converting to Christianity. (HN, 9/23/98) 1667 nend Sep 24, Jean-Louis Lully, composer, was born. (MC, 9/24/01) 1667 nend Nov 7, Jean Racine's "Andromaque," premiered in Paris. (MC, 11/7/01) 1667 nend Nov 30, Jonathan Swift (d.1745), English satirist who wrote "Gulliver's Travels," was born in Ireland. "We have enough religion to make us hate, but not enough to make us love one another." (WUD, 1994, p.1437)(HN, 11/30/98)(AP, 4/16/00) 1667 nend Connecticut adopted America?s first divorce law. (SFC, 7/18/98, p.A15) 1667 nend British law required that everyone be buried in wool. [see 1662] (NG, 5.1988, pp. 574) 1667 nend A Baroque palace was built in Dubrovnik, Croatia. It later became a 400 student elementary school. (Hem. 1/95, p. 67) 1667 nend In France Louis XIV opened the 1st stretch of the Champs-Elysees: a short extension of the Tuileries Gardens leading to the palace at Versailles. (SSFC, 2/11/07, p.G3) 1667 nend Arequipa, Peru, was hit by an earthquake. (SSFC, 6/24/01, p.A16) 1667 nend The Cossack Stench Razing led a peasant uprising. (SFC,10/28/97, p.A8) 1667 nend Cassiopeia A, the gaseous remains of a supernova, would have been visible from Earth at about this time, but no record indicates that it was noticed. It was first detected in 1947 as a radio source. (Econ, 9/2/06, p.72) 1667 1668 The War of Devolution was fought between France and Spain as a result of the claim by Louis XIV of France that the ownership of the Spanish Netherlands devolved to his wife, Marie Therese, upon the death of her father, Philip IV of Spain. France conquered the area, now Belgium, and also seized the Franche-Comte, a Spanish possession that bordered on Switzerland. (HNQ, 2/7/00) 1667 1748 Johan Bernouilli, Swiss mathematician, brother of Jacob. (WUD, 1994, p.141) 1668 nend Feb 7, English King William III danced in the premiere of "Ballet of Peace." (MC, 2/7/02) 1668 nend Feb 7, The Netherlands, England and Sweden concluded an alliance directed against Louis XIV of France. (HN, 2/7/99) 1668 nend Mar 5, Francesco Gasparini, composer, was born. (MC, 3/5/02) 1668 nend Mar 25, The first horse race in America took place. (HN, 3/24/98) 1668 nend Mar 26, England took control of Bombay, India. (SS, 3/26/02) 1668 nend Mar 27, English king Charles II gave Bombay to the East India Company. (MC, 3/27/02) 1668 nend Apr 13, John Dryden (36) became 1st English poet laureate. (MC, 4/13/02) 1668 nend May 2, Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the War of Devolution in France. (HN, 5/2/99) 1668 nend May 8, Alain Rene Lesage, French novelist and dramatist, was born. He is best known for his works "The Adventures of Gil Blas" and "Turcaret." (HN, 5/8/99) 1668 nend May 27, Three colonists were expelled from Massachusetts for being Baptists. (HN, 5/27/99) 1668 nend Sep 16, King John Casimer II of Poland abdicated the throne. (HN, 9/16/98)(PCh, 1992, p.241) 1668 nend Oct 23, Jews of Barbados were forbidden to engage in retail trade. (MC, 10/23/01) 1668 nend Nov 10, Francois Couperin, composer and organist (Concerts Royaux), was born in Paris, France. (MC, 11/10/01) 1668 nend Dec 22, Stephen Day, 1st British colonial printer, died. (MC, 12/22/01) 1668 nend Bernini sculpted a terra cotta study for one of the angels of Rome?s Port Santa Angelo. (WSJ, 10/22/96, p.A20) 1668 nend The British trading ship Nonsuch 1st sailed into Hudson Bay. (SSFC, 12/22/02, p.C6) 1668 nend Louis XIV of France purchased the 112 carat blue diamond from John Baptiste Tavernier for 220,000 livre. Tavernier was also given a title of nobility. (THC, 12/3/97)(EB, 1993, V6 p.51) 1668 nend Charles Alphonse Dufresnoy (b.1611), French artist, died. His work included the painting ?The Death of Socrates? (1650). (WSJ, 11/24/07, p.W8) 1668 nend The Spaniards established a permanent settlement on Guam. They forced the Chamorros to convert to Catholicism. Under Spanish rule the Chamorro numbers were reduced to some 2,000. (SFEC, 3/7/99,Z1 p.4) 1668 nend A fortified wall was completed at Campeche, Mexico, to ward off pirate attacks. (SSFC, 1/25/09, p.E4) 1668 nend Arequipa, Peru, was hit by another earthquake. (SSFC, 6/24/01, p.A16) 1669 nend Feb 1, French King Louis XIV limited the freedom of religion. (MC, 2/1/02) 1669 nend Mar 11, Mount Etna in Sicily erupted killing 15,000. [see Mar 25] (MC, 3/12/02) 1669 nend Mar 25, Mount Etna, Sicily, erupted and destroyed Nicolosi, killing 20,000. [see Mar 11] (MC, 3/25/02) 1669 nend Jul 6, LaSalle left Montreal to explore Ohio River. (MC, 7/6/02) 1669 nend Jul 21, John Locke's Constitution of English colony Carolina was approved. (MC, 7/21/02) 1669 nend Aug 24, Alessandro Marcello (d.1747), composer, was born in Venice. (MC, 8/24/02) 1669 nend Sep 26, The island of Crete fell to the Ottoman Turks after 465 years as a colony of Venice. (WSJ, 7/21/08, p.A11) 1669 nend Oct 4, Rembrandt H. van Rijn (b.1606), painter and etcher (Steel Masters, Night Watch), died. In 1999 Simon Schama published the biography "Rembrandt's Eyes." (WSJ, 11/24/99, p.A16)(MC, 10/4/01) 1669 nend Dec 20, The 1st American jury trial was held in Delaware. Marcus Jacobson was condemned for insurrection and sentenced to flogging, branding & slavery. (MC, 12/20/01) 1669 nend Vermeer painted "The Art of Painting." The 3' by 4' work was larger than most of his paintings. (SFC, 11/24/99, p.E8) 1669 nend Nils Steensen?s "Prodromus" was first published in Italy and translated to English two years later. It explained the authors determination of the successive order of the earth strata. (RFH-MDHP, p.7) 1669 nend The semicircular Sheldonian Theater at Oxford, England, designed by Christopher Wren, was completed. (SSFC, 2/4/01, p.T8) 1669 nend Emperor Leopold I sanctioned the foundation of a higher school in Innsbruck, Austria. This is considered to mark the founding of the Univ. of Innsbruck. (StuAus, April '95, p.97) 1669 nend While Mount Etna erupted, German scholar Athanasius Kircher was busy devising a machine that would clean out volcanoes the way a chimney sweep cleaned out clogged chimneys. (PacDisc. Spring/?96, p.26) 1670 nend Jan 3, George Monck (61), English general (to the-sea), died. (MC, 1/3/02) 1670 nend Feb 10, William Congreve, English writer (Old Bachelor, Way of the World), was born. (MC, 2/10/02) 1670 nend Feb 14, Roman Catholic emperor Leopold I chased the Jews out of Vienna. (MC, 2/14/02) 1670 nend Feb 27, Jews were expelled from Austria by order of Leopold I. (MC, 2/27/02) 1670 nend Apr, Colonists landed on the western bank of the Ashley River, five miles from the sea, and named their settlement Charles Town in honor of Charles II, King of England. (Hem., 1/95, p.70) 1670 nend May 2, The Company of Adventurers of England Trading into Hudson Bay (the Hudson Bay Co.) was chartered by England's King Charles II to exploit the resources of the Hudson Bay area. By 2006 it had mutated into Canada?s largest non-food retailer. (AP, 5/2/97)(HN, 5/2/98)(AH, 4/01, p.36)(Econ, 2/4/06, p.36) 1670 nend May 12, August II, the Strong One, King of Poland (355 children), was born. (MC, 5/12/02) 1670 nend May 26, A treaty was signed in secret in Dover, England, between Charles II and Louis XIV ending hostilities between them. (HN, 5/26/99) 1670 nend Jul 18, Giovanni Battista Bononcini, Italian (opera) composer, was born. (MC, 7/18/02) 1670 nend Jul 25, Jews were expelled from Vienna, Austria. (SC, 7/25/02) 1670 nend Oct 13, Virginia passed a law that blacks arriving in the colonies as Christians could not be used as slaves. (HN, 10/13/98) 1670 nend Nov 28, Pierre Corneille's "Tite et Berenice," premiered in Paris. (MC, 11/28/01) 1670 nend Vermeer painted his "A Young Woman Standing at a Virginal" and "A Young Woman Seated at a Virginal." Estimates for auction in 2004 for the seated one reached $5.4 million. (WSJ, 6/19/00, p.a42)(SFC, 4/1/04, p.E7) 1670 nend John Ray printed a book of aphorisms such as: "Blood is thicker than water..." and "Haste makes waste." (SFC, 11/23/96, p.E4) 1670 nend Spinoza (1632-1677), Dutch philosopher, authored "Tractatus Theologico-Politicus" an enlightened assessment of the Old Testament and a plea for religious toleration. (WSJ, 12/15/05, p.D8) 1670 nend Cafe Procope, the first cafe in Paris, began serving ice cream. (SFC, 11/23/96, p.E4) 1670 nend Le Notre, the royal landscaper of Louis XIV, laid out the Triumphal Way in Paris. (SSFC, 1/25/04, p.C12) 1670 nend Minute hands on watches first appeared. (SFC, 7/14/99, p.3) 1670 nend Ashanti, a West African chiefdom (later part of Ghana), prospered from trade of cola nuts, gold and slaves. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1670 1680 In Oman the Nizwa Fort was built 100 miles southwest of Muscat. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.46) 1670 1712 Osei Tutu, ruler of the Ashanti Empire in what later became Ghana. He amassed a fortune by supplying slaves to British and Dutch traders in exchange for firearms. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1670 1752 In 2006 Jonathan I. Israel authored ?Enlightenment Contested: Philosophy, Modernity, and the Emancipation of Man 1670-1752.? (Econ, 12/2/06, p.85) 1670 1850 Daniel Cohen's 1993 Pillars of Salt, Monuments of Grace is a book that follows the shifts in social authority and attitudes toward authority in New England as demonstrated by changes in the crime literature of this period. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.19) 1670 nend s French explorer Rene Robert Cavelier (LaSalle), Sieur de La Salle, explored the Great Lakes region of the New World. (SFC, 11/30/96, p.A7) 1671 nend Jan 18, Pirate Henry Morgan defeated Spanish defenders and captured Panama. (MC, 1/18/02) 1671 nend Jan 27, Welsh pirate Sir Henry Morgan (1635-1688) landed at Panama City. (WUD, 1994 p.931)(MC, 1/27/02) 1671 nend Feb 19, Charles-Hubert Gervais, composer, was born. (MC, 2/19/02) 1671 nend Apr 6, Jean-Baptiste Rousseau, French playwright, poet (Sacred Odes & Songs), was born. (MC, 4/6/02) 1671 nend Apr 22, King Charles II sat in on English parliament after which he gave his Royal Assent to the several Bills that were presented to him, fourteen private Acts, and eighteen public, including an act for exporting ?Beer, Ale, and Mum.? (http://british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=37626) 1671 nend Apr 30, Peter Zrinyi (49), Hungarian banished to Croatia, was beheaded. (MC, 4/30/02) 1671 nend May 9, Colonel Thomas Blood (1618-1680), Irish adventurer, attempted to steal the Crown Jewels from the Tower of London. (MC, 5/9/02)(Reuters, 8/24/01) 1671 nend Jun 6 (OS), Stenka, Stepan Razin, Russian Cossack, was killed. [see Jun 16] (MC, 6/6/02) 1671 nend Jun 8, Tomaso Albinoni, Italian composer (Adagio in G-minor), was born. (MC, 6/8/02) 1671 nend Jun 16 (NS), Stenka Razin, Cossack rebel leader, was tortured & executed in Moscow. [see Jun 6] (MC, 6/16/02) 1671 nend Nov 6, Colley Cibber, England, dramatist, poet laureate (Love's Last Shift), was born. (MC, 11/6/01) 1671 nend Dec 1, Francesco Stradivari, Italian violin maker and son of Antonius, was born. (MC, 12/1/01) 1671 nend Vermeer painted his "Allegory of Faith." [see Vermeer, 1632-1675] (WSJ, 11/15/95, p.A-20) 1671 nend Moliere wrote his farce "Les Fourberies de Scapin" (The Wiles of Scapin or Scapin the Cheat). (WSJ, 1/10/97, p.A9)(SFC, 6/15/98, p.D3) 1671 nend Rice arrived in South Carolina from Madagascar but nobody knew how to husk it for food. (Hem., 12/96, p.82) 1671 nend Charles II banned anyone without property worth £100 a year from owning guns, bows or ferrets. Game stocks were the motive. (Econ, 6/5/10, p.63) 1671 nend English Protestants became alarmed when they learned that James, Duke of York, had converted to Catholicism. (ON, 7/06, p.8) 1671 nend In Germany Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (Leibniz) devised a mechanical calculator to add, subtract, multiply and divide. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1671 1743 Kaigetsudo Ando (d.1743), Japanese artist, was born. He is also called Okazaki Genshichi. (www.britannica.com/eb/article-9044336) 1671 1729 John Law, Scotsman and financier for France. He controlled France's foreign trade, mints, revenue, national debt and the Louisiana territory. [see 1694] (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1672 nend Jan 1, The beginning of the current Dionysian Period, named for the monk Dionysius Exiguous who, in the AD 500s, introduced the present custom of reckoning time by counting the years from the birth of Christ. (CFA, '96, p.22) 1672 nend Feb 8, Isaac Newton read his 1st optics paper before Royal Society in London. (MC, 2/8/02) 1672 nend Mar 15, England?s King Charles II enacted a 3rd Declaration of Indulgence. (http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1327117) 1672 nend Apr 6, Andre Ardinal Destouches, composer, was born. (MC, 4/6/02) 1672 nend Apr 29, King Louis XIV of France invaded the Netherlands. (HN, 4/29/99) 1672 nend May 1, Joseph Addison (d.1719), English essayist (Spectator) and poet, was born. "We are always doing, says he, something for posterity, but I would fain see posterity do something for us." "A man must be both stupid and uncharitable who believes there is no virtue or truth but on his own side." (AHD, 1971, p.14)(AP, 11/21/97)(AP, 7/14/98)(MC, 5/1/02) 1672 nend May 15, 1st copyright law was enacted by Massachusetts. (MC, 5/15/02) 1672 nend May 17, Frontenac became governor of New France (Canada). (MC, 5/17/02) 1672 nend May 30, Peter I (the Great) Romanov, great czar (tsar) of Russia (1682-1725), was born. [see Jun 9] (HN, 5/30/98)(MC, 5/30/02) 1672 nend Jun 9, Peter I (d.1725), "The Great," was born. He grew to be almost 7 feet tall and was the Russian Czar from 1682 to 1725 and modernized Russia with sweeping reforms. He moved the Russian capital to the new city he built, St. Petersburg. [see May 30] (CFA, '96, p.48)(WUD, 1994, p.1077)(HN, 6/9/99)(SFC, 12/25/99, p.C3) 1672 nend Jun 15, The Sluices were opened in Holland to save Amsterdam from the French. (HT, 6/15/00) 1672 nend Jun 25, 1st recorded monthly Quaker meeting in US was held at Sandwich, Mass. (MC, 6/25/02) 1672 nend Jul 4, States of Holland declared "Eternal Edict" void. (Maggio) 1672 nend Aug 9, Jose Ximenez (70), Spanish composer, died. (MC, 8/9/02) 1672 nend Aug 20, Jan de Witt, Dutch politician and mathematician, was assassinated by a carefully organized lynch "mob" after visiting his brother Cornelis de Witt in prison. He was killed by a shot in the neck; his naked body was hanged and mutilated and the heart was carved out to be exhibited. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_de_Witt) 1672 nend Nov 1, Heinrich Schutz (87), composer, died. Pupil of Giovanni Gabrielli from 1609-1672, he was employed by the Elector of Saxony in 1615 and became Kapellmeister two years later. While employed by the Elector, Schütz made several visits to Italy and served three two-year terms as guest court conductor in Copenhagen. Schütz's works include one opera (a first in the German language), Easter and Christmas oratorios, three passions, numerous polychoral Psalm settings in the style of his teacher, Gabrielli, other sacred concerted works in Latin and German, and Italian madrigals. (http://w3.rz-berlin.mpg.de/cmp/schutz.html) 1672 nend Dec 10, Gov. Lovelace announced monthly mail service between NY and Boston. (MC, 12/10/01) 1672 nend Christian Huygens of Holland discovered the southern polar caps on Mars. (http://chapters.marssociety.org/toronto/Education/TL1500.shtml) 1672 nend The Royal African Co. was granted a charter to expand the slave trade and its stockholders included philosopher John Locke. The operation supplied English sugar colonies with 3,000 slaves annually. (SFC, 10/19/98, p.D3)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1672 nend Gerhard Altzenbach (b.1609), German artist, died. (SFC, 9/23/06, p.E2) 1672 nend Peter Stuyvesant died on his farm in NY. In 1959 Henry H. Kessler and Eugene Rachlis authored "Peter Stuyvesant and his New York." In 1970 Adele de Leeuw authored "Peter Stuyvesant." (ON, 4/00, p.3) 1673 nend Feb 17, Moliere, [Jean Baptiste Poquelin], French author (Tartuffe, Le Malade Imaginaire), died. (MC, 2/17/02) 1673 nend Feb 20, The 1st recorded wine auction was held in London. (MC, 2/20/02) 1673 nend Mar 28, Adam Pijnacker (51), Dutch landscape painter, etcher, was buried. (MC, 3/28/02) 1673 nend Mar 29, The English Parliament passed the Test Act. It in effect excluded Roman Catholics from public functions. King Charles II was unable to stop the action. (www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/guide17/timeline40.html) 1673 nend Apr 5, Francois Caron (~72), admiral, governor (Formosa), drowned. (MC, 4/5/02) 1673 nend May 17, Louis Joliet and Jacques Marquette began exploring the Mississippi. (MC, 5/17/02) 1673 nend May 29, Cornelis van Bijnkershoek, lawyer, president of High Council, was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1673 nend Jun 25, In France Charles de Batz (b.1611), a commander known as D?Artagnan, was slain in the service of Louis XIV. He died at the Siege of Maastricht in the Franco-Dutch War and was one of the musketeers who inspired Dumas? fiction. (SSFC, 4/13/08, p.E4)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D'Artagnan) 1673 nend Jul 24, Edmund Halley entered Queen's College, Oxford, as an undergraduate. (MC, 7/24/02) 1673 nend Aug 9, Dutch recapture NY from English. It was regained by English in 1674. (MC, 8/9/02) 1673 nend Sep 21, James Needham returned to Virginia after exploring the land to the west, which would become Tennessee. (HN, 9/21/98) 1673 nend Dec 28, Joan Blaeu (77), Dutch cartographer, publisher (Atlas Major), died. (MC, 12/28/01) 1673 nend In London the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries started the Chelsea Physic Garden as an educational tool for apprentices learning to grow medicinal plants. (SFC, 3/26/08, p.G1) 1673 nend Cuba began a program of scientific research. (SFC, 3/17/99, p.A14) 1673 nend The most important of Christian Huygens' written works, the "Horologium Oscillatorium," was published in Paris. It discussed the mathematics surrounding pendulum motion and the law of centrifugal force for uniform circular motion. (http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bl_huygens.htm) 1673 nend The French Blue Diamond was recut to a 67 carat stone. (EB, 1993, V6 p.51) 1673 nend In Japan the Mitsukoshi store introduced fixed prices. (Econ, 8/25/07, p.58) 1674 nend Feb 9, English reconquered NY from Netherlands. (MC, 2/9/02) 1674 nend Feb 19, Netherlands and England signed the Peace of Westminster. NYC became English. (MC, 2/19/02) 1674 nend Feb 21, Johann Augustin Kobelius, composer, was born. (MC, 2/21/02) 1674 nend Mar 6, Johann Paul Schor (58), German baroque painter, died. (MC, 3/6/02) 1674 nend May 20, John Sobieski became Poland?s first King. [see May 11, 1573] (HN, 5/20/98) 1674 nend May 21, Gen. Jan Sobieski was chosen King of Poland. [see May 20] (MC, 5/21/02) 1674 nend Jun 6, Sivaji crowned himself King of India. (HN, 6/6/98) 1674 nend Jun 20, Nicholas Rowe, poet laureate of England, was born. (HN, 6/20/98) 1674 nend Jul 17, Isaac Watts, English minister and hymn writer, was born. (HN, 7/17/01) 1674 nend Aug 18, Jean Racine's "Iphigenie," premiered in Versailles. (MC, 8/18/02) 1674 nend Oct 15, Robert Herrick, British poet (Together), was born in Mass. (MC, 10/15/01) 1674 nend Nov 8, John Milton (65), English poet (Paradise Lost), died. His work included "Paradise Lost," Paradise Regained," and "Samson Agonistes." Milton lost one eye at 36 and the other when he was 44. In 1952 Prof. Sensabaugh (d.2002 at 95) authored "In That Grand Whig, Milton," an examination of Milton?s political tracts. In 1996 Paul West wrote a novel: "Sporting with Amaryllis," that begins in 1626 and gives a fictional account of his life. In 1997 Peter Levy wrote a biography of Milton titled: "Eden Renewed." (WUD, '94, p.911)(WSJ, 5/6/97, p.A20)(AP, 12/9/97)(MC, 11/8/01)(SFC,2/28/02, p.A20) 1674 nend Nov 10, Dutch formally ceded New Netherlands (NY) to English. (MC, 11/10/01) 1674 nend Nov 24, Franciscus van Enden (72), Flemish Jesuit and free thinker, was executed. (MC, 11/24/01) 1674 nend Dec 4, Father Marquette built the 1st dwelling at what is now Chicago. (MC, 12/4/01) 1675 nend Jan 20, Christian Huygens, Dutch scientist, transformed a theoretical insight on springs into a practical mechanism with the 1st sketch of a watch balance regulated by a coiled spring. no_source 2 nend /4/06, p.73) no_source 1675 nend Jan 31, Cornelia Dina Olfaarts was found not guilty of witchcraft. (MC, 1/31/02) 1675 nend Mar 2, Prince William III was installed as Governor of Overijssel. (SC, 3/2/02) 1675 nend Mar 4, John Flamsteed was appointed 1st Astronomer Royal of England. (SC, 3/4/02) 1675 nend May 18, Jacques Marquette (37), Jesuit, missionary in Chicago, died. (SC, 5/18/02) 1675 nend Jun 8, Three Wampanoag Indians were hanged in Plymouth, Massachusetts. On the testimony of a Native American witness, Plymouth Colony arrested three Wampanoags, including a counselor to Metacom, a Pokanoket sachem. A jury among whom were some Indian members convicted them of the recent murder of John Sassamon, an advisor to Metacom. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War) 1675 nend Jun 11, France and Poland formed an alliance. (AP, 6/11/03) 1675 nend Jun 20, King Philip?s War began when Indians--retaliating for the execution of three of their people who had been charged with murder by the English--massacred colonists at Swansea, Plymouth colony. Abenaki, Massachusetts, Mohegan & Wampanoag Indians formed an anti English front. Wampanoag warriors attacked livestock and looted farms. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War)(AH, 6/02, p.46) 1675 nend Jun 21, Sir Christopher Wren (1632-1723) began to rebuild St Paul?s Cathedral in London, replacing the old building which had been destroyed by the Great fire. St Paul?s Cathedral was dedicated in 1708 but work continued. (Econ, 6/7/08, p.98)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Paul%27s_Cathedral) 1675 nend Jun 22, Royal Greenwich Observatory was established in England by Charles II. (YarraNet, 6/22/00) 1675 nend Jun 23, An English youth shot a Marauding Wampanoag warrior. (AH, 6/02, p.46) 1675 nend Jun 28, Frederick William of Brandenburg crushed the Swedes. (HN, 6/28/98) 1675 nend Aug 6, Russian Czar Aleksei banned foreign haircuts. (MC, 8/6/02) 1675 nend Aug 10, King Charles II laid the foundation stone of Royal Observatory, Greenwich. [see Jun 22] (MC, 8/10/02) 1675 nend Sep 9, New England colonial authorities officially declared war on the Wampanoag Indians. The war soon spread to include the Abenaki, Norwottock, Pocumtuck and Agawam warriors. (MC, 9/9/01)(AH, 6/02, p.47) 1675 nend Nov 22, English king Charles II adjourned parliament. (MC, 11/22/01) 1675 nend Dec 19, Some 1,000 colonial troops attacked the Narragansett winter village in Rhode Island. The Great Swamp Fight ended with some 80 English killed and 600 Indians dead, mostly women and children. Wakefield, Rhode Island, USA, The Great Swamp Memorial marks the site where 4,000 Indians died in defense of a secret fort. (Postcard, Wakefield Chamber of Commerce)(AH, 6/02, p.48) 1675 nend Lely painted a portrait of Nell Gwynn, the favorite mistress of Charles II. It is now in the London National Gallery. Charles II acknowledged 14 illegitimate children and historians identified 13 mistresses. (SFEC, 2/1/98, p.T8)(SFC, 7/22/00, p.E4) 1675 nend In France Lully composed "Thesee." The librettist was Philippe Quinault. This work established the tragedie lyrique operatic form. (WSJ, 7/5/01, p.A10) 1675 nend In Boston, Mass., a law forbade American Indians from setting foot in the city, as settlers warred with area tribes. In 2005 although the law wasn?t enforced for centuries it was a lingering source of anger for American Indians. (AP, 5/20/05) 1675 nend English king Charles II issued a proclamation deploring the "evil and dangerous effects" of coffee houses. (Econ, 12/20/03, p.90) 1675 nend The 9th Sikh guru was executed in Delhi, India. His son, Gobind Rai, took up arms and organized a new fraternity called the Khalsa (the pure), and gave them the common surname Singh (lion), and changed his own name to Gobind Singh. (WSJ, 10/12/01, p.W17) 1675 nend Wojciech Bobowski (b.1610), Polish-Jewish musician and dragoman, died. He had been taken prisoner by Crimean Tartars and was sold to the Ottoman court where he converted to Islam and served as an interpreter, treasurer and musician. He translated the Bible into Turkish and composed Turkish psalms. (Econ, 9/15/07, p.104)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wojciech_Bobowski) 1675 nend Johannes Vermeer (b.1632), Dutch painter, died in poverty. In 2001 Anthony Bailey authored "Vermeer: A View of Delft." (WSJ, 11/15/95, p.A-20)(SSFC, 3/25/01, BR p.5) 1675 nend In northern Russia Solovki monks resisted church reforms. Tsarist forces broke through, but only following a 7-year siege. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.83) 1675 1710 In London Old St. Paul?s Cathedral was replaced with a new design by Sir Christopher Wren. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.14) c 1675 1741 Antonio Vivaldi, Italian violinist and composer. [see 1678] (WUD, 1994, p.1598) 1675 1900 McDade's Annals of Murder is an annotated bibliography that provides a list and description of individual items and identifies multiple accounts of the same crimes over this time period by career FBI man McDade. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.17) 1676 nend Feb 10, In King Philip?s War Narragansett and Nipmuck Indians raided Lancaster, Mass. Over 35 villagers were killed and 24 were taken captive including Mary Rowlandson (1637-1711) and her 3 children. Rowlandson was freed after 11 weeks and an account of her captivity was published posthumously in 1682. (AH, 6/02, p.48)(Econ, 2/21/09, p.83)(http://tinyurl.com/cvrhcv) 1676 nend Feb, Mohawk Indians attacked and killed all but 40 Wampanoag Indians under Philip. NY Gov. Edmund Andros had urged the Mohawks to attack the Wampanoags. (AH, 6/02, p.48) 1676 nend Mar 29, Wampanoag allies including Narragansetts destroyed Providence, Rhode Island. The house of Roger Williams was destroyed as he negotiated with Indian leaders on the outskirts of town. (AH, 6/02, p.48)(AH, 4/07, p.29) 1676 nend Apr 14, Ernst Christian Hesse, composer, was born in Thuringian town of Gros sengottern. (www.cello.org/heaven/wasiel/intro3.htm) 1676 nend Apr 17, Frederick I, king of Sweden, was born. (HN, 4/17/98) 1676 nend Apr 18, Sudbury, Massachusetts was attacked by Indians. (HN, 4/18/98) 1676 nend Apr 29, Michiel A. de Ruyter (69), Dutch rear-admiral, (Newport), was killed. (MC, 4/29/02) 1676 nend May 10, Bacon's Rebellion began. It pitted frontiersmen against the government. Bacon?s Rebellion in Virginia involved an attack on a local Indian community and the sacking of the colonial capital in Jamestown. It is described by Catherine McNicol Stock in her 1997 book "Rural Radicals; Righteous Rage in the American Grain." (SFEC, 2/2/97, BR. p.8)(HN, 5/10/98) 1676 nend Jul 21, Anthony Collins, English philosopher (A discourse on free-thinking), was born. (MC, 7/21/02) 1676 nend Jul 29, Nathaniel Bacon was declared a rebel for assembling frontiersmen to protect settlers from Indians. [see May 10, Sep 1] (MC, 7/29/02) 1676 nend Aug 12, Indian chief King Philip, also known as Metacom, was killed by a Pocasset Indian named Alderman in the swamps of Rhode Island. This ended the King Philip?s War. Benjamin Church, a Plymouth volunteer, ordered that Philip be beheaded and quartered. [see Aug 28] (AH, 6/02, p.50) 1676 nend Aug 26, Sir Robert Walpole (d.1745), the first and longest serving prime minister of England, was born. He was not then called the prime minister as the king held all honors. He collected a large number of paintings by old masters at his Houghton Hall home in Norfolk. (WSJ, 3/3/97, p.A16)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Walpole) 1676 nend Aug 28, Indian chief King Philip, also known as Metacom, was killed by English soldiers, ending the war between Indians and colonists. [see Aug 12] (HN, 8/28/98) 1676 nend Sep 1, Nathaniel Bacon led an uprising against English Governor William Berkeley at Jamestown, Virginia, resulting in the settlement being burned to the ground. Bacon's Rebellion came in response to the governor's repeated refusal to defend the colonists against the Indians. [see May 10, Sep 19] (HN, 9/1/99) 1676 nend Sep 19, Rebels under Nathaniel Bacon set Jamestown, Va., on fire. [see Sep 1] (MC, 9/19/01) 1676 nend Sep 21, Benedetto Odescalchi was elected as Pope Innocent XI. (MC, 9/21/01) 1676 nend Oct 18, Nathaniel Bacon, who rallied against Virginian government, was killed at 29. (MC, 10/18/01) 1676 nend Nov 16, 1st colonial prison was organized at Nantucket Mass. (MC, 11/16/01) 1676 nend Roger Williams published ?George Fox Digg?d Out of His Burrowes.? It was an account of his debates with the Quakers in Newport and Providence. (AH, 4/07, p.28) 1676 nend Canonchet, the Narragansett sachem, was executed. (AH, 6/02, p.48) 1676 nend Lully composed his tragic opera "Atys." (SFEC, 1/18/98, DB p.33) 1676 nend Isaac Newton wrote: ?If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants.? (Econ, 8/7/04, p.64) 1676 nend Jean-Domenique Cassini, director of the Paris Observatory, reported that there were 2 rings around Saturn separated by a gap that came to be called the Cassini Division. (NH, 10/1/04, p.29) 1676 nend Ole Christensen Romer (Roemer), Danish astronomer, derived a speed of light of 130,000 miles per second based on his observations of Io, the innermost moon of Jupiter. (http://inkido.indiana.edu/a100/timeline2.html)(NH, 2/05, p.19) 1676 nend Geminiamo Montanari, Italian astronomer, documented a meteor with a sound "like the rattling of a great Cart running over Stones." It was later understood that meteors can detectable generate radio waves. (NH, 7/02, p.38) 1676 nend Jeong Seon (d.1759), Korean landscape painter, was born. (www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/art/2009/10/148_51861.html) 1676 nend King Carlos II of Spain, having successfully outlawed a drink suspected of leading to homicides, inattentiveness at church and moral turpitude, warned his colonial rulers in Bogota of a drink "that is, beyond all comparison, more dangerous and which goes by the name of aguardiente." In 1988 Gilma Mora de Tovar's authored, "Aguardiente and Social Conflicts in 18th Century New Granada," (AP, 9/2/03) 1676 1759 Chong Son, Korean painter. His work included "Pine Tree at Sajik Altar" and "Landscape." (SFC, 7/26/97, p.E1) 1677 nend Feb 15, King Charles II reported an anti-French covenant with Netherlands. (MC, 2/15/02) 1677 nend Feb 16, Earl of Shaftesbury was arrested and confined to the London Tower. [see Oct 24, 1681] (MC, 2/16/02) 1677 nend Feb 21, [Benedictus] Baruch Spinoza (b.1632), Dutch philosopher, died. In 2003 Antonio Damasio authored "Looking for Spinoza," a look at contemporary neurological research in contrast with the opposing philosophical views of Spinoza and Descartes. In 2005 Matthew Stewart authored ?The Courtier and the Heretic: Leibniz, Spinoza, and the Fate of God in the Modern World.? (WUD, 1994 p.1371)(SSFC, 2/2/03, p.M4)(WSJ, 12/15/05, p.D8) 1677 nend Mar 13, Massachusetts gained title to Maine for $6,000. (MC, 3/13/02) 1677 nend Apr 27, Colonel Jeffreys became the governor of Virginia. (HN, 4/27/98) 1677 nend May 29, King Charles II and 12 Virginia Indian chiefs signed a treaty that established a 3-mile non-encroachment zone around Indian land. The Mattaponi Indians in 1997 invoked this treaty to protect against encroachment. (SFC, 6/2/97, p.A3) 1677 nend Sep 21, John and Nicolaas van der Heyden patented a fire extinguisher. (MC, 9/21/01) 1677 nend Nov 4, William and Mary were married in England on William's birthday. William of Orange married his cousin Mary (daughter to James, Duke of York and the same James II who fled in 1688). (HNQ, 12/28/00)(HN, 11/4/02) 1677 nend Racine wrote his drama Phedre in alexandrine meter. It was based on Euripides? tragic Greek tale of Phaedra?s love for her stepson Hippolytus, son of Theseus. (WSJ, 5/21/97, p.A12)(Econ, 6/20/09, p.89)(Econ, 6/27/09, p.92) 1677 nend Pope Innocent XII confirmed the imperial foundation of the Univ. of Innsbruck in a papal bull that emphasized the Catholic character of the Univ. and decreed that the important chairs of the Faculty of Theology be filled by members of the Jesuit order. (StuAus, April '95, p.97) 1677 nend The Episcopal Parish called St. Michaels was established on the east coast of the Chesapeake Bay. The town of St. Michaels derives its name after the parish. (SMBA, 1996) 1677 nend Christopher Wren redesigned the burned Church of St. Mary the Virgin in Aldermanbury, England. His monument at St. Paul?s Cathedral in London reads: ?Si monumentum requires circumspice? (If you seek his monument, look around you). (SFC, 3/30/97, p.T5)(WSJ, 5/21/97, p.A15) 1678 nend Feb 18, John Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress" was published. [see Sep 28] (MC, 2/18/02) 1678 nend Mar 4, Antonio Vivaldi (d.1741), Italian Baroque composer (4 Seasons) and violinist, was born in Venice. [see 1675] (HN, 3/4/01)(SC, 3/4/02) 1678 nend May 31, The Godiva procession, commemorating Lady Godiva's legendary ride while naked, became part of the Coventry Fair. (HN, 5/31/01) 1678 nend Jun 17, Giacomo Torelli (69), composer, died. (MC, 6/17/02) 1678 nend Jul 26, Joseph I Habsburg, German king, Roman catholic emperor (1705-11), was born. (MC, 7/26/02) 1678 nend Aug 3, Robert LaSalle built the 1st ship in America, Griffon. (SC, 8/3/02)(AP, 12/10/03) 1678 nend Aug 16, Andrew Marvell (b.1621), English poet (Definition of Love), died. (MC, 8/16/02) 1678 nend Sep 28, "Pilgrim's Progress" by John Bunyan (b.1628) was published. [see Feb 18] (MC, 9/28/01) 1678 nend Nov 18, Giovanni Maria Bononcini (36), composer, died. (MC, 11/18/01) 1678 nend Nov 28, England's King Charles II accused his wife, Catherine of Braganza, of treason. Her crime? She had yet to bear him children. (DTnet, 11/28/97) 1678 nend Nov 30, Roman Catholics were banned from English parliament. (MC, 11/30/01) 1678 nend Dec 3, Edmund Halley received an MA from Queen's College, Oxford. (MC, 12/3/01) 1678 nend Titus Oates (b.1649), failed Catholic seminarian, and Israel Tonge concocted the Popish Plot. They alleged that plotters planned to raise a Catholic army, massacre Protestants, and poison Charles II in order to get James on the throne. 9 Jesuit priests were executed. In 1681 it was revealed to be a fabrication. (www.newadvent.org/cathen/11173c.htm)(ON, 7/06, p.9) 1678 nend Anthony Ashley Cooper, the Earl of Shaftesbury and Protestant Parliamentary leader formed the County Party, later known as the Whigs, to prevent James from becoming king of England. (ON, 7/06, p.9) 1678 nend Louis XIV claimed the region of Alsace from Germany. (SFEC, 1/31/99, p.T4) 1678 1707 Georg Farquhar, Anglo-Irish dramatist. (WSJ, 10/3/96, p.A12) 1678 1707 Aurangzeb was the 1st Muslim ruler to fire his cannon at the giant Buddhas at Bamiyan, Afghanistan. (WSJ, 11/16/01, p.W12) 1679 nend Jan 24, King Charles II disbanded the English parliament. (MC, 1/24/02) 1679 nend Jan 31, Jean-Baptiste Lully's opera "Bellerophon" premiered in Paris. (MC, 1/31/02) 1679 nend Mar, King Charles II sent his brother James to the Netherlands for safety. (ON, 7/06, p.9) 1679 nend Apr 3, Edmund Halley met Johannes Hevelius in Danzig. (MC, 4/3/02) 1679 nend Apr 17, John van Kessel (53), Flemish painter, died. (MC, 4/17/02) 1679 nend May 12, Giovanni Antonio Ricieri, composer, was born. (MC, 5/12/02) 1679 nend May 14, Peder [Nielsen] Horrebow, Danish astronomer, was born. (MC, 5/14/02) 1679 nend May 15, The Earl of Shaftesbury introduced his Exclusion Bill into Parliament proposing that James, the Catholic brother of King Charles II, be permanently barred from the line of succession to the English throne. (ON, 7/06, p.9) 1679 nend May 27, England?s House of Lords passed the Habeas Corpus Act (have the body) to prevent false arrest and imprisonment. King Charles adjourned Parliament before the final reading of Shaftesbury?s Exclusion Bill. (WUD, 1994p.634)(www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=11707)(ON, 7/06, p.9) 1679 nend Jun 1, Battle at Bothwell Bridge on Clyde: Duke of Monmouth beat the Scottish. (MC, 6/1/02) no_source 1679 nend Jul 10, The British crown claimed New Hampshire as a royal colony. (HN, 7/10/98) 1679 nend Jul 12, Britain's King Charles II ratified Habeas Corpus Act. (MC, 7/12/02) 1679 nend Sep 18, New Hampshire became a county Massachusetts Bay Colony. (MC, 9/18/01) 1679 nend Oct 16, Jan Dismas Zelenka, composer, was born. (MC, 10/16/01) 1679 nend Oct 23, The Meal Tub Plot took place against James II of England. (MC, 10/23/01) 1679 nend Nov 3, A great panic occurred in Europe over the close approach of a comet. (MC, 11/3/01) 1679 nend Dec 4, Thomas Hobbes (b.1588), English philosopher, died. "The reputation of power IS power." Hobbes sought to separate politics from religion. In his book ?Leviathan? he argues that the only way to secure civil society is through universal submission to the absolute authority of a sovereign. (WSJ, 7/30/03, p.A12)(WSJ, 9/15/07,p.W10)(www.thefreedictionary.com/Hobbesian) 1679 nend Dec 17, Don Juan, ruler of Spain, died. (MC, 12/17/01) 1679 nend Elections in England produced a new House of Commons, but King Charles II declined to let it assemble. (ON, 7/06, p.9) 1679 1947 Some 8,500 vessels have been lost in Lake Michigan over this period. (Hem., 7/96, p.25) 1680 nend Apr 3, Shivaji Raje Bhosle (b.1627), warrior king and founder of the Maratha empire of western India, died. (Econ, 7/12/08, p.73)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shivaji) 1680 nend May 5, Giuseppe Porsile, composer, was born. (MC, 5/5/02) 1680 nend May 29, Abraham Megerle (73), composer, died. (SC, 5/29/02) 1680 nend Jul 26, John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, poet, courtier, died. (MC, 7/26/02) 1680 nend Aug 13, War started when the Spanish were expelled from Santa Fe, New Mexico, by Indians under Chief Pope. (HN, 8/13/98) 1680 nend Aug 21, Pueblo Indians took possession of Santa Fe, N.M., after driving out the Spanish. They destroyed almost all of the Spanish churches in Taos and Santa Fe. (AP, 8/21/97)(SFEC, 6/21/98, Z1 p.8) 1680 nend Aug 24, Colonel Thomas Blood, Irish adventurer who stole the Crown Jewels from the Tower of London in 1671, died. Captured after the theft, he insisted on seeing King Charles II, who pardoned him. (Reuters, 8/24/01) 1680 nend Sep 25, Samuel Butler (b.1612), poet and satirist, died. (MC, 9/25/01) 1680 nend Oct 13, Daniel Elsevier, book publisher and publisher, died at 54. (MC, 10/13/01) 1680 nend Oct, King Charles II of England was forced to recall Parliament in order to ask for money to fortify the port of Tangier, Morocco, which was under assault by Moorish forces. (ON, 7/06, p.9) 1680 nend Nov 18, Jean-Baptiste Loeillet, composer, was born. (MC, 11/18/01) 1680 nend Nov 27, Athanasius Kircher, German Jesuit and inventor of a lantern, died. (MC, 11/27/01) 1680 nend Nov 28 Giovanni "Gian" Lorenzo Bernini (b.Dec 7,1598), Sculptor, Painter, Architect, Italian, the greatest sculptor of the 17th century, died. (DTnet, 11/28/97) 1680 nend Pierre Puget made his bronze sculpture of Herakles (Hercules) struggling in the burning tunic. Sophocles around 440-420 composed his tragedy "The Trachinian Women." It described what happened when Hercules put on the robe woven by his wife Deianeira. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.55) 1680 nend John Locke completed two works requested by the Earl of Shaftsbury. "The First Treatise on Civil Government" was written to counter Robert Filmer?s old book "Patriarcha." "The Second Treatise on Civil Government" was a more general approach. It concerns the interconnection of three great ideas: property, government, and revolution. Government comes into existence, said Locke, because of property. If there is no property, then government is not needed to protect it. For Locke the question revolved around whether property was legitimate. (V.D.-H.K.p.219) 1680 nend Benedetto Ferrari composed his oratorio "Il Sansone," (Samson). It was later discovered that he wrote the text and probably the music for "Pur to miro," the final duet for Monteverdi?s "L?Incoronazione di Poppea." (SFC, 1/20/98, p.E1)(SFC, 6/9/98, p.D1) 1680 nend In Hamburg, Germany, a cymbal was used for the 1st time in an orchestra. (SFC, 9/18/99, p.B3) 1680 nend The original parish of the Nuestra Senora de la Purisima Concepcion church in Socorro, Texas, also known as San Miguel because it contains a statue of the archangel Michael, was founded. (AWAM, Dec. 94, p.65) 1680 nend Maryland colonists ran out of supplies and survived starvation by eating oysters. (SFC, 9/18/99, p.B3) c 1680 nend The first American tall case clock, later called a "grandfather clock," was built. (SFC,10/22/97, Z1 p.7) 1680 nend Chief Justice William Scroggs was impeached for, among other things, browbeating witnesses, cursing and drinking to excess. (WSJ, 1/25/99, p.A19) 1680 nend An eclipse of the sun occurred in this year. The oral tradition of one African culture speaks of a strange darkness during chief Bo Kama Bomenchala?s reign. (ATC, p.147) 1680 nend Light from the supernova of the star Cassiopeia A reached Earth. A remnant was observed by the Chandra X-ray Observatory in 1999. (USAT, 8/27/99, p.14A)(Econ, 8/28/04, p.71) 1680 nend Kateri Tekakwitha, a Mohawk Indian, died. She became the first Native American to be beatified by the Catholic Church in 1980. (SFEC, 9/14/97, p.A18) 1680 nend Leavened bread was developed in Egypt. (SFC, 9/18/99, p.B3) 1680 nend Hykos tribesmen wore sandals and successfully overcame barefoot Egyptians. (SFC, 9/18/99, p.B3) 1680 nend Portuguese founded Colonia del Sacramento (Uruguay) for smuggling contraband across the Rio de la Plata to Spanish-controlled Argentina. (SSFC, 10/30/05, p.F7) c 1680 1685 Simon Pietesz, Verelst, painted a portrait of "Nell Gwyn," Protestant mistress to Charles II. (WSJ, 3/7/02, p.A22) 1680 1786 On Senegal it was estimated that over 2 million slaves passed through Goree Island on their way to the American colonies. (SFC, 4/3/98, p.B3) 1681 nend Jan 6, 1st recorded boxing match was between the Duke of Albemarle's butler and his butcher. (MC, 1/6/02) 1681 nend Jan 8, The treaty of Radzin ended a five year war between the Turks and the allied countries of Russia and Poland. (HN, 1/8/99) 1681 nend Jan 18, England's King Charles II suspended Parliament and set its next meeting for March in Oxford. (ON, 7/06, p.10) 1681 nend Mar 4, England's King Charles II granted a charter to William Penn (37) for 48,000 square miles that later became Pennsylvania. Penn?s father had bequeathed him a claim of £15,000 against the king. Penn later laid out the city of Philadelphia as a gridiron about 2 miles long, east to west, and a mile wide. (PCh, 1992, p.259)(AP, 3/4/98)(SFEC, 8/16/98, p.T1) 1681 nend Mar 14, Georg Philipp Telemann, late baroque composer, was born in Magdeburg, Germany. (MC, 3/14/02) 1681 nend Apr 8, England's King Charles II received the 1st installment of a 5-million livre subsidy from King Louis of France. This provided him independence from Parliament and he ruled without it until his death in 1685. (ON, 7/06, p.10) 1681 nend Apr 11, Anne Danican Philidor, composer, was born. (MC, 4/11/02) 1681 nend May 17, Louis XIV sent an expedition to aid James II in Ireland. As a result, England declared war on France. (HN, 5/17/99) 1681 nend May 25, Caldéron de la Barca (b.1600), Spanish dramatist & poet, died. (WUD, 1994 p.210)(SC, 5/25/02) 1681 nend Aug 22, Pierre Danican Philidor, composer, was born. (MC, 8/22/02) 1681 nend Oct 24, Earl of Shaftesbury (d.1683) was accused of high treason in London. The Earl of Shaftesbury had challenged the king on the question of succession. The king dissolved Parliament and threw Shaftesbury into the Tower of London and charged him with treason. Shaftesbury was acquitted and went to Holland with John Locke. (V.D.-H.K.p.220)(MC, 10/24/01)(PCh, 1992, p.260) 1681 nend Nov 9, Hungarian parliament promised Protestants freedom of religion. (MC, 11/9/01) 1681 nend Fa Jo-chen, Chinese artist, created a 45-foot-long handscroll of a winding river with the land on both sides rolled up in round, furry lumps. (WSJ, 5/15/02, p.AD7) 1681 nend Nehemiah Grew, the first scientist to call sloths by their common English name, described the animal in his catalog of specimens owned by the Royal Society of London. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.20-21) 1681 nend The dodo bird was last seen on Mauritius. The dodo bird became extinct on Mauritius. In 2005 scientists reported the discovery of a complete skeleton of the bird on Mauritius. (SFC, 7/7/96, BR p.5)(NH, 11/96, p.24)(SFEC, 6/21/98, Z1 p.8)(SSFC,12/25/05, p.A2) 1681 1730 French Protestants, known as Huguenots, migrated in large numbers to England due to persecutions known as dragonnades wherein rowdy soldiers were billeted in their homes. They also lost a semblance of security in the 1685 revocation of the Edict of Nantes. (Econ, 12/20/03, p.85) 1681 1764 Johann Mattheson, German composer, friend of Handel. (LGC-HCS, p.38) 1682 nend Feb 13, Giovanni Piazzetta, painter, was born. (HN, 2/13/98) 1682 nend Apr 3, Esteban Murillo (b.1617), Spanish painter, died. Some of his mid-century work in Seville portrayed the effects of the Plague that killed 50% of the population in 4 months. (WSJ, 4/9/02, p.D19)(MC, 4/3/02) 1682 nend Apr 9, The French explorer Rene Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, reached the Mississippi River. La Salle claimed lower Mississippi River and all lands that touched it for France. (AP, 4/9/97)(SFC, 11/30/96, p.A7)(HN, 4/9/98) 1682 nend Apr 11, Jean-Joseph Mouret, composer, was born. (MC, 4/11/02) 1682 nend May 6, King Louis XIV moved his court to Versailles, France. (HN, 5/6/98) 1682 nend Jun 10, The first tornado of record in colonial America hit New Haven, Conn. (SFEC, 7/4/99, Z1 p.8) 1682 nend Jun 27, Charles XII (d.1718), King of Sweden (1697-1718), was born. (WUD, 1994, p.249)(SFC, 8/17/96, p.E5)(HN, 6/27/98) 1682 nend Jul 14, Henry Purcell was appointed organist of Chapel Royal, London. (MC, 7/14/02) 1682 nend Aug 24, Duke James of York gave Delaware to William Penn. (MC, 8/24/02) 1682 nend Aug 30, William Penn left England to sail to New World. He took along an insurance policy. (MC, 8/30/01) 1682 nend Sep 4, English astronomer Edmund Halley saw his namesake comet. (MC, 9/4/01) 1682 nend Oct 26, William Penn accepted the area around Delaware River from Duke of York. (MC, 10/26/01) 1682 nend Oct 29, The founder of Pennsylvania, William Penn, landed at what is now Chester, Pa. William Penn founded Philadelphia. Penn founded Pennsylvania as a "Holy Experiment" based on Quaker principles. (AP, 10/29/97)(SFEC, 6/21/98, Z1 p.8)(SSFC, 8/5/01, p.C10) 1682 nend Nov 23, Claude Lorrain, French painter (also known as Claude Gelée), died. His birth is variously noted from 1600-1604. (WSJ, 11/6/02,p.D8)(www.britannica.com/eb/article-9024243/Claude-Lorrain) 1682 nend Nehemiah Grew (1641-1712), English botanist and physician, postulated that plants reproduce sexually in his book ?Anatomy of Plants.? His 1st book on plant anatomy was titled ?The Anatomy of Vegetable Begun? (1672). (www.britannica.com/eb/article-9038079)(Econ, 11/12/05, p.88) 1682 nend Thomas Otway wrote his Restoration tragedy "Venice Preserv?d." (WSJ, 2/6/97, p.A12) 1682 nend John Playford organized the Musick?s Recreation on the Viol. (EMN, 1/96, p.4) 1682 nend Wren?s Royal Hospital Chelsea was founded by Charles II as a hostel for old soldiers. (WSJ, 3/11/02, p.A16) 1682 nend William Penn established Bucks County as one of Pennsylvania?s 3 original counties. (WSJ, 3/22/08, p.R7) 1682 nend Nicholas Wise founded Norfolk, Va. (SFEC, 7/4/99, Z1 p.8) 1682 nend Pere Lachaise, a French Jesuit priest, was confessor to Louis XIV. His order built a house on the future site of the Paris cemetery named after him. (SFC, 6/16/96, T-6) 1682 nend In Russia a rebellion by government Streltsy regiments killed the grandfather, aunts and other relatives of Peter the Great. The Monastery of Peter the Metropolitan was reconstructed and as served as the family necropolis. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.38) 1682 nend In Tibet the Fifth Dalai Lama (b.1617) died. His death kept hidden for 15 years by his prime minister and possible son Desi Sangay Gyatso in order that the Potala Palace could be finished and Tibet's neighbors not take advantage of an interregnum in the succession. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5th_Dalai_Lama) 1682 1725 The rule of Peter the Great. The original stone cathedral of the Monastery of the Epiphany in Moscow was built during this time. It was built over the remnants of an earlier wooden church. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.37) 1683 nend Feb 12, A Christian Army, led by Charles, the Duke of Lorraine and King John Sobieski of Poland, routed a huge Ottoman army surrounding Vienna. (HN, 2/12/99) 1683 nend Feb 20, Philip V, first Bourbon King of Spain, was born. [see Dec 19] (HN, 2/20/01) 1683 nend Apr 1, Roger Williams (b.1603) died in poverty in Rhode Island. Williams died at Providence between 16 January and 16 April 1683/84, his wife Mary having predeceased him in 1676. Williams was the first champion of complete religious toleration in America. In 2005 Edwin S. Gaustad authored the biography ?Roger Williams.? (http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=1110)(WSJ,6/21/05, p.D10) 1683 nend Apr 15, Catherine I (d.1727), empress of Russia (1725-1727), was born as Martha Skravonskaya in Jacobstadt, Latvia. Catherine was the daughter of Samuil Skavronski, a Lithuanian peasant. (HN, 4/15/98)(www.arthistoryclub.com/art_history/Catherine_I_of_Russia) 1683 nend Jun 23, William Penn signed a friendship treaty with Lenni Lenape Indians in Pennsylvania. It became the only treaty "not sworn to, nor broken." (HN, 6/23/98)(MC, 6/23/02) 1683 nend Jul 3, Edward Young, English poet, dramatist and literary critic, was born. He wrote "Night Thoughts." (HN, 7/3/99) 1683 nend Jul 21, Lord William Russell, English plotter against Charles II, was beheaded. (MC, 7/21/02) 1683 nend Jul 24, The 1st settlers from Germany to US left aboard the ship Concord. (www.ulib.iupui.edu/kade/germantown.html) 1683 nend Sep 3, Turkish troops broke through the defense of Vienna. (MC, 9/3/01) 1683 nend Sep 6, Jean-Baptiste Colbert (b.1619), French finance minister (1665-1683) under Louis XIV, died. He pioneered ?dirigisme,? i.e. state control of the economy and state intervention in industry. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Colbert)(Econ, 3/25/06,p.71) 1683 nend Sep 9, Algernon Sidney, English Whig politician and plotter, was beheaded. (MC, 9/9/01) 1683 nend Sep 12, A combined Austrian and Polish army defeated the Ottoman Turks at Kahlenberg and lifted the siege on Vienna, Austria. Prince Eugene of Savoy helped repel an invasion of Vienna, Austria, by Turkish forces. Marco d'Aviano, sent by Pope Innocent XI to unite the outnumbered Christian troops, spurred them to victory. The Turks left behind sacks of coffee which the Christians found too bitter, so they sweetened it with honey and milk and named the drink cappuccino after the Capuchin order of monks to which d'Aviano belonged. An Austrian baker created a crescent-shaped roll, the Kipfel, to celebrate the victory. Empress Maria Theresa later took it to France where it became the croissant. In 2006 John Stoye authored ?The Siege of Vienna.? (Hem., Dec. '95, p.69)(WSJ, 3/27/96, p.A-16)(HN, 9/12/98)(SFEC,2/6/00, p.A1)(Reuters, 4/28/03)(WSJ, 6/3/03, p.D5) (WSJ, 12/6/06, p.D12) 1683 nend Sep 17, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek reported the existence of bacteria. (MC, 9/17/01) 1683 nend Sep 24, King Louis XIV expelled all Jews from French possessions in America. (MC, 9/24/01) 1683 nend Sep 25, Jean-Philippe Rameau, composer, was born in Dijon, France. (MC, 9/25/01) 1683 nend Sep 29, A small armada sailed from the Mexican mainland across the Sea of Cortez to the Baha Peninsula. Hostile natives had forced them back to the mainland on a first landing and a storm forced them back on a 2nd attempt. (SFEC, 5/18/97, p.T5)(WSJ, 12/26/97, p.A9) 1683 nend Oct 6, 13 Mennonite families from Krefeld, Germany, arrived in present-day Philadelphia to begin Germantown, one of America's oldest settlements. They were encouraged by William Penn's offer of 5,000 acres of land in the colony of Pennsylvania and the freedom to practice their religion. (AP, 10/6/97)(www.ulib.iupui.edu/kade/germantown.html) 1683 nend Oct 6, The small armada from the Mexican mainland landed on their 3rd attempt at crossing to the Baha peninsula and settled at the mouth of a river that they named San Bruno. The site was abandoned after 2 years. Spanish settlement on the Baha was later described by Father James Donald Francez in "The Lost Treasures of Baha California." (SFEC, 5/18/97, p.T5)(WSJ, 12/26/97, p.A9) 1683 nend Oct 30, George II, King of Great Britain (1727-60), was born. [see Oct 30] (MC, 10/30/01) 1683 nend Nov 10, George II, king of England (1727-60), was born. [see Nov 10] (MC, 11/10/01) 1683 nend Nov 22, Purcell's "Welcome to All the Pleasures," premiered in London. (MC, 11/22/01) 1683 nend Dec 19, Philip V, King of Spain (1700-24, 24-46), was born in Versailles, France. [see Feb 20] (MC, 12/19/01) 1683 nend Dec 25, Kara Mustapha (b.~1634), chief of the Ottoman janissaries, appeared before the grand vizier in Belgrade. He was sentenced to death and executed for the military loss at Vienna. (WSJ, 12/5/06, p.D12)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kara_Mustafa) 1683 nend Giovanni Battista Foggini created his sculpture "The Mass of Saint Andrea Corsini." (WSJ, 1/29/02, p.A18) 1683 nend The Ashmolean Museum was built in Oxford to house natural-history artifacts. It was the first such public museum. It gained its name and its first collections from Elias Ashmole (1617-1692), whose own collections were derived in part from those of John Tradescant (1608-1662). (WSJ, 1/11/99,p.R34)(http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/speel//otherart/ashmole.htm) 1683 nend Alessandro Scarlatti (father of Domenico Scarlatti) wrote the score for his opera "L?Aldimiro." The only know score extant was found in a library in Berkeley, Ca., in 1989. (SFC, 5/26/96, DB p.26) 1683 nend Secatogue Indians deeded land on the South Shore of Long Island to William Nicoll. (WSJ, 10/9/07, p.D6) 1683 nend French King Louis XIV married Madame de Maintenon (1635-1719), his mistress for the last 11 years, shortly after the death of his wife. The marriage was kept secret for the next 3 decades. (Econ, 7/26/08, p.96) 1683 nend Taiwan was claimed by China's Manchu dynasty after large-scale immigration from the Chinese mainland to the island. (AP, 8/12/06) 1683 1707 Adriaen Coorte (b.1665), a Dutch Golden Age painter of still lifes, signed his work during this period. His work included ?Still Life With Sea Shells? (1698). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriaen_Coorte) 1684 nend Jan 11, In Switzerland this day ?was so frightfully cold that all of the communion wine froze," said an entry by Brother Josef Dietrich, governor and "weatherman" of the Einsiedeln Monastery. The Einsiedeln abbots, princes within the Holy Roman Empire until 1798, were powerful leaders who ruled over large swaths of central Switzerland's mountainous terrain. (AP, 9/15/07) 1684 nend Apr 25, A patent was granted for the thimble. (SS, 4/25/02) 1684 nend Jun 21, King Charles II revoked the 1629 Massachusetts Bay Colony charter. [see 1691] (HNQ, 11/23/00)(MC, 6/21/02) 1684 nend Jun 22, Francesco Onofrio Manfredini, composer, was born. (MC, 6/22/02) 1684 nend Oct 1, Pierre Corneille, French lawyer and dramatist (El Cid, Polyeucte), died at 42. (MC, 10/1/01) 1684 nend Oct 10, Jean Antoine Watteau (d.1721), French rococo painter, was born. (WUD, 1994 p.1614)(AAP, 1964)(MC, 10/10/01) 1684 nend Dec 3, Ludvig Baron Holberg, founder of Danish & Norwegian literature, was born. (MC, 12/3/01) 1684 nend For one year Paris was the world?s biggest city. (SFEC, 2/22/98, Z1 p.8) 1684 nend French explorer Rene Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, set sail for what is now Louisiana with 4 ships commissioned from King Louis XIV. On the way one ship was lost to pirates, another broke apart on a sand bar and a third returned home. The 4th was sunk in a storm in 1686. (SFC, 11/30/96, p.A7) 1685 nend Jan, French explorer Rene Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, landed at Matagorda Bay, Texas. He thought that he was at the mouth of the Mississippi River but soon realized his mistake and went of looking for the river. (SFC, 11/9/96, p.A12)(SFC, 11/30/96, p.A7) 1685 nend Feb 6, Charles II (54), King of England, Scotland, Ireland (1660-85), died and was succeeded by his Catholic brother James II. He made a deathbed conversion to the Roman Catholic faith. He had earlier ordered Christopher Wren to build an observatory and maritime college at Greenwich. In 2000 Stephen Coote authored the biography: "Royal Survivor." (WSJ, 2/28/00, p.A36)(http://tinyurl.com/hkkln) 1685 nend Feb 11, David Teniers III (46), Flemish painter, died. (MC, 2/11/02) 1685 nend Feb 23, George Frideric Handel (d.1759), composer and musician, was born in Halle, Germany. (LGC-HCS, p.37)(AP, 2/23/98)(HN, 2/23/98) 1685 nend Mar 21, Composer Johann Sebastian Bach (d.1750) was born in Eisenach, Germany, the youngest of eight children. 2nd source says Mar 21. He composed cantatas, sonatas, preludes, fugues and chorale preludes, and whose works included "Brandenburg Concerto" and "Well-Tempered Clavier." (AP, 3/21/97)(LGC-HCS.p.17)(HN, 3/21/99) 1685 nend May 28, Pieter de la Court (~67), economist, historian, died. (MC, 5/28/02) 1685 nend Jun 11, James Scott, Duke of Monmouth, rebelled against Catholic king James II. (AP, 6/11/03) 1685 nend Jun 30, John Gay, playwright, was born. He wrote the Beggars' Opera which attacked the court of George II, (HN, 6/30/99) 1685 nend Jun 30, Dominikus Zimmermann, German architect, painter (Liebfrauenkirche), was born. (MC, 6/30/02) 1685 nend Jun 30, Archibald Campbell (~55), Scottish politician, was beheaded. (MC, 6/30/02) 1685 nend Jun, Qing Emperor Kangxi sent Manchu, Chinese and Daurian forces in a siege against Russians at Albazino on the far eastern Amur River. Some 100 of 800 Russians were killed on the first day of the attack. The survivors surrendered and returned to Nerchinsk. (Econ, 12/19/09, p.71) 1685 nend Jul 6, James II defeated James, the Duke of Monmouth, at the Battle of Sedgemoor, the last major battle to be fought on English soil. (HN, 7/6/98) 1685 nend Jul 15, James Scott, the Duke of Monmouth and illegitimate son of Charles II, was executed on Tower Hill in England, after his army was defeated at Sedgemoor. (HN, 7/15/98)(MC, 7/15/02) 1685 nend Oct 18, King Louis the XIV signed the Edict of Fontainebleau, revoking the Edict of Nantes that had established legal toleration of France's Protestant population, the Huguenots. The French Parliament recorded the new edict four days later. The edict signed at Nantes, France, by King Henry IV in 1598, had given the Huguenots religious liberty, civil rights and security. By revoking the Edict of Nantes, Louis XIV abrogated their religious liberties. He declared France entirely Catholic again. (HN, 4/13/98)(HN, 10/18/98)(AP, 10/18/07) 1685 nend Oct 26, Domenico Scarlatti (d.1757, composer and harpsichordist was born in Naples, Italy. Scarlatti, son of Alessandro, composed over 550 short, keyboard sonatas or exercises. (WUD, 1994 p.1275)(LGC-HCS, p.38)(MC, 10/26/01) 1685 nend Nov 8, Fredrick William of Brandenburg issued the Edict of Potsdam, offering Huguenots refuge. (HN, 11/6/98) 1685 nend Dec 3, Charles II barred Jews from settling in Stockholm, Sweden. (MC, 12/3/01) 1685 nend Dec 12, Lodovico Giustini, composer, was born. (MC, 12/12/01) 1685 nend Sylvestre Dufour published "Traitez Nuveaux et Curieux de Cafe, du The, et du Chocolat." (WSJ, 7/7/98, p.A14) 1685 nend Dutch mapmaker, Johannes van Keulen, produced a map of New York and Long Island. He charted the Hudson and Connecticut rivers with greater accuracy than ever before. Long Island was labeled on the map as "Lange Eyland." (WSJ, 11/24/95, p.B-8) 1685 nend In Canada there was a shortage of currency and playing cards were assigned monetary values for use as money. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1685 nend The Venetians returned to the Peloponnesus. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.56) 1685 1712 Celia Fiennes? journal about her travels throughout England have provided historians with valuable insight into the social conditions of the country in the late 1600s. Celia Fiennes, an enterprising young, single woman, rode side-saddle through every county in England. She traveled alone except for two servants, and the journal she kept, later published as "The Journeys of Celia Fiennes 1685-c.1712," is the only evidence we have of her travels. (HNQ, 4/22/01) c 1685 1753 George Berkeley, Irish bishop and philosopher. He argued that the things we see around us exist only as ideas. This was in opposition to naive realism which held that we perceive objects as they really are. (WUD, 1994, p.140)(WSJ, 8/21/98, p.W13) 1685 1768 Hakuin Ekaku, Japanese Zen painter. His work included "Side View of Daruma." (SSFC, 9/23/01, DB p.48) 1686 nend Jan, A storm arose and sank the ship, La Belle, of French explorer Rene Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, in Matagorda Bay, Texas. La Salle was off searching for the Mississippi River. The wreck was discovered in 1995 and in 1996 a skeleton was bound onboard. (SFC, 11/9/96, p.A12)(SFC, 11/30/96, p.A7) 1686 nend Feb 15, Jean Baptiste Lully's opera "Armide," premiered in Paris. (MC, 2/15/02) 1686 nend Apr 4, English king James II published a Declaration of Indulgence. (MC, 4/4/02) 1686 nend Apr 28, The first volume of Isaac Newton's "Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica" ("Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy") was published in Latin. His invention of differential and integral calculus is here presented. Here also are stated Newton?s laws of motion, that obliterated the Aristotelian concept of inertia. 1) Every physical body continues in its state of rest, unless it is compelled to change that state by a force or forces impressed upon it. 2) A change of motion is proportional to the force impressed upon the body and is made in the direction of the straight line in which the force is impressed. 3) To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction. Book Three of the Principia opens with two pages headed "Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy." There are four rules as follows: 1) We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sufficient to explain the appearances. [A restatement of Ockham?s Razor: "What can be done with fewer is done in vain with more."] 2) Therefore to the same natural effects we must, as far as possible, assign the same causes. 3) The qualities of bodies which are found to belong to all bodies within the reach of our experiments, are to be esteemed the universal qualities of bodies whatsoever. 4) In experimental philosophy we are to look upon propositions inferred by general induction from phenomena as accurately or very nearly true notwithstanding any contrary hypothesis that may be imagined, till such time as other phenomena occur, by which they may either be made more accurate, or liable to exceptions. (V.D.-H.K.p.207-10)(HN, 4/28/98) 1686 nend May 14, Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit German physicist and instrument maker, was born. He invented the thermometer. [see May 24] (HN, 5/14/98) 1686 nend May 24, Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit (d.1736), German physicist, was born. He devised a temperature scale and introduced the use of mercury in thermometers. He assigned the number 32 for the melting point of ice, 96 to the temperature of blood and 212 to the steam point.[see May 14] (WUD, 1994, p.510)(SFEC, 3/22/98, Par. p.8)(HN, 5/24/98) 1686 nend Jul 8, The Austrians took Buda, Hungary, from the Turks and annexed the country. Hapsburg rule lasted to 1918. (HN, 7/8/98)(Sm, 3/06, p.76) 1686 nend Jul 22, Albany, New York, began operating under an official charter. (SFEC, 4/2/00, Z1 p.2) 1686 nend Jul 24, Benedetto Marcello, composer, was born. [see Aug 1] (MC, 7/24/02) 1686 nend Aug 1, Benedetto Marcello, Italian author, composer (Lettera Famigliare), was born in Venice, Italy. [see Jul 24] (MC, 8/1/02) 1686 nend Dec 19, Robinson Crusoe left his island after 28 years (as per Defoe). (MC, 12/19/01) 1686 nend The NYC Charter of this year incorporated the rights of the 1664 New Amsterdam "Articles of Capitulation." (WSJ, 3/16/04, p.D6) 1686 nend The Lenape Indians allegedly sold land along the Lehigh River to William Penn. (ON, 1/03, p.6) 1686 nend Two Mohican Indians signed a mortgage for their land in Schaghticoke, New York, with simple markings. It was notarized by Robert Livingston, whose family became one of the greatest agricultural landlords and int'l. merchants in the colony of New York. (WSJ, 11/19/99, p.W10) 1686 nend Russians returned to Albazino on the far eastern Amur River and were again attacked by the Manchus. After a year?s siege they surrendered with only 40 of 900 alive. (Econ, 12/19/09, p.71) 1687 nend Feb 19, Johann Adam Birkenstock, composer and sandal designer, was born. (MC, 2/19/02) 1687 nend Feb 22, Jean-Baptiste Lully, composer, died in Paris. Lully, Paris Opera director, had stabbed himself in the foot with a baton and died of blood poisoning. (SFC, 8/21/99, p.B3)(MC, 2/22/02) 1687 nend Mar 19, French explorer Robert Cavelier (43), Sieur de La Salle, the first European to navigate the length of the Mississippi River, was murdered by mutineers while searching for the mouth of the Mississippi, along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico in present-day Texas. (SFC, 11/9/96, p.A12)(AP, 3/19/97)(HN, 3/19/99)(MC, 3/19/02) 1687 nend Mar 28, Constantine Huygens (90), diplomat, poet, composer (Bluebottles), died. (MC, 3/28/02) 1687 nend Apr 4, King James II ordered his Declaration of Indulgence read in church. (http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1327117) 1687 nend Aug 12, At the Battle of Mohacs, Hungary, Charles of Lorraine defeated the Turks. (HN, 8/12/98) 1687 nend Sep 26, The Venetian army attacked the Acropolis in Athens while trying to eject Turks. Marauding Venetians sent a mortar through a gable window of the Parthenon and ignited a Turkish store of gunpowder. This damaged the northern colonnade of the Parthenon. The Parthenon was destroyed in the war between Turks and Venetians. (SFEC, 6/6/99, p.A26)(MC, 9/26/01) 1687 nend Sep 28, Venetians took Athens from the Turks. (MC, 9/28/01) 1687 nend Oct 27, The Connecticut colony?s charter was stolen during a public meeting in which Gov. Robert Treat defended the colony against demands by Sir Edmund Andros. It was soon hidden under an oak tree (the Charter Oak) in Hartford to protect it from seizure by agents of the King James II. (www.hartfordhistory.net/faq.html#charter) 1687 nend Nov 13, Nell [Eleanor] Gwyn (37), mistress of Charles II of England, died. (MC, 11/13/01) 1687 nend Dec 5, Francesco Xaverio Geminiani, composer, was born. (MC, 12/5/01) 1687 nend Giovanni Battista Foggini created a portrait bust of "Cosimo III de? Medici." (WSJ, 1/29/02, p.A18) 1687 nend The Austrian Army captured Petrovaradin (Serbia) after 150 years of Turkish control during the Great Turkish War. The Austrians began to tear down the old fortress and build new fortifications according to contemporary standards. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Eug%C3%A8ne_de_Cro%C3%BF) 1687 nend Clocks began to be made with 2 hands for the first time (SFEC, 9/7/97, Z1 p.5) 1687 nend James II, a Roman Catholic, supported unpopular policies that, by 1687, led to many English subjects urging William to intervene. With the birth of a son to James in 1688, fears of a Roman Catholic succession led to opponents sending an invitation to William in July. (HNQ, 12/28 /00) 1687 nend Newton declared that time is absolute... "It flows equably without relation to anything external." This view was held until Einstein?s relativity in 1905. (NG, March 1990, J. Boslough p. 118) 1687 1691 Suleiman II succeeded Mehmed IV in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii) 1688 nend Feb 18, At a Quaker meeting in Germantown, Pa, German Mennonites penned a memorandum stating a profound opposition to Negro slavery. Quakers in Germantown, Pa., adopted the fist formal antislavery resolution in America. (HN, 2/18/99)(www.germanheritage.com/Publications/cronau/cronau4.html) 1688 nend Apr 15, Johann Friedrich Fasch, composer, was born. (MC, 4/15/02) 1688 nend Apr 27, King James II issued another Declaration of Indulgence: ?conscience ought not to be constrained nor people forced in matters of mere religion." (http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1327117) 1688 nend May 21, Alexander Pope (d.1744), England, poet (Rape of the Lock), was born. His "Essay on Criticism" contains the line: "A little learning is a dangerous thing..." (NH, 9/97, p.24)(MC, 5/21/02) 1688 nend May 25, Christian August Jacobi, composer, was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1688 nend Jun 10, Mary of Modena, the wife of Britain?s King James II, gave birth to a male heir. This placed England, much to the dismay of Parliament, in line for a succession of Catholic monarchs. (Econ, 2/4/06, p.77)(ON, 7/06, p.10) 1688 nend Jun 30, A jury proclaimed 7 English bishops not guilty of seditious libel against James II. They had refused to comply with his April 27 Declaration of Indulgence because it had not been approved by Parliament. (www.everything2.com/index.pl?node=Seven%20Bishops) 1688 nend Aug 15, Frederick-William I, king of Prussia (1713-1740), was born. (MC, 8/15/02) 1688 nend Aug 31, John Bunyan, preacher, novelist (Pilgrim's Progress), died. (MC, 8/31/01) 1688 nend Sep 6, Imperial troops defeated the Turks and took Belgrade, Serbia. (HN, 9/6/98) 1688 nend Oct 1, Seven British noblemen sent a letter to Prince William of Orange inviting him to invade England and rescue the country from James? ?popery.? William accepted. (Econ, 2/4/06, p.77)(ON, 7/06, p.10) 1688 nend Oct 27, King James II fired premier Robert Spencer. (MC, 10/27/01) 1688 nend Nov 1, William of Orange set sail for England at the head of a fleet of 500 ships and 30,000 men. He intended too oust his father-in-law King James II. The Dutch parliament, the States General, funded William with 4 million guilders. Amsterdam financiers provided another 2 million. Some of this was used to print 60,000 copies of his ?Declaration? (of the reasons inducing him to appear in arms in the Kingdom of England), which were distributed in England. In 2008 Lisa Jardine authored ?Going Dutch: How England Plundered Holland?s Glory.? (WSJ, 8/28/08, p.A13) 1688 nend Nov 5, William of Orange landed in southern England and marched with his army nearly unopposed to London. (WSJ, 8/28/08, p.A13) 1688 nend Nov 24, General strategist John Churchill met William III. (MC, 11/24/01) 1688 nend Nov 25, Princess Anne fled from London to Nottingham. (MC, 11/25/01) 1688 nend Nov 26, King James II escaped back to London. (MC, 11/26/01) 1688 nend Nov 26, Louis XIV declared war on the Netherlands. (HN, 11/26/98) 1688 nend Dec 4, General strategist John Churchill (later Duke of Marlborough) joined with William III. (MC, 12/4/01) 1688 nend Dec 9, King James II's wife and son fled England for France. (MC, 12/9/01) 1688 nend Dec 11, King James II attempted to flee London as the "Glorious Revolution" replaced him with King William (of Orange) and Queen Mary. James attempted to flee to France, first throwing the Great Seal of the Realm into the River Thames. He was, however, caught in Kent. Having no desire to make James a martyr, the Prince of Orange let him escape on December 23, 1688. James was received by Louis XIV, who offered him a palace and a generous pension. In 2007 Michael Barone authored ?Our First Revolution: The Remarkable British Upheaval That Inspired America?s Founding Fathers.? (HN, 12/11/98)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_II_of_England) 1688 nend Dec 18, William of Orange made a triumphant march into London as James II fled in the "Glorious Revolution." William of Orange, son of William II (Prince of Orange) and Mary (daughter of Charles I of England), was fourth in line to the English throne. In 2006 Edward Valance authored ?The Glorious Revolution: 1688 ? Britain?s Fight for Liberty.? (WSJ, 2/6/02, p.A16)(Econ, 2/4/06, p.77)(ON, 12/10, p.12) 1688 nend Dec 23, English King James II fled to France. (MC, 12/23/01) 1688 nend Dec 23, Jean-Louis Lully (21), composer, died. (MC, 12/23/01) 1688 nend Dec 25, English king James II landed in Ambleteuse, France. (MC, 12/25/01) 1688 nend French writer Pierre d'Ortigue de Vaumoriere published anonymously his book, ?The Art of Pleasing Conversation.? (WSJ, 5/13/05, p.W6)(http://tinyurl.com/d8tac) 1688 nend Joseph de la Vega published his work "Confusion de Confusiones." It offered trading strategies to speculators and was built around a conversation between a merchant, a philosopher, and a shareholder. The book was republished in 1996. (WSJ, 3/5/96, p. A-12) 1688 nend The Notre-Dame-des-Victoires, the oldest stone church in North America, was built in Quebec City, Canada. (SSFC, 7/30/06, p.G8) 1688 nend In England Edward Lloyd opened a London coffee shop where shipping insurance was bought and sold. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1688 nend In France a blind Benedictine monk named Dom Perignon discovered the fermentation process that led to champagne. [see 1662] He later devised a cork stopper to hold the bubbles. (WSJ, 10/16/98, p.W13)(Hem., 10/97, p.103)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1688 nend Persecuted Huguenots, French Protestants, arrived in South Africa and improved the quality of wine production. (SSFC, 12/3/00, p.T6) 1688 1689 James II was replaced by the Dutch King William. This process was masterminded by the group of seven, which included the Earl of Devonshire, who was then promoted to Duke in reward. William of Orange was a good Dutch Protestant and Mary was his queen. From this point on the king was but a figurehead and Parliament ruled England. (NG, Nov. 1985, M. Girouard, p.671), (V.D.-H.K.p.222,300) 1688 1763 Pierre Marivaux, French playwright and master of super-subtle dialogue. (WSJ, 10/20/95, p. A-12) 1689 nend Jan 18, Charles Louis de Montesquieu (d.1755), French philosopher and writer (Letters Persanes), was born. "In most things success depends on knowing how long it takes to succeed." He authored "The Spirit of the Laws," the 1st great comparative study of civilizations. (AP, 4/13/99)(WSJ, 11/1/00, p.A24)(MC, 1/18/02) 1689 nend Jan 22, England's "Bloodless Revolution" reached its climax when parliament invited William and Mary to become joint sovereigns. A specially-called parliament declared that James had abdicated and offered the throne to William and Mary. In 1938 G.M. Trevelyan authored ?The English Revolution.? In 2009 Steve Pincus authored ?The First Modern Revolution.? (HN, 1/22/99)(HNQ, 12/28/00)(Econ, 10/17/09, p.97) 1689 nend Feb 13, The British Parliament adopted the Bill of Rights. It limited the right of a king to govern without the consent of Parliament. (MT, Dec. '95, p.16)(ON, 12/10, p.12) 1689 nend Feb 14, English parliament placed Mary Stuart and Prince William III on the throne. (MC, 2/14/02) 1689 nend Feb 23, Dutch prince William III was proclaimed King of England. (MC, 2/23/02) 1689 nend Mar 12, Former English King James II landed in Ireland. (MC, 3/12/02) 1689 nend Mar, In Northern Ireland the gates of Londonderry were shut in the face of Catholic forces. The event was later celebrated by the Protestant Apprentice Boys as the Lundy?s Day demonstration. [see August 1, 1689] (SFEC,12/14/97, p.A26) 1689 nend Apr 11, (OS) William III and Mary II were crowned as joint sovereigns of Britain. As part of their oaths, the new King William III and Queen Mary were required to swear that they would obey the laws of Parliament. At this time, the Bill of Rights was read to both William and Mary. "We thankfully accept what you have offered us," William replied, agreeing to be subject to law and to be guided in his actions by the decisions of Parliament. (AP, 4/11/97)(www.bessel.org/billrts.htm) 1689 nend Apr 15, French king Louis XIV declared war on Spain. (MC, 4/15/02) 1689 nend Apr 18, George Jeffreys, 1st Baron Jeffreys of Wem, infamous judge, died. (MC, 4/18/02) 1689 nend Apr 19, Residents of Boston ousted their governor, Edmond Andros. (HN, 4/19/97) 1689 nend Apr 19, Christina (b.1626), Queen of Sweden (1644-54), died. In 2004 Veronica Buckley authored ?Christina: Queen of Sweden.? (www.sweden.se)(WSJ, 10/29/04, p.W10) 1689 nend Apr 21, (NS) William III and Mary II were crowned joint king and queen of England, Scotland and Ireland. (HN, 4/21/98)(HNQ, 12/28/00) 1689 nend May 11, The French and English naval battle took place at Bantry Bay. (HN, 5/11/98) 1689 nend May 12, England?s King William III joined the League of Augsburg and the Netherlands. The "Grand Alliance" was formed to counter the war of aggression launched by Louis XIV against the Palatinate states in Germany. This is known as The War of the League of Augsburg (1689-97) also The Nine Years' War, and the War of the Grand Alliance. (www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/king_william.htm) 1689 nend May 24, English Parliament passed the Act of Toleration, protecting Protestants. Roman Catholics were specifically excluded from exemption. (HN, 5/24/99) 1689 nend May 26, Mary Wortley Montagu, English essayist, feminist, eccentric, was born. (MC, 5/26/02) 1689 nend Jul 27, Government forces defeated the Scottish Jacobites at the Battle of Killiecrankie. (HN, 7/27/98) 1689 nend Jul, Maryland colonist known as the Protestant Associators marched on St. Mary?s City and seized the State House while Lord Baltimore was in England. They went on to take over his plantation at Mattapany. (Arch, 1/05, p.49) 1689 nend Aug 1, A siege of Londonderry, Ireland, by the Catholic Army of King James II ended in failure. The Protestants were victorious and the event led to the annual Apprentice Boy?s March. The group is named in honor of 13 teenage apprentices, all Protestants, who bolted the city gates in front of the advancing Catholic forces at the start of the 105-day siege. (SFEC, 8/11/96, p.A13)(HN, 8/1/98)(AP, 8/13/06) 1689 nend Aug 4-5, War between England and France led them to use their native American allies as proxies. In retaliation for the French attack on the Seneca in 1687, one thousand, five hundred Iroquois, with English support, attacked Lachine down river from the mission of the Mountain of Ville-Marie (Montreal), killing some 400. They put everything to fire and axe. Some suggest that this is a gross exaggeration and that only 24-25 were killed and likely 90 were captured by the Iroquois, but never returned. (www.telusplanet.net/public/dgarneau/french23.htm) 1689 nend Aug 19, Samuel Richardson (d.1761), English novelist (Pamela, Clarissa), was born in Derbyshire. (MC, 8/19/02) 1689 nend Aug 25, Battle at Charleroi: Spanish and English armies chased the French. (MC, 8/25/02) 1689 nend Aug 25, The Iroquois took Montreal. (MC, 8/25/02) 1689 nend Sep 1, Russia began taxing men's beards. (MC, 9/1/02) 1689 nend Oct 11, Peter the Great became tsar of Russia. (MC, 10/11/01) 1689 nend Dec 16, English Parliament adopted a Bill of Rights after Glorious Revolution. The Bill of Rights included a right to bear arms. William and Mary gave it Royal Assent which represented the end of the concept of divine right of kings. (WSJ, 8/6/02, p.D6)(www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/mon49.html) 1689 nend Dec 30, Henry Purcell's opera "Dido and Aeneas," premiered in Chelsea. (MC, 12/30/01) 1689 nend Memorable Providences, Related to Witchcrafts and Possessions, published by Cotton Mather, contributed to the hysteria that led to the Salem witch trials of 1692. Mather was a Puritan clergyman and the eldest son of Increase Mather. While Cotton Mather advised witch trial judges that executions would not be necessary, during the mass executions he remained uncritical. In his 1693 Wonders of the Invisible World Mather defended the verdicts of various trials. (HNQ, 10/31/98) 1689 nend John Locke returned to England with his two Treatises which were published late in the same year. He also published his letter on Toleration, in opposition to the strong religious intolerance then prevalent. (V.D.-H.K.p.165,222) 1689 nend Racine wrote a drama based on the Book of Esther. It tells the biblical story of how Esther, the Jewish daughter of Mordecai, is persuaded by her father to intervene on behalf of the Jews to her husband, King Ahaseurus of Persia, who has been persuaded by his lieutenant, Haman, to have all the Jews killed (WSJ, 5/12/98, p.A20) 1689 nend Purcell composed his musical tragedy "Dido and Aeneas." (SFC, 9/23/00, p.B10) 1689 nend The White Hart Inn at Ware put up 26 butchers and their wives in one bed, the "Great Bed of Ware," in a marketing ploy to attract customers. (WSJ, 12/6/01, p.A19) 1689 nend Russian and Manchu delegates met at Nerchinsk and drew up a treaty in Latin. This was China?s first treaty with a European power. China agreed to open up trade in exchange for Russia?s withdrawal from the Amur. (Econ, 12/19/09, p.71) 1689 1697 The Abnaki War [Abenaki] of in North America is better known as King William's War. It was the first of the intercolonial wars between France and England in North America, pitting the English and their Iroquois allies against the French and their Abnaki allies. The Abnakis were a powerful Algonquian tribe from Maine. King William?s War was a component of the European War of the League of Augsburg and was based in part on the growing rivalry between France and England over the control of North America. (HNQ, 8/26/99) 1690 nend Jan 14, The clarinet was invented in Germany. (MC, 1/14/02) 1690 nend Feb 3, The first paper money in America was issued by the colony of Massachusetts. The currency was used to pay soldiers fighting a war against Quebec. (SFC, 4/30/97, p.B3)(AP, 2/3/97) 1690 nend Feb 8, Some 200 French and Indian troops burned Schenectady, NY, and massacred about 60 people to avenge Iraquois raids on Canada. (AH, 2/05, p.17) 1690 nend Feb 21, Christoph Stoltzenberg, composer, was born. (MC, 2/21/02) 1690 nend Feb 22, Charles Le Brun (70), classical painter (Academie de Peinture), died. (MC, 2/22/02) 1690 nend Mar 16, French king Louis XIV sent troops to Ireland. (MC, 3/16/02) 1690 nend May 11, In the first major engagement of King William?s War, British troops from Massachusetts seized Port Royal in Acadia (Nova Scotia and New Brunswick) from the French, their objective was to take Quebec. (HN, 5/11/99) 1690 nend May 20, England passed the Act of Grace, forgiving followers of James II. (HN, 5/20/98) 1690 nend Jun 11, English king William III departed to Ireland. (PC, 1992, p.265) 1690 nend Jun 24, King William III's army landed at Carrickfergus, Ireland. (MC, 6/24/02) 1690 nend Jul 1, England's Protestant King William III of Orange was victorious over his father-in-law, the Catholic King James II (from Scot) in Battle of Boyne (in Ireland). This touched off three centuries of religious bloodshed. Protestants took over the Irish Parliament. This marked the beginning of the annual Drumcree parade, held by the Loyal Orange Lodge on the first Sunday of July. Due to calendar changes in 1752 this later became commemorated on Jul 12. (PC, 1992, p.265)(WSJ, 7/11/96, p.A1)(SFEC, 12/22/96, Z1 p.6)(SFEC,7/4/99, p.A18) 1690 nend Jul 1, Led by Marshall Luxembourg, the French defeated the forces of the Grand Alliance at Fleurus in the Netherlands. (HN, 7/1/98) 1690 nend Jul 7, Johann Tobias Krebs, composer, was born. (MC, 7/7/02) 1690 nend Jul 10, Domenico Gabrielli (39), composer, died. (MC, 7/10/02) 1690 nend Jul 12, Due to British calendar changes in 1752, the July 1, 1690, Battle of Boyne (in Ireland) was adjusted for celebration on Jul 12. (SFEC, 9/27/98, BR p.5)(AP, 7/11/05) 1690 nend Sep 6, King William III escaped back to England. (MC, 9/6/01) 1690 nend Sep 25, One of the earliest American newspapers, ?Publick Occurrences,? published its first and last edition in Boston. The colonial governor and council disallowed the pamphlet due to its contents. (AP, 9/25/00)(WSJ, 3/8/06, p.D14) 1690 nend Oct 7, The English attacked Quebec under Louis de Buade. (MC, 10/7/01) 1690 nend Oct 8, Belgrade was retaken by the Turks. (HN, 10/8/98) 1690 nend Oct 23, American colonial forces from Boston led by Sir William Phips, failed in their attempt to seize Quebec. Phips lost 4 ships on the return trip due to stormy weather. (Arch, 1/05, p.50)(http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34586) 1690 nend Oct 23, There was a revolt in Haarlem, Holland, after a public ban on smoking. (MC, 10/23/01) 1690 nend Nov 11, Gerhard Hoffmann, composer, was born. (MC, 11/11/01) 1690 nend Nov 24, Charles Theodore Pachelbel, composer, was born. (MC, 11/24/01) 1690 nend A newspaper called ?Publick Occurences Both Forreign and Domestick? was published in Boston, Mass. (WSJ, 12/29/07, p.A8) 1690 nend The 2nd Treatise on Government by John Locke (1632-1704) was published in order to justify the British Whig Revolution of 1688. In it he wrote that men had the natural rights of life, liberty and estate. no_source 1690 nend Khushal Khan Khattak (b.1613), Pushtun poet, died. He wrote in Pashtu during the reign of the Mongol emperors in the seventeenth century. He lived in the foothills of the Hindu Kush mountains. He was a renowned fighter who became known as the Afghan Warrior Poet. (www.afghan-network.net/biographies/khattak.html) 1690 nend Emp. Kangxi commissioned Wang Hui (1632-1717) to create a pictorial chronicle of a ceremonial tour across a swath of China. ?The Kangxi Emperor?s Southern Inspection Tour? took 6 years and became a magnus opus of some 740 feet in 12 hand scrolls. (WSJ, 10/29/08, p.D9) 1690 nend An Englishman made the 1st landing on the Falkland Islands. (Econ, 7/15/06, p.36) c 1690 nend The Narrow Road by Basho Matsuo (1644?-1694) was written during a 1,500 mile journey through the Japanese countryside. It was a 64-page collection of prose and haiku poems and became a Japanese classic. A manuscript of the work was found in 1996. (SFC, 11/28/96, p.C16)(WUD, 1994, p.124) 1690 nend In Puebla, Mexico, the ornate Capilla del Rosario, Chapel of the Rosary, was consecrated. (SFEC,11/9/97, p.T5)(SFEC, 11/8/98, p.T8) 1690 1699 In the 1690s Kit Cat Club met in London at the invitation of Jacob Tonson (1655/56-1736), a publisher and bookseller, at the inn of Christopher Cat (Christopher Catling). In 2008 Ophelia Field authored ?The Kit-Cat Club: Friends Who Imagined a Nation.? (Econ, 8/16/08, p.82)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Tonson) 1690 nend s Giuseppe Ghezzi found the Codex Leicester, a notebook of Leonardo da Vinci in Rome. It was primarily a treatise on the nature of water in all its properties, manifestations and uses. (NH, 5/97, p.11,60) 1690 nend s Henry Laurens landed 40% of the slaves sold at Sullivan Island. He was the ancestor to the Ball family that settled in South Carolina. (SFEC, 2/22/98, BR p.1,8) 1690 1700 Particularly severe weather hit Germany and prompted vintners use more wine sweeteners. (NH, 7/96, p.51) 1691 nend Jan 13, George Fox (66), founder of Quakers, died. (MC, 1/13/02) 1691 nend Feb 8, Carlo di Girolamo Rainaldi (79), Italian architect, composer, died. (MC, 2/8/02) 1691 nend Feb 17, Thomas Neale was granted a British patent for American postal service. (MC, 2/17/02) 1691 nend May 16, Jacob Leisler, 1st American colonist, was hanged for treason. (MC, 5/16/02) 1691 nend May 26, Jacob Leiser, leader of the popular uprising in support of William and Mary?s accession to the throne, was executed for treason. (HN, 5/26/99) 1691 nend May 29, Cornelis Tromp (61), Admiral-General, son of Maarten Tromp, died. (SC, 5/29/02) 1691 nend Jul 12, William III defeated the allied Irish and French armies at the Battle of Aughrim, Ireland. (HN, 7/12/98) 1691 nend Aug 16, Yorktown, Va., was founded. (MC, 8/16/02) 1691 nend Sep 17, The Massachusetts Bay Colony received a new charter. [see Oct 17] (MC, 9/17/01) 1691 nend Oct 3, English and Dutch armies occupied Limerick, Ireland. (MC, 10/3/01) 1691 nend Oct 17, The Massachusetts Bay Company along with Plymouth colony and Maine was incorporated into the Massachusetts Bay Colony. (HN, 10/17/98)(HNQ, 11/23/00) 1691 nend Father Eusebio Kino founded the Tumacacori mission 45 miles south of Tucson, Arizona. (SSFC, 3/29/02, p.C6) 1691 nend In northwest Romania an icon was painted at a monastery in Nicula. According to legend, the icon of the Weeping Virgin, wept for 26 days in 1699. The first recorded miracle occurred in 1701 when it is said to have cured an army officer's wife who was going blind. The church attached to the monastery is named after St. Mary and pilgrimages there are made every year on Aug. 15, Mary's name day. In 1977, the church burned down, but the icon was unharmed. In 2005 low water level revealed its skeleton. (AP, 8/15/05) 1691 nend The Spanish Inquisition killed 37 Jews from Mallorca for secretly practicing their faith. In 2011 the island?s leading government official issued an official condemnation for the killing. (SFC, 5/6/11, p.A2) 1691 1695 Ahmed II succeeded Suleiman II in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii) 1691 1765 Giovanni Paolo Panini, Italian artist. He was later known for his portrayals of Rome. (WSJ, 9/8/00, p.W2) 1692 nend Feb 13, In the Glen Coe highlands of Scotland, thirty-eight members of the MacDonald clan, the smallest of the Clan Donald sects, were murdered by soldiers of the neighboring Campbell clan for not pledging allegiance to William of Orange. Ironically the pledge had been made but not communicated to the clans. The event is remembered as the Massacre of Glencoe. (HN, 2/13/99)(HNQ, 8/18/01) 1692 nend Feb 28, The Salem witch hunts began. (MC, 2/28/02) 1692 nend Feb 29, Sarah Goode and Tituba were accused of witchcraft in Salem, Massachusetts, sparking the hysteria that started the Salem Witch Trials. (HN, 2/29/00) 1692 nend Feb, William and Mary granted a royal license for postal service in the American colonies. It empowered Thomas Neale "to erect, settle and establish within the chief parts of their majesties' colonies and plantations in America, an office or offices for the receiving and dispatching letters and pacquets, and to receive, send and deliver the same under such rates and sums of money as the planters shall agree to give, and to hold and enjoy the same for the term of twenty-one years.? (Econ, 8/20/11,p.32)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service) 1692 nend Mar 1, Sarah Goode, Sarah Osborne and Tituba were arrested for the supposed practice of witchcraft in Salem, Mass. (HN, 3/1/98) 1692 nend Mar 14, Peter Musschenbroek, Dutch physician, physicist (Leyden jar), was born. (MC, 3/14/02) 1692 nend Mar 18, William Penn was deprived of his governing powers. (HN, 3/18/98) 1692 nend Mar 26, King Maximilian was installed as land guardian of South Netherlands. (SS, 3/26/02) 1692 nend Apr 8, Giuseppe Tartini, Italy, violinist, composer (Trillo del Diavolo), was born. (MC, 4/8/02) 1692 nend Apr 12, Giuseppe Tartini, composer (Istria), was born. (MC, 4/12/02) 1692 nend Apr 22, Edward Bishop was jailed for proposing flogging as cure for witchcraft. (MC, 4/22/02) 1692 nend May 18, Joseph Butler Wantage Berkshire, theologian, was born. (SC, 5/18/02) 1692 nend May 18, Elias Ashmole, antiquary, died. (SC, 5/18/02) 1692 nend May 29, Royal Hospital Founders Day was 1st celebrated. (SC, 5/29/02) 1692 nend May 29, Battle at La Hogue: An English & Dutch fleet beat France. (SC, 5/29/02) 1692 nend Jun 7, An earthquake struck Jamaica. It rearranged the geology, splitting the rocks, turning mountains to lakes, and engulfed two-thirds of Port Royal. On that day and subsequently, five thousand of the inhabitants died. (www.lrb.co.uk/v29/n12/mant01_.html) 1692 nend Jun 10, Bridget Bishop was hanged in Salem, Mass., for witchcraft. This was the first official execution of the Salem witch trials. (HN, 6/10/01)(WSJ, 1/18/08, p.W10) 1692 nend Jun 24, Kingston, Jamaica, was founded. (MC, 6/24/02) 1692 nend Aug 3, French forces under Marshal Luxembourg defeated the English at the Battle of Steenkerke in the Netherlands. (HN, 8/3/98) 1692 nend Aug 19, Five women were hanged in Salem, Massachusetts after being convicted of the crime of witchcraft. Fourteen more people were executed that year and 150 others are imprisoned. In 2006 the governor of Massachusetts signed legislation exonerating 5 women executed in the Salem witch trials of 1692, whose names had not yet been cleared. (HN, 8/19/00)(WSJ, 9/15/06, p.A10) 1692 nend Sep 19, Giles Corey was pressed to death for standing mute and refusing to answer charges of witchcraft brought against him. He is the only person in America to have suffered this punishment. (HN, 9/19/98) 1692 nend Sep 21, Two men and seven women were executed for witchcraft in Salem, Massachusetts. (MC, 9/21/01) 1692 nend Sep 22, The last person was hanged for witchcraft in Salem, Mass. (MC, 9/22/01) 1692 nend Oct 8, Massachusetts Bay Governor Phipps ordered that spectral evidence no longer be admitted in witchcraft trials. Twenty people had died in the Salem witch trials. In 2005 Richard Francis authored ?Judge Sewall?s Apology.? Sewall was one of 3 judges presiding over the Salem trials. In 2006 the governor of Massachusetts signed legislation exonerating 5 women executed in the Salem witch trials of 1692, whose names had not yet been cleared. (http://tinyurl.com/rlj1)(WSJ, 8/9/05, p.D8)(WSJ, 9/15/06, p.A10) 1692 nend Oct 12, Giovanni Battista Vitali, composer, died at 60. (MC, 10/12/01) 1692 nend Oct 18, Charles Eugene de Croy, a field marshal fighting for Austrian forces, laid the cornerstone for a new great fortress at Petrovaradin (later Serbia), built to guard against the Ottoman Turks. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Eug%C3%A8ne_de_Cro%C3%BF) 1692 nend Oct 25, Elisabeth Farnese, princess of Parma and queen of Spain, was born. (MC, 10/25/01) 1692 nend Nov 7, Johannes G. Schnabel, German author and surgeon (Insel Felsenburg), was born. (MC, 11/7/01) 1692 nend Nov 21, Carlo Fragoni, Italian poet, was born. (MC, 11/21/01) 1692 nend In Portugal Taylor?s restaurant and lodge was founded in Porto. (SFEC, 7/12/98, p.T10) 1692 nend In Russia Peter the Great granted the Stroganoff family their lands in perpetuity. (WSJ, 9/7/00, p.A24) 1693 nend Jan 11, Sicily?s Mt. Etna erupted. (MC, 1/11/02) 1693 nend Jan 28, Anna "Ivanovna", Tsarina of Russia, was born. [see Feb 7] (HN, 1/28/99) 1693 nend Feb 7, Anna Ivanova Romanova, empress of Russia (1730-40) [NS], was born. [see Jan 28] (MC, 2/7/02) 1693 nend Feb 8, A charter was granted for the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Va. (AP, 2/8/99) 1693 nend Feb 13, The College of William and Mary opened in Virginia. (MC, 2/13/02) 1693 nend Mar 24, John Harrison (d.1776), Englishman who invented the chronometer, was born. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Harrison) 1693 nend Jun 27, The 1st woman's magazine "The Ladies' Mercury" was published in London. (SC, 6/27/02) 1693 nend Jul 4, Battle at Boussu-lez-Walcourt: French-English vs. Dutch army. (Maggio) 1693 nend Jul 29, The Army of the Grand Alliance was destroyed by the French at the Battle of Neerwinden in the Netherlands. (HN, 7/29/98) 1693 nend Aug 4, Dom Perignon invented champagne. [see 1688] (MC, 8/4/02) 1693 nend English naturalist John Ray noted that whales had more in common with 4-legged mammals than with fish. (PacDis, Winter/?96, p.14) 1693 nend Heidelberg was torched by the troops of Louis XIV in a dispute over a royal title. (SFEC, 9/26/99, p.T8) 1693 nend The French explorer Francois Leguat spent several months on Mauritius and looked hard for a dodo bird, but found none. (NH, 11/96, p.26) 1693 nend The history of the Amish church began with a schism in Switzerland within a group of Swiss and Alsatian Anabaptists led by Jakob Ammann (1656-1730). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amish) 1694 nend Jul 5, Composer Louis-Claude Daquin was born. (DataDragon) 1694 nend Jul 27, The Bank of England received a royal charter as a commercial institution. The mission of the bank was to provided war finance. Financiers agreed to lend the crown £1.2 million in return for a partial monopoly on the issue of currency. (SFC, 5/7/97, p.C2)(AP, 7/27/97)(Econ, 1/10/09, p.49)(Econ, 11/5/11,p.92) 1694 nend Sep 22, Philip Dormer Stanhope, Lord Chesterfield, statesman of letters whose writings provide a classic portrayal of an ideal 18th-century gentleman, was born. He introduced the Gregorian calendar in 1752. (HN, 9/22/98)(MC, 9/22/01) 1694 nend Nov 21, Francois Marie Arouet Voltaire (d.1778), French philosopher, historian, dramatist and essayist, was born. Born to middle class parents, he later attended the Jesuit college of Louis-le-Grand in Paris. The environment exposed him to the world of society and the arts. After the success of his tragedy "Oedipe" in 1718, he was pronounced the successor to the great dramatist Racine. He adopted the pen name Voltaire, though its exact origins and meaning are uncertain. The author of "Candide" (1759) and the "Philosophical Dictionary" (1764), Voltaire's works often attacked injustice and intolerance and epitomized the Age of Enlightenment. He wrote that "Self-love resembles the instrument by which we perpetuate the species. It is necessary, it is dear to us, it gives us pleasure and it has to be concealed." "All styles are good except the tiresome sort." "Love truth, but pardon error." "The great errors of the past are useful in many ways. One cannot remind oneself too often of crimes and disasters. These, no matter what people say, can be forestalled." S.G. Tellentyre said on Voltaire: "I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it." (WUD, 1994, p.1600) (G&M, 2/1/96, p.A-22)(AP, 7/17/97)(SFEC,1/4/98, Z1p.8)(HNQ, 10/1/98)(SFEC, 10/11/98, Z1 p.8)(HN, 11/21/98)(HNQ,11/8/00) 1694 nend Dec 28, George I of England got divorced. [He was crowned in 1714] (HN, 12/28/98) 1694 nend Dec 28, Queen Mary II (32) of England died after five years of joint rule with her husband, King William III. The new style calendar puts her death on Jan 7, 1695. (AP, 12/28/97) 1694 nend The Whigs of England persuaded King William that if he wanted to win what became the nine years? war against France, he would have to embrace their political and economic agenda. (Econ, 10/17/09, p.98) 1694 nend The history of English death duties began with the Stamp Act of this year which placed 5s on probates over 20 pounds. (Econ, 10/27/07, p.90)(www.econlib.org/LIBRARY/Bastable/bastbPF29.html) 1694 nend John Law, Scotsman, fled England after killing rival Edward Wilson in a duel. He traveled in Europe, played the casinos and studied finance. He set up a bank in France and issued paper money and established the Mississippi Company to exploit the French-controlled territories in America. [see 1720] In 2000 Janet Gleeson authored "Millionaire," a pseudo-biography of Law. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8)(WSJ, 6/30/00, p.W9) 1694 1696 An outbreak of colic struck the region around Ulm, Germany. Eberhard Gockel, the city physician, was able to trace the cause to a wine sweetener that used a white oxide of lead. (NH, 7/96, p.48) 1694 1773 Lord Chesterfield, English author and statesman: "In scandal, as in robbery, the receiver is always as bad as the thief." (AP, 2/21/98) 1695 nend Jan 6, Giuseppe Sammartini, composer, was born. (MC, 1/6/02) 1695 nend Jan 7, Mary II Stuart 32), queen of England, died [OS=Dec 28 1694]. (MC, 1/7/02) 1695 nend Jan 27, Mustafa II became the Ottoman sultan in Istanbul on the death of Amhed II. Mustafa ruled to 1703. (HN, 1/27/99)(Ot, 1993, xvii) 1695 nend Mar 7, In Britain John Trevor (1637-1717), the speaker of the House of Commons office, was found guilty of accepting a bribe of 1000 guineas (equivalent to around £1.6 million in 2009) from the City of London to aid the passage of a bill through the house. He was expelled from the House of Commons, a move which he initially resisted on the ground of ill-health, but retained his judicial position until his death. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Trevor_(speaker)) 1695 nend Apr 13-14, Jean de la Fontaine (73), French poet (Fables), died. (MC, 4/13/02)(MC, 4/14/02) 1695 nend Apr 17, Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz (b.~1648), Mexican nun and poet, died of plague. (SSFC, 9/3/06, p.M3)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sor_Juana) 1695 nend Apr 20, Georg Caspar Weckler (63), composer, died. (MC, 4/20/02) 1695 nend Apr 30, William Congreve's "Love for Love," premiered in London. (MC, 4/30/02) 1695 nend Jul 8, Christian Huygens (66), Dutch inventor, astronomer, died. He generally wrote his name as Christiaan Hugens, and it is also sometimes written as Huyghens. In his book ?Cosmotheros,? published in 1698, he speculated on life on other planets. (http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bl_huygens.htm) 1695 nend Sep 11, Imperial troops under Eugene of Savoy defeated the Turks at the Battle of Zenta. (HN, 9/11/98) 1695 nend Sep 12, NY Jews petitioned governor Dongan for religious liberties. (MC, 9/12/01) 1695 nend Nov 20, Zumbi dos Palmares, Brazilian leader of a hundred-year-old rebel slave group, was killed in an ambush. He was later honored by a National Day of Black Consciousness. (HN, 11/20/98)(SFC, 8/16/01, p.A8) 1695 nend Nov 21, Henry Purcell (36), English composer (Indian Queen), died. (MC, 11/21/01) 1695 nend Nov 28, Giovanni Paulo Colonna (58), composer, died. (MC, 11/28/01) c 1695 nend Orazio Gentileschi, painted "St. Francis and the Angel." (WSJ, 4/28/98, p.A16) 1695 nend The Comediens Italiens were expelled from Paris for indiscretion in their opera parodies. The fair theaters took up where they left off with the use of vaudevilles and comedia dell?arte characters. (PNM, 1/25/98, p.4) 1695 nend The British Parliament voted not to renew the 1662 Licensing of the Press Act, which had censored ?seditious, treasonable and unlicensed Bookes and Pamphlets.? It was repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1863. (Econ, 5/23/09,p.57)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licensing_of_the_Press_Act_1662) 1695 nend A London rag called ?A Collection for Improvement of Husbandry and Trade? included what later was believed to be the first lonely-hearts advertisement: ?A Gentleman About 30 Years of Age, that says he had a Very Good Estate, would willingly Match himself to some Good Young Gentlewoman that has a Fortune of £3,000.? (Econ, 2/12/11, p.92) 1695 nend Henry Avery (b.~1653), former Royal Navyman turned pirate, captured the Ganj-i-Sawai, the largest ship of the Mogul emperor in India. (WSJ, 11/22/08, p.W2) 1695 nend Portugal established colonial rule in the eastern half of Timor Island. The western side was incorporated into the Dutch East Indies. (SFC, 5/18/02, p.A15) 1696 nend Jan 31, An uprising of undertakers took place after funeral reforms in Amsterdam. (MC, 1/31/02) 1696 nend Mar 5, Giambattista Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (d.1770), Venetian Rococo painter (Isaac's Sacrifice), was born. He painted for the Dolfin family in the 1720s. His work included: "The Annunciation" (c1765-1770), "Apelles Painting a Portrait of Campaspe," "Martyrdom of St. Agatha," "Sacrifice of Isaac," "The Finding of Moses," "Nobility and Virtue" (1743), "Satyress with a Putto," "Satyress With Two Putti and a Tambourine," and "Halberdier in a Landscape." His contemporaries included Francesco Fontebasso, Allesandro Longhi, and Louis-Joseph Le Lorrain. (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.1483)(WSJ, 10/14/96, p.A14)(SFC, 3/25/97,p.E3)(MC, 3/5/02) 1696 nend Mar 7, English King William III departed Netherlands. (MC, 3/7/02) 1696 nend Jun 17, Jan Sobieski (72), King of Lithuania and Poland (1674-96), died. (MC, 6/17/02)(LHC, 5/21/03) 1696 nend Sep 23, A squall drove the ship Reformation aground on the east coast of Florida. Quaker merchant Jonathan Dickinson along with his family, 11 slaves, 8 seamen and Capt. Joseph Kirle were on route to Philadelphia from Jamaica. (ON, 9/00, p.3) 1696 nend Sep 27, Alfonsus M. de' Liguori, Italian theologian, bishop, and religious order founder, was born. (MC, 9/27/01) 1696 nend cSep 30, The Reformation castaways encountered a 2nd Indian tribe after paddling north for 2 days in a canoe provided by Indians at their initial landing. They were taken to a village, near present-day Vero Beach, and encountered castaways from the bark Nantwich, which had sailed from Port Royal in the same convoy. (ON, 9/00, p.5) 1696 nend Oct 6, Savoy Germany withdrew from the Grand Alliance. (HN, 10/6/98) 1696 nend Nov 2, In Florida a Spanish company of soldiers took the Dickinson and Nantwich party into custody and escorted them north to St. Augustine. They arrive on Nov 19 after 5 people died from exposure enroute. (ON, 9/00, p.5) 1696 nend Nov 11, Andrea Zani, composer, was born. (MC, 11/11/01) 1696 nend Nov 19, Louis Tocque, French painter, was born. (MC, 11/19/01) 1696 nend Dec 22, James Oglethorpe, England, General, author, colonizer of Georgia, was born. (MC, 12/22/01) 1696 nend August III (d.1738), son of August II, was born. He was crowned King of Lithuania and Poland in 1734. (SSFC, 4/25/04, p.D12) 1696 nend William Hogarth, British artist, was born. He believed that visual art could have a morally improving effect on viewers, and that individual betterment led to social improvement. (SFEC, 1/25/98, DB p.7)(SFC, 1/28/98, p.E1) 1696 nend In the late 1600s the Xukuru Indians fought the Portuguese to a stand off in what was later referred to as the "War of the Barbarians." (WSJ, 8/20/99, p.A1)(http://tinyurl.com/bhqlp) 1696 nend The Chinese painter Bada Shanren created his work: "Ducks and Lotuses." (WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20) 1696 nend In England a Jacobite plot to assassinate King William III and restore James II failed. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_III_of_England) 1696 nend In England Isaac Newton (1642-1727) became Warden of the Mint and started combing his hair. (Econ, 8/23/03, p.68) 1696 nend New York sea captain William Kidd reluctantly became a privateer for England and was expected to fight pirates on the open sea, seize their cargoes, and provide a hefty share of the spoils to the Crown. According to his British accusers, Kidd turned to piracy himself as the deadline for reporting to his employers in New York approached and he had not taken enough booty to fulfill his commission. Kidd himself did not know he was a wanted man until he dropped anchor in the West Indies in April 1699. He chose to surrender to the authorities and submit to a London trial, believing to the end that he could clear his name. After a trial in which important evidence in his favor was suppressed, William Kidd was found guilty of piracy and hanged. (HNPD, 8/27/00) 1696 nend Jacques Ozanam, a visionary Frenchman, 1st proposed a ?self-moving vehicle.? (Econ, 2/5/05, p.77) 1696 nend Duke Eberhard Ludwig of Wurttenburg, Germany, learned of Eberhard Gockel?s findings on lead poisoning in wine and banned all lead-based wine additives. (NH, 7/96, p.49) 1696 nend The Hotel Elephant was founded in Weimar, the capital of the German state of Thuringia. (SFC, 8/3/99, p.A8) 1697 nend Mar 9, Czar Peter the Great began tour of West Europe. [see Mar 21] (MC, 3/9/02) 1697 nend Mar 21, Czar Peter the Great began a tour through West Europe. [see Mar 9] (MC, 3/21/02) 1697 nend Apr 1, Abbe Prevost, French novelist, journalist (Manon Lescaut), was born. (MC, 4/1/02) 1697 nend Apr 16, Johann Gottlieb Gorner, composer, was born. (MC, 4/16/02) 1697 nend May 10, Jean Marie I'aine Leclair, composer, was born. (MC, 5/10/02) 1697 nend May 12, The fall of the Venetian Republic. (SFC, 5/10/97, p.A10) 1697 nend Sep 11, Prince Eugene of Savoy led the Austrians to victory over the Ottoman Turks at Senta (Serbia). This resulted in creating the conditions for the 1699 conclusion of the peace at Karlowitz. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Eug%C3%A8ne_de_Cro%C3%BF) 1697 nend Sep 20, The Treaty of Ryswick was signed in Holland. It ended the War of the Grand Alliance (aka War of the League of Augsburg,1688-1697) between France and the Grand Alliance. Under the Treaty France?s King Louis XIV (1638-1715) recognized William III (1650-1702) as King of England. The Dutch received trade concessions, and France and the Grand Alliance members (Holland and the Austrian Hapsburgs) gave up most of the land they had conquered since 1679. The signees included France, England, Spain and Holland. By the Treaty of Ryswick, a portion of Hispaniola was formally ceded to France and became known as Saint-Domingue. The remaining Spanish section was called Santo Domingo. no_source 1697 nend Oct 19, Settlers from Mexico sailed across the Sea of Cortez to build a new settlement. (SFEC, 5/18/97, p.T5) 1697 nend Oct 25, Settlers from Mexico founded the town of Loreto in honor of the Virgin Nuestra Senoro de Loreto, on the Baha Peninsula. It served as the capital of Baha California for the next 132 years. (SFEC, 5/18/97, p.T5) 1697 nend Oct 30, The Treaty of Ryswick ended the War of the Grand Alliance (aka War of the League of Augsburg,1688-1697) between France and the Grand Alliance. France?s King Louis XIV (1638-1715) recognized King William III?s (1650-1702) right to the English throne, the Dutch received trade concessions, and France and the Grand Alliance members (Holland and the Austrian Hapsburgs) gave up most of the land they had conquered since 1679. (HN, 10/30/98)(DoW, 1999) 1697 nend Nov 2, Constantine Huygens Jr, poet, painter and cartoonist, was buried. (MC, 11/2/01) 1697 nend Nov 10, William Hogarth, English caricaturist, was born. (HN, 11/10/00) 1697 nend Dec 2, St. Paul's Cathedral opened in London. (MC, 12/2/01) 1697 nend William Dampier (1651-1715), English explorer, naturalist and privateer, authored ?A New Voyage Around the World.? A sequel appeared 2 years later. In 2004 Diana and Michael Preston authored "A Pirate of Exquisite Mind: Explorer, Naturalist and Bucaneer," a biography of Dampier. (WSJ, 4/16/04, p.W8)(NH, 6/4/04, p.59) 1697 nend Eberhard Gockel published: "A Remarkable Account of the Previously Unknown Wine Disease." (NH, 7/96, p.49) 1697 nend Charles Perrault first penned "La Petit Chaperon Rouge" (Little Red Riding Hood) as a sexual morality tale for the loose ladies of Louis XIV?s court. In 2002 Catherine Orenstein authored "Little Red Riding Hood Uncloaked: Sex, Morality and the Evolution of a Fairy Tale." (WSJ, 8/7/02, p.D14)(NW, 8/26/02, p.57) 1697 nend The play "Le Distrait" by Regnard was written and later accompanied by the music of Joseph Haydn. (WSJ, 7/31/97, p.A16) 1697 nend In Boston?s Old South Church Judge Sewall told the congregation that he accepted ?blame and shame? for the 1692 Salem witch trials. None of the other judges joined him in repenting. (Econ, 8/6/05, p.70) 1697 nend Hannah Duston in what is now New Hampshire was attacked and captured by 12 Indians who killed her daughter. She managed to kill 10 of them with a knife and took home their scalps for the bounty money. She was the first woman in the US to have a statue erected in her honor. (SFEC, 11/17/96, zone 1 p.2) 1697 nend John Aubrey (71), author of "Monumenta Britanica," died. In 1948 Anthony Powell authored the biography "John Aubrey." (ON, 4/02, p.12) 1697 nend The Royal Palace in Stockholm, Sweden, burned down. It was rebuilt in Italian Baroque style with 608 rooms. (SSFC, 8/19/07, p.G4) 1697 1718 Charles XII (1682-1718) was king of Sweden. (WUD, 1994, p.249)(SFC, 8/17/96, p.E5) 1697 1798 Antonio Canal, Italian topographical view painter. He was the uncle to Bernardo Belotto. (WSJ, 9/13/01, p.A18) 1697 1773 Johann Quantz, flutist-composer. (LGC-HCS, p.44) 1698 nend Jan 1, The Abenaki [Abnaki] Indians and the Massachusetts colonists signed a treaty ending the conflict in New England. (HN, 1/1/99) 1698 nend Apr 5, Georg Gottfried Wagner, composer, was born. (MC, 4/5/02) 1698 nend Aug 18, After invading Denmark and capturing Sweden, Charles XII of Sweden forced Frederick IV of Denmark to sign the Peace of Travendal. (HN, 8/18/98) 1698 nend Aug 25, Czar Peter the Great returned to Moscow after his trip through West-Europe. (MC, 8/25/02) 1698 nend Sep 5, Russia's Peter the Great imposed a tax on beards. (AP, 9/5/97) 1698 nend Oct 23, Ange-Jacques Gabriel, French court architect (Place de la Concorde), was born. (MC, 10/23/01) 1698 nend Missionary John St. Cosme celebrated the first Mass in what became St. Louis, Mo. (SFC, 1/28/99, p.A3) 1698 nend The Spanish established Presidio Santa Maria de Galve (later Pensacola, Florida). (AP, 3/24/06) 1698 nend Elias "Red Cap " Ball sailed from England to claim his inheritance, a plantation called Comingtee on the banks of the Cooper River in South Carolina. The Ball family kept a history and in 1998 descendant Edward Ball published "Slaves in the Family." (SFEC, 2/22/98, BR p.1,8)(SFEC, 4/19/98, p.A22) 1698 nend The Virginia statehouse at Jamestown burned and the capital was moved to Williamsburg. (Arch, 1/06, p.26) 1698 nend The British pint, a 568 milliliter pour, was introduced. Bars were allowed to serve beer only as a pint, or a third or half of that measure. This became the standard size for beer and cider. (SFC, 1/5/11, p.A2) 1698 nend English engineer Thomas Savery devised a way to pump water out of mines by the use of condensed steam. (HNQ, 1/18/01) 1698 nend Abraham or Ibrahim (Abram Petrovich Gannibal) was born about this time in the Eritrean highland, north of the Mareb River in a town called Logon. Abraham's father was a local chief or a "prince". Within a few years Turks invaded the area and abducted Abraham following a battle lost by his father. Abraham spent a year in Constantinople and was sold with a bribe for service to Russia?s Peter the Great. (www.shaebia.org/wwwboard/contributedarticles/messages/58.html) 1698 nend Peter the Great spent several months at the Shipwright?s Palace in England learning how to build the Russian navy. (WSJ, 5/24/00, p.A24) 1698 1701 The Portuguese built the Old Fort in Stone Town on Zanzibar to defend against the sultan of Oman. (SFEC, 4/23/00, p.T6) 1699 nend Jan 14, Massachusetts held a day of fasting for wrongly persecuting "witches." (MC, 1/14/02) 1699 nend Jan 26, The Treaty of Karlowitz, Croatia, ended the war between Austria and the Turks. (HN, 1/26/99)(www.san.beck.org/1-10-Ottoman1300-1730.html) 1699 nend Feb 4, Czar Peter the Great executed 350 rebellious Streltsi in Moscow. (MC, 2/4/02) 1699 nend Mar 4, Jews were expelled from Lubeck, Germany. (SC, 3/4/02) 1699 nend Mar 23, John Bartram, naturalist, explorer, father of American botany, was born. (SS, 3/23/02) 1699 nend Apr 17, Robert Blair, Scottish poet (Grave), was born. (MC, 4/17/02) 1699 nend Apr 21, Jean Racine (59), French playwright (Phèdre), died. (MC, 4/21/02) 1699 nend Jul 6, Pirate Capt. William Kidd was captured in Boston. (MC, 7/6/02) 1699 nend Dec 20, Peter the Great ordered Russian New Year changed from Sept 1 to Jan 1. (MC, 12/20/01) 1699 nend Jonathan Dickinson, after resuming his mercantile business in Philadelphia, authored "God?s Protecting Providence," a journal of his Florida ordeal. (ON, 9/00, p.5) 1699 nend A wooden wall on the northern edge of New Amsterdam (later NYC), built for protection from the Indians, was destroyed by the British. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R43) 1699 nend Williamsburg became the capital of Virginia and served as the capital of the British colony until 1780. (SSFC, 12/17/00, p.T7)(AH, 6/07, p.27) 1699 nend Prince Eugene of Savoy looted and burned Sarajevo, Bosnia. (SSFC, 12/4/05, p.F5) 1699 nend The British established a rule over the colonies that all wool trade must be with England, and violations were punishable by stiff fines. (NG, 5.1988, pp. 583) 1699 nend The Jews in London commissioned Joseph Avis, a Quaker, to build a synagogue on a street called Bevis Marks. (WSJ, 10/28/06, p.P16) 1699 nend The Sikhs were founded by a series of 10 prophets or gurus and believe in one God but many paths to heaven. In 1999 some 20,000 thousands of Sikhs gathered to march in SF on the 300th anniversary of their religion. [see Nanak c1500, 1519] (SFEC, 4/25/99, p.C1) 1699 nend The Republic of Lucca promulgated the first regulations designed to prevent the spread of tuberculosis. (WP, 1952, p.29) 1699 nend References from the Ching dynasty of China refer to the Diaoyu Island located between Taiwan and Okinawa. (SFEC, 10/8/96, A8) 1699 nend The King of Spain, due to competition, banned the production of wine in the Americas, except for that made by the church. (SFEC, 11/7/99, p.T8) 1699 1783 Johann Adolph Hasse, popular composer of now-forgotten operas. (LGC-HCS, p.32) 1699 1799 Jean Baptiste Simeon Chardin, French painter. (WSJ, 7/6/00, p.A24) 1700 nend Jan 1, Russia replaced the Byzantine with the Julian calendar. (MC, 1/1/02) 1700 nend Jan 26, A magnitude 9.0 earthquake shook Northern California, Oregon, Washington and British Colombia. It triggered tsunami that damages villages in Japan. (AP, 2/27/10) 1700 nend Jan 27, A tsunami hit Honshu Island, Japan. It was later estimated that wave was triggered by a 9.0 magnitude earthquake in California. (CW, Spring ?99, p.32) 1700 nend Jan 29, Daniel Bernoulli, mathematician (10 time French award), was born in Basel, Switzerland. (MC, 1/29/02) 1700 nend Feb 22, Augustus II (the Strong), elector of Saxony (1694-1733) and King of Poland (1697-1706, 1709-1733), with the help of the Saxon army attacked Swedish controlled Riga. This began the Northern War (1700-1721). (LHC, 2/22/03)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_II_the_Strong) 1700 nend Feb 27, The Pacific Island of New Britain was discovered. It is the largest of group of islands in the South Pacific, NE of New Guinea. (HN, 2/27/98)(WUD, 1994, p.962) 1700 nend May 1, John Dryden (b.1631), English poet, playwright (Rival Ladies), died. He had written that repentance was virtue of weak minds and the want of power to sin. (MC, 5/1/02)(Econ, 7/24/04, p.70) 1700 nend May 7, Gerard van Swieten, Dutch botanist, was born. (MC, 5/7/02) 1700 nend May 7, William Penn began monthly meetings for Blacks advocating emancipation. (MC, 5/7/02) 1700 nend Jun 23, Russia gave up its Black Sea fleet as part of a truce with the Ottoman Empire. (HN, 6/23/98) 1700 nend Jul 15, Johann Christoph Richter, composer, was born. (MC, 7/15/02) 1700 nend Sep 11, James Thomson, Scottish poet and songwriter, was born. He wrote the song "Rule Britannia." (HN, 9/11/00)(MC, 9/11/01) 1700 nend Sep, In Mexico Juan Bautista and Jacinto de los Angeles informed Spanish authorities of an Indian religious ceremony and were killed by fellow Indians. Christian officials decapitated and quartered 15 men and staked their body parts by the roadside as a warning. In 2002 Bautista and Angeles were beatified by Pope John Paul II. (AP, 7/30/02) 1700 nend Nov 20, Sweden's 17-year-old King Charles XII defeated the Russians at Narva. (HN, 11/20/98) 1700 nend William Congreve, an Anglo-Irishman playwright, published his last play, "The Way of the World." (WSJ, 11/20/98, p.W6) c 1700 nend Richard Gough, an aged English lawyer, authored "History of Myddle." (SFC, 4/3/01, p.C3) 1700 nend Castle Howard, Yorkshire, England, designed by Sir John Vanbrugh as the baroque home of the earls of Carlisle was begun. (NG, Nov. 1985, M. Girouard, p.665) 1700 nend Around 1700 during a 50-year period of brutal winters, the Thule abandoned Ellesmere Island in the Canadian Arctic for Greenland. (NG, 6/1988, p.763) 1700 nend British settlers began arriving to the Cayman Islands. (AP, 5/10/03) c 1700 nend The English slave ship Henrietta Marie sank near Key West. (WSJ, 6/2/98, p.A20) 1700 nend Germany adopted the Gregorian calendar established in 1582. (SFEC, 9/27/98, BR p.5) 1700 nend The inventory of Medici instruments for 1700 establishes that at least one piano, created by Bartolomeo Cristofori (1655-1731), had been completed by this date. Cristofori began work on the ?harpsichord with soft and loud? in 1698. (www.cantos.org/Piano/History/cristofori.html) 1700 nend The Spanish crown monopolized the Aquardiente industry in Colombia. (AP, 9/2/03) 1700 nend s In Senegal female slave traders, called signare, prospered by conducting business with European men. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1700 nend s In Spain bullfighting emerged in its modern form. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) c 1700 1800 Anton Graff, 18th cent. German painter. (SFEC, 10/9/96, C2) c 1700 1800 Giuseppe Nogari, Italian artist, painted "Old Woman With a Cup." In 1997 it became the focus of a sting operation on Sotheby's auction house which arranged its illegal export from Italy to New York. (SFC, 2/7/97, p.A18) 1700 1800 The expression "putting on the dog" derived from the fact that in the 18th century, the finest dancing shoes were made of dog skin, which could be worn out in one night of vigorous footwork. (HNQ, 2/4/99) 1700 1800 The Kabala of Isaac Luria provided the inspiration for the revolutionary 18th century Jewish revivalist movement in Eastern Europe, Hasidism. It included the idea known as "tikkun olam" whereby the world is repaired by identifying the spark of God in every living thing. (WSJ, 5/22/98, p.W11) 1700 1800 The Gaon of Vilna, Lithuania, excommunicated the Hasidic Jews after they cast aside the traditional Jewish prayer book, replacing it with one composed by Isaac Luria. (WSJ, 5/22/98, p.W11) c 1700 1800 In Malaysia Monosopiad, an 18th cent. warrior, collected some 42 human skulls. His house near Sandakan is known as the House of Skulls. (SFEC, 10/17/98, p.T11) 1700 1800 Mauritius was settled by the French in the18th cent. The island was seeded with sugar and slaves were brought from Africa to work the plantations. (SFC, 6/24/96, p.A8) 1700 nend s In England Thomas Sheraton invented twin beds in the late 1700s. (SFEC, 3/15/98, Z1 p.8) 1701 nend Jan 18, Frederick III, the elector of Brandenburg, became the king of Prussia. (HN, 1/18/99) 1701 nend Feb 19, Philip V of Spain made his ceremonial entry into Madrid. (HN, 2/19/99) 1701 nend Mar 9, In Birzai Augustus II and Russia's Czar Peter I signed a treaty. (LHC,3/9/03) 1701 nend May 23, New York sea captain William Kidd was hanged on the banks of the Thames after being found guilty of piracy and murder. Kidd had reluctantly became a privateer for England in 1696 and was expected to fight pirates on the open sea, seize their cargoes, and provide a hefty share of the spoils to the Crown. According to his British accusers, Kidd turned to piracy himself as the deadline for reporting to his employers in New York approached and he had not taken enough booty to fulfill his commission. Kidd himself did not know he was a wanted man until he dropped anchor in the West Indies in April 1699. He chose to surrender to the authorities and submit to a London trial, believing to the end that he could clear his name. Important evidence in his favor was suppressed and he was hanged. [see Jul 6] (AP, 5/23/97)(HNPD, 8/27/98)(HN, 5/23/99) 1701 nend May 31, Alexander Cruden, compiler of a concordance to King James Bible, was born. (HN, 5/31/98) 1701 nend Jul 6, William Kidd, English-US buccaneer, was hanged. [see May 23] (MC, 7/6/02)(PC, 1992, p.272) 1701 nend Jul 24, Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac (d.1730), aged 43, established Fort Ponchartrain for France on the future site of the city of Detroit, Michigan, in an attempt to halt the advance of the English into the western Great Lakes region. (HN, 7/24/98)(DFP, 7/24/01) 1701 nend Sep 6, James II [Stuart], king of England (1685-88), died at 68. (MC, 9/6/01) 1701 nend Sep 7, England, Austria, and the Netherlands formed an Alliance against France. (HN, 9/7/98) 1701 nend Oct 9, The Collegiate School of Connecticut -- later Yale University -- was chartered in New Haven, Conn. It was the first US school to award a doctorate degree. [see Oct 16] (SFC, 5/25/96, p.A9)(SF C, 3/8/96, p.E3)(AP, 10/9/97) 1701 nend Oct 13, Andreas Anton Schmelzer, composer, died at 47. (MC, 10/13/01) 1701 nend Oct 16, Yale University was founded as The Collegiate School of Kilingworth, Connecticut by Congregationalists who considered Harvard too liberal. [see Oct 9] (HN, 10/16/00) 1701 nend Oct 28, William Penn presented a Charter of Privileges for the Province of Pennsylvania during his 2nd and last visit to the colony. Among its provisions was one establishing total religious freedom and tolerance to those who wanted to live in peace in the colony. It remained as Pennsylvania's constitution until the outbreak of the American Revolution (1775-1783). (www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/states/pa07.htm) 1701 nend Nov 27, Anders Celsius (d.1744), Swedish astronomer who devised the centigrade temperature scale, was born in Uppsala. (WUD, 1994, p.238)(AP, 11/27/06) 1701 nend The Act of Settlement established the order of succession to the English throne. (www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/mon53.html) 1701 nend In England presiding Chief Justice Lord Hold (1642-1710) ruled that ?As soon as a Negro comes into England, he becomes Free.? (ON, 12/08, 8)(http://tinyurl.com/9jhg29) 1701 nend The English slave ship Henrietta Marie sank 35 miles off Key West, Florida, on its way back to Europe. It had delivered 188 captured Africans to a slave broker in Jamaica in exchange for sugar and other goods bound for England. The wreck was found in 1972. (SFC, 8/12/96, p.C5)(WSJ, 6/2/98, p.A20)(SSFC, 2/8/04, p.C12) 1701 nend Jethro Tull (1674-1741), a farmer in Berkshire, England, created a horse-drawn mechanical drill to plant seeds in a row. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14)(www.berkshirehistory.com/bios/jtull.html) 1701 nend German artisans created an amber room for King Frederick I of Prussia. He presented it as a gift to Peter the Great in 1712 [see 1712, 1716]. (SFC, 3/22/97, p.A16)(SFC, 4/30/98, p.E6)(WSJ, 1/20/00, p.A20) 1701 nend German alchemist Johann Friedrich Bottger (1682-1719) escaped from Berlin, where he faced arrest for claiming he could turn lead into gold. He was arrested in Wittenberg and sent to Dresden where Augustus the Strong, Elector of Saxony, ordered him to replicate his alleged feat. Bottger soon befriended Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus, who was interested in creating true white porcelain. In 1705 Augustus allowed Bottger to work with Tschirnhaus on making porcelain. (ON, 8/10,p.8)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_B%C3%B6ttger) 1701 nend Spain?s medieval kingdom of Aragon again rebelled against Madrid. (Econ, 11/8/08, SR p.10) 1702 nend Jan 17, Thomas Franklin, English smith and uncle of B. Franklin, died. (MC, 1/17/02) 1702 nend Mar 8, William III of Orange (51), Dutch King of England (1689-1702), died after falling from his horse and catching a chill. Anne Stuart (37), his sister-in-law, succeeded to the throne of England, Scotland and Ireland and reigned until 1714. (PCh, 1992, p.272)(MC, 3/8/02)(AP, 3/8/98) 1702 nend Mar 11, The Daily Courant, the first regular English newspaper was published. (HN, 3/11/99) 1702 nend Mar 21, Queen Anne Stuart addressed the English parliament. (MC, 3/21/02) 1702 nend Apr 27, Jean Bart (51), French captain, sea hero (Escape out of Plymouth), died. (MC, 4/27/02) 1702 nend May 15, The War of Spanish Succession began. (HN, 5/15/98) 1702 nend Oct 12, [British] Admiral Sir George Rooke defeated the French fleet off Vigo. (HN, 10/12/98) 1702 nend Oct 27, English troops plundered St. Augustine, Florida. (MC, 10/27/01) 1702 nend Nov 4, John Benbow, English vice-admiral (Santa Marta), died. (MC, 11/4/01) 1702 nend Nov 26, Colley Cibber's "King Imposter" made its premier. (MC, 11/26/01) 1702 nend Lord Cornbury, Queen Anne's cousin, was made governor of New York and gave Trinity Church some land. (SFEC, 1/10/99, p.A13) 1702 nend Omori Yoshikiyo, Japanese ehon artist, created his work ?Trailing Willows,? which depicted the working women in the government sanctioned pleasure quarter of Kyoto. (WSJ, 1/4/07, p.B11) 1702 nend Meijin Dosaku, go-master to the shogun of Japan, died. He was the 4th head of the Honimbo go school and is held by many Japanese to have been the game?s greatest player. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.129) 1702 nend Basho Matsuo, Japanese poet, died. (SFC, 11/28/96, p.C16) 1702 nend Georg Everhard Rumpf, German botanist, died. He was employed by the Dutch East India Company and compiled the ?Ambonese Herbal,? even after going blind in 1670. The work was published in Amsterdam between 1741 and 1755. (Econ, 9/25/04, p.94) 1702 1711 Old Mobile, Alabama, was the first French settlement at Mobile. (AM, Vol. 48, No. 3) 1703 nend Apr 26, Georg Christoph Leuttner (58), composer, died. (MC, 4/26/02) 1703 nend May 18, Dutch and English troops occupied Cologne. (SC, 5/18/02) 1703 nend May 26, Samuel Pepys (b.1633), English diarist, died. In the 1930s Sir Arthur Bryant authored a 3-volume biography. In the 1970s Richard Ollard authored a single volume biography. In 2001 Stephen Coote authored "Samuel Pepys: A Life" and another was expected by Claire Tomalin. In 2002 Claire Tomalin authored "Samuel Pepys: The Unequaled Self." (WSJ, 6/2/99, p.A24)(HN, 2/23/01)(SSFC, 12/22/02, p.M3)(MC, 5/26/02) 1703 nend May 27, Peter the Great founded St. Petersburg (Leningrad) as the capital of Russia. It was built on a swampy settlement ceded by Sweden and occupied by about 150 people. (WSJ, 1/28/97, p.A16)(www.worldpress.org/Europe/1938.cfm)(MT,Winter/03, p.12) 1703 nend Jun 17, John Wesley (d.1791), English evangelist and theologian, was born. He founded the Methodist movement. He spent a brief period in Georgia (1738) as a missionary. (HN, 6/17/99)(WSJ, 6/13/03, p.W19) 1703 nend Jul 31, English novelist Daniel Defoe was made to stand in the pillory as punishment for offending the government and church with his satire "The Shortest Way With Dissenters." (HN, 7/31/01) 1703 nend Sep 23, Jean-Marie Leclair, composer, was born. (MC, 9/23/01) 1703 nend Sep 30, The French, at Hochstadt in the War of the Spanish Succession, suffered only 1,000 casualties to the 11,000 of their opponents, the Austrians of Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I. (HN, 9/30/98) 1703 nend Oct 5, Jonathan Edwards (d.1758), US, theologian and philosopher (Original Sin), was born. He helped promote the "Great Awakening" of religious fervor that broke out in Protestant churches in New Jersey in the 1720s and spread to New England in the 1730s. (WUD, 1994, p.454)(SSFC, 7/8/01, p.B5)(MC, 10/5/01) 1703 nend Oct 23, In Malmesbury, England Hannah, Twynnoy (33) teased a tiger at a circus. The tiger broke loose and killed her. (SFEC, 1/2/00, Z1 p.2) 1703 nend Nov 19, The "Man in the Iron Mask," a prisoner in Bastille prison in Paris, died. (MC, 11/19/01) 1703 nend Nov 26-27, Heavy storms hit England and 1000s were killed. Bristol, England, was damaged by the hurricane. The Royal Navy lost 15 warships. (MC, 11/26/01) 1703 nend Dec 30, Tokyo was hit by Earthquake and some 37,000 people died. (MC, 12/30/01) 1703 nend Francois Boucher, French painter, was born. He painted "Diana." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.174) 1703 nend Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (d.1792), Islamic theologian and founder of Wahhabism, was born in Arabia. He set out his ideas in ?The Book of Unity? (1736). Wahhabism, a puritan branch of Sunni Islam, was founded by al-Wahhab in a poor part of Arabia called Najd. Saudi armies helped to spread Wahhabi Islamic reform. A Salafi, from the Arabic word Salaf (literally meaning predecessors or early generations), is an adherent of a contemporary movement in Sunni Islam that is sometimes called Salafism or Wahhabism. Salafis themselves insist that their beliefs are simply pure Islam as practiced by the first three generations of Muslims and that they should not be regarded as a sect. [see 1744] (WSJ, 11/13/01,p.A14)(www.concise.britannica.com)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salafi) 1703 nend Sir Isaac Newton, English scientist, became president of the Royal Society. (Econ, 1/9/10, p.57)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton) 1703 nend Johann Sebastian Bach obtained his first position as organist for the city of Arnstadt, Thuringia, Germany. (Hem., Nov.'95, p.114) 1703 nend A pair of lovers committed suicide in Osaka. The story of the courtesan and young merchant was quickly depicted in the Kabuki play ?The Love suicides at Sonexaki? by Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653-1725). (SFC, 6/20/05, p.C5) 1703 1730 Ahmed III succeeded Mustafa II in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii) 1704 nend Feb 24, Marc-Antoine Charpentier, French composer (church music), died. (MC, 2/24/02) 1704 nend Feb 28, Indians attacked Deerfield, Mass. killing 40 and kidnapping 100. (HN, 2/28/98) 1704 nend Apr 24, The Boston News-Letter was established, first successful newspaper in U.S. (HN, 4/24/98) 1704 nend May 1, Boston Newsletter published the 1st US newspaper ad. (MC, 5/1/02) 1704 nend May 20, Elias Neau formed a school for slaves in NY. (MC, 5/20/02) 1704 nend Jul 24, Admiral George Rooke took Gibraltar from the Spanish. (HN, 7/24/98) 1704 nend Aug 4, In the War of Spanish Succession, an Anglo-Dutch fleet captured Gibraltar. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Gibraltar)(AP, 9/19/06) 1704 nend Aug 13, The Battle of Blenheim, Germany, was fought during the War of the Spanish Succession, resulting in a victory for English and Austrian forces. The Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Austria defeated the French Army at the Battle of Blenheim. In 1705 Joseph Addison wrote the poem "The Campaign" for the Duke of Marlborough to commemorate the military victory over France and Spain at the Battle of Blenheim: "Do you not think an angel rides in the whirlwind and directs this storm." (AP, 8/13/97)(HN, 8/13/98)(SSFC, 1/21/01, p.A6) 1704 nend Sep 28, Maryland allowed divorce if a wife displeased the clergyman or preacher. (MC, 9/28/01) 1704 nend Oct 28, John Locke (b.1632), English philosopher, Oxford academic and medical researcher, died. He authored 2 treatises on government. (www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/locke.htm#Life) 1704 nend In England Daniel Defoe (1660-1731) began publishing "The Review." Defoe in this year also authored ?The Storm? in which he organized the winds into categories of scale. (WSJ, 8/25/98, p.A12)(NH, 11/1/04, p.51) 1704 nend English forces attacked Apalachee Indians in Florida driving them into slavery and exile. Some 800 Apalachee fled west to French-held Mobile. (WSJ, 3/9/05, p.A1) 1704 nend John Churchill, first duke of Marlborough, was victorious at Blenheim in Bavaria, and was rewarded with the Blenheim Palace in Oxfordshire, England. (NG, Nov. 1985, M. Girouard, p.671) 1705 nend Jan 8, Georg F. Handel's 1st opera "Almira," premiered in Hamburg. (MC, 1/8/02) 1705 nend Jan 17, John Ray (b.1627), British naturalist and theologian, died. He had spent three years traveling in Europe collecting material for his book ?Historia Plantarum.? The classification in his 1682 book ?Methodus Plantarum Nova? is based on overall morphology. Ray's plant classification system was the first to divide flowering plants into monocots and dicots. (www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Ray)(WSJ, 5/10/08, p.W8) 1705 nend Feb 15, Charles A. Vanloo, French painter, was born. (MC, 2/15/02) 1705 nend Apr 16, Queen Anne of England knighted Isaac Newton at Trinity College. (HN, 4/16/98)(MC, 4/16/02) 1705 nend Apr 23, Richard Steele's "Tender Husband," premiered in London. (MC, 4/23/02) 1705 nend May 5, Leopold I von Hapsburg (b.1640), Emperor of Holy Roman Empire, died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor) 1705 nend Aug 4, Vaclav Matyas Gurecky, composer, was born. (MC, 8/4/02) 1705 nend Oct 14, The English Navy captured Barcelona in Spain. (HN, 10/14/98) 1705 nend Nov 23, Nicholas Rowe's "Ulysses," premiered in London. (MC, 11/23/01) 1705 nend Dec 29, Prosper Jolyot's "Idomenee," premiered in Paris. (MC, 12/29/01) 1705 nend Joseph Addison wrote the poem "The Campaign" for the Duke of Marlborough to commemorate the military victory over France and Spain at the Battle of Blenheim. (SSFC, 1/21/01, p.A6) 1705 nend The first steam engine was built. (WSJ, 1/11/98, p.R18) 1705 nend Luca Giordano (b.1634), Neopolitan baroque painter, died. He had studied under Spanish-born teacher Jusepe de Ribera and late in life spent 10 years in Spain. (WSJ, 1/15/02, p.A14) c 1705 nend Yodoya Tatsugora, Japanese merchant, died. He was a member of the 5th generation of a family that became rich as silk traders and rice merchants. The Shogunate claimed that his wealth was unbecoming and confiscated it. Many government officials owed him money. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1705 1782 Carlo Broschi (a.k.a. Farinelli), Italian castrato, said to be able to produce 250 notes in a single breath. A film depicting his life was made in 1995, directed by Gerard Corbiau and features Stefano Dionisi as Farinelli. (SFC, 4/28/95, p.C-3) 1706 nend Jan 17, Benjamin Franklin (d.1790), American statesman, was born in Boston, the youngest boy in a family of 17 children. He helped draft the Declaration of Independence and wrote "Poor Richard's Almanac." Carl Van Doren portrays Franklin as a harmonious rationalist in his classic biography. David Morgan writes of Franklin's darker side in: "The Devious Dr. Franklin, Colonial Agent." And Robert Middlekauff describes Franklin as a trickster in his: "Benjamin Franklin and his Enemies." Franklin believed in white superiority and said: "why increase the Sons of Africa by planting them in America, when we have so fair an opportunity, by excluding all the Blacks and Tawneys, of increasing the lovely white.?" "If you would not be forgotten, as soon as you are dead and rotten, either write things worth reading, or do things worth the writing." (WSJ, 8/8/95, p. A12)(SFC,12/897, p.A27)(AP, 1/17/98)(AP,4/17/98)(HN, 1/17/99)(HNQ, 11/19/01) 1706 nend Jan 28, John Baskerville, English typographer and inventor of the "hot-pressing" method of printing. He also manufactured lacquered ware. (HN, 1/28/00)(WUD, 1994 p.124) 1706 nend Feb 27, John Evelyn, diarist, died. (MC, 2/27/02) 1706 nend Mar 3, Johann Pachelbel (b.1653), German organist and composer best remembered for his ?Canon in D,? died Nuremberg at age 52. (WUD, 1994 p.1034)(AP, 3/3/06) 1706 nend Mar 8, Vienna's Wiener Stadtbank was established. (MC, 3/8/02) 1706 nend Apr 23, Spanish Gov. Francisco Cuervo y Valdes founded a new villa consisting of 35 families and named it in honor of the viceroy of New Spain, who was also the Duke of Albuquerque, a town in southwestern Spain. The 1st r was later dropped and in 2006 Albuquerque, NM, celebrated its 300th anniversary. (SSFC, 5/22/05, p.E12) 1706 nend Apr 24, Giovanni Battista Martini, composer (Padre Martini), was born. (MC, 4/24/02) 1706 nend May 23, Battle of Ramillies: Marlborough defeated the French and 17,000 were killed. (MC, 5/23/02) 1706 nend Jul 10, In Virginia Grace Sherwood (d.1740), aka the Witch of Pungo, was forced to undergo a trial by water under accusations of being a witch. She floated, a sign of guilt, and was imprisoned for nearly 8 years. In 2006 the governor of Virginia officially cleared her name. (http://tinyurl.com/k42jq)(WSJ, 9/15/06,p.A1)(http://carolshouse.com/witch/) 1706 nend Dec 28, Pierre Bayle (59), French theologist (History of Criticism), died. (MC, 12/28/01) 1706 nend Bishop White Kennet printed his "Complete History of England with the Lives of All the Kings and Queens Thereof, Vol. 3" in London. (SFC, 5/10/97, p.A8) 1706 nend The First Presbyterian church was organized in Philadelphia. It had begun in Scotland and the British Isles by John Knox around 1560. (SFC, 7/21/97, p.A11) 1706 nend Pi, the 16th letter of the Greek alphabet, was 1st used as a mathematical symbol by William Jones of Wales. Pi represents the approximate ratio of a circle?s circumference to its diameter. (SFEC, 3/14/99, p.C5)(WSJ, 3/15/05, p.B1) 1706 nend Isaac Newton published the results of his 40 years of experiments with light in the "Opticks." (V.D.-H.K.p.206) 1706 nend San Felipe Church in Albuquerque, N.M., was founded. (WSJ, 12/15/95, p.A-1) 1706 nend The Treaty of Union between Scotland and England was set up. Daniel Defoe worked as a British agent in Scotland and sent back reports on agitation against the yielding of autonomy. (WSJ, 8/25/98, p.A12) 1706 nend Thomas Twinings opened his tea shop in London. (SFEC, 9/12/99, p.T2) 1707 nend Jan 16, Scotland ratified the Treaty of Union by a majority of 110 votes to 69. The Acts created a new state, the Kingdom of Great Britain, by merging the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland together. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707) 1707 nend Feb 25, Italian playwright Carlo Goldoni (d.1793) was born in Venice. "He who talks much cannot always talk well." (AP, 6/1/98)(AP, 2/25/07) 1707 nend Mar 3, Aurangzeb (88), Emperor of India (1658-1707), died. (SC, 3/3/02) 1707 nend Mar 7, Stephen Hopkins, signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born. (HN, 3/7/98) 1707 nend Apr 6, Willem Van de Velde (b.1633) the Younger, Dutch marine painter, died. His work included ?fishing Boats by the Shore in a Calm? (1660-1605). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem_van_de_Velde_the_Younger)(SFC,7/9/11, p.E1) 1707 nend Apr 22, Henry Fielding (d.1754), English novelist and essayist, was born in Sharpham Park, Somerset, England. His work included "Tom Jones." (WUD, 1994 p.528)(AP, 4/22/07) 1707 nend Apr 25, At the Battle of Almansa, Franco-Spanish forces defeated Anglo-Portuguese. (HN, 4/25/98) 1707 nend Apr 29, English-Scottish parliament accepted Act of Union and formed Great Britain. [see May 1] (MC, 4/29/02) 1707 nend May 1, Effective on this day Scotland and England were united by an act of Parliament. England, Wales and Scotland were united to form Great Britain. (WSJ, 4/16/97, p.A13)(HN, 5/1/98) 1707 nend May 9, Dietrich Buxtehude (~69), German organist, composer, died. (MC, 5/9/02) 1707 nend May 23, Carolus Linnaeus [Carl von Linné], Swedish botanist, was born. (HN, 5/23/01) 1707 nend Aug 31, The Treaty or Convention of Altranstädt was signed between Charles XII of Sweden and Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor. It settled the rights of Protestants in Silesia and forced Augustus the Strong to yield the Polish throne to Stanis?aw Leszczy?ski (1677-1766). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Altranst%C3%A4dt_%281707%29) 1707 nend Sep 7, George-Louis Leclerc (d.1788), Comte de Buffon, French naturalist and theoretical biologist. He commented on the origins of marine invertebrate fossils in the hills of France. He also wrote a 35 volume work titled "Histoire Naturelle, Generale, et Particuliere," that was an attempt to record all that was known of the world of nature. (DD-EVTT, p.114)(WSJ, 8/28/97, p.A12)(MC, 9/7/01) 1707 nend Oct 17, German composer Johann S. Bach married his niece Maria Bach. (MC, 10/17/01) 1707 nend Oct 23, The first Parliament of Great Britain, created by the Acts of Union between England and Scotland, held its first meeting. (AP, 10/23/07) 1707 nend Dec 1, Jeremiah Clarke, composer, died. (MC, 12/1/01) 1707 nend Dec 5, The Society of Antiquaries of London was founded at the Bear Tavern in the Strand by John Talman, the son of an architect, Humfrey Wanley, a student of ancient inscriptions and Anglo-Saxon, and John Bagford, an eccentric shoemaker and dealer in books. They met for the purposes of forming a Society for the study of British antiquities, whose agreed aim was to further the study of British history prior to the reign of James I. no_source 1707 nend Dec 18, Charles Wesley, co-founder of the Methodist movement, was born. (MC, 12/18/01) 1707 nend Moses Chaim Luzzato (d.1746), Hebrew playwright, was born in Padua. His work included the Mesillat Yesharim (1740), essentially an ethical treatise but with certain mystical underpinnings. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moshe_Chaim_Luzzatto) 1707 nend Jonathan Swift, novelist, said: "Laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small flies, but let wasps and hornets break through." (SFEC, 5/14/00, Z1 p.2) 1707 nend Handel composed his first opera, "Almira." He went to Rome and was nicknamed Il Sassone, the Saxon. Legend has it that he had a harpsichord and organ duel with Domenico Scarlatti at the house of Cardinal Ottoboni. They tied on the harpsichord but Handel won easily on the organ. Handel also composed "Dixit Dominus" in this year. (LGC-HCS, p.38)(WSJ, 5/11/99, p.A20) 1707 nend Kondraty Bulavin led a Cossack uprising. (SFC,10/28/97, p.A8) 1707 nend In Japan Mount Fuji erupted. (SFC, 2/14/98, p.A12) 1708 nend Jan 5, German alchemist Johann Friedrich Bottger, under the tutelage of Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus, succeeded in creating samples resembling pure porcelain at the Jungfernbastei castle in Dresden. Augustus the Strong, Elector of Saxony, had ordered Bottger to re-create the formula for oriental porcelain. Bottger was imprisoned and joined physicist Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus in a search for the formula. Tschirnhaus died in Oct, 1708. Within 2 years a factory was established in Meissen?s Albrechtsburg and Meissenware became Europe?s first hard-paste porcelain. (Hem, 6/96, p.111)(SSFC, 4/25/04, p.D12)(Econ, 4/3/10, p.88)(ON,8/10, p.9) 1708 nend Feb 28, A slave revolt in Newton, Long Island, NY, left 11 dead. (MC, 2/28/02) 1708 nend Mar 23, English pretender to the throne James III landed at Firth of Forth. (SS, 3/23/02) 1708 nend Apr 23, Friedrich von Hagedorn, German poet (Versuch einiger Poem), was born. (MC, 4/23/02) 1708 nend Apr 30, Simon de Vries, book seller, writer (Unequal), died. (MC, 4/30/02) 1708 nend Jun 8, The Spanish galleon San Jose was trying to outrun a fleet of British warships off Colombia's coast, when a mysterious explosion sent it to the bottom of the sea with gold, silver, emeralds and 600 men. 14 men survived. In 1979 Sea Search signed a deal with Colombia giving Sea Search exclusive rights to search for the San Jose and 50 percent of whatever they find. In 1982 Sea Search announced to the world it had found the San Jose's resting place 700 feet below the water's surface, a few miles from the historic Caribbean port of Cartagena. In 1984 Colombian President Belisario Betancur signed a decree reducing Sea Search's share from 50% to a 5% "finder's fee." By 2007 the treasure was valued at more than $2 billion. In July, 2007, Colombia?s highest court ruled that the ship must first be recovered before an international dispute over the fortune can be settled. In 2007 Carla Rahn Phillips authored ?The Treasure of San Jose: Death at Sea in the War of the Spanish Succession.? (AP, 6/3/07)(AP, 7/6/07)(WSJ, 1/31/07, p.D6) 1708 nend Jul 4, Swedish King Karel XII beat Russians. (Maggio) 1708 nend Jul 11, The French were defeated at Oudenarde, Malplaquet, in the Netherlands by the Duke of Marlborough and Eugene of Savoy. (HN, 7/11/98) 1708 nend Aug 29, French Canadian and Indian forces attacked the village of Haverhill, Mass., killing 16 settlers. (AP, 8/29/08) 1708 nend Sep 28, At the Battle at Lesnaya the Russian army captured a Swedish convoy. (MC, 9/28/01) 1708 nend Oct 1, John Blow, composer (Venus & Adonis), died at 59. (MC, 10/1/01) 1708 nend Oct 11, Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus (b.1651), German physicist, died. Three days after Von Tschirnhaus?s death, there was a burglary at his house and, according to a report by Böttger, a small piece of porcelain was stolen. This report suggests that Böttger himself recognized that Von Tschirnhaus already knew how to make porcelain, a key piece of evidence that Von Tschirnhaus and not Böttger was the inventor of white porcelain. {Germany, Physics, Ceramics} (ON, 8/10,p.9)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ehrenfried_Walther_von_Tschirnhaus) 1708 nend Oct 16, Albrecht von Haller, Swiss experimental physiologist, was born. (MC, 10/16/01) 1708 nend Oct, London?s St. Paul?s Cathedral, designed by Sir Christopher Wren, was completed. The "topping out" of the cathedral (when the final stone was placed on the lantern) took place. The cathedral was declared officially complete by Parliament on 25 December 1711 (Christmas Day). In 2008 Leo Hollis authored ?The Phoenix: St Paul?s Cathedral and the Men Who Made Modern London.? (Econ, 6/7/08, p.97)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Paul%27s_Cathedral) 1708 nend Nov 15, William Pitt the Elder, Secretary of State of England whose strategies helped win the Seven Years War, was born. He served as Whig PM from 1756-61 and 66-68. (HN, 11/15/98)(MC, 11/15/01) 1708 nend Dec 21, French forces seized control of the eastern shore of Newfoundland after winning a victory at St. John's. (HN, 12/21/98) 1708 nend Thomas Corneille mentioned Camembert cheese in his geographical dictionary. (Econ, 7/26/03, p.79) 1708 nend A map was made that depicted Towasa Indian Lamhatty's account of his enslavement in colonial America. It was one of 75 documents in the 1997 book "Another America" by Mark Warhus. (NH, 5/97, p.11) 1708 nend Mir Wais, a forerunner of Afghan independence, made Kandahar independent of Safavid Persia, that had ruled it since 1622. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1708 nend The German Baptist Brethren were founded as a band of Pietists in the village of Schwarzenau. Due to persecution they soon migrated to America. The Holy Spirit whispers to every believer but can only be heard by those who sacrifice self-will to god's will. They observe the rite of the "holy kiss" and have no leaders. (WSJ, 8/3/01, p.W13) 1708 nend The Great Buddha Hall at Nara?s Todaiji Temple, the world?s largest wooden structure, was rebuilt at two thirds of the original scale. (Hem, 9/04, p.46) 1708 nend Gobind Singh, the 10th Sikh guru died in India. He named the ?Granth Sahib? holy book as his eternal successor before his death. (AP, 9/1/04) 1709 nend Jan 5, Sudden extreme cold killed 1000s of Europeans. (MC, 1/5/02) 1709 nend Jan 10, Abraham Darby (1678-1717) in Coalbrookdale, England, began using coke to provide carbon for making iron. This led to the end of the use of charcoal for making iron. (Econ, 8/29/09, p.69)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Darby_I) 1709 nend Feb 2, British sailor Alexander Selkirk was rescued after being marooned on a desert island for 5 years. His story inspired "Robinson Crusoe." [see Feb 12] (MC, 2/2/02) 1709 nend Feb 8, Giuseppi Torelli (50), Italian composer, died. (MC, 2/8/02) 1709 nend Feb 12, Alexander Selkirk, the Scottish seaman whose adventures inspired the creation of Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, was taken off Juan Fernandez Island after more than four years of living there alone. [see Feb 2] (HN, 2/12/99) 1709 nend Mar 8, William Cowper/Cooper (~62), English anatomist, died. (MC, 3/8/02) 1709 nend Apr 12, The Tatler magazine in England published its 1st edition. It used the names of coffee houses as subject headings for articles. (MC, 4/12/02)(Econ, 12/20/03, p.89) 1709 nend Jun 28, Russians defeated the Swedes and Cossacks at the Battle of Poltava. [see July 8] (HN, 6/28/98) 1709 nend Jul 5, Etienne de Silhouette, French minister of finance, outline portrait artist, was born. (HN, 7/5/98) 1709 nend Jul 8, Peter the Great defeated Charles XII at Poltava, in the Ukraine, effectively ending the Swedish empire. [see June 28] (HN, 7/8/98) 1709 nend Sep 3, The 1st major group of Swiss and German colonists reached the Carolinas. (MC, 9/3/01) 1709 nend Sep 11, John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, won the bloodiest battle of the 18th century at great cost, against the French at Malplaquet. (HN, 9/11/98) 1709 nend Sep 17, Samuel Johnson, lexicographer and writer (Boswell's Tour Guide), was born. [see Sep 18] (MC, 9/17/01) 1709 nend Sep 18, Samuel Johnson (d.1784), English lexicographer, essayist, poet and moralist best known for "The Dictionary of the English Language," was born. "Patriotism is the last refuge of a scoundrel." -- (To which Ambrose Bierce replied, "I beg to submit that it is the first.") Boswell wrote the celebrated "Life of Johnson." In 1955 Walter Jackson Bate (d.1999 at 81) published "The Achievement of Samuel Johnson" and in 1977 the biography "Samuel Johnson." "The lawyer has no business with the justice or injustice of a cause. The justice or injustice is to be decided by the judge." [see Sep 17] (AP, 10/8/97)(BS, 5/3/98, p.13E)(HN, 9/18/98)(SFEC, 1/10/99, Parp.10)(SFC, 7/27/99, p.A17) 1709 nend Oct 20, Marlborough and Eugene of Savoy took Mons in the Netherlands. (HN, 10/20/98) 1709 nend Nov 22, Frantisek Benda, composer, was born. (MC, 11/22/01) 1709 nend Dec 1, Franz Xaver Richter, composer, was born. (MC, 12/1/01) 1709 nend Dec 8, Thomas Corneille (74), French dramatist, died. (MC, 12/8/01) 1709 nend Dec 18, Elizabeth, empress of Russia (to Peter the Great & Catherine I), was born. [see Dec 29] (MC, 12/18/01) 1709 nend Dec 29, Elisabeth Petrovna, daughter of Peter the Great and Catherine, was born. She became tsarina of Russia (1741-1762). (www.arthistoryclub.com/art_history/Elizabeth_of_Russia) 1709 nend Boston minister Thomas Bannister donated the book "Complete History of England with the Lives of All the Kings and Queens Thereof, Vol. 3" to Harvard Univ. It was written by Bishop White Kennet and printed in 1706 in London. (SFC, 5/10/97, p.A8) 1709 nend Handel composed his opera "Agrippina." (WSJ, 4/17/02, p.D7) 1709 nend Britain passed its first copyright act [see April 10, 1710]. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1709 nend Qing emperor Qianlong built the gardens of Yuanmingyuan (the garden of perfection and light) on the outskirts of Beijing as the imperial summer palace. In 1860 Lord Elgin?s cavalry set fire and let the gardens burn for 3 days and nights. (www.china.org.cn/english/features/beijng/31186.htm)(Econ, 11/26/05,p.18) 1709 nend In Paris representatives of the Comedie-Francaise tore down the loges at the Foire de Saint-Germain. The loges were quickly rebuilt and the Comedie-Francasie people came back enraged and burned them. The theaters were rebuilt in a week and plays resumed. (PNM, 1/25/98, p.4) 1710 nend Jan 4, Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (d.1736), Italian composer (Il Prigioniero Superbo), was born. (MC, 1/4/02)(SFC, 6/24/02, p.B6) 1710 nend Feb 4, August II with the support of the Russian army was recognized by the parliament in Warsaw as King of Lithuania and Poland. (LHC, 2/4/03) 1710 nend Feb 7, William Boyce, English organist, composer of Cathedral music, was born. (MC, 2/7/02) 1710 nend Feb 15, Louis XV (d.1774), King of France, was born. He ruled from 1715-1774. (HN, 2/15/98)(WUD, 1994, p.848) 1710 nend Mar 27, Joseph Marie Clement dall' Abaco, composer, was born. (MC, 3/27/02) 1710 nend Apr 10, Britain?s Queen Anne gave her assent to an act ?for the encouragement of learning.? It upheld Parliament?s 1709 copyright act, which set a limit of 21 years for books already in print and 14 years for new ones with an additional 14 years if the author was still alive when the first term ran out. (Econ, 4/10/10, p.16) 1710 nend Oct 16, British troops occupied Port Royal, Nova Scotia. (MC, 10/16/01) 1710 nend Nov 14, Gottfried W. Leibniz (b.1646-1716), German philosopher and theologian, authored ?Theodicy? in which he tried to resolve the theological problem of evil. no_source 12 nend /15/05, p.D8) no_source 1710 nend Nov 21, Barnardo Pasquini (72), composer, died. (MC, 11/21/01) 1710 nend Nov 22, Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, composer, son of JS Bach (Sinfonias 64), was born. (MC, 11/22/01) 1710 nend The Narrow Road by Basho Matsuo (d.1702), Japanese poet, was first published. (SFC, 11/28/96, p.C16) 1710 nend Handel returned from Italy to Hanover and was appointed as court musician to the Elector of Hanover. Later that year he first went to London. He wrote opera in the Italian style and was very successful. (LGC-HCS, p.35)(WSJ, 8/7/01, p.A12) 1710 nend Louis-Nicolas Clerambault composed his cantata "Medee." (SFC, 6/6/96, E3) 1710 nend The original Chapel of San Miguel in Santa Fe, New Mexico, was erected. (AWAM, Dec. 94, p.69) no_source 1710 nend St. Peter's Roman Catholic Church was built in Malacca, Malaysia. (SFEC, 3/19/00, p.T8) 1710 nend The Elector of Hanover commissioned the Hanover Cistern and Fountain, a silver buffet service intended to cool wine. In 1997 it had an estimated value of $2-3 million. (SFC, 10/8/97, Z1 p.4) 1710 nend In Germany Baron Johann Bottger invented the Meissen hard-paste porcelain at the Meissen factory on the river Elbe under the auspices of Augustus, King of Poland. [see 1709] Kandler was a virtuoso sculptor and brilliant artist at Meissen and was responsible for the figurine of Mazzetin and Columbine, 2 characters from the Italian comedia dell ?arte. In 2008 Maureen Cassidy-Geiger edited ?Fragile Diplomacy,? an illustrated look at Meissen porcelain. (WSJ, 8/28/98, p.W10)(WSJ, 2/16/08, p.W11) 1710 nend Umbrellas became popular in London. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1710 1784 Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, oldest son of J.S. Bach. (LGC-HCS, p.31) 1710 1895 Muslim rulers led the Kong Empire, also known as the Wattara or Outtara Empire, which spread across West Africa. It embraced a diversity of religious groups straddling what later became Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast. (Econ, 4/23/11, p.51) 1711 nend Feb 14, Handel's opera Rinaldo premiered. He composed his opera "Rinaldo," with the Italian librettist Giacomo Rossi. It was his 1st opera for London. (LGC-HCS, p.41)(WSJ, 11/13/00, p.A32)(MC, 2/14/02) 1711 nend Mar 1, "The Spectator" began publishing in London. (SC, 3/1/02) 1711 nend Mar 19, War was declared between Russia and Turkey. (AP, 3/19/03) 1711 nend Apr 26, David Hume (d.1776), Scottish historian and philosopher, was born. His work included the ?Treatise of Human Nature? and the 6-volume ?History of England.? Use of the new calendar puts his birthday on May 7. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hume) 1711 nend May 7, David Hume (d.1776), Scottish historian and philosopher, was born. His work included the ?Treatise of Human Nature? and the 6-volume ?History of England.? The old style calendar puts his birthday on April 26. (http://socserv.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/hume/index.html) 1711 nend May 18, Ruggiero G. Boscovich [Rudzer J Boskovic], Italian astronomer, was born. (SC, 5/18/02) 1711 nend Jun 1, The Queen Anne Act, known as The British Post Office Act of 1710, took effect in North America on June 1, 1711. It created a formula that was used to improve the colonial postal system and remained in effect in North America until 1789. Colonists came to view the postal rates set forth in the act as an excessive and unwelcome form of taxation. The rates were revised by a later act, which took effect on October 10, 1765. (http://tinyurl.com/adqtq) 1711 nend Jul 21, Russia and Turkey signed the Treaty of Pruth, ending the year-long Russo-Turkish War. (HN, 7/21/98) 1711 nend Aug 1, Czar Peter the Great fled Azov after being surrounded. (MC, 8/1/02) 1711 nend Aug 23, A British attempt to invade Canada by sea failed. (HN, 8/23/98) 1711 nend Sep 6, Heinrich Melchior Muhlenberg, founder of the US Lutheran church, was born. (MC, 9/6/01) 1711 nend Sep 22, The Tuscarora Indian War began with a massacre of settlers in North Carolina, following white encroachment that included the enslaving of Indian children. (HN, 9/22/98) 1711 nend Sep 22, French troops occupied Rio de Janeiro. (MC, 9/22/01) 1711 nend Nov 3, Ferdinand Tobias Richter (60), composer, died. (MC, 11/3/01) 1711 nend Dec 25, London?s St. Paul?s Cathedral, designed by Sir Christopher Wren, was declared officially complete by Parliament. In fact construction was to continue for several years after that, with the statues on the roof only being added in the 1720s. In 2008 Leo Hollis authored ?The Phoenix: St Paul?s Cathedral and the Men Who Made Modern London.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Paul%27s_Cathedral) 1711 nend Dec 31, Duke of Marlborough was fired as English army commander. (MC, 12/31/01) 1711 nend The city of Beaufort, SC, was founded. It was later hailed as the state's 2nd oldest city. (SSFC, 1/19/03, p.C12) 1711 nend Horse racing began at the Royal Ascot track west of London. The 1st four day royal meeting was held there in 1768. (SFC, 6/21/06, p.A2)(www.icons.org.uk/nom/nominations/royal-ascot) 1711 nend Daniel Defoe, author and enthusiast of Latin America, persuaded the British government to set up the South Sea Company to trade with the region. Speculation fueled value in the company?s shares, but the bubble crashed in 1720. In 1960 Virginia Cowles authored ?The Great Swindle: The Story of the South Sea bubble.? (Econ, 11/13/10, p.87) 1711 nend English ships captured the Spanish galleon San Joaquin, part of a fleet returning to Spain from Portobelo under Don Miguel Augustin de Villanueva, who was mortally wounded. New World wealth was on another ship, which managed to return to Spain. (WSJ, 1/31/07, p.D6) 1711 nend Marin Marais, a great French virtuoso on the viola da gamba, composed a pair of suites. (SFC, 6/10/98, p.D1) 1712 nend Jan 24, Frederick II (d.1786), Frederick the Great, the Hohenzollern King of Prussia (1740-1786), was born. He was noted for his social reforms and leading Prussia in military victories. (WUD, 1994, p.565)(HN, 1/24/99)(WSJ, 4/27/00, p.A24)(MC, 1/24/02) 1712 nend Feb 8, L. Joseph de Montcalm de Saint-Veran, French general in America, was born. [see Feb 29] (MC, 2/8/02) 1712 nend Feb 29, Marquis Louis Joseph de Montcalm, Commander of French Forces in North America during French and Indian War, was born. [see Feb 8] (HN, 2/29/00) 1712 nend Apr 7, There was a slave revolt in New York City. A slave insurrection in New York City was suppressed by the militia and ended with the execution of 21 blacks. [see Jul 4] (HN, 4/7/97)(HNQ, 6/10/98) 1712 nend Jun 7, The Pennsylvania Assembly banned the importation of slaves. (HN, 6/7/98) 1712 nend Jun 28, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (d.1778), writer and philosopher, was born in Geneva, Switzerland. His books include "The Social Contract" (1762) and Emile (1762). (www.infed.org/thinkers/et-rous.htm)(HN, 6/28/99) 1712 nend Jul 4, Twelve slaves were executed for starting a slave uprising in New York that killed nine whites. [see Apr 7] (HN, 7/4/98)(PCh, 1992, p.278) 1712 nend Jul 12, Richard Cromwell (85), English Lord Protector (1658-59), died. (MC, 7/12/02) 1712 nend Jul 30, Abraham Elsevier, publisher, died. (MC, 7/30/02) 1712 nend Oct 4, Utrecht banished poor Jews. (MC, 10/4/01) 1712 nend Oct 30, Christian Wilhelm Ernst Dietrich, German painter, was born. (MC, 10/30/01) 1712 nend Nov 4, The Bandbox Plot, an attempt to kill Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford and Lord Treasurer, was foiled by Jonathan Swift (the author of Gulliver?s Travels), who happened to be visiting Harley. (Econ, 11/6/10, p.74)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandbox_Plot) 1712 nend The poem ?The Rape of the Lock? by English poet Alexander Pope (1688-1744) was anonymously published in Lintot?s Miscellany. It was revised, expanded and reissued under Pope?s name in 1714. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rape_of_the_Lock) 1712 nend The English tract "Onania; or the Heinous Sin of Self-Pollution, and All Its Frightful Consequences in Both Sexes, Considered, With Spiritual and Physical Advice to Those Who Have Already Injur'd Themselves by This Abominable Practice," was published. It was later attributed to a quack doctor named John Marten. (SSFC, 5/18/03, p.E7) 1712 nend Handel composed his operas "Il Pastor Fido" and "Teseo." (LGC-HCS, p.41) 1712 nend South Carolina law required church attendance and prohibited work or travel on Sundays. (AH, 4/07, p.30) 1712 nend English Tories introduced a stamp tax, which taxed newspapers per sheet. Papers were then published as broadsheets, single sheets with huge pages (Econ, 6/12/04, p.18) 1712 nend Robert Walpole, later British prime minister, served a spell in the Tower of London on charges of financial impropriety. (Econ, 2/10/07, p.89) 1712 nend Englishman Thomas Newcomen created a piston system to separate the steam from the water. (HNQ, 1/18/01) 1712 nend In Mexico Maria de Ortiz Espejo was convicted by the Inquisition of telling women that hummingbirds and earthquakes could help them get pregnant. She got off with a warning. (SFC, 9/18/96, p.A11) 1712 nend King Frederick I of Prussia presented his amber room, made as a gift by German artisans in 1701, to Peter the Great. Catherine the Great later added four marble panels from Florence, that were inlaid with precious stones. It was moved to Konigsberg in 1945 and then lost during WW II. One of the marble panels turned up in Bremen in 1997. [see 1716] (SFC, 3/22/97, p.A16)(SFC, 4/30/98, p.E6)(WSJ, 1/20/00, p.A20) 1712 nend In Russia Peter the Great married Catherine. (WSJ, 6/28/99, p.A27) 1712 1793 Francesco Guardi, Italian painter. He painted "A Seaport and Classic Ruins in Italy." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.627) 1712 1862 England taxed soap with the declaration that it was a frivolous luxury of the aristocracy. (SFC, 4/17/99, p.B3) 1713 nend Jan 8, Arcangelo Corelli (59), composer, violinist (Concerti Grossi), died. (MC, 1/8/02) 1713 nend Feb 25, Frederik I (55), King of Prussia (1701-13), died. (MC, 2/25/02) 1713 nend Mar 15, Nicolas Louis de Lacaille, astronomer who mapped the Southern Hemisphere, was born. (MC, 3/15/02) 1713 nend Apr 11, The Peace of Utrecht was signed, France ceded Maritime provinces to Britain. The French colony of Acadia, now Nova Scotia, was ceded to Great Britain. The Acadians had come from western France to fish and farm. Those who would not swear allegiance to the crown were deported. Many of these deportees went to the bayou country of Louisiana. (WUD, 1994, p.7)(WSJ, 9/4/96, p.A12)(HN, 4/11/98)(WSJ, 11/29/99, p.A29) 1713 nend Apr 11, Spain ceded the 2.5-sq. mile Gibraltar in perpetuity to Britain under the Treaty of Utrecht. (WSJ, 11/29/99, p.A29)(SFC, 2/19/02, p.A2) 1713 nend Apr 21, Louis Duke de Noailles, marshal of France, was born. (MC, 4/21/02) 1713 nend May 25, John Stuart 3rd earl of Bute, English premier (1760-63), was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1713 nend Jul 7, The 1st performance of Georg F Handel's "To Deum" & "Jubilate." (MC, 7/7/02) 1713 nend Jun 13, Arcangelo Corelli (~49), Italian violinist, composer, died. (MC, 6/13/02) 1713 nend Oct 5, Denis Diderot (d.1784), French encyclopedist (Dictionnaire Encyclopedique), was born in Langres, Champagne, France. Age of Enlightenment philosopher, writer who with his friend Voltaire, scoffed at organized religion, ultimately bringing on the French Revolution. (www.nndb.com/people/914/000082668/) 1713 nend Oct 10, Johann Ludwig Krebs, composer, was born. [see Oct 12] (MC, 10/10/01) 1713 nend Oct 12, Johann Ludwig Krebs, composer, was born. [see Oct 10] (MC, 10/12/01) 1713 nend Nov 20, Thomas Tompion, English clock maker (cylinder tunnel), died. (MC, 11/20/01) 1713 nend Nov 24, Junipero Serra (d.1784), Spanish Roman Catholic missionary to the Indians in California and Mexico was born on the Spanish isle of Palma de Mallorca. He came to the New World in 1749 accompanied by 14 other Mallorcans including the geographer Crespi and Father Francisco Palou, biographer of Serra and historian of the missions. Serra was beatified in 1988. (SFC, Z1, 4/28/96, p.6)(SFEC, 9/14/97,p.A18)(www.beachcalifornia.com/carmel2.html) 1713 nend Nov 24, Laurence Sterne (d.1768), novelist and satirist (Tristram Shandy), was born in Ireland. "Free thinkers are generally those who never think at all." (MC, 11/24/01)(AP, 6/19/97) 1713 nend Joseph Addison, English writer, authored the play "Cato." (SFC, 12/1/00, p.A3) 1713 nend Bach composed his Brandenburg Concerto No. 3. (WSJ, 10/5/98, p.A21) 1713 nend European white porcelain was put up for general sale for the first time at the Leipzig trade fair. (ON, 8/10, p.10) 1713 nend Andrew Robinson built the first schooner. In New England "to scoon" meant "to skim." (SFC, 5/17/97, p.E3) 1713 nend Most European powers vowed to respect the 1713 royal pronouncement of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI, called the Pragmatic Sanction, in which he declared that if he had no direct male heir upon his death, his Austrian domains would go to his eldest daughter, Maria Theresa. (HNQ, 7/29/99) 1713 nend The plague in Vienna ended. The Karlskirche Church, designed by Johann Bernard Fischer von Erlach was built to commemorate this event. It is considered to be Vienna's greatest Baroque church. (Hem., Dec. '95, p.69) 1713 1791 Kang Se-hwang, Korean painter. (SFC, 7/26/97, p.E1) 1714 nend Jan 7, A typewriter was patented by Englishman Henry Mill. It was built years later. (MC, 1/7/02) 1714 nend Mar 8, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (d.1788), German composer, son of J.S. Bach, was born. He played keyboard at the court of Frederick the Great for 28 years, and succeeded Telemann at Hamburg. Because he was left-handed he did not play the violin. He represented the elegant, noncontrapuntal style gallant that was developed by the Mannheim composers and led into Haydn and Mozart. (LGC-HCS, p.31)(MC, 3/8/02) 1714 nend Jul 2, Christoph Willibald Ritter von Gluck, composer, was born in Erasbach, Germany. (SC, 7/2/02) 1714 nend Aug 1, Queen Anne (1702-1714) of Britain died at age 48. By the 1701 Act of Settlement Prince George Louis (54) of Hanover succeeded her as King George I (d.1727). (PCh, 1992, p.279)(www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/mon53.html) 1714 nend Sep 25, Jean-Benoit Leclair, composer, was born. (MC, 9/25/01) 1714 nend Oct 20, Georg Ludwig of Hanover was crowned as George I of England. Queen Anne of England died and was succeeded by the Elector of Hanover. The Hanoverian dynasty ruled to 1901. (LGC-HCS, p.36)(HN, 10/20/98)(WUD, 1994, p.644) 1714 nend Nov 11, A highway in Bronx was laid out. It was later renamed East 233rd Street. (MC, 11/11/01) 1714 nend Bernard de Mandeville, Dutch philosopher, achieved widespread fame with his lengthy poem "The Fable of the Bees: Private Vice, Publick Benefits." (NH, 7/02, p.74) 1714 nend A British comedy called ?The Winder? was staged. (Econ, 12/19/09, p.132) 1714 nend Henry Mill received the first recorded patent for a typewriter in England. (SJSVB, 3/25/96, p.27) 1714 nend Henrietta Howard (b.1689-1767) traveled with her husband to Hanover to the court of George Louis, heir to the English throne. In 1720 she was appointed as Woman of the Bedchamber to Princess Caroline and in 1723 became a royal mistress. In 2007 Tracy Borman authored ?Henrietta Howard: King?s Mistress, Queen?s Servant.? (Econ, 10/6/07,p.99)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrietta_Howard,_Countess_of_Suffolk) 1714 nend In France Dom Perignon invented champagne. [see 1688] (SFEC, 2/1/98, Z1p.8) 1714 nend In Japan Ando Kaigetsudo (1671-1743) was banished to the island of Oshima. He was the founder of the Kaigetsudo school of ukiyo-e (scenes of the transient world of daily life) painters and print designers. (SSFC, 11/20/05,p.M1)(www.ready-to-hang.com/LCP_ArtNotes/Kaigetsudo_Ando_Bio.htm) 1714 nend In Northern Russia the Church of the Transfiguration was built by the Kizhi community on an island on Lake Onega. The wooden church with 22 onion domes was built without nails. (WSJ, 9/16/06, p.P18) 1714 nend Peter the Great instituted the Order of St. Catherine in honor of his wife, Catherine. It was the highest Russian honor awarded exclusively to women. Only 12 women outside the royal family could be members of the Order at a time. (WSJ, 6/11/99, p.W14)(WSJ, 6/28/99, p.A27) 1714 nend Peter the Great of Russia founded Oktyabar, a pharmaceutical firm. In 1995 US ICN Pharmaceuticals increased its investment in the firm to 75% from 41%. (ICN, 1995 An. Rep., p.11) 1715 nend Jan 26, Claude Helvétius, French philosopher, was born. He advanced the theory that sensation is the source of all intellectual activity. (HN, 1/26/99) 1715 nend Mar 7, Ewald Christian von Kleist, German lyric poet (Der Freuhling), was born. (MC, 3/7/02) 1715 nend Mar, William Dampier (b.1651), English explorer and privateer, died. In 2004 Diana and Michael Preston authored "A Pirate of Exquisite Mind: Explorer, Naturalist and Bucaneer," a biography of Dampier. (WSJ, 4/16/04, p.W8) 1715 nend Apr 15, Uprising of Yamasse Indians in South Carolina. (MC, 4/15/02) 1715 nend Apr 20, Nicholas Rowe's "Tragedy of Lady Jane Gray," premiered in London. (MC, 4/20/02) 1715 nend May 3, Edmund Halley observed a total eclipse phenomenon: "Baily's Beads." (MC, 5/3/02) 1715 nend May 4, A French manufacturer debuted the first folding umbrella. (HN, 5/4/98) 1715 nend Jul 20, The Riot Act went into effect in England. (HFA, '96, p.34)(HN, 7/20/01) 1715 nend Jul 29, A hurricane sank 10 Spanish treasure galleons sank off Florida coast. (MC, 7/29/02) 1715 nend Jul 30, A Spanish gold and silver fleet disappeared off St. Lucie, Florida. (MC, 7/30/02) 1715 nend Sep 1, Louis XIV (b.1638), "the Sun King," king of France (1643-1715), died of gangrene. His wife was Madame de Maintenon, founder of the convent academy Maison St. Cyr. In 2006 Antonia Fraser authored ?Love and Louis XIV.? (THC,12/3/97)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France)(WSJ, 11/4/06,p.P10) 1715 nend Sep 6, A pro-James III uprising took place in Scotland. (MC, 9/6/01) 1715 nend Sep 30, Etienne B. de Condillac, French philosopher (sensualism, Cours d'etudes), was born. (MC, 9/30/01) 1715 nend Oct 2, Peter II, czar of Russia (1727-30), was born. (MC, 10/2/01) 1715 nend Nov 13, The English beat the Scots at the Battle of Sheriffmuir in Scotland. (HN, 11/13/98)(MC, 11/13/01) 1715 nend Nov 13, The pro-James Edward Stuart rebellion surrendered. (MC, 11/13/01) 1715 nend Nov 24, The Thames River froze. (MC, 11/24/01) 1715 nend Nov 25, England granted the 1st patent to an American. It was for processing corn. (MC, 11/25/01) 1715 nend Handel composed the opera "Amadigi di Gaula." It was about the sorceress Melissa and her attempts to seduce the hero Amadigi. (WSJ, 3/24/97, p.A16) 1715 nend Daniel Parker (~1700-1775), English violin maker, visited Stradivari?s workshop about this time in Cremona, Italy, and acquired an abundance of the master?s secrets in making violins. (Econ, 1/2/10, p.11)(www.amacviolins.com/amac/gallery/doc/makers.htm) 1715 nend The Ottomans recaptured the Peloponnesus from the Venetians. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.56) 1715 nend Mir Wais of Afghanistan died peacefully, and lies in a mausoleum outside of Kandahar. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1715 nend In Russia Peter the Great held a funeral for his favorite court dwarf. Lines of ecclesiastics were followed by 24 pair of male and female dwarves. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R4) 1715 1721 Colen Campbell and William Kent built the Burlington House in London, England. In 1854 the Cavendish family sold it to the government. Lady Cavendish had complained that its rooms were too narrow for hooped-skirted ladies to waltz in. (Econ, 10/6/07, p.19) 1715 1774 In France Louis XV, great-grandson of Louis XIV, ruled as king. (WUD, 1994, p.848)(PCh, 1992, p.279) 1716 nend Jan 15, Philip Livingston, Declaration of Independence signer, was born. (HN, 1/15/99) 1716 nend Mar 13, Georg Gabriel Schutz (46), composer, died. (MC, 3/13/02) 1716 nend Apr 4, John Evangelist Schreiber, composer, was born. (MC, 4/4/02) 1716 nend Apr 12, Felice de' Giardini, composer, was born. (MC, 4/12/02) 1716 nend May 29, Louis J.M. Daubenton, French zoologist, was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1716 nend Jun 6, The 1st slaves arrived in Louisiana. (MC, 6/6/02) 1716 nend Jul 18, A decree ordered all Jews expelled from Brussels. (MC, 7/18/02) 1716 nend Sep 2, Johann Trier, composer, was born. (MC, 9/2/01) 1716 nend Sep 14, The 1st lighthouse in US was lit in Boston Harbor. (www.lighthouse.cc/boston/history.html) 1716 nend Sep 24, Medici Grand Duke Cosimo III passed a law limiting and regulating the area of wine production in Tuscany, thus creating the 1st "Appelation Controlee" wine. (Carmignano, 1997) 1716 nend Nov 3, In the Pacification Treaty of Warsaw Czar Peter the Great (1672-1725) guaranteed Saxon monarch August I's (1682-1718) Polish kingdom. (DoW, 1999, p.373) 1716 nend Nov 14, Gottfried W. Leibniz (Leibnitz b.1646), German philosopher and theologian, died. In 2005 Matthew Stewart authored ?The Courtier and the Heretic: Leibniz, Spinoza, and the Fate of God in the Modern World. no_source 12 nend /15/05, p.D8) no_source 1716 nend Nov 26, The 1st lion exhibited in America was in Boston. (MC, 11/26/01) 1716 nend Dec 23, Johann Heinrich Rolle, composer, was born. (MC, 12/23/01) 1716 nend Dec 26, Thomas Gray, English poet, was born: Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard: "The paths of glory lead but to the grave."; also: "...where ignorance is bliss/'Tis folly to be wise." (440.com) 1716 nend Agostino Cornacchini created the porcelain version of his sculpture "Sleeping Endymion." (WSJ, 1/29/02, p.A18) 1716 nend In the summer of 1716, a Cornish cabin boy named Thomas Pellow (11) and fifty-one of his comrades were captured at sea by Barbary corsairs. Ali Hakem and his network of Islamic slave traders had declared war on the whole of Christendom. Thousands of Europeans had been snatched from their homes and taken in chains to the great slave markets of Algiers, Tunis, and Salé in Morocco, where they were sold at auction to the highest bidder. Pellow and his shipmates were bought by the sultan of Morocco, Moulay Ismail, who was constructing an imperial palace of such scale and grandeur that it would surpass every other building in the world. In 2005 Giles Milton authored ?White Gold,? an account of the trade in white slaves. (SSFC, 6/19/05, p.C3)(http://tinyurl.com/7wv2s) 1716 nend Thomas Fairchild brushed with a feather pollen from a sweet William over the stigma of a carnation, creating the first human-made hybrid plant. (www.orangepippin.com/articles/yorkshireapples.aspx)(SSFC, 4/19/09,Books p.J7) 1716 nend In France John Law established a private bank called Law & Co. with the promise that his notes were redeemable on demand for coin. (WSJ, 7/19/00, p.B1) 1716 nend St. John Island in the West Indies was settled by the Danes. (NG, Jan, 1968, C. Mitchell, p. 71) 1716 nend The Virginia Colonial Assembly passed a law that required every householder to plant at least ten grapevines. (WSJ, 9/9/96, p.A16) 1716 nend Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm I gave the Czar of Russia an elaborately carved amber chamber. In exchange, he received his wish: 55 very tall Russian soldiers. German troops dismantled it in 1941 and took it to Koenigsburg where it disappeared. In 1979 the Soviet government initiated a reconstruction, which was unveiled in 2003. [see 1701, 1712] (AP, 5/13/03) 1716 1788 Charles III, (Carlos III) king of Spain from 1759-1788, was born in Madrid. He was a member of the Bourbon-Parma dynasty. He was King of Naples from 1734-1759 and authorized expeditions from Mexico to California. (WUD, 1994, p.249)(SFC, 6/7/00, p.A15) 1716 1800 Ito Jakuchu, Japanese artist. He created the "Vegetable Parinirvana," a hanging scroll that recasts the Buddha as a languishing radish surrounded by other vegetable onlookers. (WSJ, 12/1/98, p.A20) 1717 nend Jan 30, Surrounded by the Russian army the Lithuanian-Polish parliament reduced its army by half and acknowledged Russian protection. (LHC, 1/30/03) 1717 nend Apr 26, Pirate Black Sam Bellamy died along with 143 others when their ship, the Whydah, sank off of Wellfleet, Cape Cod. 2 men on the Whydah survived as did 7 others aboard the Mary Anne, a smaller ship loaded with Madeira wine. The slave ship Whydah had just been captured by Bellamy in February as it left Ouidau, Benin, with a load of sugar and indigo as well as chests of silver and gold. 6 or the 9 survivors were later hanged for piracy in Boston. In 1984 the wreck of the ship was discovered by Barry Clifford. (SFC, 3/4/96, p.A4)(WSJ, 9/12/07, p.D9) 1717 nend May 13, Maria Theresa was born in Vienna. She later became Archduchess of Austria, a Queen of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia, and a Holy Roman Empress. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Theresa_of_Austria) 1717 nend Jun 4, The Freemasons established their Grand Lodge in London. They had begun in the 13th century as a guild of masons, who worked in soft stone called freestone. (HN, 6/4/98)(WSJ, 2/6/02, p.A16) 1717 nend Jun 19, Johann Wenzel Anton Stamitz, composer, was born. (MC, 6/19/02) 1717 nend Jul 17, Handel's "Water Music" was played for George I on the occasion of a royal barge trip on the Thames. (LGC-HCS, p.40)(Internet) 1717 nend Aug 4, A friendship treaty was signed between France and Russia. (HN, 8/4/98) 1717 nend Aug 22, The Austrian army forced the Turkish army out of Belgrade, ending the Turkish revival in the Balkans. (HN, 8/22/98) 1717 nend Sep 24, Horace Walpole (1797), son of Robert Walpole, author and Fourth Earl of Orford, was born. He was a life time collector of bibelots and authored one of the first Gothic novels: "The Castle of Otranto" (1764). "The whole secret of life is to be interested in one thing profoundly and in a thousand things well." Wilmarth Lewis (d.1979) later edited Yale's 48-volume edition of Walpole's correspondence. He created the Gothic novel genre. (AP, 1/13/98)(WSJ, 10/19/99, p.A24)(HN, 9/24/00) 1717 nend Nov 17, Jean Le Rond d'Alembert (d.1783), French mathematician, philosopher and physicist, was born. He and Denis Diderot (1713-1784) designed and edited the "Encyclopedie," a massive reference work and polemical attempt to reform French society. In 1998 Andrew Crumey authored the novel "D'Alembert's Principle: A Novel in Three Panels." (SFEC, 12/27/98, BR p.5)(www.nndb.com/people/405/000087144/) 1717 nend Dec 9, Johann J. Winckelmann, German archaeologist (History of Ancient Art), was born. (MC, 12/9/01) 1717 nend The 1st New Orleans levee, 3 feet tall, was built on the Mississippi River. (WSJ, 8/31/05, p.B1) 1717 nend Isaac Newton, England's master of the mint, recommended a temporary freeze on the value of the gold guinea to establish an appropriate ratio between the prices of gold and silver and their supply. (WSJ, 11/9/00, p.A24) 1717 nend Thomas Coke, the first Earl of Leicester, purchased a manuscript made by Leonardo da Vinci that came to be know as the Codex Leicester. It was sold in 1980 to Armand Hammer. (SFC, 10/29/96, p.F3)(NH, 5/97, p.11) 1717 nend Wang Hui (b.1632), Chinese master painter, died. (WSJ, 10/29/08, p.D9) 1717 nend Louis Liger (b.1658), French writer, died. His 1700 book ?Oeconomie Generale de la Campagne, ou Nouvelle Maison Rustique? included a chapter on French viticulture. (SFC, 10/21/04, p.F3)(www.rappaport.it/catalogo.htm) 1717 nend The French notes of John Law's bank were made receivable for taxes and other royal revenue. (WSJ, 7/19/00, p.B4) 1717 nend In France John Law proposed a company with exclusive rights to trade with and exploit the resources of the Mississippi territory and to pay down the government's debt from company profits. The regent and Parliament approved and the Companie d?Occident (Company of the West) was established. (WSJ, 7/19/00, p.B4)(Econ, 8/15/09, p.63) 1717 nend Johann Martin Schubart, former student of JS Bach, succeeded Bach as organist at the court of Weimar. (SFC, 9/1/06, p.E10) 1717 nend Ono Pharmaceutical was founded by Ichibei Fushimiya as an apothecary in Osaka, Japan. In 1947 Ono Pharmaceutical was established. Its shares listed on the Osaka Securities Exchange in 1962 and the Tokyo Stock Exchange in 1963. (Econ, 2/12/11, p.72) 1717 1718 Voltaire (1694-1778), French writer, was imprisoned in the Bastille for his lampoons of the Regency. (www.online-literature.com/voltaire/) 1717 1723 J.S. Bach worked under Prince Leopold at Anhalt-Cothen. During this period he composed the 1st book of the Well-Tempered Clavier, the Brandenburg Concertos and the sonatas for solo violin. Bach likely composed his ?Six Suites for Unaccompanied Cello? during this period, when he served as a Kapellmeister in Cothen. They were later acclaimed as some of the greatest works ever written for solo cello. In 2010 Eric Siblin authored ?The Cello Suites: J.S. Bach, Pablo Casals and the Search for a Baroque Masterpiece.? (WSJ, 8/3/00,p.A12)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cello_Suites_%28Bach%29)(Econ,1/9/10, p.82) 1718 nend Jan 7, Israel Putnam, American Revolutionary War hero, was born. He planned the fortifications at the Battle of Bunker Hill and told his men, "don't fire until you see the whites of their eyes." (HN, 1/7/99) 1718 nend Apr 26, Esek Hopkins, first U.S. commander-in-chief, was born. (HN, 4/26/98) 1718 nend May 7, La Nouvelle-Orleans (New Orleans) was founded by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orleans, the Regent of France. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans) 1718 nend May 15, James Puckle, a London lawyer, patented the world's 1st machine gun. (MC, 5/15/02) 1718 nend May 23, William Hunter (d.1783), obstetrician, surgeon, anatomy teacher, was born near Glasgow, Scotland. In 1768 he opened a medical school. The Glasgow Hunterian Museum opened in 1807. (MC, 5/23/02)(http://www.hunterian.gla.ac.uk/index.html) 1718 nend May, Edward Teach, aka Blackbeard, used his 40-gun, captured French flagship (La Concorde), renamed as Queen Anne's Revenge, to blockade the harbor at Charleston, S.C. (www.qaronline.org/history/search.htm)(AM, May/Jun 97 p.21) 1718 nend Jun 5, Thomas Chippendale, English furniture maker was baptized. (MC, 6/5/02) 1718 nend Jun 10, Blackbeard's ship, the Queen Anne's Revenge, ran aground about this time and soon sank off the coast of Beaufort, NC. In 1997 underwater archeologist raised a canon believed to be from this ship. (SFC, 3/4/96, p.A4)(SFC,10/24/97,p.A3)(www.qaronline.org/history/search.htm) 1718 nend Jun 26, Alexius Petrovich (28), the son of Peter the Great, died in St. Petersburg from wounds inflicted for an imagined rebellion. (PC, 1992 ed, p.281) 1718 nend Jul 21, The Turkish threat to Europe was eliminated with the signing of the Treaty of Passarowitz between Austria, Venice and the Ottoman Empire. (HN, 7/21/98) 1718 nend Jul 30, William Penn, English Quaker, colonizer (No cross, no crown), died. (MC, 7/30/02) 1718 nend Aug 25, Hundreds of French colonists arrived in Louisiana, with some of them settling in present-day New Orleans. (AP, 8/25/97) 1718 nend Nov 3, John Montague, fourth Earl of Sandwich and inventor of the sandwich, was born. (HN, 11/3/98) 1718 nend Nov 18, Voltaire's "Oedipe" premiered in Paris. (MC, 11/18/01) 1718 nend Nov 22, A force of British troops under Lt. Robert Maynard captured English pirate Edward Teach (b.~1682), better known as "Blackbeard" (aka Captain Drummond), during a battle near Ocracoke Island, off the North Carolina coast. They beheaded him. The governor of Virginia had put a price of 100 pounds on his head. (AP,11/22/97)(www.outerbankschamber.com/relocation/history/ocracoke.cfm) 1718 nend Dec 11, Charles XII, King of Sweden (1697-1718), was shot dead. (MC, 12/11/01) 1718 nend James Puckle patented a machine gun that utilized a revolving block for firing square bullets. (V.D.-H.K.p.267) 1718 nend Handel composed his opera "Silla." (LGC-HCS, p.41) 1718 nend Jean Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, French-Canadian explorer, founded New Orleans. (Hem., 1/97, p.63) 1718 nend The "Casket Girls" of New Orleans began to arrive from France with casket full of dowry articles to marry settlers. (SFC, 1/24/98, p.E5) 1718 nend Edward Teach, aka Blackbeard, began to pillage settlements along the Atlantic coast and around the Caribbean. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.21) 1718 nend In France John Law's Bank was made the state-royal-bank. The Law bank bought the French tobacco monopoly. (WSJ, 7/19/00, p.B4) 1718 nend The Paris Meridian was first plotted. It was recalculated in the early 1800s by Arago. (SSFC, 1/25/04, p.C12) 1718 nend Dutch planters introduced coffee to their Suriname colony. (ON, 10/2010, p.12) 1718 nend Czar Peter the Great imposed a tax on the entire male peasant population while exempting the wealthiest, the nobles and the merchants. Lords, villages and town officials were responsible for collecting the tax. (SFC, 5/3/00, p.A12) 1718 1719 The French artist Watteau, known for his draftsmanship, created "Woman in Black" and "Head of a Man." (WSJ, 12/9/99, p.A24) 1718 1736 Russian Czar Peter the Great, having conquered Estonia in the Great Northern War, constructed the baroque, peach and white Kadriorg Palace on the outskirts of Tallinn. (Hem, 4/96, p.23)(CNT, 3/04, p.145) 1718 1780 In Connecticut Colonel Samuel Browne operated his 30-square-mile New Salem plantation. Evidence of slave labor was later found. (AM, 9/01, p.10) 1719 nend Jan 23, Principality of Liechtenstein was created within the Holy Roman Empire. (www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/9403.htm) 1719 nend Mar 13, German alchemist Johann Friedrich Bottger (b.1682) died. He was generally acknowledged as the inventor of European porcelain. Sources later ascribed this to Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus. Böttger is still credited with the industrial manufacturing process of Meißen porcelain. (ON, 8/10,p.10)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_B%C3%B6ttger) 1719 nend Mar 22, Frederick William abolished serfdom on crown property in Prussia. (AP, 3/22/99) 1719 nend Mar 30, Sir John Hawkins, author of the first history of music, was born. (HN, 3/30/98) 1719 nend Apr 7, Jean-Baptiste de la Salle (67), French priest, explorer, saint, died. (MC, 4/7/02) 1719 nend Apr 15, In France Madame de Maintenon (b.1635), the wife of former King Louis XIV, died. In 1930 Maud Cruttwell authored the biography ?Madame de Maintenon.? In 2008 Veronica Buckley authored ?Madame de Maintenon: The Secret Wife of Louis XIV.? (WSJ, 5/12/07, p.P10(http://tinyurl.com/32xq5o))(Econ, 7/26/08, p.96) 1719 nend Apr 25, Daniel Defoe's novel "Robinson Crusoe" was published in London. Crusoe was based on the story of Alexander Selkirk (167601721), a man who was voluntarily put ashore on a desert island (1704-1709). (WSJ, 8/25/98, p.A12)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robinson_Crusoe) 1719 nend Jun 11, Scottish rebels, aided by Spanish troops, who are defeated at Glenshiels surrendered. (AP, 6/11/03) 1719 nend Jun 17, Joseph Addison (47), English poet, writer, secretary of state, died. (MC, 6/17/02) 1719 nend Sep 23, Liechtenstein declared independence from the German empire. (MC, 9/23/01) 1719 nend Sep, John Law announced that he would buy the entire debt of France. (WSJ, 7/19/00, p.B4) 1719 nend Nov 14, Johann Georg Leopold Mozart, composer, was born. (MC, 11/14/01) 1719 nend Dec 2, Pasquier Quesnel (85), French theologian (La Foi), died. (MC, 12/2/01) 1719 nend Dec 11, The first recorded sighting of the Aurora Borealis took place in New England. (AP, 12/11/99) 1719 nend Dec 18, Thomas Fleet published "Mother Goose's Melodies For Children." (MC, 12/18/01) 1719 nend Tiepolo painted "Scipio Africanus Freeing Massiva," a 9 x 16 foot painting that now resides at Walters Art Gallery in Baltimore. The painting required much restoration after having fallen into New York Harbor and being dripped on from a leak in the Walters roof. (WSJ, 5/21/96, p.A-16) 1719 nend The bawdy ballad "The Ball of Kirriemuir" was first published at least this far back. The poem was later used by T.S. Eliot. (WSJ, 9/12/96, p.A14) 1719 nend Chikamatsu Monzaemon created his Kabuki Theater masterpiece 'Shankun: The Exile on Devil's Island." (SFEC, 9/8/96, DB p.7) 1719 nend In New Hampshire the first potato in America was planted in Londonderry Common Field. (SFC, 1/29/00, p.E3) 1719 nend James Bradley, English astronomer, identified the star Castor (Alpha Geminorum) as a double star. (SCTS, p.162) 1719 nend The Zwinger Palace was erected in Dresden, Germany. (SSFC, 4/25/04, p.D12) 1719 nend The French government gave the Law company the right of coinage. By this time John Law controlled the mint, public finances, the bank, the sea trade, Louisiana, tobacco, and salt revenues. (WSJ, 7/19/00, p.B4) 1719 nend In Paris, France, the fair theaters were closed through the intrigues of their enemies. (PNM, 1/25/98, p.4) 1719 nend The French captured and burned the Spanish settlement Presidio Santa Maria de Galve (later Pensacola, Flordia), but handed Pensacola back to Spain three years later. Hurricanes forced the Spanish to repeatedly rebuild. (AP, 3/24/06) 1720 nend Jan 26, Guilio Alberoni was ordered out of Spain after his abortive attempt to restore his country's empire. (HN, 1/26/99) 1720 nend Jan-1720 Aug, Speculators in London bid up the price of the South Sea Co., which had been granted a trading monopoly with South America and the Pacific. The South Sea Bubble burst and London markets crashed. Speculation in government chartered trading companies had led to artificially inflated equity prices with high leverage. The average stock dropped 98.5%. It reportedly took 100 years for markets to recover. In 1999 Edward Chancellor published "Devil Take the Hindmost: A History of Financial Speculation." In 2002 Malcolm Balen authored ?The Secret History of the South Sea Bubble.? (SFEC, 8/16/98, p.B2)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42)(WSJ, 6/1/99, p.A20)(Econ,1/3/04, p.42) 1720 nend Feb 10, Edmund Halley was appointed 2nd Astronomer Royal of England. (MC, 2/10/02) 1720 nend Feb 17, Spain signed the Treaty of the Hague with the Quadruple Alliance ending a war that was begun in 1718. (HN, 2/17/99) 1720 nend Mar 24, In Paris, banking houses closed in the wake of financial crisis. The "Mississippi Bubble" burst as panicked investors withdrew their money from John Law's bank and Mississippi Company [see South Sea Bubble, Jan, 1720]. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8)(HN, 3/24/99)(WSJ, 7/19/00, p.B4) 1720 nend May 21, The French government issued an edict that devalued all the notes and shares of the Law company and fixed their prices. The edict was repealed after a week but the economy was severely damaged and John Law resigned as comptroller general. (WSJ, 7/19/00, p.B4) 1720 nend May 25, "Le Grand St. Antoine" reached Marseille, plague killed 80,000. (SC, 5/25/02) 1720 nend Jun 10, Mrs. Clements of England marketed the 1st paste-style mustard. (MC, 6/10/02) 1720 nend Jun 10, The French state bank reopened after a 10 day closure and some people were crushed to death in the rush to get in. (WSJ, 7/19/00, p.B4) 1720 nend Jul 17, In France Barricades, placed at the state bank, incited a crowd and 12 people were killed. (WSJ, 7/19/00, p.B4) 1720 nend Oct, A government sloop, commissioned by the governor of Jamaica to capture pirates, attacked and captured the pirate ship of Captain Calico Jack Rackham. [see Nov 20] (ON, 12/01, p.12) 1720 nend Sep 12, Frederick Philipse III, NYC, land owner (Bronx, Westchester & Putnam), was born. (MC, 9/12/01) 1720 nend Nov 20, Pirates Mary Read, Anne Bonny (b.~1700) and Captain Calico Jack Rackham were tried by an admiralty court in Jamaica. Rackham was found guilty and hanged the next day. Read and Bonny were also found guilty and sentenced to hang but pleaded pregnancy. Their sentences were commuted until they gave birth. Bonny was later pardoned but Read died in prison on Apr 28, 1721. Bonny, an Irish American pirate, had plied her trade in the Caribbean and died around 1782. (ON, 12/01, p.12)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Bonny) 1720 nend Nov 27, In France John Law's bank closed for the last time. (WSJ, 7/19/00, p.B4) 1720 nend Dec 20, Charles Edward Stuart, [Bonnie Prince Charlie, Young Pretender], was born. [see Dec 31] (MC, 12/20/01) 1720 nend Dec 31, Charles Edward Stuart, grandson of James II, known as the Young Pretender and Bonnie Prince Charlie, was born. [see Dec 20] (HN, 12/31/98) 1720 nend Dec, John Law left France and returned to England. (WSJ, 7/19/00, p.B4) 1720 nend J.S. Bach composed his Double Violin Concerto in D Minor. (SI-WPC, 12/6/96) 1720 nend Handel composed his opera "Radamisto." It dealt with the tyrant Tiridate, King of Armenia, and his insatiable pursuit of a woman who is not his wife. (LGC-HCS, p.41)(WSJ, 7/5/00, p.A20) 1720 nend Handel composed his oratorio "Esther" based on the 1689 drama by Racine. (WSJ, 5/12/98, p.A20) 1720 nend The time setting for "Moll Flanders." (SFC, 6/14/96, p. C3) 1720 nend England passed a law that prohibited the emigration of skilled craftsmen and the export of machinery, models and plans. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R50) 1720 nend Paris, France, had 380 coffee houses by this time. Due to strict curbs on the press handwritten newsletters were exchanged there and government spies were common. (Econ, 12/20/03, p.90) 1720 nend French Captain Gabriel Mathieu de Clieu (33) was posted to Martinique. In 1723 he obtained coffee while traveling back to Paris and planted them on his return to Martinique. In 1725 he reaped almost 2 pounds and sowed them on his estate and those of some friends. (ON, 10/2010, p.12) 1720 nend In Ireland the first yacht club appeared in Cork Harbor. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1720 nend The world's 1st futures exchange began in Osaka, Japan, with trade in 3-months forward contracts in rice. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R51) 1720 nend The last major eruption of the Popocatepetl volcano outside Mexico City. (SFC, 7/3/97, p.C5) 1720 nend On Dominica beginning in this year the island's administration shifted between the French and the British until the early 19th century. (SFEC, 2/15/98, p.T6) 1720 nend Sardinia, held by Catalan conquerors since 1354, was handed over to Piedmont's Savoy Kingdom. (SFEC, 1/30/00, p.T5) 1720 nend The Spanish quashed Chamorro resistance and forcibly evacuated to Guam all Chamorros on Saipan and the other Northern Marianas islands. (SFEC, 3/7/99,Z1 p.4) 1720 nend s The Ephrata Cloister communal society in Amish country near Philadelphia was founded by a former elder of the German Dunkers (German Baptists who later became the Church of the Brethren). (Hem, 6/96, p.107)(http://www.cob-net.org/cloister.htm) 1720 nend s Timothy Hanson took a seeds of a European perennial grass known as hay from New York to the Carolinas. The hay is called Timothy. (SFEC, 11/17/96, zone 1 p.2) 1720 1778 Giovanni Battista Piranesi, Italian artist. His fame rests on fantastic and often nightmarish etchings of ruins and prisons. He restored the church of Santa Maria in Aventino. (WSJ, 3/31/98, p.A20) 1720 1790 The great period of Castrato singing. Singers such as Nicolo Grimaldi (Nicolini), Francesca Bernardi (Senesino), Gaetano Maiorano (Caffarelli), and the greatest Carlo Broschi (Farinelli). (LGC-HCS, p.44) 1720 1800 The American counterpart to the religious movement in Europe known as Pietism and Quietism was known as the Great Awakening. The Great Awakening was a religious revival in the American colonies in the early 18th century. It was one of the first great movements to give colonists a sense of unity and special purpose in God's providential plans. The Great Awakening was part of a religious ferment that swept across Western Europe that was know on the Continent among Protestants and Roman Catholics as Pietism and Quietism. In England it was referred to as Evangelicalism. (HNQ, 8/31/98) 1720 1806 Carlo Gozzi, Italian fantasist, playwright. (WSJ, 10/20/95, p. A-12) 1721 nend Jan 25, Czar Peter the Great ended the Russian orthodox patriarchy. (MC, 1/25/02) 1721 nend Mar 19, Tobias George Smollett, Scottish satirical author and physician (Roderick Random, Humphrey Clinker), was born (baptized). (HN, 3/19/01)(MC, 3/19/02) 1721 nend Mar 24, In Germany, the supremely talented Johann Sebastian Bach published the Six Brandenburg Concertos. (HN, 3/24/99) 1721 nend Apr 13, John Hanson, first U.S. President under the Articles of Confederation, was born in Maryland. (HN, 4/13/98)(MC, 4/13/02) 1721 nend Apr 14, William Augustus duke of Cumberland, English army leader ("Butcher of Culloden"), was born. (MC, 4/14/02) 1721 nend Apr 19, Roger Sherman (d.1793) of Connecticut, signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born in Newton, Massachusetts. Sherman was among the first to declare that Parliament had no right to legislate for the colonies. He was a delegate to the Continental Congress, served in the first U.S. House of Representatives and was a U.S. senator. (HN, 4/19/97)(HNQ, 7/10/99) 1721 nend Apr 26, The smallpox vaccination was 1st administrated. Lady Mary Wortley Montegu had returned to England following a stay in Turkey with her ambassador husband. She had learned of a procedure to inoculate against smallpox and began a campaign to have the procedure established. (ON, 9/01, p.1)(MC, 4/26/02) 1721 nend May 25, John Copson became America's 1st insurance agent. (SC, 5/25/02) 1721 nend May 29, South Carolina was formally incorporated as a royal colony. (HN, 5/29/98) 1721 nend Jun 26, Dr. Zabdiel Boylston gave the 1st smallpox inoculation in Boston. The epidemic had arrived by ship from Barbados. (ON, 3/05, p.4) 1721 nend Jul 18, Jean Antoine Watteau (b.1684), French rococo painter, died. His work included "Le Mezzetin." (WUD, 1994 p.1614)(MC, 10/10/01)(MC, 7/18/02) 1721 nend Jul 21, Doctors in Boston raised objections to a new practice of using live smallpox to inoculate patients against the disease. A smallpox epidemic had recently broken out in Boston and Cotton Mather (58), following some study, encouraged the inoculation technique to prevent death from the disease. (ON, 3/05, p.4) 1721 nend Aug 30, The Peace of Nystad ended the Second Northern War between Sweden and Russia, giving Russia considerably more power in the Baltic region. (HN, 8/30/98) 1721 nend Oct 6, Deaths from smallpox in Boston reached 203 with 2,757 people infected. (ON, 3/05, p.5) 1721 nend Oct 22, Czar Peter the Great became "All-Russian Imperator." (MC, 10/22/01) 1721 nend Dec 29, Madam Jeanne Poisson de Pompadour, influential mistress of Louis XV, was born. She was later blamed for France's defeat in the Seven Years' War. (HN, 12/29/00) 1721 nend Samuel Johnson published his "Dictionary of the English Language." [good job for one only 12 years old] (SFEC, 10/18/98, BR p.7) 1721 nend Handel composed his opera "Floridante. " (LGC-HCS, p.41) 1721 nend Abdul Qadir Bedil (b.1644), Afghanistan Sufi poet, died. In 2000 Afghan cab drivers in Washington DC began meeting to discuss his work in a program called ?An Evening of Sufism.? (WSJ, 7/10/06, p.A1)(http://devoted.to/bedil) 1721 nend Robert Walpole (1676-1745) began serving as England?s first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer. He shared power with John Carteret (later 1st Earl Granville) until 1724 and with Townshend, whom he left in charge of foreign affairs, until 1730. Thereafter his ascendancy was complete until 1742. (www.answers.com/topic/robert-walpole) 1721 nend In France the bandit Cartouche (The Cartridge) took refuge in a Belleville cabaret, Le Pistolet. He was captured while sleeping and was hung at the Place de Greve in the center of Paris. (SFEC, 6/28/98, p.T8) 1721 1785 Reigen Eto, Japanese Zen painter. His work included "White-Robbed Kannon." (SSFC, 9/23/01, DB p.48) 1722 nend Jan 24, Czar Peter the Great capped his reforms in Russia with the "Table of Rank" which decreed a commoner could climb on merit to the highest positions. (HN, 1/24/99) 1722 nend Feb 10, Black Bart (b.1682), Welsh pirate, died. He raided shipping off the Americas and West Africa between 1719 and 1722. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartholomew_Roberts) 1722 nend Mar 8, Afghan monarch Mir Mahmud occupied Persia. (MC, 3/8/02) 1722 nend Mar 29, Emanuel Swedenborg (b.1688), Swedish scientist and clairvoyant, died in London. In 1744 he entered into a spiritual phase in which he experienced dreams and visions. The foundation of Swedenborg's theology was laid down in ?Arcana C?lestia? (Heavenly Secrets), published in eight volumes from 1749 to 1756. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emanuel_Swedenborg) 1722 nend Apr 5, On Easter Sunday Dutch explorer Jacob Roggeveen discovered a Polynesian Island 1400 miles from the coast of South America and named it Easter Island. He noted that the island was treeless and wondered how its massive statues were erected. Much of the population was later wiped out and the island became a possession of Chile. An indigenous script called rongorongo survived but by 2002 was still not deciphered. In 2005 Steven Roger Fischer authored ?Island at the End of the World: The Turbulent History of Easter Island.? (WSJ, 1/7/05, p.W1)(http://islandheritage.org/eihistory.html)(Econ,7/23/05, p.77) 1722 nend Apr 6, In Russia Peter the Great ended tax on men with beards. (MC, 4/6/02) 1722 nend Apr 11, Christopher Smart, English journalist and poet, was born. (HN, 4/11/01)(MC, 4/11/02) 1722 nend Apr 12, Pietro Nardini, composer, was born. (MC, 4/12/02) 1722 nend Apr 22, In Batavia, Indonesia, 19 VOC "komplotteurs" were executed. (MC, 4/22/02) 1722 nend Apr 30, Game of Billiards was mentioned in New England Courant. (MC, 4/30/02) 1722 nend Jun 16, John Churchill (b.1650), first Duke of Marlborough, English military strategist, died. In 2008 Richard Holmes authored ?Marlborough: England?s Fragile Genius.? no_source 6 nend /21/08, p.99) no_source 1722 nend Sep 12, The Treaty of St. Petersburg put an end to the Russo-Persian War. (HN, 9/12/98) 1722 nend Sep 27, Samuel Adams (d.1803), American propagandist, political figure, revolutionary patriot and statesman who helped to organize the Boston Tea Party, was born. He was Lt. Gov. of Mass. from 1789-94. (AHD, 1971, p.14)(HN, 9/27/98)(MC, 9/27/01) 1722 nend Oct 12, Shah Sultan Husayn surrendered the Persian capital of Isfahan to Afghan rebels after a seven month siege. Mir Wais' son, Mir Mahmud of Afghanistan, had invaded Persia and occupied Isfahan. At the same time, the Durranis revolted, and terminated the Persian occupation of Herat. (www.afghan, 5/25/98)(HN, 10/12/98) 1722 nend Oct 19, French C. Hopffer patented the fire extinguisher. (MC, 10/19/01) 1722 nend Nov 7, Richard Steele's "Conscious Lovers," premiered in London. (MC, 11/7/01) 1722 nend Nov 24, Johann Adam Reincken (99), German organist and composer, died. (MC, 11/24/01) 1722 nend Daniel Defoe wrote his novel "Moll Flanders." (SFC, 10/11/96, p.C1) 1722 nend Daniel Defoe published his novel ?A Journal of the Plague Year.? The novel posed as a historical document and covered the London in 1665 as it was hit by bubonic plague. (WSJ, 9/9/06, p.P8) 1722 nend Cotton Mather authored ?An Account of the Method and Success of Inoculating the Small-Pox?? This followed work in support of inoculation trials in Boston. (WSJ, 11/22/08, p.W11) 1722 nend John Hamilton Moore published "The Practical Navigator." (AH, 12/02, p.22) 1722 nend Legend has it that the Arkansas ?Little Rock? rock was first discovered at this time by the French explorer Jean Baptiste Benard de La Harpe. It was the first outcropping of any size on an 118-mile stretch of the Arkansas River. (http://online.wsj.com/article/SB123309302911621329.html) 1722 nend The original Iroquois League, often known as the Five Nations (the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca nations) became the Six Nations after the Tuscarora nation joined the League. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iroquois) 1722 nend Jonathon Swift, author and pamphleteer, urged his fellow countrymen to boycott English goods and "burn everything that came from England, except their people and their Coals." (SFEC, 12/22/96, Z1 p.6) 1722 nend Yongzheng followed Kangxi and was the 2nd of three Qing emperors who reigned over China for 133 years (1662-1795). He was followed by Qianlong. (Econ, 11/5/05, p.90) 1722 nend In Paris three disgruntled playwrights, Lesage, Fuzelier, and Dorneval, bought a dozen marionettes and set themselves up at the Foire de Saint-Germain to give plays of their own composition. (PNM, 1/25/98, p.4) 1722 nend A French Jesuit got into the Jingdezhen, a gated porcelain producing city in China, and sent home detailed letters on porcelain production. Within decades France developed its own porcelain production plant at Sevres. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R50) 1722 nend Russian troops fought against Chechen tribes for the 1st time. (SSFC, 11/10/02, p.A11) 1722 1735 Britain?s PM Walpole built his Palladian house in Norfolk. (Econ, 2/10/07, p.89) 1722 1780 Bernardo Belotto (Il Canaletto), Italian topographical view painter. He was the nephew of Antonio Canal. He later worked as court painter in Dresden and Warsaw. (WSJ, 9/13/01, p.A18) 1723 nend Feb 5, John Witherspoon, Declaration of Independence signer, was born. (HN, 2/5/99) 1723 nend Apr 14, John Wainwright, composer, was born. (MC, 4/14/02) 1723 nend Jun 5, Economist Adam Smith (d.1790) was baptized in Kirkcaldy, Scotland. He was the author of "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations." Smith studied at the Univ. of Glasgow, and then went to Balliol College, Oxford. He then returned to the Univ. of Glasgow as a Prof. of logic and then of moral philosophy. He promoted Laissez faire economics and wrote "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations." His most famous statement is: "It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity, but to their self-love." He also wrote the Theory of Moral Sentiments in 1759. In 1995 Ian Simpson Ross wrote a biography of Smith titled: The Life of Adam Smith. Smith also wrote "The Theory of Moral Sentiments." In 1999 Charles L. Griswold wrote "Adam Smith and the Virtues of Enlightenment. (WSJ, 11/30/95, p.A-20)(AP, 6/5/97)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R20)(WSJ,2/09/99, p.A20)(MC, 6/5/02) 1723 nend Jun 20, Adam Ferguson, Scottish man of letters, philosopher, historian, and patriot, was born. He wrote "Principals of Moral and Political Science." (HN, 6/20/99) 1723 nend Jul 10, William Blackstone (d.1780), English jurist (Blackstone's Commentaries), was born in England. He wrote that: "Husband and wife are one, and that one is the husband." His "Commentaries on the Laws of England" were a dominant source for the men who ratified the US Constitution. (WUD, 1994, p.155)(SFC, 7/18/98, p.A15)(WSJ, 1/25/99, p.A19)(MC,7/10/02) 1723 nend Jul 16, Sir Joshua Reynolds, British portrait painter and first president of the royal Academy of Arts, was born. (HN, 7/16/98) 1723 nend Aug 26, Anton van Leeuwenhoek (b.1632), Dutch biologist, inventor (microscope), died in Delft, Netherlands. [Aug 30 also given as a birthdate] (Internet) 1723 nend Oct 31, Cosimo III de' Medici (81), ruler of Florence (1670-1723), died. (MC, 10/31/01) 1723 nend Handel composed his operas "Ottone " and "Flavio." (LGC-HCS, p.41)(WSJ, 4/15/03, p.D8) 1723 nend Marivaux wrote his comedy play "La Double Inconstance" (The Inconstant Lovers). (WSJ, 5/9/96, p.A-16) 1723 nend Dominicus Montagnana made a viola, later acquired by the Chicago Symphony, valued at $1 million. He was one of the greatest Venetian violin makers. (SFC, 6/23/98, p.A3) 1723 nend Britain?s Black Act, under the government of PM Robert Walpole, directed that anyone convicted of blackening or disguising his face to hunt dear could be hanged. (Econ, 2/10/07, p.89) 1723 nend Sir Christopher Wren (b.1632), British astronomer and architect, died. He designed the current St. Paul's Cathedral in London. In 2003 Lisa Jardine authored "On a Grander Scale: The Outstanding Life of Sir Christopher Wren." (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.14)(HN, 10/20/98)(SSFC, 2/2/03, p.M1) 1723 nend Augustus the Strong, ruler of Saxony and King of Poland, ordered the expansion of the Royal Residence Palace treasure chamber in Dresden, long called the Green Vault because of the color of its walls. (http://tinyurl.com/gp7uy)(Econ, 9/16/06, p.95) 1723 nend Dimitrie Cantemir (b.1673), 2-time Prince of Moldavia (1693 & 1710-1711), died near Kharkov, Ukraine. He was born in what is now Romania and became a prolific man of letters with talents as a philosopher, historian, composer, musicologist, linguist, ethnographer, and geographer. Between 1687 and 1710 he lived in forced exile in Istanbul, where he learned Turkish and studied the history of the Ottoman Empire at the Patriarchate's Greek Academy, where he also composed music. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimitrie_Cantemir)(Econ, 9/15/07, p.104) 1723 nend Zanabazar (b.1635), Mongolia?s greatest sculptor, died. (SSFC, 3/27/05, p.F4) 1724 nend Jan 10, King Philip V shocked all of Europe when he abdicated his throne in favor of his eldest son, Louis. Philip V (1683-1746) was King of Spain from 1700-1746. (WUD, 1994, p.1081)(HN, 1/10/99) 1724 nend Apr 1, Jonathan Swift published Drapier's letters. (OTD) 1724 nend Apr 7, Johann S. Bach's "St. John Passion" premiered in Leipzig. (MC, 4/7/02) 1724 nend Apr 22, Immanuel Kant (d.1804), German philosopher (Critique of Pure Reason), was born in Konigsberg (Kaliningrad). He held that space is just a "form of sensibility" that our minds impose on experience to give it structure. His work included the essay "Perpetual Peace." (V.D.-H.K.p.40)(HN, 4/22/98)(WSJ, 8/21/98, p.W13)(WSJ, 1/7/98, p.A10) 1724 nend May 18, Johann K. Amman (54), Swiss-Dutch doctor for deaf-mutes, died. (SC, 5/18/02) 1724 nend Jun 8, John Smeaton, English engineer, was born. (HN, 6/8/01) 1724 nend Nov 16, Jack Sheppard, English robber, was hanged. (MC, 11/16/01) 1724 nend Dec 9, Colley Cibber's "Caesar in Aegypt," premiered in London. (MC, 12/9/01) 1724 nend Dec 24, Benjamin Franklin arrived in London. (MC, 12/24/01) 1724 nend Captain Samuel Johnson's "General History of the Pirates" was 1st published. "Johnson" may have been a pseudonym for journalist Daniel Defoe. (ON, 12/01, p.12) 1724 nend Handel composed his operas "Giulio Cesare" and "Tamerlano." The Julius Caesar opera premiered in London. [see Mar 2 and Nov 11, 1725] (LGC-HCS, p.41)(WSJ, 4/15/99, p.A20)(WSJ, 3/1/00, p.A24) 1724 nend Brattleboro became the first permanent English settlement in Vermont. (Reuters, 8/25/06) 1724 nend Jesuit padre Jaime Bravo set up a visiting mission in the southern Baja peninsula for the nomadic Guaicura Indians. (SSFC, 11/4/01, p.T12) 1725 nend Jan 28, Peter I "the Great" Romanov (52), Czar of Russia (1682-1725), died. [see Feb 8] (MC, 1/28/02) 1725 nend Feb 8, Peter I (52) "the Great" Romanov, czar of Russia (1682-1725), died. [see Jan 28] (MC, 2/8/02) 1725 nend Feb 20, New Hampshire militiamen partook in the first recorded scalping of Indians by whites in North America. 10 sleeping Indians were scalped by whites for scalp bounty. (HN, 2/20/99)(MC, 2/20/02) 1725 nend Mar 2, Georg F. Handel's opera "Giulio Cesare in Egitto" premiered in London. (SC, 3/2/02) 1725 nend Apr 2, Giovanni Casanova, Italian adventurer, was born. [see Apr 5] (HN, 4/2/01) 1725 nend Apr 5, Giacomo Casanova, Italian writer, philanderer, adventurer, was born. [see Apr 2] (MC, 4/5/02) 1725 nend Apr 25, Mir Mahmud of Afghanistan was mysteriously killed after going mad. Afghans started to lose control of Persia. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1725 nend Apr 30, Spain withdrew from the Quadruple Alliance. (HN, 4/30/98) 1725 nend May 8, John Lovewell, US Indian fighter, died in battle. (MC, 5/8/02) 1725 nend Oct 17, John Wilkes, English journalist, was born. He became a MP, Lord Mayor of London and called for independence of Britain's American colonies. (MC, 10/17/01) 1725 nend Oct 22, Alessandro Scarlatti (65), composer, died. (MC, 10/22/01) 1725 nend Nov 11, Georg F. Handel's opera "Tamerlano," premiered in London. (MC, 11/11/01) 1725 nend Nov, William Bradford, an English-born Quaker, established the New York Gazette. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R43) 1725 nend Dec 11, George Mason (d.1792), American Revolutionary statesman, was born at Gunston Hall Plantation, situated on the Potomac River some 20 miles south of Washington D.C. Mason framed the Bill of Rights for the Virginia Convention in June 1776. This was the model for the first part of fellow Virginian Thomas Jefferson's Declaration of Independence and the basis of the first 10 Amendments to the federal Constitution. Mason died at Gunston Hall on October 7, 1792. (HNQ, 2/18/99)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Mason) 1725 nend Jean-Baptiste Greuze (d.1805), French artist, was born. (WSJ, 1/15/98, p.W11)(WSJ, 5/14/02, p.D7) 1725 nend Handel composed his opera "Rodelinda." The libretto by Francesco Haym told a tale of female constancy under great adversity. (WSJ, 6/12/01, p.A18) 1725 nend John Law (d.1729) moved to Venice and made a modest living gambling. (WSJ, 7/19/00, p.B4) 1725 nend The first fossil salamander was found in Germany. It was at first identified as human but later correctly identified as the extinct cryptobranchid named Andrias scheuchzeri and dated to 15 million years of age. (PacDis, Winter ?97, p.36) 1725 nend August II, elector of Saxony and King of Poland, gifted a selection of Meissen porcelain from his own collection to the king of Sardinia. (WSJ, 11/21/07, p.D10) 1725 nend Czar Peter the Great chose Vitus Bering (44), a Danish seaman in the Russian navy, to lead an expedition to discover whether or not Asia was connected to America. (ON, 2/06, p.1) 1725 1774 Sir Robert Clive, soldier of fortune. Known as "Clive of India" he wrested Bengal away from the French on behalf of the British East India Co. [see 1757] (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1725 1809 Paul Sandby, considered to be the father of English watercolorists. (Hem., 3/97, p.92) 1726 nend Jan 25, Guillaume Delisle (50), French geographer (Atlas geographique), died. (MC, 1/25/02) 1726 nend Feb 15, Abraham Clark, Declaration of Independence signer, was born. (HN, 2/15/98) 1726 nend Feb 20, William Prescott, U.S. Revolutionary War hero, was born. (HN, 2/20/98) 1726 nend Feb 26, Maximilian II, M. Emanuel, elector of Bavaria, governor of Netherlands, died. (SC, 2/26/02) 1726 nend Apr 8, Lewis Morris, signer of the Declaration of Independence), was born. (HN, 4/8/98) 1726 nend Apr 26, Pasquale Paoli, Corsican freedom fighter, was born. (MC, 4/26/02) 1726 nend May 14, Moshe Darshan, Rabbi, author (Torat Ahsam), died. (MC, 5/14/02) 1726 nend May 25, Giuseppi Paolucci, composer, was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1726 nend Jun 3, James Hutton, Scottish geologist, was born. He founded the science of geology and wrote "A Theory of the Earth." (HN, 6/3/99) 1726 nend Jul, 10 Benjamin Colman preached an execution sermon to pirates in Boston. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.19) 1726 nend Jul 23, Benjamin Franklin sailed back to Philadelphia. (MC, 7/23/02) 1726 nend Sep 7, Francois-Andre Danican Philidor, French composer and chess champion, was born. (MC, 9/7/01) 1726 nend Oct 11, Benjamin Franklin returned to Philadelphia from England. (MC, 10/11/01) 1726 nend Nov 20, Oliver Wolcott, later Conn.-Gov. and signer of Declaration of Independence, was born. (MC, 11/20/01) 1726 nend Bishop George Berkeley wrote his poem: On the Prospect of Planting Arts and Learning in America, which included the line "Westward the course of empire takes its way." The poem was written on behalf of a plan to build an English college in Bermuda. (SFC, 3/28/03, p.A3) 1726 nend In Paris the puppet show "La Grandmere amoureuse" by Fuzelier and Dorneval was a spoof on French opera based on Lully?s tragic 1676 opera "Atys." It was revived in 1998 by the SF Bay Area team of Magnificat and the Carter Family Marionettes. It made reference to a current dispute between the physicians and surgeons of Paris. (SFEC, 1/18/98, DB p.33)(PNM, 1/25/98) 1726 nend Telemann published his collection of 72 sacred cantatas: "Der Harmo-nischer Gottes-Dienst." In it pietistic poetry or paraphrase of Biblical verse was set in the latest [musical] style. He wrote a sequel in 1731. (EMN, 1/96, p.4) 1726 nend Francois Couperin composed his collection "Les Nations" with "La Francoise." (SFC, 6/8/96, p.E1) 1726 nend St. -Louis-en-l?Ile Church was built on the Ile St. -Louis on the Seine in Paris. It was vandalized during the French Revolution. (SFEC, 6/22/97, p.T8) 1726 nend Montevideo, the capital city of Uruguay, was founded. (Hem., 2/96, p.23) 1726 nend Michael-Richard de Lalande (b.1657), French composer, died. He served as the court composer for Louis XIV. (SFC, 3/20/04, p.E1)(Internet) 1727 nend Jan 2, James Wolfe, commanded British Army (captured Quebec), was born. (MC, 1/2/02) 1727 nend Feb 22, Francesco Gasparini (58), composer, died. (MC, 2/22/02) 1727 nend Mar 14, Johann Gottlieb Goldberg, composer, was born. (MC, 3/14/02) 1727 nend Mar 20, Sir Isaac Newton (b.1642), physicist, mathematician and astronomer, died in London. Michael White wrote the 1998 biography "Isaac Newton" in which he revealed Newton?s passion for alchemy. In 2003 James Gleick authored the biography "Isaac Newton." In 2011 Edward Dolnick authored ?The Clockwork Universe: Isaac Newton, Royal Society, and the Birth of the Modern World.? (AP, 3/20/97)(WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20)(SSFC, 6/1/03, p.M1)(Econ,3/12/11, p.99) 1727 nend Apr 29, Jean-Georges Noverre, French dancer, choreographer (ballet d'action), was born. (MC, 4/29/02) 1727 nend May 7, Jews were expelled from Ukraine by Empress Catherine I of Russia. (MC, 5/7/02) 1727 nend May 10, Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, French minister of Finance, was born. (MC, 5/10/02) 1727 nend May 14, Thomas Gainsborough (d.1788), English painter, was born (baptized). His work included "The Blue Boy." (HN, 5/14/01)(AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.579)(MC, 5/14/02) 1727 nend May 17, Catherine I (b.1683), Empress of Russia (1725-27), died. (www.arthistoryclub.com/art_history/Catherine_I_of_Russia) 1727 nend May 18, Peter II Alekseyevich (1715-1730) was proclaimed autocrat of Russia. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_II_of_Russia) 1727 nend Jun 6, Francesca Cuzzoni and Faustina Bordoni, female vocalists, attacked each other during a performance of Bononcini?s Astianatte in London. (LGC-HCS, p.44) 1727 nend Jun 11, George I died on a journey to Hanover. George II became king of England. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_I_of_Great_Britain) 1727 nend Aug 14, William Croft (b.1678), English composer, died. (MC, 8/14/02) 1727 nend Aug 30, Giandomenico Tiepolo (d.1804), Venetian painter, was born. His subjects included troupes of traveling players from northern Italy. (Econ, 4/10/04, p.72)(www.britannica.com) 1727 nend Oct 11, George II was crowned as king of England. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britain) 1727 nend Nov 15, NY General assembly permitted Jews to omit phrase "upon the faith of a Christian" from abjuration oath. (MC, 11/15/01) 1727 nend Dec 22, William Ellery, US attorney and signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born. (MC, 12/22/01) 1727 nend Brazil planted its first coffee. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1727 nend The 1st English-language recipe for "English Katchop" was published in "E. Smith's Compleat Housewife, or Accomplished Gentlewoman's Companion." (SFC, 8/27/03, p.E4) 1727 nend Georg Friedrich Handel, German-born composer, became by act of Parliament a naturalized British citizen. (LGC-HCS, p.41)(AP, 4/14/97)(SFC, 9/16/97, p.E1)(Econ, 3/21/09, p.89) 1727 nend In Munich the ?Die Andächtige Pilgerfahrt? (The Devout Pilgrimage) by Vincentius Briemle was published. The 2 illustrated volumes consisted of travel writing of journeys to Italy, Austria and the Holy Land. (Econ, 1/20/07, p.93)(www.dartmouth.edu/~wessweb/nl/Fall05/pinews.html) 1727 nend Moulay Ismail the Bloodthirsty (b.~1645), Moroccan ruler, died. The Alaouite sultan is said to have fathered 888 children through a harem of 500 women. He ruled from 1672 to 1727 succeeding his half-brother Moulay Al-Rashid who died after a fall from his horse. (Econ, 12/20/08, p.128)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moulay_Ismail) 1727 nend The Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS) was founded. (Econ, 1/31/09, p.74) 1728 nend Jan 29, The Beggar?s Opera by John Gay (d.1732), with music arranged by John Christopher Pepusch, had its premier at the Lincoln's Inn Fields in London. Gay intended it to be a parody of Italian opera and a satirization of the Walpole administration. He wrote new lyrics to popular tunes and his "ballad opera" was a great success. (LGC-HCS, p.45)(ON, 2/04, p.11) 1728 nend Feb 10, Peter III Fyodorovich (d.1762), czar of Russia (1761-62), was born in Germany. He married Catherine, who succeeded him following a coup. [see Feb 21] (WUD, 1994 p.1077)(WSJ, 2/14/02, p.A18)(MC, 2/10/02) 1728 nend Feb 21, Peter III, Russian Tsar (1762), husband of Catherine, was born in Kiel Germany. [see Feb 10] (MC, 2/21/02) 1728 nend Feb 25, Peter II Alekseyevich (1715-1730) was crowned as czar of Russia. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_II_of_Russia) 1728 nend Feb 28, Georg F. Handel's opera "Siroe, re di Persia," premiered in London. (MC, 2/28/02) 1728 nend Apr 2, Franz Asplmayr, composer, was born. (MC, 4/2/02) 1728 nend Apr 13, Johann Christoph Schmidt (63), composer, died. (MC, 4/13/02) 1728 nend Apr 16, Joseph Black, Scottish chemist and physicist, was born. (HN, 4/16/01) 1728 nend May 4, Georg F. Handel's opera "Tolomeo, re di Egitto," premiered in London. (MC, 5/4/02) 1728 nend May 7, Rosa Venerini (b.1656), Italian nun and founder of the Congregation of the Holy Venerini Teachers, died. In 2006 Pope Benedict XVI named her a saint. (SFC, 10/16/06, p.A2)(www.korazym.org/news1.asp?Id=19552) 1728 nend Jul 16, Henri Moreau, composer, was born. (MC, 7/16/02) 1728 nend Oct 3, Charles G. Chevalier d'Eon de Beaumont, French duelist, spy and transvestite, was born. (MC, 10/3/01) 1728 nend Oct 7, Caesar Rodney (d.1784), Delaware, judge and signer (Declaration of Independence), was born in Dover, Delaware. He led opposition to British laws for many years while serving in the provincial assembly. He was elected to the Continental Congresses of 1774 and 1775. In 1777, he commanded the Delaware militia, and the next year he was elected president of the state for a three-year term. Rodney on horseback represents Delaware, the first of the original 13 states to ratify the Constitution, on a new .25-cent piece. (HNQ, 2/24/99)(MC, 10/7/01) 1728 nend Oct 27, Captain James Cook (d.1779), explorer, was born in a small village near Middlesbrough, Yorkshire. He discoveries included the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Cook) 1728 nend Ephraim Chambers (1680-1740) produced his Cyclopedia, a popular British reference work. An expanded French translation began in 1746. (WSJ, 6/29/05, p.D8)(www.nndb.com/people/027/000094742/) 1728 nend The French Count de Boulainvilliers wrote a life of Muhammad that described him as "an enlightened and wise lawgiver." (WSJ, 12/12/01, p.A15) 1728 nend The Muslim Kampung Hulu Mosque was built in Malacca, Malaysia. (SFEC, 3/19/00, p.T8) 1728 nend The first diamonds found in Brazil reached Lisbon, Portugal. (USA Today, OW, 4/22/96, p.13) 1728 nend Vitus Bering (47), Danish explorer in the Russian navy, discovered the Bering Strait between Asia and North America. (PCh, 1992, p.286)(ON, 2/06, p.1) 1729 nend Jan 12, Edmund Burke (d.1797), British politician and author, was born in Dublin. Burke advocated consistent and sympathetic treatment of the American colonies: "A very great part of the mischiefs that vex this world arises from words." (V.D.-H.K.p.224)(AP, 7/20/97)(AP,11/29/98)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Burke) 1729 nend Jan 19, William Congreve (58), English dramatist (Love for Love), died. (MC, 1/19/02) 1729 nend Mar 21, John Law, Scottish gambler and financier (57 or 58), died in Venice. An inventory of his wealth included 488 paintings with works by Titian, Raphael, Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. His story was told in 2000 by Cynthia Crossen in "The Rich and How They got That Way." (WSJ, 7/19/00, p.B4)(MC, 3/21/02) 1729 nend Apr 15, Johann S. Bach's "Matthew Passion" premiered in Leipzig. (MC, 4/15/02) 1729 nend Apr 21, Catharina II, the Great, writer, empress of Russia (1762-96), was born. [see May 2] (MC, 4/21/02) 1729 nend May 2, Catherine the Great (d.1796), (Catherine II), empress (czarina) of Russia (1762-1796), was born. She succeeded her husband Peter III to the throne in 1762. "I am one of the people who love the why of things." [see Apr 21] (AP, 9/4/97)(HN, 5/2/99)(WSJ, 2/14/02, p.A18) 1729 nend May 13, Henry William Stiegel, early American glassmaker, was born. (HN, 5/13/98) 1729 nend May 25, Jean de Neufville, Dutch-US merchant (started 4th English war), was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1729 nend Jul 25, North Carolina became a royal colony. (SC, 7/25/02) 1729 nend Jul 30, The city of Baltimore was founded. (AP, 7/30/97) 1729 nend Sep 6, Mozes Mendelssohn, German enlightened philosopher (Haksalah), was born. [see Sep 26] (MC, 9/6/01) 1729 nend Sep 26, Moses Mendelssohn, German philosopher, critic, Bible translator, was born. [see Sep 6] (MC, 9/26/01) 1729 nend Nov 28, Natchez Indians massacred most of the 300 French settlers and soldiers at Fort Rosalie, Louisiana. (HN, 11/28/98) 1729 nend Dec 1, Giuseppe Sarti, composer, was born. (MC, 12/1/01) 1729 nend Dec 3, Padre Antonio Francisco J. Jose Soler, composer (Fandango), was born in Olot, Spain. (MC, 12/3/01) 1729 nend Newton?s "Principia Matematika" was published in English. (V.D.-H.K.p.213) 1729 nend The first constitution of American Presbyterianism was adopted. (HNQ, 7/6/99) 1729 nend James Bradley discovered the aberration of starlight, an apparent shift in the position of a star caused by the finite speed of light and the motion of the Earth in orbit around the Sun. He uses this to determine the speed of light to be 308,3 00 km/sec, remarkably close to the modern value of 299,792 km/sec. (http://inkido.indiana.edu/a100/timeline3.html) 1729 nend Seborga was consolidated by sale within the Principality of Piedmont. (SFEC, 3/30/97, p.T7) 1729 nend In China opium smoking was banned. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1729 nend Ruinart, a French Champagne house, was founded. In 2006 it remained the oldest Champagne house in the world. (SFC, 10/13/06, p.F2) 1729 nend In Italy Filippo Juvarra designed the Palazzina di Caccia, a "little hunting palace" at Stupingi for King Vittorio Amedeo II. (WSJ, 8/18/99, p.A17) 1729 1742 The building of the Cathedral at Zacateca, Mexico. It has been called the "Parthenon of the Mexican Baroque." (SFEC, 11/10/96, p.T3) 1729 1781 Gotthold Lessing, German writer, dramatist-critic, saw Faust?s pursuit of knowledge as noble, and in an unfinished play he arranged for a reconciliation between God and Faust. "Think wrongly if you please, but in all cases, think for yourself." (V.D.-H.K.p.239)(AP, 9/9/99) 1729 1801 The Danish East India Company was chartered to carry on trade in the East Indies. (WUD, 1994, p.449) 1729 1814 William Howe, 5th Viscount, British general in the American Revolutionary War. (WUD, 1994, p.689) 1730 nend Jan 14, William Whipple, Declaration of Independence signer, was born. (HN, 1/14/99) 1730 nend Jan 23, Joseph Hewes, US merchant (Declaration of Independence signer), was born. (MC, 1/23/02) 1730 nend Jan 30, Peter II Alekseyevich (1715-1730), czar of Russia, died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_II_of_Russia) 1730 nend Apr 9, The 1st Jewish congregation in US formed the synagogue, "Sherith Israel, NYC." (www.ou.org/orthodoxunion/unionstory/chapter1.htm) 1730 nend May 10, George Ross, signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born. (HN, 5/10/98) 1730 nend May 13, Marquess of Rockingham, British Prime Minister, was born. (HN, 5/13/98) 1730 nend May 15, Robert Walpole became the sole minister in the English cabinet following the resignation of Lord Townshend. (HN, 5/15/99) 1730 nend May 29, William Jackson, composer, was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1730 nend Jul 8, A magnitude 8.7 earthquake in Valparasio, Chile, killed at least 3,000 people. (AP, 2/27/10) 1730 nend Jul 12, Josiah Wedgwood (d.1795), pottery designer, manufacturer (Wedgwood), was baptized in Burslem, England. (www.wedgwoodmuseum.org.uk/wedgwood_chronology.htm) 1730 nend Jul 21, States of Holland put a death penalty on "sodomy." (MC, 7/21/02) 1730 nend Aug 10, Sebastien de Brossard (74), French composer, died. He authored the "Dictionnaire de musique" (Paris, 1703). (MC, 8/10/02)(Internet) 1730 nend Sep 1, Benjamin Franklin married Miss Read. (MC, 9/1/02) 1730 nend Sep 17, Friedrich von Steuben, Prussian and US inspector-general of Washington's army, was born. (MC, 9/17/01) 1730 nend Nov 6, Hans Hermann von Katte, Prussian lieutenant, was beheaded. (MC, 11/6/01) 1730 nend Nov 10, Oliver Goldsmith, playwright, was born. His work includes "She Stoops to Conquer." (HN, 11/10/00) 1730 nend Jean Baptiste Simeon Chardin (1699-1779), French painter, painted "Still Life With Plums." (WSJ, 12/5/96, p.A16) 1730 nend Argippo, the only opera Vivaldi (1678-1741) actually wrote for Prague, was staged just one time in Prague. The score was found in 2006 and another staging was set for 2008. (AFP, 5/1/08) 1730 nend In Maryland William Fell, a Quaker ship?s carpenter, purchased a swampy promontory that became known as Baltimore?s Fell?s Point. (WSJ, 12/1/07, p.W11) 1730 nend Benjamin Franklin became the official printer for Pennsylvania. He ultimately became the official printer for several colonial governments. (AH, 2/06, p.48) 1730 nend Smallpox returned to Boston, but by this time inoculation was recognized as a viable means of preventing death from the disease. (ON, 3/05, p.5) 1730 nend The French arrived in Swanton, Vermont, and the plague followed. The local Abenaki Indians faded into the woods. (SFC, 12/13/02, p.J7) 1730 nend Jean Baptiste Oudry and Pierre-Josse Perrot, artists in the court of King Louis XV, created a drawing for the wall tapestry "Le Coq et Le Perle." The tapestry was made by French weaving house Savonnerie and went on auction in 1997 for $300-400 thousand. (WSJ, 2/21/97, p.B10) 1730 nend Jesuits founded San Jose del Cabo in Baha, Ca. (SSFC, 2/6/05, p.F8) 1730 nend The monastery of Saint Serafim Sarofsky in the village of Deveyevo, Russia, was constructed. In 1927 the 266 year old complex was liquidated by the communists and used to store lumber and vegetables until 1991 when it was returned to the church. (SFC, 5/18/96, p.A-11) 1730 nend Edward Scarlett, a London optician, began anchoring eyeglasses to the ears with rigid side pieces called temples. (SFEC, 8/2/98, Z1 p.8)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R21) 1730 nend In Germany A. Ketterer invented the cuckoo clock. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1730 nend The first legally recognized futures market opened in Japan. (Wired, 9/96, p.36) 1730 nend Diamonds were discovered in Brazil, which became the leading supplier until the 1866 discovery in South Africa. [see 1728] (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1730 nend Empress Anna Ivanovna, Peter the Great's daughter, came to the Russian throne. She recalled Abram Petrovich Gannibal from exile and appointed him to a new post as a captain of military engineering. (www.shaebia.org/wwwboard/contributedarticles/messages/58.html) 1730 nend Makhtum Kuli, one of Turkmenistan?s greatest poets, was born. He died in the 1880s. (www.advantour.com/turkmenistan/culture.htm) 1730 nend s Tiepolo painted "Alexander and Campaspe in the Studio of Apelles," one of his 3 paintings on this theme. (WSJ, 2/11/00, p.W6) 1730 nend s The Hudson Bay Company built a stone fortress on the western shore of the Hudson Bay in Canada for the Chipewyan fur trade. (NH, 7/96, p.4) 1730 nend s In Buckinghamshire, England, the Palladian Bridge was built in the Stowe Landscape Gardens. Lancelot "Capability Brown did the landscaping. (SSFC, 3/16/03, p.C6) 1730 nend s German gun makers located in Pennsylvania began producing the Kentucky rifle, so named because it was intended for use on the Kentucky frontier. Its gunpowder was ignited with sparks struck when the hammer, containing a piece of flint, was released. The flintlock Kentucky rifle, with its extra long barrel and small caliber, was the most accurate rifle of its day and was used widely in the French and Indian Wars and American Revolution. (HNQ, 12/21/99) 1730 1754 Mahmud I succeeded Ahmed III in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii) 1730 1785 William Whipple (b. Jan 14, d. Nov 28) Judge/Jurist, Revolutionary, Declaration of Independence signer. (DT internet 11/28/97) 1730 1820 The period of the third of four waves of rising prices over the last 800 years as described by David Hackett Fisher in his 1996 book: "The Great Wave: Price Revolutions and the Rhythm of History." (WSJ, 12/19/96, p.A16) 1731 nend Jan 20, Antonio Farnese (b.1679), the eighth and ultimate Farnese Duke of Parma and Piacenza, died. The Farnese art collection passed to Charles III, king of Naples. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Farnese,_Duke_of_Parma)(Econ,3/12/11, p.100) 1731 nend Mar 11, Robert Treat Paine, Declaration of Independence signer, was born. (HN, 3/11/98) 1731 nend Apr 8, William Williams, signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born. (HN, 4/8/98) 1731 nend Apr 26, Daniel Defoe (~70), English author, died. His work included the novels "Robinson Crusoe," "Roxana" and the pamphlet "The Shortest Way With Dissenters." In 1998 Richard West published the biography "Daniel Defoe: The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures." (WSJ, 8/25/98, p.A12)(MC, 4/24/02)(MC, 4/26/02) 1731 nend May 28, All Hebrew books in Papal State were confiscated. (MC, 5/28/02) 1731 nend May 29, Orazio Mei composer, was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1731 nend Jun 2, Martha Dandridge, the first First Lady of the United States. Widow of Daniel Park Custis, she married George Washington in 1759. (HN, 6/2/00) 1731 nend Jul 1, The ?Instrument of Association? for the Library Company of Philadelphia was signed under the leadership of Benjamin Franklin. It was America?s first circulating library. (www.librarycompany.org/Lemay1.pdf)(AH, 2/06, p.56) 1731 nend Sep 1, Pierre Danican Philidor (50), composer, died. (MC, 9/1/02) 1731 nend Oct 10, Henry Cavendish, English physicist, was born. He later discovered hydrogen. (HN, 10/10/98)(MC, 10/10/01) 1731 nend Nov 9, Benjamin Banneker was born in Maryland and grew up a free black man. From his farm near Baltimore, Banneker spent much of his time studying the stars. Although he lacked much of a formal education, he taught himself with borrowed books and became a noted mathematician, astronomer and inventor. Carving its gears with a pocket knife, he built a wooden clock in 1770 that was believed to have been the first built in America. Banneker began publishing scientific almanacs in 1791 after accurately predicting a solar eclipse. President George Washington appointed him to the District of Columbia Commission in 1789 to help survey the new capital city of Washington, D.C. Banneker, who died in 1806, also corresponded with Thomas Jefferson about his views against slavery. (HNPD, 11/9/98) 1731 nend Nov 15, William Cowper, English lawyer and poet (John Gilpin), was born. [see Nov 26] (MC, 11/15/01) 1731 nend Nov 26 William Cowper, English pre-romantic poet (His Task), was born. [see Nov 15] (MC, 11/26/01) 1731 nend Dec 8, Frantisek Xaver Dusek, composer, was born. (MC, 12/8/01) 1731 nend Dec 28, Christian Cannabich, German composer and royal chaplain master, was born. (MC, 12/28/01) 1731 nend Luis Berrueco, Mexican painter, painted ?The Martyrs of Gorkum,? a detailed work depicting the 1572 martyrdom of 19 Catholics in Gorinchem, Netherlands, during the Dutch war for independence. (SFC, 3/5/11, p.E2)(http://tinyurl.com/5s8wnz2) 1731 nend Giovanni Paolo Panini, Italian artist, made his painting "Interior of St. Peter?s, Rome." (WSJ, 9/8/00, p.W2) 1731 nend A pioneering collection of graffiti appeared in London titled: ?The Merry-Thought: or, the Glass-Window and Bog-House Miscellany.? The editor used the pseudonym Hurlo Thrumbo. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.94) 1731 nend Henry Fielding wrote his ballad-opera ?The Lottery.? (Econ, 7/10/10, SR p.15) 1731 nend Telemann wrote a sequel to his 1726 collection: "Forsetzung des Harmonischen Gottesdienstes." (EMN, 1/96, p.4) 1731 nend Fort Vincennes, later Fort Sackville, was built by the French near present-day Vincennes, Indiana. It was captured by Colonel George Rogers Clark in 1779. (HNQ, 7/24/00) 1731 nend In Malta the Manoel Theater was constructed. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.40) 1731 1795 Francis Marion, American Revolutionary General. Banastre Tarleton gave American partisan leader Francis Marion the nickname of "The Swamp Fox." Tarleton, a young lieutenant colonel of British cavalry, had triumphed in a series of bold and lightning-fast attacks against Rebel forces. He was sent by Cornwallis to stop the increasingly troublesome Marion whose strikes on Tory patrols, British convoys and encampments had grown from a minor annoyance to a major problem for British supply lines. Given information on Marion?s camp, Tarleton hunted the rebel general and his men through about 25 miles of barely passable terrain. Tarleton finally halted at a body of murky water called Ox Swamp and decided to give up the chase. "Come my boys!" he declared to his men. "Let us go back, as for this damned old fox, the devil himself could not catch him." He spurred his horse and led his men away from the swamp leaving behind the nickname by which Marion is still remembered. (WUD, 1994 p.877)(HNQ, 7/31/00) 1731 1800 William Cowper, English poet: "No man can be a patriot on an empty stomach." (AP, 11/28/99) 1731 1802 Erasmus Darwin, noted physician and grandfather of biologists Charles Darwin and Francis Galton, explored evolutionary concepts in his work "Zoonomia" or the "Laws of Organic Life" that were related to those of French biologist Jean Baptiste Lamarck. Darwin believed that species modified themselves to their environment in a purposeful way. Combining 18th Century values of materialism with simple observations, he is usually noted as a transitional figure in evolutionary theory. (HNQ, 9/14/00) 1732 nend Jan 17, Stanislaw II August Poniatowski, last king of Poland (1764-95), was born. (MC, 1/17/02) 1732 nend Jan 20, Richard Henry Lee, American Revolutionary patriot and signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born. (HN, 1/20/99) 1732 nend Jan 24, Pierre Caron de Beaumarchais (d.1799), French dramatist, was born. He was best remembered for his plays "Barber of Civil" and "Marriage of Figaro." He was a conduit for French gold and arms to American Revolution, persecuted by mob during French Rev. "It is not necessary to understand things in order to argue about them." (AP, 12/21/99)(www.theatrehistory.com/french/beaumarchais001.html) 1732 nend Feb 17, Louis Marchand (63), composer, died. (MC, 2/17/02) 1732 nend Feb 22, George Washington (1732-1799), first U.S. President, was born in Westmoreland, Virginia. He is revered as the "Father of His Country" for the great services he rendered during America's birth and infancy--a period of nearly 20 years. He spent most of his boyhood at Ferry Farm, across from the village of Fredericksburg. He later married Martha Custis, a widow with 2 sons. They had no children together. Martha Washington is credited with originating the first US bandanna. He held 317 slaves and once said: "To set the slaves afloat at once would... be productive of much inconvenience and mischief?". Washington commanded the Continental Army that won American independence from Britain in 1783. In 1787, Washington was elected president of the Constitutional Convention that created the form of American democratic government that survives to this day. Washington was also elected in 1787 as the first president of the United States, serving two terms. One of his officers, "Light-horse Harry" Lee, summed up how Americans felt about George Washington: "First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." George Washington died at his Mount Vernon home on December 14, 1799, at the age of 67. (A & IP, ESM, p.10)(AHD, p.1446)(SFC, 3/8/96, p.A21)(Hem., 3/97,p.101) (SFC,12/897, p.A27)(HN, 2/22/98)(HNPD, 2/22/99) 1732 nend Feb 26, The 1st mass celebrated in American Catholic church was at St Joseph's Church, Philadelphia. (SC, 2/26/02) 1732 nend Mar 5, Joseph-Francois Salomon (82), composer, died. (MC, 3/5/02) 1732 nend Mar 31, Joseph Haydn (d.1809), Austrian composer who helped develop the classical style, was born. In his career he composed 104 symphonies, 82 string quartets and 60 piano sonatas. He also wrote some 175 baritone pieces for his patron, the Hungarian prince Nickolaus Esterhazy, who played the complex stringed instrument. The Canadian scholar David Schroeder wrote: "Haydn and the Enlightenment." (CFA, '96,Vol 179, p.42)(WUD, 1994, p.651)(WSJ, 8/26/97, p.A14)(HN,3/31/98) 1732 nend Apr 5, Jean Honore Fragonard (d.1806), France, painter, was born. He painted "The Shady Grove." Hubert Robert was a painter friend and the painting "La Jardinaire" was painted by one or the other. (WUD, 1994, p.562)(WSJ, 2/19/99, p.W12)(AAP, 1964)(MC, 4/5/02) 1732 nend Apr 13, Frederick Lord North, British prime minister (1770-82) , was born. (HN, 4/13/98) 1732 nend Apr 17, The 2nd Kamchatka Expedition was announced in the Russian Senate and Vitus Bering was named as captain commander. I.K. Kirilov, chief secretary of the senate, expanded Bering?s mandate to include astronomical and scientific observations, to explore the seas between Siberia and Japan and to establish trade relations with peoples encountered. (ON, 2/06, p.1) 1732 nend May 13, Theodor Schwarzkopf (72), composer, died. (MC, 5/13/02) 1732 nend Jun 3, Pieter Vuyst, Dutch gov-gen. of Ceylon, was executed. (MC, 6/3/02) 1732 nend Jun 9, Royal charter for Georgia was granted to James Oglethorpe. (MC, 6/9/02) 1732 nend Jun 21, Johann Christoph Frederic Bach (d.1795), composer, was born. He is known as the Buckeburg Bach for serving in that city his whole life. (LGC-HCS, p.31)(MC, 6/21/02) 1732 nend Aug 13, Voltaire's "Zaire," premiered in Paris. (MC, 8/13/02) 1732 nend Sep 2, Pope Clement XII renewed anti-Jewish laws of Rome. (MC, 9/2/01) 1732 nend Sep 24, 21 homosexuals were burned in South Horn. (MC, 9/24/01) 1732 nend Nov 8, John Dickinson (d.1808), US statesman and publicist, was born. He authored "The Liberty Song" in 1768. (WUD, 1994 p.400)(SFC, 11/2/02, p.D2) 1732 nend Nov 14, 1st US professional librarian, Louis Timothee, was hired in Phila. (MC, 11/14/01) 1732 nend Dec 4, John Gay (47), English poet (Beggar's Opera), died. (MC, 12/4/01) 1732 nend Dec 6, Warren Hastings, England, 1st governor-General of India (1773-84), was born. (MC, 12/6/01) 1732 nend Dec 19, Benjamin Franklin began publishing "Poor Richard's Almanack." [see Dec 28] (AP, 12/19/97)(MC, 12/19/01) 1732 nend Dec 23, Richard Arkwright (d.1792), English inventor (spinning frame) and industrialist, was born into a poor family in Preston. He amassed one of the first factory fortunes. He invented a water-powered cotton-spinning machine that became the basis for huge cotton mills. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R4,8)(MC, 12/23/01) 1732 nend Dec 28, The first Poor Richard's Almanac was published along with the 1st known ad in the Pennsylvania Gazette. The Almanack was published by Richard Saunders (really Ben Franklin). [see Dec 19] (HFA, '96, p.20)(MC, 12/28/01) 1732 nend Marivaux, a French playwright, wrote the play "Le Triomphe de l?amour." In 1997 it was redone as the musical "Triumph of Love." (WSJ, 10/29/97, p.A20) 1732 nend Handel composed his opera "Ezio." It was about the hero Ezio, who returned to Rome after conquering Attila the Hun only to be wrongly condemned for treason. The libretto was by Metastasio and the work failed. It was stopped by Handel after 5 performances. (SFC, 3/5/97, p.E3)(SFEC, 4/20/97, BR p.9)(SFC, 4/28/97, p.B3) 1732 nend The Kaiserbrunn (emperor?s brook) was discovered by Emperor Charles VI while on a hunting expedition. It later supplied over half of Vienna's daily requirement of drinking water, through a 130-km-long, rock-cut tunnel called the First Vienna Mountain Spring Pipeline, constructed in 1873. (www.hindu.com/thehindu/mag/2006/12/10/stories/2006121000080200.htm) 1732 1762 Nicola Salvi, sculptor, spent 30 years on the Fontana de Trevi in Rome. It was the terminus of Agrippas Aqua Virgo. (SFEC, 7/2/00, p.T4) 1733 nend Jan 13, James Oglethorpe and 130 English colonists arrived at Charleston, SC. (MC, 1/13/02) 1733 nend Jan 18, The 1st polar bear exhibited in America was in Boston. (MC, 1/18/02) 1733 nend Feb 1, August II (62), the Strong, King of Lithuania and Poland (355 children), died in Warsaw. (MC, 2/1/02)(LHC, 2/1/03) 1733 nend Feb 12, English colonists led by James Oglethorpe founded Savannah, Ga. Gen. James Edward Oglethorpe sailed up the Savannah River with 144 English men, women and children and in the name of King George II chartered the Georgia Crown Colony. He created the town of Savannah, to establish an ideal colony where silk and wine would be produced, based on a grid of streets around six large squares. (SFC, 6/25/95, p.T-7)(SFEC,11/30/97, p.T4)(AP, 2/12/98) 1733 nend Feb 27, Johann Adam Birkenstock (46), composer and sandal designer, died. (MC, 2/27/02) 1733 nend Mar 13, Joseph Priestly (d.1804), English chemist, author and clergyman, was born. He is credited with the discovery of oxygen. (HN, 3/13/99)(WUD, 1994 p.1142) 1733 nend May 6, 1st international boxing match: Bob Whittaker beat Tito di Carni. (MC, 5/6/02) 1733 nend May 12, Maria Theresa was crowned queen of Bohemia in Prague. (MC, 5/12/02) 1733 nend May 17, England passed the Molasses Act, putting high tariffs on rum and molasses imported to the colonies from a country other than British possessions. (MC, 5/17/02) 1733 nend May 18, Georg Bohm (71), German organist, composer, died. (SC, 5/18/02) 1733 nend Jul 30, Society of Freemasons opened their 1st American lodge in Boston. (MC, 7/30/02) 1733 nend Aug 24, David Traugott Nicolai (d.1799), composer, was born. (MC, 8/24/02) 1733 nend Sep 11, Francois Couperin, French composer (Le Grand), died at 64. [see Sep 12] (MC, 9/11/01) 1733 nend Sep 12, Francois Couperin "Le Grand", French composer, died at 64. [see Sep 11] (MC, 9/12/01) 1733 nend Oct 10, France declared war on Austria over the question of Polish succession. (HN, 10/10/98) 1733 nend Nov 5, John Peter Zenger (b.1697), German-born immigrant, published the 1st issue of the New York Weekly Journal. Zenger, the partner of William Bradford, had left the Gazette to form the rival New York Weekly Journal. Attorney James Alexander hired Zenger in order to publish anonymously his criticism of NY Governor William Cosby. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R43)(ON, 11/04, p.9) 1733 nend Voltaire authored his "Lettres Anglaises" in which he hailed England as a "nation of philosophers" and recognized the English Enlightenment. (WSJ, 12/5/00, p.A24) 1733 nend Handel's opera "Orlando" was first performed. The libretto was drawn from Orlando Furioso, the 16th century epic by Ariosto that loosely translates as Orlando goes nuts. The tale follows the fortunes of the Christian warrior Roland, nephew of Charlemagne and defender of the faith against the Moors. (WSJ, 2/28/96, p.A-16) 1733 nend The opera "Hippolyte et Aricie" by Rameau had its premiere. The libretto was by Abbe Simon-Joseph Pellegrin and was based on Racine?s 1677 drama Phèdre. (WSJ, 5/21/97, p.A12) 1733 nend Vivaldi?s opera, "Motezuma" was first performed. The score came to light in 2002 when Hamburg-based musicologist Steffen Voss found a copy of the score in the archives of a Berlin-based choral society. (AFP, 5/1/08) 1733 nend In New Mexico La Iglesia de Santa Cruz de la Canada was built. It is the oldest and most formal of the 6 adobe missions scattered along the western shoulder of the Sangre de Cristo mountains between Taos and Santa Fe. It features the art work of primitive artist Jose Rafael Aragon, who was buried here in 1862. The book "La Iglesia de Santa Cruz de la Canada, 1733-1983" covered this period. It was edited and published by poet and writer Jim Sagel (d.1998 at 50). Sagel received the Governor?s Award for the book in 1984. (SFC, 5/12/96, p.T-5)(SFC, 4/9/98, p.C14) 1733 nend The Pennsylvania city of Reading became one of America's first producers of iron and was for nearly a century the foremost in the country. Settled in 1733 by the sons of William Penn, the city is situated on the Schuylkill River in the southeastern part of the state. The Reading foundries furnished cannon for the American forces in the Revolutionary War and the Union during the Civil War. (HNQ, 5/6/98) 1733 nend Dr. W. Houston, British botanist, died. (WUD, 1994, p.689) 1733 nend In Paris the pompiers began fighting fires on the initiative of Louis XV. (Econ, 12/11/10, p.66) 1733 nend St. Croix island was purchased from the French by the Dutch West India and Guinea Company. (NG, Jan, 1968, C. Mitchell, p. 84) 1733 1740 In Malta the Cathedral Museum in Mdina was built as a seminary opposite the Mdina Cathedral. Traces of the classical city of Melite were later found beneath it. (AM, 7/97, p.48) 1733 1795 Maruyama Okyo, artist, pictured a 50 mile scene in "Both Banks of the Yodo River." (WSJ, 12/1/98, p.A20) 1733 1808 Hubert Robert, painter. He painted "The Old Bridge." (AAP, 1964) 1734 nend Jan 24, In Cracow the 2nd last king of Lithuania and Poland, August III, was crowned. (LHC, 1/24/03) 1734 nend Jan 31, Julien-Amable Mathieu, composer, was born. (MC, 1/31/02) 1734 nend Jan 31, Robert Morris, Declaration of Independence signer, was born. (HN, 1/31/99) 1734 nend Mar 9, The Russians took Danzig (Gdansk) in Poland. (HN, 3/9/99) 1734 nend Mar 10, Spanish army under Don Carlos (III) drew into Naples. (MC, 3/10/02) 1734 nend Mar 21, Gunther Jacob Wenceslaus (48), composer, died. (MC, 3/21/02) 1734 nend Apr 1, Louis Lully (69), French composer, died. (MC, 4/1/02) 1734 nend May 23, Friedrich (Franz) Anton Mesmer (d.1815), physician and hypnotist, was born. (HN, 5/23/98)(WSJ, 5/30/00, p.A24) 1734 nend Oct 14, Francis Lightfoot Lee, US farmer and signer of the Declaration of Independence), was born. (MC, 10/14/01) 1734 nend Oct 22, NY Gov. William Cosby ordered the hangman and whipper of NY to burn 4 back issues of the New York Weekly Journal. (ON, 11/04, p.9) 1734 nend Nov 2, Daniel Boone, American frontiersman, was born. (HFA, '96, p.18)(HN, 11/2/98) 1734 nend Nov 17, John Zenger was arrested for libel against NY colonial governor William Cosby. Zenger was later acquitted. (ON, 11/04, p.9) 1734 nend Dec 18, Jean-Baptiste Rey, composer, was born. (MC, 12/18/01) 1734 nend Filippo della Valle created his sculpture "Allegorical Figure of Temperament." It was a smaller version of a larger marble statue. (WSJ, 1/29/02, p.A18) 1734 nend In Canada a black slave named Marie-Joseph Angelique was hanged for setting fire to the Montreal home of her master. She became the title character in a 1999 play by Lorena Gale. (WSJ, 6/22/99, p.A24)(SFC, 2/12/10, p.A18) 1734 nend Holkham Hall in Norfolk, England, was begun by Thomas Coke, later Earl of Leicester. He was a great agricultural reformer and pioneered farming techniques that increased yields from tenants nine fold in 40 years. He held sheep shearings where thousands of farmers also compared notes on new plows and seed. (NG, Nov. 1985, p.689,691) 1734 nend Father Nicholas Tamaral attempted to enforce a ban polygamy among the Pericu Indians in Baha California. The Pericu beat him in return and apparently burned him alive. (SSFC, 2/6/05, p.F8) 1734 nend Charles III was crowned King of the Two Sicilies. He ordered the island of Ponza rebuilt as part of his defenses. Major Winspeare of the British Royal Army Corp was the engineer of the project and the design was by Carpi, a Neapolitan architect. (SFEC, 11/8/98, p.T12) 1734 1802 George Romney, English painter. He painted "Miss Willoughby." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.1243) 1734 1823 Adam Czartoryski, a friend of Rousseau and Ben Franklin and luminary of the enlightenment in Poland, was an art collector and displayed his art at the family estate at Pulawy. (WSJ, 7/30/97, p.A13) 1735 nend Jan 1, Paul Revere (d.1818), U.S. patriot who rode through the streets of Boston during the American Revolution, warning of the British landings, was born to Apollos Rivoire and Deborah Hitchbourne, one of 13 children. (HN, 1/1/99)(HNQ, 6/27/02) 1735 nend Feb 18, The 1st opera performed in America, "Flora," in Charleston, SC. (MC, 2/18/02) 1735 nend Feb 27, Dr. John Arbuthnot (b.1667), English physician, satirist and polymath, died. In 1712 he invented the figure of John Bull, a national personification of Great Britain in general and England in particular, especially in political cartoons and similar graphic works. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bull) 1735 nend Jun 10, John Morgan, physician-in-chief of Continental Army, was born. (HN, 6/10/98) 1735 nend Aug 4, A jury acquitted John Peter Zenger of the New York Weekly Journal of seditious libel. (AP, 8/4/97) 1735 nend Aug 18, The Evening Post began publishing in Boston, Mass. (MC, 8/18/02) 1735 nend Sep 5, Johann Christian Bach (d.1782), composer, son of JS Bach, was born. He is known as the London Bach. He traveled to Italy, became a Catholic, and went to England where he was mentor to the young Mozart. He also represented the Style Gallant. (LGC-HCS, p.31)(MC, 9/5/01) 1735 nend Sep 22, Robert Walpole became the 1st British PM to live at 10 Downing Street. (MC, 9/22/01) 1735 nend Oct 30, John Adams, second president of the United States (1797-1801), was born in Braintree (Quincy), Mass. (AP, 10/30/97)(HN, 10/30/98)(MC, 10/30/01) 1735 nend William Hogarth made drawings for "The Rake?s Progress." (SFEC, 1/25/98, DB p.7) 1735 nend Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) translated a book on Abyssinia by a Portuguese Jesuit: ?A Voyage to Abyssinia.? In 1759 Johnson authored his prose fiction ?The History of Rasellas, Prince of Abissinia.? In the novel morality and happiness are shown not as matters of simple alternatives but sometimes impossible ones. no_source 1735 nend Henry Fielding set up his own theater company at the Little Theater in London's Haymarket. His 1st production was Pasquin. (ON, 9/03, p.8) 1735 nend Handel composed his operas "Ariodante" and "Alcina." The librettos were drawn from an episode of Orlando Furioso, the 16th century Italian epic by Ariosto. (WSJ, 2/28/96, p.A-16)(WSJ, 12/8/98, p.A20) 1735 nend Jean-Philippe Rameau composed his rococo opera-ballet "Les Indes Galantes," (The Amorous Indies). (WSJ, 10/21/99, p.A20) 1735 nend Just-Aurele Meissonier, a royal silversmith, made a Rococo soup tureen for the Duke of Kingston. It later passed to J.P. Morgan and in 1998 was valued at over $8 million. (WSJ, 5/8/98, p.W12) 1735 nend In London, England, Col. Sir Thomas De Veil began dispensing justice from a house on Bow Street. De Veil was succeeded by Henry Fielding. (SFC, 7/14/06, p.A2) 1735 nend A French expedition to South America was led by Charles-Marie de la Condamine. It produced the earliest maps of the northern part of the continent and led to the introduction of platinum and rubber to Europe. In 2004 Robert Whitaker authored ?The Mapmaker?s Wife: A True Tale of Love, Murder, and Survival in the Amazon.? It was an account of Jean Godin (d.1792), the expedition?s mapmaker, and his wife, Isabel Grameson. The couple married in Quito in 1741. (Econ, 5/15/04, p.81)(ON, 5/05, p.1) 1735 nend Lady Hyegyong was born in Korea. At age 9-10 she married Crown Prince Sado (~10), who was murdered by his father, King Yongjo, in 1762. Hyegyônggung Hong Ssi later authored her memoir ?Hanjungnok.? (Econ, 9/11/04, p.79)(www.financial-book-review.com) c 1735 1736 Jean Baptiste Simeon Chardin (1699-1779), French painter, painted "The Young Schoolmistress." (WSJ, 6/19/00, p.A42) 1735 1826 John Adams, 2nd president of the US from 1797-1801. (AHD, 1971, p.14)(A&IP, Miers, p.17) 1736 nend Jan 19, James Watt, Scottish inventor of the steam engine who gave his name to a unit of power, was born. [see 1705] (AP, 1/19/98)(HN, 1/19/99) 1736 nend Jan 27, Stanislaw Lesheinski gave up the Polish-Lithuanian throne. (LHC, 1/27/03) 1736 nend Feb 19, Georg F. Handel's "Alexander's Feast," premiered. (MC, 2/19/02) 1736 nend Feb 29, Anna Lee, founder of the Shaker movement in America, was born. (HN, 2/29/00) 1736 nend Mar 10, NY colonial Gov. William Cosby died. George Clarke became the new governor. (ON, 11/04,p.10)(www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/zenger/chronology.html) 1736 nend Mar 16, Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (b.1710), Italian composer (Il Prigioniero Superbo, Stabat Mater), died. Marvin Paymer (d.2002), an expert on Pergolesi, later edited the 26-volume "The New Pergolesi Edition." (MC, 1/4/02)(SFC, 6/24/02, p.B6)(MC, 3/16/02) 1736 nend Mar 23, Iman Willem Falck, Dutch Governor of Ceylon (1765-83), was born. (SS, 3/23/02) 1736 nend May 26, British and Chickasaw Indians defeated the French at the Battle of Ackia. In northwestern Mississippi the Chickasaw Indians, supported by the British, defeated a combined force of French soldiers and Chocktaw Indians, thus opening the region to English settlement. (AHD, 1971, p.11)(HN, 5/26/98) 1736 nend May 29, Patrick Henry (d.1799), American Colonial patriot, orator and governor of Virginia, was born. He was a slave-owner and justified the fact by saying: "I am driven along by the general inconvenience of living here without them." He later said "Give me liberty or give me death." (SFC,12/897, p.A27)(HN, 5/29/01) 1736 nend Aug 8, Mahomet Weyonomon, a Mohegan sachem or leader, died of smallpox while waiting to see King George II to complain directly about British settlers encroaching on tribal lands in the Connecticut colony. The tribal chief was buried in an unmarked grave in a south London churchyard. (AP, 11/22/06)(http://tinyurl.com/ymbn3c) 1736 nend Sep 10, Carter Braxton, US farmer and signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born. (MC, 9/10/01) 1736 nend Sep 16, Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit (b.1686), Gdansk-born German physicist, died in the Netherlands. He discovered that water boils at 212F and freezes at 32F. (www.britannica.com) 1736 nend Nov 18, Carl Friedrich Christian Fasch, composer, was born. (MC, 11/18/01) 1736 nend Nov 26, Charles-Joseph Panckoucke, French publisher (Mercure de France), was born. (MC, 11/26/01) 1736 nend Gian Domenico Ferretti (1692-1767) created his painting ?The Brazen Serpent.? (www.unh.edu/music/Icon/ighnjidx.htm) 1736 nend Henry Fielding presented his play "The Historical Register for the Year 1736," a pointed attack on the British government of PM Walpole. (ON, 9/03, p.8) 1736 nend J.S. Bach played weekly concerts at Zimmerman?s coffeehouse in Leipzig on Friday evenings from 8 to 10. (LGC-HCS, p.25) 1736 nend Jean Marie Leclair organized the Recreation de Musique. (EMN, 1/96, p.4) 1736 nend Early expansion of American Presbyterianism was spurred by the founding of "log colleges," especially the one formed in this year by Rev. William Tennent, Sr. at Neshaminy. (HNQ, 7/6/99) 1736 nend Georgia?s founder, General James Edward Oglethorpe, established Fort Frederica on the northern tip of St. Simon Island off the coast of Georgia. (SFC, 4/28/96, p.T-7) 1736 nend Britain?s Mortmain Act (literally meaning 'dead hand') was introduced to protect the rights of heirs and frustrate benefactors determined to disinherit their families. It invalidated charitable gifts of land or buildings unless they were made in the last year of the donor's life. (www.pnnonline.org/article.php?sid=2398&mode=thread&order=0) 1736 nend Samuel Baldwin of Hampshire, England, had his body cast into the ocean. He requested this so that his wife could not carry out her threat to dance on his grave. (SFEC, 11/14/99, Z1 p.2) 1736 nend Filippo Juvarra (b.1678), Italian baroque architect, died in Madrid. (www.italycyberguide.com/Art/artistsarchite/juvarra.htm) 1736 nend Nadir Shah (head of Persia) occupied southwest Afghanistan, and southeast Persia. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1736 1795 The period of Emperor Qianlong?s (Ch?ien-lung) reign over China. Qianlong was a painter and calligrapher and showed an insatiable appetite for collecting art. His collection formed the core of the later National Palace Museum. (SFEC, 10/6/96, DB p.36)(SFC, 10/14/96, p.B3)(WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20) 1737 nend Jan 12, John Hancock, first signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born. [see Jan 23] (HN, 1/12/99) 1737 nend Jan 21, Ethan Allen, American Revolutionary commander of the "Green Mountain Boys" who captured Fort Ticonderoga in 1775, was born. (HN, 1/21/99) 1737 nend Jan 23, John Hancock (d.1793), American statesman and first Governor of Massachusetts, was born. He was governor twice: (1780-1785 and 1787-1793). His was the first signature in large script at the bottom of the US Declaration of Independence. [see Jan 12] (HFA, '96, p.22)(AHD, p.597) 1737 nend Jan 29, Thomas Paine, political essayist, was born in England and went on to write "The Rights of Man" and "The Age of Reason." He lived his final years in poverty and obscurity, and died June 8, 1809. (HN, 1/29/99)(HNQ, 9/21/99) 1737 nend Feb 20, French minister of Finance, Chauvelin, resigned. (MC, 2/20/02) 1737 nend Mar 12, Galileo's body was moved to Church of Santa Croce in Florence, Italy. (MC, 3/12/02) 1737 nend Mar 28, Francesco Zanetti, composer, was born. (MC, 3/28/02) 1737 nend Apr 27, Edward Gibbon (d.1794), historian, writer of "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," was born. [see May 8, 1737] (HN, 4/27/98) 1737 nend May 8, Edward Gibbon, English historian, author of "Decline and Fall of Roman Empire," was born. [see April 27, 1737] "All that is human must be retrograde if it does not advance." (HN, 5/8/98)(AP, 2/27/00) 1737 nend May, Sir Robert Walpole argued for censorship of a play in the House of Commons of a satire called "The Golden Rump." Walpole pressed through Parliament a Licensing Act that lasted over 200 years. (WSJ, 10/14/97, p.A22)(ON, 9/03, p.8) 1737 nend Jul 9, The last Medici-grand duke of Toscane, died. (MC, 7/9/02) 1737 nend Jul 18, The Turkish army beat the Austrians in the Battle at Banja Luka. (MC, 7/18/02) 1737 nend Sep 14, Johann Michael Haydn (d.1806), composer and younger brother of Franz Joseph, was born in Austria. (http://www.haydn.dk/index.php) 1737 nend Sep 19, In India?s Bay of Bengal a cyclone destroyed some 20,000 ships. It was estimated that more than 300,000 people died in the densely populated area called the Sundarbans. Later research indicated the population of Calcutta at the time to be around 20,000. An estimate of the number of deaths was revised down to about 3,000. (http://cires.colorado.edu/~bilham/gif_images/1737Calcutta.pdf) 1737 nend Dec 18, Antonio Stradivari, the most renowned violin maker in history, died in Cremona, Italy. He made about 1200 violins of great quality of which half still survive. In 2006 Joseph Nagyvary, a Texas biochemist and violin maker, put forward evidence that the quality of sound in a Stradivari violin was due to chemicals used to protect the wood from wood-eating worms. (WSJ, 10/17/94, p.1)(AP, 12/18/98)(SFC, 12/28/06, p.A20) 1737 nend Sep 19, Charles Carroll (d.1832), American patriot and legislator, was born. He was the only Roman Catholic signer of the Declaration and his signature read Charles Carroll of Carrollton. He lived in Maryland where, as a Roman Catholic he was forbidden from voting and holding public office. However, the wealthy Carrolls moved in the highest social circle and entertained George Washington and the Marquis de Lafayette at their estate. (HNQ, 1/14/99)(MC, 9/19/01) 1737 nend Oct 2, Francis Hopkinson, US writer and lawyer, was born. He designed the Stars & Stripes. (MC, 10/2/01) 1737 nend Oct 7, 40 foot waves sank 20,000 small craft and killed 300,000 in Bengal, India. (MC, 10/7/01) 1737 nend Oct 22, Vincenzo Manfredini, composer, was born. (MC, 10/22/01) 1737 nend The French annual art exhibition known as the Salon was inaugurated. (WSJ, 11/19/03, p.D12) 1737 nend The English puppet opera ?The Dragon of Wantley? was written with music by John Frederick Lampe and libretto by Henry Carey. (ST, 5/20/04, p.C8) 1737 nend Frenchman Jacques de Vaucanson created a mechanical, flute playing ?android.? (Econ, 3/26/05, p.17) 1737 nend Handel experienced some mental turbulence after a stroke. (LGC-HCS, p.46) 1737 nend Richmond, Virginia was founded. (WSJ, 12/21/95, p.A-5) 1737 nend London officials worried about the large amount of British government bonds held by Dutch investors. (WSJ, 5/28/96, p. R-23) 1737 nend Rev. Andrew Le Mercier, a Huguenot living in Boston, set the first horses out to graze on Sable Island, 100 miles east of Nova Scotia. A few decades later Thomas Hancock of Boston plundered some 60 horses from Acadian settlers expelled from Nova Scotia by British overlords, and settled them on Sable Island. Hardy descendants of the horses still thrived in 1998. (SFC, 7/23/98, p.C3) 1737 nend Florence ended its era as an independent state. (SFEC,11/30/97, p.T3) 1738 nend Apr 15, The bottle opener was invented. (MC, 4/15/02) 1738 nend May 9, John Pindar, [Peter], physician, poet, was born. (MC, 5/9/02) 1738 nend May 24, The Methodist Church was established. (HN, 5/24/98) 1738 nend May 28, Dr. Joseph Ignace Guillotine, French inventor of the guillotine, was born. (HN, 5/28/98) 1738 nend Jun 4, George III was born (d.1820). He was the King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1760-1820, and the King of Hanover from 1815-1820. He was responsible for losing the American colonies. He passed the Royal Marriages Act, which made it unlawful for his children to marry without his consent. (HFA, '96, p.32)(AHD, 1971, p.552)(WSJ, 5/23/96, p.A-10) 1738 nend Jul 3, John Singleton Copley, finest colonial American artist, was born in Mass. (MC, 7/3/02) 1738 nend Oct 10, Benjamin West, painter (Death of General Wolfe), was born. (MC, 10/10/01) 1738 nend Nov 15, Sir William Hershel, British astronomer who discovered Uranus, was born. (HN, 11/15/98) 1738 nend Dec 9, Jews were expelled from Breslau, Silesia. (MC, 12/9/01) 1738 nend Dec 31, Charles Lord Cornwallis (d.1805), soldier and statesman, was born. "Fire when ready Gridley." (MC, 12/31/01) 1738 nend Benjamin Franklin wrote in Poor Richard's Almanack "Sell not virtue to purchase wealth, nor Liberty to purchase power." (http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin) 1738 nend Handel composed his opera "Serse" and his oratorio "Saul." Handel's "Xerxes" was first performed. The original Italian libretto was by Nicolo Minato and Silvio Stampiglia. (LGC-HCS, p.41,46)(WSJ, 3/25/96, p.A-15) 1738 nend Jacques de Vaucanson exhibited a mechanical flute player that actually breathed. (WSJ, 8/23/02, p.W8) 1738 nend Pope Clement XII issued a bull against the Freemasons forbidding Catholics to join under threat of excommunication. (WSJ, 2/6/02, p.A16) c 1738 nend In Russia the Vaganova Ballet Academy was founded. It was later attached to St. Petersburg?s Kirov Ballet. (WSJ, 3/10/98, p.A1) 1738 nend Robert Locklear was king of the Cheraw Indians. This tribe is thought by many to be ancestral to what is now called the Lumbee Indian Tribe of North Carolina. The Lumbees have been called Croatan Indians, the Indians of Robeson County, the Cherokee Indians of Robeson County, and since 1952, the Lumbee Indians. (WSJ, 11/13/95, p.A-1, 5) 1738 nend Daniel Bernouilli (1700-1782), Swiss physicist and mathematician, son of Johan explained how lift is created, as in a backward spinning golf ball, by a difference of air pressures. He is known for the Bernouilli equation. (WUD, 1994, p.141)(SFEC, 6/14/98, p.A12) 1738 nend Nadir Shah (head of Persia) took Kandahar [Afghanistan]. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1738 1789 Jan 10, Ethan Allen was born. He was the American Revolutionary commander of the Green Mountain Boys in Vermont. (HFA, '96, p.22)(AHD, p.34) 1738 1815 John Singleton Copley, American painter. He painted the elite of colonial Boston. His portraits lacked facility but he developed an exceedingly direct approach to his art. His paintings include portraits of Epes Sargent, Moses Gill, Nathaniel Sparhawk, Mary Royall and Samuel Adams. (WSJ, 6/14/95, p.A-14) 1738 1822 Sir William Herschel, British astronomer, one of the first to formulate the hypothesis that the stellar system to which our Sun belongs occupies a lenticular volume, with the Sun located somewhere inside, near the plane of the lens. (SCTS, p.136) 1739 nend Feb 7, Joseph Pouteau, composer, was born. (MC, 2/7/02) 1739 nend Mar 16, George Clymer, US merchant (signed Declaration of Independence and Constitution), was born. (MC, 3/16/02) 1739 nend Mar 20, Eligio Celestino, composer, was born. (MC, 3/20/02) 1739 nend Mar 20, In India, Nadir Shah of Persia occupied Delhi and took possession of the Peacock thrown. King Nadir Shah later took the golden Peacock Throne back to Persia. (HN, 3/20/99)(SFEC, 5/21/00, p.T8) 1739 nend Apr 10, Dick Turpin was executed in England for horse stealing. (MC, 4/10/02) 1739 nend May 12, Johann Baptist Vanhal, composer, was born. (MC, 5/12/02) 1739 nend Jul 24, Benedetto Marcello, composer, died on 53rd birthday. (MC, 7/24/02) 1739 nend Sep 1, 35 Jews were sentenced to life in prison in Lisbon, Portugal. (MC, 9/1/02) 1739 nend Sep 7, Joseph Legros, composer, was born. (MC, 9/7/01) 1739 nend Sep 9, A slave revolt in Stono, SC, led by an Angolan slave named Jemmy, killed 20-25 whites. Three slave uprisings occurred in South Carolina in 1739. Whites soon passed black codes to regulated every aspect of slave life. (SFC, 12/18/96, p.A25)(www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part1/1p284.html)(AH,2/05, p.66) 1739 nend Sep 13, Grigory Potemkin (d.1791), Russian army officer, statesman, Catherine II's lover, was born. [see Sep 24] (MC, 9/13/01) 1739 nend Sep 18, Turkey and Austria signed peace treaty-Austria ceding Belgrade to Turks. [see Sep 23] (MC, 9/18/01) 1739 nend Sep 23, The Austrians signed the Treaty of Belgrade after having lost the city to the Turks. [see Sep 18] (HN, 9/23/98) 1739 nend Sep 24, Grigorij A. Potemkin (d.1791), Monarch of Tauris and friend of Catherine II, was born. [see Sep 13] (MC, 9/24/01)(WSJ, 2/14/02, p.A18) 1739 nend Oct 3, Russia signed a treaty with the Turks, ending a three-year conflict between the two countries. (HN, 10/3/98) 1739 nend Oct 17, King George II granted Thomas Coram, retired sea captain, a royal charter to establish "a hospital for the reception, maintenance and education of exposed and deserted young children." (ON, 9/02, p.8) 1739 nend Oct 19, England declared war on Spain over borderlines in Florida. The War is known as the War of Jenkins? Ear because a member of Parliament waved a dried ear and demanded revenge for alleged mistreatment of British sailors. British seaman Robert Jenkins had his ear amputated following a 1731 barroom brawl with a Spanish Customs guard in Havana and saved the ear in his sea chest. (EWH, 4th ed, p.555)(HN, 10/19/98)(PCh, 1992, p.292) 1739 nend Nov 2, Karl Ditters von Dittersdorf, composer, was born. (MC, 11/2/01) 1739 nend Nov 22, Adm. Edward Vernon captured the Spanish city of Portobello, Panama, with a force of 6 British ships. (PCh, 1992, p.292) 1739 nend Dec 25, Chevalier de Saint-Georges (d.1799) was born on the Caribbean island of Guadeloupe. He was the first African American musician to achieve international renown as a classical composer, violinist and conductor. (http://ChevalierDeSaintGeorges.Homestead.com/Page1.html) 1739 nend Handel composed his oratorio "Israel in Egypt." Text was taken from the books of Exodus and Psalms. The first of the 3 parts is actually a funeral ode written the previous year for Queen Caroline. The gender of the pronouns were changed to serve as a lament for the death of Joseph. (LGC-HCS, p.46)(SFEC, 9/15/96, BR p.7)(SFC, 9/23/96, D3) 1739 nend Rameau composed his opera "Dardanus." (SFC,10/21/97, p.E3) 1739 1740 The Peacock Throne (containing parts of the famous royal Mogul seat) is supposed to have been brought by Nadir Shah to Iran from Delhi. Lord Curzona (father of Ms. Ravensdale) asserted that the throne was discovered in a broken and piecemeal condition by Aga Mohammed Shah, and that he had it made up into the throne of modern shape. (NG, Sept. 1939, Baroness Ravensdale, p.326,331) 1739 1823 William Bartram, American Quaker naturalist. His work included: "Travels Through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida" (1791), "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians" and "Some Account of the Late Mr. John Bartram of Pennsylvania." "A Seminole chief named Cowkeeper... gave him the name of Puc Puggy or "flower hunter"." (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.10-12) 1740 nend Feb 3, Charles de Bourbon, King of Naples, invited the Jews to return to Sicily. (MC, 2/3/02) 1740 nend Feb 7, Adam-Philippe Custine, French earl, general, MP, was born. (MC, 2/7/02) 1740 nend Feb 8, Clement XII (87), [Lorenzo Corsini], blind Pope (1730-40), died. (MC, 2/8/02) 1740 nend Feb 16, Giambattista Bodoni, printer, typeface designer (Bodoni), was born in Saluzzo, Italy. (MC, 2/16/02) 1740 nend May 6, John Penn, signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born. (HN, 5/6/98) 1740 nend May 9, Giovanni Paisiello, Italian composer (Barber of Seville), was born. (MC, 5/9/02) 1740 nend Jun 2, Donatien Alphonse Francois, writer, Marquis de Sade, was born in Paris. He was the French nobleman who was imprisoned for holding orgies in which he whipped and sodomized prostitutes. He wrote "The 120 Days of Sodom" and "Justine." In 1998 Francine du Plessix Gray authored "At Home With the Marquis de Sade." (http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/Atrium/3539/) (WUD, 1994, p.1259)(WSJ, 2/7/96, p.A-12)(WSJ, 11/5/98, p.A20)(WSJ,2/7/96, p.A-12)(HN, 6/2/99) 1740 nend Jun 22, King Frederick II of Prussia ended torture and guaranteed religion and freedom of the press. (MC, 6/22/02) 1740 nend Jul 8, Pierre Vigne (b.1670), Frenchman, died. He founded the Congregation of Sisters of the Most Holy Sacrament. In 2004 he was beatified by Pope John Paul VI. (AP, 10/3/04)(www.catholic-forum.com) 1740 nend Aug 1, Thomas Arne's song "Rule Britannia," which celebrated Britain?s military and commercial prowess, was performed for the 1st time. It grew to become the unofficial anthem. (HN, 8/1/98)(Econ, 2/3/07, SR p.3) 1740 nend Aug 26, Joseph-Michel Montgolfier, French inventor, born. He and his brother Jacques-Etienne invented the hot air balloon in 1783. (RTH, 8/26/99) 1740 nend Sep 11, The first mention of an African American doctor or dentist in the colonies was made in the Pennsylvania Gazette. (HN, 9/11/98) 1740 nend Oct 20, Maria Theresa became ruler of Austria, Hungary and Bohemia upon the death of her father, Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI. (AP, 10/20/06) 1740 nend Oct 29, James Boswell, Samuel Johnson's biographer, was born in Scotland. (MC, 10/29/01) 1740 nend Henry Fielding began working as a lawyer and read "Pamela or Virtue Rewarded" by Samuel Richardson. Fielding soon authored his satire "Shamela" in response. (ON, 9/03, p.1) 1740 nend A slave plot was uncovered in Charleston that resulted in the hanging of 50 blacks. (HNQ, 6/10/98) 1740 nend The ignoring of the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 led to the War of the Austrian Succession in 1740. When Charles VI died in 1740, Maria Theresa?s claim was ignored by Elector Charles Albert of Bavaria, Augustus III of Saxony and Poland, and Philip V of Spain, igniting a general European war. (HNQ, 7/29/99) 1740 nend A dark oak room from Rouen, France, was later transferred to the Legion of Honor Art Museum in San Francisco, Ca. (WSJ, 11/16/95, p.A-18) 1740 nend Frederick the Great awarded what is believed to be the first medal for combat bravery, the Pour le Merite, nicknamed the Blue Max. (WSJ, 4/23/99, A1) 1740 nend s Frederick the Great built a summer palace in Potsdam named Sans-souci (without worries). (SFEC, 7/27/97, p.T11) 1740 nend s Antonio de Solis, a Spanish priest, found the ruins of Palenque, Mexico, while planting a field. (SSFC, 5/5/02, p.C5) 1740 1790 The period that approximates the years of the Scottish Enlightenment. It centered on the intellectual environment of Glasgow and Edinburgh, Scotland, where men such as Adam Smith and David Hume produced work that greatly influenced James Madison and Alexander Hamilton. This environment is well described in The Life of Adam Smith by Ian Simpson Ross in 1995. (WSJ, 11/30/95, p.A-20) 1740 1794 Nicolas Chamford, French writer: "The public! the public! How many fools does it take to make up a public?" (AP, 6/9/98) 1740 1807 John Frere, English archeologist, one of the earliest students of prehistory. (OAPOC-TH, p.71) 1741 nend Jan 14, Benedict Arnold, U.S. General turned traitor, was born. (www.britannica.com/eb/article-9009576) 1741 nend Feb 8, Andre-Ernest-Modeste Gretry, composer, was born. (MC, 2/8/02) 1741 nend Feb 9, Henri-Joseph Rigel, composer, was born. (MC, 2/9/02) 1741 nend Feb 13, Andrew Bradford of Pennsylvania published the first American magazine. Titled "The American Magazine, or A Monthly View of the Political State of the British Colonies." Bradford introduced his American Magazine just days before Benjamin Franklin founded his periodical called General Magazine in Philadelphia. Bradford?s survived 3 months while Franklin?s survived for 6 months. (HFA, '96, p.24)(HNQ, 9/3/98)(AP, 2/13/01) 1741 nend Feb 16, Benjamin Franklin's General Magazine (2nd US Mag) began publishing. (MC, 2/16/02) 1741 nend Mar 4, English fleet under Admiral Ogle reached Cartagena, Colombia. (SC, 3/4/02) 1741 nend Mar 13, Jozef II, arch duke of Austria, Roman Catholic German emperor (1765-90), was born. (MC, 3/13/02) 1741 nend Mar 25, The London Foundling Hospital opened in temporary accommodations in Hatton Garden following extensive efforts by former sea captain Thomas Coram (1668-1751). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundling_Hospital) 1741 nend Apr 8, Jose B. da Gama, Portuguese poet (O Uraguai), was born. (MC, 4/8/02) 1741 nend Apr 13, Dutch people protested the bad quality of bread. (MC, 4/13/02) 1741 nend Apr 15, Charles Wilson Peale (d.1827), American portrait painter and inventor, was born. His 2nd teacher was John Singleton Copley. (SFC, 1/25/97, p.E3)(HN, 4/15/98) 1741 nend Apr 11, A Russian commission found regent Count Biron guilty of treason and sentenced him to death by quartering. The sentence was commuted to banishment for life in Siberia. (PCh, 1992, p.294) 1741 nend Apr 17, Samuel Chase, signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born. (HN, 4/17/98) 1741 nend May 8, France and Bavaria signed the Covenant of Nymphenburg. (MC, 5/8/02) 1741 nend May 10, Johann Michael Schmidt, composer, was born. (MC, 5/10/02) 1741 nend May 29, Johann Gottfried Krebs, composer, was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1741 nend Jun 11, Austria ceded most of Silesia to Prussia by Treaty of Breslau. (AP, 6/11/03) 1741 nend Jun 22, Alois Luigi Tomasini, composer, was born. (MC, 6/22/02) 1741 nend Jul 15, George Steller, an observer with Vitus Bering (1680-1741), claimed to see the American mainland (Alaska). Bering, a Danish-born mariner, was on an exploratory mission on behalf of Russia. (WSJ, 9/12/00, p.A24)(SFEC, 3/23/97, p.T5)(ON, 2/06, p.2) 1741 nend Jul 16, Vitus Bering (1680-1741) first sighted Mt. St. Elias, the second highest peak in Alaska at 18,008 feet. (AAM, 3/96, p.84)(WUD, 1994 p.140) 1741 nend Aug 31, Johann Paul Aegidius Martini, composer, was born. (MC, 8/31/01) 1741 nend Sep 14, George Frederick Handel (1685-1759) finished "Messiah" oratorio, after working on it in London non-stop for 23 days. Messiah premiered April 13, 1742. (LGC-HCS, p.41)(http://www.gospelcom.net/chi/GLIMPSEF/Glimpses/glmps147.shtml) 1741 nend Oct, George Wilhelm Steller, German naturalist on the Bering voyage, discovered large sea cows (Hydrodamalis gigas) on Bering Island. Within 20 years the creatures were eaten to extinction. (CW, Jun 03, p.13) 1741 nend Nov 20, Melchior de Polignac, French diplomat and clergyman, died. (MC, 11/20/01) 1741 nend Nov 27, Jean-Pierre Duport, composer, was born. (MC, 11/27/01) 1741 nend Dec 5-1741 Dec 6, Russian princess Elisabeth Petrovna grabbed power. Petrovna (31), the daughter of Peter the Great, and her husband led a coup d?etat, deposed the infant Czar Ivan VI, had him imprisoned and reigned until her death in 1762. (PCh, 1992, p.294)(MC, 12/5/01) 1741 nend Dec 7, Elisabeth Petrovna became tsarina of Russia. (MC, 12/7/01) 1741 nend Dec 8, Vitus Bering, Danish-born explorer and commander in the Russian navy, died on an island off the Kamchatka Peninsula, later named Bering Island. (ON, 2/06, p.4) 1741 nend Dec 25, Astronomer Anders Celcius introduced the Centigrade temperature scale. (MC, 12/25/01) 1741 nend Dec 30, Bartolomeo Giacometti, composer, was born. (MC, 12/30/01) 1741 nend Nathanael Greene (d.1786), American Revolutionary War General, was born. (ON, 12/01, p.12) 1741 nend Voltaire (1694-1778), French playwright, wrote the play ?Fanaticism, or Mahomet the Prophet.? He used the founder of Islam to lampoon all forms of religious frenzy and intolerance. (WSJ, 3/6/06, p.A10) 1741 nend Rameau composed his "Pieces de clavecin en concerts." (SFC, 6/6/96, E3) 1741 nend Renowned New England theologian Jonathan Edwards delivered the famous sermon "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" at the height of the Great Awakening, a religious revival movement that swept the colonies during the mid-eighteenth century. (HNQ, 8/5/98) 1741 nend A slave revolt in New York caused considerable property damage but left people unharmed. Rumors of a conspiracy among slaves and poor whites in New York City to seize control led to a panic that resulted in the conviction of 101 blacks, the hanging of 18 blacks and four whites, the burning alive of 13 blacks and the banishment from the city of 70. In 2005 Anne Farrow, Joel Lang and Jennifer Frank authored ?Complicity: The North Promoted, Prolonged and Profited from Slavery,? which included a chapter on the 1941 NYC slave revolt. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Conspiracy_of_1741)(SFC,12/18/96, p.A25)(SSFC, 10/2/05, p.F3) 1741 nend British troops briefly occupied Cuba?s Guantanamo Bay while warring against Spanish trade interests. (SSFC, 1/20/02, p.A7) 1741 nend Don Blas de Lezo, a one-eyed, one-handed, peg-legged castle defender, led the defense of Cartagena, Colombia, against British Adm. Edward Vernon. Lezo was mortally wounded in the battle. (SSFC, 5/18/03, p.C13) 1741 nend In Sweden Anders Berch became the first professor of economics in Uppsala. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1741 1801 Johann Kaspar Lavater, Swiss theologian: "I am prejudiced in favor of him who, without impudence, can ask boldly. He has faith in humanity, and faith in himself. No one who is not accustomed to give grandly can ask nobly and with boldness." (AP, 1/2/99) 1741 1825 (John) Henry Fuseli, English painter, illustrator and essayist. He was born in Switzerland. His work included The Nightmare (c.1790). (WUD, 1994, p.576)(SFC, 10/31/96, p.E1) 1742 nend Jan 14, English astronomer Edmond Halley, who observed the comet that now bears his name, died at age 85. In 2005 Julie Wakefield authored ?Halley?s Quest,? in which she covered Halley?s travels to Brazil to map the Atlantic?s magnetic declinations and hopefully solve the problem of calculating longitude. (AP, 1/14/98)(WSJ, 12/20/05, p.D8) 1742 nend Jan 24, Charles VII was crowned Holy Roman Emperor during the War of the Austrian Succession. (AP, 1/24/07) 1742 nend Apr 13, George Frideric Handel's "Messiah" was first performed publicly, in Dublin, Ireland. (AP, 4/13/97) 1742 nend Apr 13, Giovanni Veneziano (59), composer, died. (MC, 4/13/02) 1742 nend May 11, Francesco Stradivari (70), Italian violin maker, son of Antonius, died. (MC, 5/11/02) 1742 nend May 17, Frederick great (Emperor of Prussia) beat Austrians. (MC, 5/17/02) 1742 nend May 28, 1st indoor swimming pool opened at Goodman's Fields, London. (MC, 5/28/02) 1742 nend Jun 17, William Hooper, signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born. (HN, 6/17/98) 1742 nend Jun 26, Arthur Middleton, signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born. (HN, 6/26/98) 1742 nend Jul 7, A Spanish force invading Georgia ran headlong into the colony's British defenders. A handful of British and Spanish colonial troops faced each other on a Georgia coastal island and decided the fate of a colony. (HN, 5/3/98)(HN, 7/7/99) 1742 nend Jul 11, Benjamin Franklin invented his Franklin stove. (MC, 7/11/02) 1742 nend Jul 11, A papal decree was issued condemning the disciplining actions of the Jesuits in China. (HN, 7/11/98) 1742 nend Aug 7, Nathanael Greene, American Revolutionary War General, was born. (MC, 8/7/02) 1742 nend Aug 29, Edmond Hoyle (1672-1769) published his "Short Treatise" on the card game whist. (MC, 8/29/01) 1742 nend Sep 24, The Faneuil Hall in Boston opened to public. (MC, 9/24/01) 1742 nend Oct 12, Johan Peter Melchior, German sculptor, was born. (MC, 10/12/01) 1742 nend Nov 12, The British warship Centurion, commanded by Commodore George Anson, sailed into Macao with a crew of some 200 sick with scurvy. (ON, 4/01, p.7) 1742 nend Dec 1, Empress Elisabeth ordered the expulsion of all Jews from Russia. (MC, 12/1/01) 1742 nend Dec 9, Carl W. Scheele, Swedish pharmacist and chemist (lemon acid), was born. (MC, 12/9/01) 1742 nend Henry Fielding authored his novel "Joseph Andrews." It dealt seriously with moral issues using a comic approach and was later regarded as a milestone in English literature. (ON, 9/03, p.1) 1742 nend England's "Compleat Housewife" cookbook was published in North America. (SFC, 8/27/03, p.E4) 1742 nend Sir Robert Walpole resigned from his duties as British prime minister in order to avoid impeachment. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Walpole) 1742 nend In Italy Giuseppe Guarneri, aka Guarneri del Gesu, created the violin later dubbed "The Cannon" by Paganini. (SFEC, 10/24/99, DB p.36) 1742 nend General James Edward Oglethorpe led a victory over the Spanish at Bloody Marsh on St. Simons Island off the coast of Georgia. (SFC, 4/28/96, p.T-7) 1742 nend Edmund Hoyle popularized the card game later called bridge. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1742 nend Taylor-Wharton began operations as an American colonial iron forge. In 1953 it was absorbed into Harsco, an American engineering and industrial service company. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.105) 1742 nend Russia?s Empress Elisaveta Petrovna presented lands south of Pskov to the A.P. Gannibal (1696-1781), an African who had been adopted by Peter the Great and served Peter in various important capacities including spy and privy councilor. (http://gotorussia.vand.ru/19.phtml?gorod=19&id=11&num=235)(SSFC,6/18/06, p.M3) 1742 1765 In Arabia Muhammad bin Saud Al Saud allied with Wahhabists and expanded the family domain. (Econ, 1/7/06, Survey p.6) 1742 1803 Thomas Jones, amateur British painter. (SFC, 6/4/96, p.E5) 1742 1823 William Combe, English writer. He wrote "The English Dance of Death" that discussed the vice of feasting. (MT, 6/96, p.9) 1743 nend Jan 21, John Fitch, inventor (had a working steamboat years before Fulton), was born. (MC, 1/21/02) 1743 nend Feb 7, Lodovico Giustini (57), composer, died. (MC, 2/7/02) 1743 nend Feb 19, [Rodolfo] Luigi Boccherini, Italian composer, cellist (Minuet), was born. (MC, 2/19/02) 1743 nend Feb 23, Meyer Amschel Rothschild, banker and founder of the Rothschild dynasty in Europe, was born. (HN, 2/23/98) 1743 nend Mar 14, The first recorded town meeting in America was held, at Faneuil Hall in Boston. (AP, 3/14/97) 1743 nend Mar 23, George Frideric Handel's oratorio "Messiah" had its London premiere. During the "Hallelujah Chorus," Britain's King George II, who was in attendance, stood up ? followed by the entire audience. (AP, 3/23/08) 1743 nend Apr 13, Thomas Jefferson (d.1826), the third president of the United States, was born in present-day Albemarle County, Va. He called slavery cruel but included 25 slaves in his daughter?s dowry, took enslaved children to market and had 10-year-old slaves working 12-hour days in his nail factory. He stated that blacks were "in reason inferior" and "in imagination they are dull, tasteless and anomalous. "Were it left to me to decide whether we should have a government without newspapers, or newspapers without a government, I should not hesitate a moment to prefer the latter." "History, in general, only informs us what bad government is." (AP, 4/13/97)(SFC,12/897, p.A27)(AP, 4/13/98) 1743 nend Apr 24, Edmund Cartwright, inventor of the power loom, was born. (HN, 4/24/98) 1743 nend May 20, [Francois D] Toussaint L'Ouverture, leader (Haiti), was born. (MC, 5/20/02) 1743 nend May 24, Jean-Paul Marat, French revolutionist, was born. He advocated extreme violence and was assassinated in his own bath. (HN, 5/24/99) 1743 nend Jun 8, Alessandro Cagliostro, adventurer, was born in Palermo, Italy. (MC, 6/8/02) 1743 nend Jun 20, The British warship Centurion under Commodore George Anson engaged and overcame the Spanish treasure galleon, Nuestra Senora de Covadonga, near the Philippines. 58 Spaniards were killed and 83 wounded. Anson captured over 1 million Spanish silver dollars and 500 pounds of native silver. (ON, 4/01, p.7) 1743 nend Jun 27, King George of the English defeated the French at Dettingen, Bavaria. English armies were victorious over the French at Dettingen. This event was celebrated by Handel in his composition "Dettingen Te Deum." (BLW, Geiringer, 1963 ed. p. 317)(HN, 6/27/98) 1743 nend Aug 17, By the Treaty of Abo, Sweden ceded southeast Finland to Russia, ending Sweden's failed war with Russia. (HN, 8/17/98) 1743 nend Aug 19, Marie Jeanne Becu Comtesse du Barry (d.1793), last mistress of Louis XV, was born. (MC, 8/19/02) 1743 nend Aug 26, Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, the father of modern chemistry, was born. He discovered "dephlogisticated air" which he called oxygen and was executed by the revolution in 1794. (HN, 8/26/99)(RTH, 8/26/99) 1743 nend Sep 17, Marquis Marie Jean de Condorcet (d.1794), French mathematician and philosopher, a leading thinker in the Enlightenment, was born. (HN, 9/17/98)(WSJ, 6/22/99, p.A22) 1743 nend Dec 6, Franz Nikolaus Novotny, composer, was born. (MC, 12/6/01) 1743 nend Giovanni Battista Tiepolo painted "The Triumph of Flora." (SFEC, 6/7/98, Z1 p.2) 1743 nend Joseph Nicolas Pancrace Royer created the opera-ballet: "Le Pouvoir de l?Amour." Royer was later remembered for his harpsichord works. (WSJ, 3/12/02, p.A24) 1743 nend Benjamin Franklin and John Bartram founded the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia as an American counterpart to the British Royal Society. (WSJ, 4/25/09,p.W3)(www.amphilsoc.org/library/exhibits/nature/stork.htm) 1743 nend Kitchup was declared a kitchen staple in a British housekeeper's guide. Fish, mushroom and walnut emerged as the 3 main ketchups. (SFC, 8/27/03, p.A1) 1743 nend Gen?l. James Oglethorpe of England departed Georgia following some small scandal. (SFEC,11/30/97, p.T4) 1743 nend Huguenots in Spitalfields, England, who had fled persecution in France as Calvinists, built their Nueve Eglise place of worship at Fournier Street and Brick Lane. Their community lasted until 1809. The church was later inherited by Methodists, followed by Jews and then Bangladesh Muslims. (Econ, 12/20/03, p.85) 1743 nend The Frauenkirche was built in Dresden, Germany. It was destroyed by allied bombs in 1945, but plans for rebuilding were scheduled for completion by 2006, the 800th birthday of Dresden. A reconstructed version was consecrated in 2005. (SFEC, 7/27/97, p.T6)(SSFC, 10/30/05, p.A16) 1743 nend British Commodore George Anson reached China in his man-of-war. (WSJ, 9/4/98, p.W12) 1743 nend In France Louis XV commissioned an elevator installed at Versailles to link his apartment to that of his mistress. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14)(SFC, 8/23/08, p.F4) 1743 nend French champagne maker Moet was founded. (Econ, 3/6/04, Survey p.6) 1743 nend In Mexico La Cathedral de Nuestra Senora de la Asuncion in Veracruz was dedicated. (SFEC, 5/17/98, p.T12) 1743 1826 Thomas Jefferson was born in Virginia. Jefferson had his slave Sally Hemings as his lover for 38 years. He wrote the Northwest Ordnance that outlawed the spread of slavery into the trans-Appalachian territories. (V.D.-H.K.p.224)(WSJ, 2/11/97, p.A18) 1744 nend Feb 9, Battle at Toulon: French-Spanish faced the English fleet of Adm. Matthews. (MC, 2/9/02) 1744 nend Feb 15, John Hadley, inventor (sextant), died. (MC, 2/15/02) 1744 nend Feb 21, The British blockade of Toulon was broken by 27 French and Spanish warships attacking 29 British ships. (HN, 2/21/98) 1744 nend Mar 13, David Allan, Scottish painter, was born. (MC, 3/13/02) 1744 nend Apr 4, Sarah Inglish was arrested and convicted at the Old Bailey for stealing a cloak, three linen aprons and about 7 yards of cloth from a home where she was babysitting. She was sentenced to transport for a term of 7 years. (SFEC, 10/27/96, p.T9) 1744 nend May 11, In Britain Elizabeth Robinson of Middlesex and 2 other women were tried and convicted at the Old Bailey on charges of stealing 104 imported China oranges from a grocer?s warehouse with the intent to sell them. She was sentenced to transport for a term of 7 years. She was pregnant and gave birth on ship. (SFEC, 10/27/96, p.T9) 1744 nend May, Jack Campbell, captain of the Justicia, transported convicted British criminals to the US and sold them as indentured servants. (SFEC, 10/27/96, p.T10) 1744 nend Jun 15, The warship Centurion under British Commodore George Anson returned to England with a treasure valued at £800,000. In 1748 Anson authored "A voyage Around the World." (WSJ, 9/4/98, p.W12) 1744 nend Aug 1, Jean-Baptiste-Pierre-Antoine Monnet de Lamarck, French zoologist, was born. (MC, 8/1/02) 1744 nend Aug 25, Johann G. von Herder, German philosopher, theologist, poet, was born. (MC, 8/25/02) 1744 nend Oct 4, The HMS Victory sank in the English Channel with at least 900 men aboard. The 175-foot sailing ship had separated from its fleet during a storm. In 2009 Odyssey Marine Exploration reported finding the vessel about 330 feet beneath the surface and more than 50 miles from where anybody would have thought it went down. (AP, 2/1/09) 1744 nend Nov 11, Abigail Smith Adams, 2nd 1st lady (1797-1801), was born. (MC, 11/11/01) 1744 nend Nov 25, Austrian forces pillaged and killed Jews of Prague. (MC, 11/25/01) 1744 nend Handel composed his opera "Semele" based on Ovid?s account of one of Jupiter?s tangled love affairs. (WSJ, 12/21/00, p.A16) 1744 nend Rules for cricket set the wicket to wicket pitch at 22 yards. The 1727 Articles of Agreement had set the distance at 23 yards. (www.sca.org.au/laurels/cricket.htm) 1744 nend The Iroquois sachem (chief) Cannasatego advised the American colonists to from a union like that of the Iroquois. Benjamin Franklin acknowledged the admonition in 1751 and applied it in his Albany Plan of 1754. (WSJ, 4/10/97, p.A15) 1744 nend The title Lordship of Wimbledon was bestowed to the Spencer family of Britain. (WP, 6/29/96, p.F3) 1744 nend This was the era of London?s gin fever. (SFEC, 10/27/96, p.T9) 1744 nend Fort Richelieu was built in Sete on the French Mediterranean coast of the Languedoc region. (SSFC, 6/17/01, p.T10) 1744 nend The Royal Porcelain Manufactory of Vienna began to use an upside down shield, resembling a beehive, as its emblem. Royal Vienna porcelain was made until 1864. (SFEC, 10/9/96, Z1 p.8)(SFC, 10/17/07, p.G2) 1744 nend In Arabia Muhammad Ibn Saud, local ruler of Ad-Dar'ia forged a political and family alliance with Muslim scholar and reformer Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab. Abdul Aziz, the son of Ibn Saud, married the daughter of Imam Muhammad. (NW, 11/26/01, p.SAS) 1744 1812 Mayer Rothschild, banker, rose from a ghetto in Frankfurt to become the banker to Prince William of Prussia. His son, Nathan Rothschild, worked in London as a banker and invested Prussian money in the Napoleonic Wars and smuggled it to Wellington in Spain. His 4 other sons established banks in Vienna, Naples and Paris. (WSJ, 1/11/98, p.R18) 1744 1818 Abigail Adams, American first lady, writer of letters and wife of John Adams: "These are times in which a genius would wish to live. It is not in the still calm of life, or the repose of a pacific station, that great characters are formed.... Great necessities call out great virtues." (AHD, 1971, p.14)(AP, 6/29/97) 1744 1840 Caspar David Friedrich, romantic painter. His work included "Coffin on a Grave." (SFC, 11/16/98, p.E3) 1745 nend Jan 7, Jacques Etienne Montgolfier (d.1799), French inventor, was born. He and his brother, Joseph (1740-1810), launched the first successful hot-air balloon in 1783. (HN, 1/7/99)(WUD, 1994 p.928) 1745 nend Jan 8, England, Austria, Saxony and the Netherlands formed an alliance against Russia. (HN, 1/8/99) 1745 nend Jan, Handel?s oratorio "Hercules," written in 1744, premiered at the King?s Theater in London. The libretto was based on writings by Sophocles and Ovid. (WSJ, 2/22/06, p.D12)(http://tinyurl.com/gdt6w) 1745 nend Feb 15, Colley Cibber's "Papal Tyranny," premiered in London. (MC, 2/15/02) 1745 nend Feb 18, Count Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta (d.1827), Italian physicist, inventor (battery), was born. (AHD, 1971 p.1436)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Volta) 1745 nend Feb 18, Bonnie Prince Charlie's troops occupied Inverness, Scotland. (MC, 2/18/02) 1745 nend Feb 20, Johann Peter Salomon, composer, was born. (MC, 2/20/02) 1745 nend Feb 20, Bonnie Prince Charlie's troops occupied Fort August, Scotland. (MC, 2/20/02) 1745 nend Mar 9, Bells for 1st American carillon were shipped from England to Boston. (MC, 3/9/02) 1745 nend Mar 18, Robert Walpole (68), 1st British premier (1721-42), died. In 2007 Edward Pearce authored ?The Great Man ? Sir Robert Walpole: Scoundrel, Genius and Britain?s First Prime Minister. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Walpole)(Econ, 2/10/07, p.89) 1745 nend Mar 31, Jews were expelled from Prague. (MC, 3/31/02) 1745 nend Apr 20, Philippe Pinel (d.1826), French physician and founder of psychiatry, was born. (WUD, 1994, p.)(HN, 4/20/98) 1745 nend Apr 22, Peace of Fussen was signed, restoring the status quo of Germany. (HN, 4/22/98) 1745 nend Apr 29, Oliver Ellsworth, third Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, was born. (HN, 4/29/98) 1745 nend May 9, Tomaso Antonio Vitali (82), composer, died. (MC, 5/9/02) 1745 nend May 11, French forces defeated an Anglo-Dutch-Hanoverian army at Fontenoy. (HN, 5/11/98) 1745 nend Jun 4, Frederick the Great of Prussia defeated the Austrians & Saxons. (MC, 6/4/02) 1745 nend Jun 16, English fleet occupied Cape Breton on St. Lawrence River. (MC, 6/16/02) 1745 nend Jun 17, American New Englanders captured Louisburg, Cape Breton, from the French. The ragtag army captured France's most imposing North American stronghold on Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia. (HN, 5/17/98)(WSJ, 10/5/99, p.A24)(MC, 6/17/02) 1745 nend Jul 23, Charles Stuart (1720-1788), the Younger, and 7 companions landed at Eriskay Island, in the Hebrides. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Edward_Stuart) 1745 nend Aug 16, Skirmish at Laggan: Glengarry beat the Royal Scots. (MC, 8/16/02) 1745 nend Aug 20, Bonnie Prince Charlie reached Blair Castle, Scotland. (MC, 8/20/02) 1745 nend Sep 17, Edinburgh was occupied by Jacobites under Young Pretenders. (MC, 9/17/01) 1745 nend Sep 21, A Scottish Jacobite army commanded by Lord George Murray routed the Royalist army of General Sir John Cope at Prestonpans. (HN, 9/21/98) 1745 nend Sep 22, Bonnie Prince Charlie's army returned to Edinburgh. (MC, 9/22/01) 1745 nend Sep 28, Bonnie Prince Charlie became "king" of Scotland. (MC, 9/28/01) 1745 nend Oct 19, Jonathan Swift (b.1667), Irish born clergyman and English writer (Gulliver's Travels), died. In 1963 Prof. Edward Rosenheim (1918-2005) authored ?Swift and the Satirist?s Art.? In 1999 Victoria Glendinning published the biography: "Jonathan Swift: A Portrait." (WUD, 1994, p.1437)(SFEC, 8/1/99, BR p.8)(SFC, 12/1/05, p.B7) 1745 nend Nov 11, Bonnie Prince Charlie's army entered England. (MC, 11/11/01) 1745 nend Nov 18, Bonnie Prince Charlie's troops occupied Carlisle. [see Nov 29] (MC, 11/18/01) 1745 nend Nov 28-29, French troops attacked Indians at Saratoga, NY. (MC, 11/28/01) 1745 nend Nov 29, Bonnie Prince Charlie's army moved into Manchester and occupied Carlisle. (MC, 11/29/01) 1745 nend Dec 4, Bonnie Prince Charles reached Derby. (MC, 12/4/01) 1745 nend Dec 6, Bonnie Prince Charlie's army retreated to Scotland. (MC, 12/6/01) 1745 nend Dec 12, John Jay, first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, was born. He became a diplomat and governor of NY, served as the first Supreme Court Head Justice, and negotiated treaties for the United States (HN, 12/12/98)(MC, 12/12/01) 1745 nend Dec 17, Bonnie Prince Charlie's army retreated to Scotland. [see Dec 6] (MC, 12/17/01) 1745 nend Dec 20, Bonnie Prince Charlie's army met de Esk. (MC, 12/20/01) 1745 nend Dec 22, Jan Dismas Zelenka (66), composer, died. (MC, 12/22/01) 1745 nend Dec 24, Benjamin Rush, American medical pioneer and signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born in Byberry, Pa. (HN, 12/24/98)(MC, 12/24/01) 1745 nend Dec 25, Prussia and Austria signed the Treaty of Dresden. This gave much of Silesia to the Prussians. (MC, 12/25/01) 1745 nend Dec 31, Bonnie Prince Charlie's army met with de Esk. (MC, 12/31/01) 1745 nend Schneur Zalman Boruchovitch of Liadi (d.1813), founder of the Jewish Chabad-Lubavitch Chassidic Movement, was born. He labored for 20 years to complete the Tanya before it was printed in 1796. In 1814, the Rav?s Shulchan Aruch fast became regarded by all scholars of Jewish law as a major source and reference guide in the study and application of Jewish law. In 2003 Sue Fishkoff authored "The Rebbe's Army," a study of the sect. (Internet, 7/18/03)(WSJ, 7/18/03, p.W17c) 1745 nend William Hogarth made his print series "Marriage A-la-Mode" in which he made fun of the new social mobility. (SFC, 1/28/98, p.E1) 1745 nend Jean-Philippe Rameau wrote the lyric comedy "Platee." It was an amalgam of song, dance and spectacle based on a simple plot where Jupiter tries to cure Juno of her jealousy. It was a parody of late-Baroque opera. It was staged on the occasion of the Dauphin Louis? marriage to Princess Maria Teresa of Spain. It was about a lovesick frog. (WSJ, 10/1/97, p.A20)(SFC, 1/20/98, p.E1)(SFEM, 6/7/98, p.8)(WSJ,6/16/98, p.A17)(WSJ, 10/30/01, p.A21) 1745 nend Georges Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, suggested that another body such as a giant comet had hit the sun, knocking from it the spinning gas and matter that became the planets. (DD-EVTT, p.100) 1745 nend The Habeas Corpus Suspension Act 1745 was an Act of Parliament of the Parliament of Great Britain passed in 1745, and formally repealed in 1867. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habeas_Corpus_Suspension_Act_1745) 1745 nend In France the renowned Champagne house of Moët & Chandon was established in the city of Epernay. (SFEC,12/28/97, p.A12) 1745 nend During the Jacobite uprising some prisoners captured by the Jacobites were kept at Doune Castle, Scotland. These included John Witherspoon, who later moved to the American colonies, became president of Princeton, a delegate to the Continental Congress and a signer of the American Declaration of Independence. (SSFC, 11/23/03, p.C6) 1745 1796 Anthony Wayne, American General in the Revolutionary War, also known as Mad Anthony Wayne. [The HFA says he attacked Stony Point in 1799] (HFA, '96, p.34)(AHD, 1971, p.1450) 1745 nend c1806 Kim Hong-do, Korean artist, created genre paintings. (WSJ, 8/10/98, p.A12) 1745 1829 John Jay, US statesman and jurist. He served as the governor of New York and was the first chief justice of the US Supreme Court (1789-1795). (WUD, 1994, p.764)(WSJ, 8/7/98, p.W13) 1745 1833 Hannah More, English religious writer: "The world does not require so much to be informed as reminded." "Obstacles are those frightful things you see when you take your eyes off the goal." (AP, 4/28/97)(AP, 9/9/97) 1746 nend Jan 8, Bonnie Prince Charlie's troops occupied Stirling. [see Jan 19] (MC, 1/8/02) 1746 nend Jan 17, Charles Edward Stuart, the young pretender, defeated the government forces at the battle of Falkirk in Scotland. (HN, 1/17/99) 1746 nend Jan 19, Bonnie Prince Charlie's troops occupied Stirling. [see Jan 8] (MC, 1/19/02) 1746 nend Jan 24, Gustav III, king during Swedish Enlightenment (1771-92), was born. (MC, 1/24/02) 1746 nend Feb 20, Bonnie Prince Charlie occupied the Castle of Inverness. [see Mar 3] (MC, 2/20/02) 1746 nend Feb 27, Gian Francesco Fortunati, composer, was born. (MC, 2/27/02) 1746 nend Mar 3, Bonnie Prince Charlie occupied the Castle of Inverness. [see Feb 20] (SC, 3/3/02) 1746 nend Mar 5, Jacobin troops left Aberdeen, Scotland. (MC, 3/5/02) 1746 nend Mar 8, Cumberland's troops occupied Aberdeen, Scotland. (MC, 3/8/02) 1746 nend Mar 27, Carlo Bonaparte, Corsican attorney, father of emperor Napoleon, was born. (MC, 3/27/02) 1746 nend Apr 16, Bonnie Prince Charles was defeated at the battle of Culloden, the last pitched battle fought in Britain. King George II won the battle of Culloden. Bonnie Prince Charlie used English rifleman and virtually annihilated the sword-wielding, rebellious, Highlander clans of Scotland at Culloden. It was the last major land battle fought on British soil. The Battle of Culloden was a crushing defeat for Bonnie Prince Charlie and the Highlander clans that backed him. (PCh, 1992, p.297)(SFC, 6/25/95, p.T-7)(SFC, 12/4/96,p.B1)(SFEC,12/797, p.T4)(HN, 4/16/99) 1746 nend Jul 28, Thomas Heyward, soldier, signed Declaration of Independence, was born. (SC, 7/28/02) 1746 nend Jul 28, John Peter Zenger, journalist involved in 1st amendment fight, died. (SC, 7/28/02) 1746 nend Jun 29, Bonnie Prince Charlie fled in disguise to Isle of Skye. (PC, 1992, p.297) 1746 nend Sep 20, Bonnie Prince Charlie fled to France from Scotland. [see Oct 1] (MC, 9/20/01) 1746 nend Sep 21, A French expeditionary army occupied Labourdonnais. Colonial governor Joseph Francois Dupleix occupied Madras. (PCh, 1992, p.298)(MC, 9/21/01) 1746 nend Oct 1, Bonnie Prince Charlie fled to France. [see Sep 20] (MC, 10/1/01) 1746 nend Oct 7, William Billings, hymn composer (Rose of Sharon), was born in Boston, Mass. (HN, 10/7/00)(MC, 10/7/01) 1746 nend Oct 22, Princeton University in New Jersey received its charter as the College of New Jersey. The Univ. later established a reputation for its spring ritual of sophomores running naked at midnight after the first snowfall. (SFEC, 3/22/98, p.A23)(AP, 10/22/08) 1746 nend Oct 28, The Peruvian cities of Lima and Callao were demolished by an earthquake. 18,000 died. (MC, 10/28/01) 1746 nend Tadeusz Kosciusko (d1817), Polish patriot and general in the American Revolutionary army, was born in Lithuania. [see Feb 4, 1747] (WUD, 1994 p.794) 1746 nend Francisco Jose de Goya y Lucientes (d.1828), Spanish painter, was born. (WSJ, 11/3/95, p.A-12)(WSJ, 4/16/99, p.W2) 1746 nend Tiepolo painted his "Saint Catherine of Siena." (WSJ, 1/23/97, p.A12) 1746 nend Parisian book publisher Andre Francois Le Breton hired Denis Diderot (32) to work on a project called the Encyclopedie. The plan was to produce a French translation of Ephraim Chamber?s 1728 Cyclopedia. In 1747 he named Diderot co-editor with Jean D?Alembert. (ON, 4/05, p.8)(WSJ, 6/29/05, p.D8) 1746 nend The American Presbyterian College of New Jersey was founded. (HNQ, 7/6/99) 1746 nend The first lectures on electricity in the American colonies were given by John Winthrop IV at Harvard in 1746. Winthrop, born in 1714, was the professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at Harvard. Benjamin Franklin began his experiments in electricity in 1747. (HNQ, 7/8/98) 1746 nend The solitaire of Reunion, a flightless pigeon, was gone by this year. (NH, 11/96, p.24) 1746 nend A consortium of London publishers offered Samuel Johnson (36) a modest sum to compose a dictionary of the English Language. He promised to do the job in 3 years, but didn?t finish the 1st edition until 1755. (WSJ, 10/12/05, p.D13) 1746 nend Nicholas de Largilliere (b.1656), French painter, died. (WSJ, 10/30/03, p.D10) 1746 nend Elisha Nims (26) died from a musket ball at Fort Massachusetts during the French and Indian War. His grave was discovered in 1852 and his last remains were reburied in 2000. (SFC, 11/11/00, p.A13) 1746 nend William, the Duke of Cumberland, led an English military force into Scotland to defeat the rebels there. (SFC, 10/14/00, p.B3) 1746 1818 Gaspard Monge, Comte de Peluse, French mathematician. He served with Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier on the revolutionary commission to devise the metric system. (WUD, 1994, p.924)(NH, 12/98, p.24) 1746 1828 Francisco Jose de Goya y Lucientes, Spanish painter. 128 of his paintings are at the Prado in Madrid, Spain. Among these are: "La Maja Desnuda," "La Maja Vestida," "El Dos de Mayo," "El Tres de Mayo," "The Witches Sabboth," "Saturn eating one of his children," "La Quinta del Sordo" (House of the Deaf Man) murals (1820-1823) that he applied to the walls of his Madrid rooms. Known as El Rapidisimo, he painted more than 600 works. Other works include: "Los Caprichos," "Disasters of War," "Family of Charles IV," "Boys Climbing a Tree," "The Kite," "The Injured Workman," "The Drunken Workman," "The Wedding," "The Duchess of Alba" and "Pinturas Negras." Goya spent his last years in France. (WSJ, 5/20/96, p.A-12)(AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.612)(WSJ, 5/4/99, p.A20) 1747 nend Feb 4, Tadeusz Kosciusko, patriot, American Revolution hero (built West Point), was born in Poland. [see 1746] (MC, 2/4/02) 1747 nend Mar 4, Casimir Pulaski (d.1779), Count, American Revolutionary War General, was born in Poland. Pulaski led troops in some of the bloodiest fighting of the Revolutionary War. (HN, 3/4/98)(SC, 3/4/02) 1747 nend Mar 31, Johann Abraham Peter Schulz, German composer (Moon has Risen), was born. (MC, 3/31/02) 1747 nend Apr 9, Simon Fraser, 12th baron Lovat (Jacobite), became the last man to be officially beheaded in England. (MC, 4/9/02) 1747 nend Jun 19, Alessandro Marcello (77), composer, died. (MC, 6/19/02) 1747 nend Jul 2, Marshall Saxe led the French forces to victory over an Anglo-Dutch force under the Duke of Cumberland at the Battle of Lauffeld. (HN, 7/2/98) 1747 nend Jul 6, John Paul Jones, naval hero of the American Revolution, was born near Kirkcudbright, Scotland. As a US naval commander he invaded England during the American War of Independence. (HN, 7/6/98)(MC, 7/6/02) 1747 nend Jul 9, Giovanni Battista Bononcini (76), Italian opera-composer, died. (MC, 7/9/02) 1747 nend Jul 10, Persian ruler Nadir Shah was assassinated at Fathabad in Persia. The Afghans rise rose again in revolt under the leadership of Ahmad Shah Abdali and retook Kandahar to establish modern Afghanistan. (www.afghan, 5/25/98)(HN, 7/10/98) 1747 nend Jul 30, Antonio Benedetto Maria Puccini, composer, was born. (MC, 7/30/02) 1747 nend Sep 16, The French captured Bergen-op-Zoom, consolidating their occupation of Austrian Flanders in the Netherlands. (HN, 9/16/98) 1747 nend Dec 9, England and Netherlands signed a military treaty. (MC, 12/9/01) 1747 nend Mark Catesby, English naturalist, used his 220 watercolors for etchings in his work on the flora and fauna of North America. The paintings were purchased by George III in 1768 and preserved in the Royal Library. In 1997 they were reproduced in the book: "Mark Catesby?s Natural History of America: Watercolors from the Royal Library, Windsor Castle" by Henrietta McBurney. (NH, 6/97, p.12) 1747 nend Thomas Gray wrote: "Where ignorance is bliss, tis folly to be wise." (SFC, 4/22/00, p.E3) 1747 nend Samuel Foote, an out of work actor, established himself as the first stand-up comedian. (SFC, 4/22/00, p.E3) 1747 nend A Scottish chemist found out that beets contained sugar. (SFC, 4/22/00, p.E3) 1747 nend Nadir Shah (head of Persia) was assassinated, and the Afghans rose once again. Afghans, under the leadership of Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durrani) retook Kandahar, and established modern Afghanistan. (NG, 10/1993, p. 66)(www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1747 nend Ahmad Shah Abdali (d.1773) consolidated and enlarged Afghanistan. He defeated the Moghuls in the west of the Indus, and he took Herat away from the Persians. Ahmad Shah Durrani's empire extended from Central Asia to Delhi, from Kashmir to the Arabian sea. It became the greatest Muslim empire in the second half of the 18th century. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1747 nend In Britain a tax was imposed on carriages. (SFC, 4/22/00, p.E3) 1747 nend Parisian book publisher Andre Francois Le Breton, producer of the Encyclopedie, named Denis Diderot co-editor with Jean D?Alembert. In 2005 Philipp Blom authored ?Enlightening the World,? an account of the project. (WSJ, 6/29/05, p.D8) c 1747 nend In Germany man-made dykes were built in the Oderbruch region north of Frankfurt an der Oder around land that was drained and cleared for farming. The dykes faced disaster in 1997 during heavy July rains. (SFC, 7/26/97, p.A12) 1747 nend Carlo Bergonzi, the last of the great Cremonese violin makers, died. (Econ, 7/30/05, p.78) 1747 nend The Iglesia de Nuestra Senora de la Paz was built in Todos Santos on the southern Baja peninsula. (SSFC, 11/4/01, p.T12) 1747 1830 Madame Dorothee Deluzy, French actress: "We believe at once in evil, we only believe in good upon reflection. Is this not sad?" (AP, 9/21/00) 1747 1838 Lorenzo Da Ponte, wrote the libretto for Mozart?s Don Giovanni. (V.D.-H.K.p.232) 1747 1773 Rule of Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durrani). Ahmad Shah consolidated and enlarged Afghanistan. He defeated the Moghuls in the west of the Indus, and he takes Herat away from the Persians. Ahmad Shah Durrani's empire extended from Central Asia to Delhi, from Kashmir to the Arabian sea. It became the greatest Muslim empire in the second half of the 18th century. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1748 nend Feb 5, Christian Gottlob Neefe, German composer, conductor, tutor of Beethoven, was born. (MC, 2/5/02) 1748 nend Feb 15, Jeremy Bentham (d.1832), philosopher, originator (Utilitarian), was born in London, England. (www.britannica.com) 1748 nend Mar 10, John Playfair, clergyman, geologist, mathematician, was born in Scotland. (MC, 3/10/02) 1748 nend Mar 19, English Naturalization Act was passed granting Jews right to colonize US. (MC, 3/19/02) 1748 nend Apr 1, The ruins of Pompeii were found. The city of Pompeii, buried in 79AD, was discovered. (SFEC, 4/12/98, p.T3)(OTD) 1748 nend Apr 12, William Kent, English sculptor, architect (Kensington Palace), died. (MC, 4/12/02) 1748 nend Apr 28, Lorenz Justinian Ott, composer, was born. (MC, 4/28/02) 1748 nend Jun 28, A riot followed a public execution in Amsterdam and over 200 were killed. (MC, 6/28/02) 1748 nend Aug 15, United Lutheran Church of US was organized. (MC, 8/15/02) 1748 nend Aug 30, Jacques-Louis David (d.1825), Neo-classical painter (Death of Marat), was born. He painted "Madame Hamelin." He also painted a portrait of Napoleon crossing the St. Bernard Pass on a rearing horse. Jean Ingres began his career as a pupil of David. (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.369)(WSJ, 5/19/97, p.A16)(WSJ, 5/28/99,p.W12)(MC, 8/30/01) 1748 nend Sep 24, Philipp Meissner, composer, was born. (MC, 9/24/01) 1748 nend Oct 18, The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle brought the war of Austrian Succession, which began in 1840, to an end and upheld the Pragmatic Sanction. (HNQ, 7/29/99)(MC, 10/18/01) 1748 nend Nov 1, Christoph Rheineck, composer, was born. (MC, 11/1/01) 1748 nend Robert Feke, American painter, created his portrait of "Mrs. Charles Apthorp." (SFC, 2/28/01, p.E3) 1748 nend Samuel Richardson wrote his novel "Clarissa." In 1976 Robin Holloway composed a 2-act opera based on the novel that was premiered in 1990 by the English National Opera. (SFEC, 12/6/98, DB p.35) 1748 nend British Commodore George Anson published an account of his trip to China. (WSJ, 9/4/98, p.W12) 1748 nend Handel composed his oratorio "Solomon." (SFEC, 9/6/98, DB p.11) 1748 nend Lord Fairfax, Virginia land owner, commissioned a survey of the Patterson Creek Manor, which later became part of West Virginia. The surveyor was accompanied by the nephew of Lord Fairfax and the nephew?s best friend, George Washington (16). The survey was unusually erroneous. (WSJ, 4/21/06, p.R8) 1748 nend In Denmark the Royal Theater was inaugurated. (SFEC, 11/1/98, p.T3) 1748 nend Henri Francois d?Aguesseau, chancellor of France, granted an official license for the new Encyclopedie following a presentation by Denis Diderot. (ON, 4/05, p.8) 1748 nend French police started a file on Voltaire (1694-1778). (www.online-literature.com/voltaire/) 1748 nend The city of Pompeii, buried in 79AD, was discovered. (SFEC, 4/12/98, p.T3) 1748 1758 Santa Prisca church in Taxco, Mexico, was built by the wealthy miner Jose de la Borda. It has twin towers of pink stone and an adjacent tiled dome. (SFEC, 11/10/96, p.T6) 1748 1813 Alexander Fraser Tytler. He wrote "The Decline and Fall of the Athenian Republic." He stated that democracy collapses when voters begin selecting candidates who promise the most financial benefits. (SFEC, 10/25/98, p.D6) 1748 1828 Henry Livingston, poet. He is alleged to have written "A Visit from St. Nicholas" better known as "The Night Before Christmas." [see 12/23/1823] (AH, 4/01, p.12) 1748 1979 In Chile the Cathedral of Santiago was built. The current structure replaced three earlier ones destroyed by fires or earthquakes. (SFEC, 10/27/96, p.T8) 1749 nend Jan 16, Vittorio Alfieri (d.1803), Italian dramatist and tragic poet famous for Cleopatra and Parigi Shastigliata, was born. "Often the test of courage is not to die but to live." (HN, 1/16/99) 1749 nend Jan 19, Isaiah Thomas, US printer, editor, publisher, historian, was born. (MC, 1/19/02) 1749 nend Feb 7, Andre Cardinal Destouches (76), composer, died. (MC, 2/7/02) 1749 nend Feb 8, Jan van Huysum (66), Dutch still life painter, died. (MC, 2/8/02) 1749 nend Feb 28, The 1st edition of "The History of Tom Jones: A foundling" was published. Henry Fielding (1707-1754) wrote the book and a film based on the novel was made in 1963. A TV production premiered in 1998. (SFEM, 11/24/96, p.59)(SFC, 4/2/98, p.E1)(MC, 2/28/02)(ON, 9/03, p.9) 1749 nend Mar 23, Hugo Franz Karl Alexander von Kerpen, composer, was born. (SS, 3/23/02) 1749 nend Mar 23, Pierre-Simon Laplace (d.1827), French mathematician, astronomer, physicist, was born. (WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace) 1749 nend Mar, Jean Godin, French geographer, left Quito, part of the Viceroyalty of Peru (later Ecuador), in an attempt to reach France to settle his family estate. He traveled by an eastern route across South America and became stranded in French Guiana for over 20 years. In 2004 Robert Whitaker authored ?The Mapmaker?s Wife: A True Tale of Love, Murder, and Survival in the Amazon.? It was an account of Jean Godin (d.1792), French mapmaker, and his wife, Isabel Godin. They managed to reunite in 1770. (Econ, 5/15/04, p.81)(ON, 5/05, p.4) 1749 nend May 19, George II granted a charter to the Ohio Company to settle Ohio Valley. (DT internet 5/19/97) 1749 nend May 17, Edward Jenner, physician, discoverer of vaccination, was born. (HN, 5/17/98) 1749 nend Jun 19, Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois, French revolutionary (Committee of Public Safety), was born. (MC, 6/19/02) 1749 nend Jul 20, Earl of Chesterfield said: "Idleness is only refuge of weak minds." (MC, 7/20/02) 1749 nend Jul 24, Denis Diderot was arrested in Paris during a government crackdown on writers and publishers of subversive books. He was released Nov 3 to continued his work on the Encyclopedie. (ON, 4/05, p.8) 1749 nend Aug 28, German author Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (d.1832), "the master spirit of the German people," was born at Frankfurt am Main. Scientist, philosopher, novelist, and critic as well as lyric, dramatic, and epic poet, he was the leading figure of his age after Napoleon. He had early pretensions in the visual arts and was an avid draftsman into old age. He is best known for "Faust." : "True excellence is rarely found, even more rarely is it cherished." (V.D.-H.K.p.239)(AP, 8/28/97)(WSJ, 7/16/98, p.A16)(HN, 8/28/98) (AP,9/4/98) 1749 nend Sep 10, Emilie du Chatelet (b.1706), writer and mathematician, died from an infection that followed a pregnancy. Her work included a translation of Newton?s Principia from Latin to French. She met Voltaire in 1733 and they soon began living together. In 1957 Nancy Mitford authored ?Voltaire in Love.? In 2006 David Bodanis authored ?Passionate Minds: The Great Enlightenment Love Affair? and Judith P. Zinsser authored ?La Dame d?Esprit.? (www.math.wichita.edu/history/women/chatelet.html)(WSJ, 12/9/06, p.P12) 1749 nend Oct 26, The Georgia Colony reversed itself and ruled slavery to be legal. (MC, 10/26/01) 1749 nend Nov 2, The English Ohio Trade Company formed its 1st trade post. (MC, 11/2/01) 1749 nend Nov 23, Edward Rutledge, (Gov-SC), attorney and signer of Declaration of Independence, was born. (MC, 11/23/01) 1749 nend Nov 27, Balthasar Schmid (44), composer, died. (MC, 11/27/01) 1749 nend Nov 27, Gottfried Heinrich Stolzel (59), composer, died. (MC, 11/27/01) 1749 nend Giovanni Battista Piranesi began his painting "The Gothic Arch.? (WSJ, 4/28/00, p.W8) 1749 nend King George commissioned Handel?s "Music for the Royal Fireworks" to highlight the end of the War of the Austrian Succession. (WSJ, 6/25/97, p.A20) 1749 nend Rameau?s composition "Zoroastre," a lyric tragedy, was first performed in Paris. It did not do well and the composer reworked it with his librettist, Louis de Cahusac, for a Les Arts performance in 1756. (WSJ, 4/13/98, p.A20) 1749 nend Henry Fielding, novelist and magistrate, commissioned a half dozen constables known as the Bow Street Runners. The runners vanished in 1829 with the creation of the Metropolitan Police, who established their headquarters at Scotland Yard. (SFC, 7/14/06, p.A2) 1749 1803 Vittorio Alfieri, Italian dramatist. "Often the test of courage is not to die but to live." (AP, 3/27/01) 1750 nend Mar 5, The 1st American Shakespearean production, was an "altered" Richard III in NYC. (MC, 3/5/02) 1750 nend Mar 16, Caroline Lucretia Herschel, 1st woman astronomer, was born in Hanover, Germany. (MC, 3/16/02) 1750 nend May 20, Stephen Girard, rescued U.S. bonds during War of 1812, actor, was born. (HN, 5/20/98) 1750 nend Mar 23, Johannes Matthias Sperger, composer, was born. (SS, 3/23/02) 1750 nend May 23, Carlo Goldoni's "Il Bugiardo," premiered in Mantua. (MC, 5/23/02) 1750 nend May 29, Giuseppe Porsile (70), composer, died. (SC, 5/29/02) 1750 nend Jun 15, Marguerite De Launay, Baronne Staal, French writer, died. (HT, 6/15/00) 1750 nend Jul 28, Philippe Fabre d'Eglantine, poet, satirist, politician, was born in France. (SC, 7/28/02) 1750 nend Jul 28, Composer Johann Sebastian Bach (65) died in Leipzig, Germany. In 2000 Christoff Wolff authored the biography "Johann Sebastian Bach." In 2005 James Gaines authored ?Evening in the Palace of Reasoning,? a portrait of Bach in 1747. (AP, 7/28/00)(WSJ, 8/2/00, p.A12)(SC, 7/28/02)(WSJ, 3/1/08, p.W8) 1750 nend Aug 18, Antonio Salieri (d.1825), Italian composer (Tatare), was born. (WSJ, 1/14/04, p.D10)(MC, 8/18/02) 1750 nend Aug 24, Laetitia Bonaparte-Ramolino, mother of Napoleon, was born. (MC, 8/24/02) 1750 nend Sep 5, A decree issued in Paderborn, Prussia, allowed for annual search of all Jewish homes for stolen or "doubtful" goods. (MC, 9/5/01) 1750 nend Sep 14, Carl T. Pachelbel (b.1690), German-born US organist and composer, died. He was the younger brother of Johann Pachelbel. (www.iwchorale.org/Charles_Theodore_Pachelbel.htm) 1750 nend Oct 5, Carlo Goldoni's "Il Teatro Comica," premiered in Venice. (MC, 10/5/01) 1750 nend Oct 23, Nicolas Appert, the inventor of canning, was born. [see Oct 23, 1752] (HN, 10/23/00) 1750 nend Nov 1, Giuseppe Sammartini (55), composer, died. (MC, 11/1/01) 1750 nend Nov 23, Giuseppe Sammartini (55), composer, died. (MC, 11/23/01) 1750 nend Nov 27, Anton Thadaus Johann Nepomuk Stamitz, composer, was born. (MC, 11/27/01) 1750 nend Dec 17, Deborah Sampson, was born. She fought in the American Revolution as a man under the alias Robert Shurtleff. In 1797 she authored a memoir. In 2004 Alfred F. Young authored "Masquerade: The Life and Times of Deborah Sampson, Continental Soldier. (MC, 12/17/01)(SSFC, 4/11/04, p.M4) 1750 nend By this year slavery was legal in all of the 13 colonies of America. (SFC, 12/18/96, p.A25) c 1750 nend In Early America, sack, caraco, and mantua referred to styles of colonial dresses. The sack had a square-cut neckline and long trains hanging from the shoulders. A caraco was a middle-length gown that flared over panniers, which were hoops used to add fullness at the sides of a woman's skirt. A mantua was a loose-fitting gown that was folded back around the hips and tied at the waist. (HNQ, 2/3/99) 1750 nend Teedyuscung, a Lenape Indian, joined the Christian mission of Gnadenhutten, founded by Swiss Moravian settlers in the Lehigh Valley town of Bethlehem. (ON, 1/03, p.6) 1750 nend Benjamin Franklin sent up a kite during a thunderstorm and established that lightning is a form of electricity. (V.D.-H.K.p.269) 1750 nend Thomas Wright, English astronomer, put forward the idea that the appearance of the Milky Way is evidence that the stars near the solar system are arranged in a flat, disk-like structure. (galacticos means milky in Greek). (JST-TMC,1983, p.7) 1750 nend The Jesuits at the Univ. of Graz in Austria assumed a leading role in the reception of the work of Isaac Newton. (StuAus, April '95, p.53) 1750 nend A Welshman opened the first modern shoe factory in Lynn, Mass. (WSJ, 4/25/00, p.A24) 1750 nend The US population was about 18 million people. (NOHY, 3/1990, p.222) 1750 nend The disparity in per capita income between the richest and poorest countries of the world was about 5 to 1. Between Western Europe and India it was about 1.5 to 1. By 1998 the ratio was about 400 to 1. (SFEC, 3/22/98, BR p.8) 1750 nend The Ais Indians of Florida were wiped out. In 2004 a site on Hutchinson Island, inhabited by the Ais, revealed 2 thousand year old burials. (Arch, 1/05, p.13) c 1750 nend The Blackfeet Indians were among the last Native American tribes to acquire horses. (SFC, 9/2/96, p.A3) c 1750 nend A caldera erupted in the middle of Mono Lake, California. (SFC, 8/20/01, p.A6) c 1750 nend In China's northeastern Hebei province large wooden figures were built in Puning Temple following a military victory. A 50-foot Buddhist boy and dragon princess were built to guard the deity Avalokitesvara. (SSFC, 11/9/03, p.C7) 1750 nend By this year Vienna, England, Italy and France all began producing porcelain. (Hem, 6/96, p.112) 1750 nend Germany returned the island of Aero, which measures 22 by 6 miles, to Denmark. (SSFC, 7/29/07, p.G3) 1750 nend The Mexican border town of Guerrero was founded. It became Guerrero Viejo in 1953 after a new dam and flood covered the old town and residents moved to the new Guerrero Nuevo. (SFC, 6/4/98, p.C16) 1750 nend Acre, a former stronghold of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, was re-built by the Ottoman Turks around this time, effectively preserving the earlier town, which had been destroyed in 1291 and hidden for centuries under rubble. (AP, 6/22/11)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Acre_%281291%29) 1750 nend The Spanish treasure ship La Galga sank. It was later believed that the wild ponies of Chincoteague Island off the coast of Virginia came from this ship. (USAT, 5/7/98, p.9A)(WSJ, 7/17/98, p.A1) 1750 nend Khurasan [was renamed] Afghanistan. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1750 nend The first African slaves arrived in Montevideo, Uruguay. They brought along what was later recognized as Candombe music. (SFC, 8/17/00, p.A18) 1750 1753 The Wilton mansion on the James River in Virginia was built to house William Randolph III, his wife Anne Carter Harrison and their 8 children. It was later moved and reconstructed in West Richmond as the headquarters of the National Society of The Colonial Dames of America. (SFC, 10/17/98, p.A8) 1750 1799 Ho-Shen rose to power in China as the confidante to Emperor Kao-tsung. He served as a customs superintendent and pocketed a fortune by prolonging military campaigns and pocketing sums allocated to the military. He was arrested when the emperor died and died in prison. (WSJ, 1/11/98, p.R10) 1750 1831 Stephen Girard, French born American banker and philanthropist. He arrived in Philadelphia as a shipper and opened a grocery. His secret trade with the British made him a small fortune which he used to open a bank in 1812. He helped finance the War of 1812 for a 10% commission. He left most of his $7.5 million estate to a school for orphaned boys. (WSJ, 1/2/97, p.6)(WSJ, 1/11/98, p.R10) c 1750 1880 s In Scotland this was the period of the Clearances. The peasants were swept aside to allow clan chiefs to raise sheep on clan lands until protests on the isle of Skye led to legal reform for the Highlands. (SFEC, 6/29/97, p.T9) 1751 nend Feb 16, Thomas Gray's poem "Elegy Written in a Country Church Yard" was 1st published. (MC, 2/16/02) 1751 nend Feb 25, The 1st performing monkey exhibited in America was in NYC. (MC, 2/25/02) 1751 nend Mar 16, James Madison (d.1836), Jefferson?s successor as secretary of state and fourth president of the United States (1809-17), was born in Port Conway, Va. He invented the 1787 electoral college system "to break the tyranny of the majority." "If men were angels, no government would be necessary." Pierce Butler of South Carolina first proposed the electoral college system. [see 1787] (V.D.-H.K.p.222)(SFEC, 11/24/96, Z1 p.2)(AP, 3/16/97)(AP,10/27/97)(HN, 3/16/98)(SFC, 11/9/00, p.A14)(WSJ, 11/9/00, p.A26) 1751 nend Apr 3, Jean-Baptiste Lamoyne, composer, was born. (MC, 4/3/02) 1751 nend May 11, The 1st US hospital was founded in Pennsylvania. [see Feb 11, 1752] (MC, 5/11/02) 1751 nend Jul 28, In France the 1st volume of the Encyclopedie, edited by Diderot and D?Alembert, was published with a print run of 1,625. (ON, 4/05, p.8) 1751 nend Jul 30, Maria A. [Nannerl] Mozart, Austrian pianist, Wolfgang's sister, was born. (MC, 7/30/02) 1751 nend Aug 24, Thomas Colley was executed in England for drowning a supposed witch. (MC, 8/24/02) 1751 nend Aug 30, Georg Friedrich Handel completed his last oratorio "Jephtha." (LGC-HCS, p.41)(MC, 8/30/01) 1751 nend Aug 31, English troops under sir Robert Clive occupied Arcot India. (MC, 8/31/01) 1751 nend Sep 1, Emmanuel Johann Joseph Schikaneder, actor, librettist (The Magic Flute), was born. (MC, 9/1/02) 1751 nend Sep 13, Henry Kobell, Dutch painter and cartoonist, was born. (MC, 9/13/01) 1751 nend Sep 28, George Washington (19), accompanied his sick older half-brother Lawrence to Barbados. Lawrence had been advised that the island?s climate might help restore his ill health. The brothers left Virginia on September 28 and arrived at Bridgetown, Barbados, November 3. George, who survived the smallpox while in Barbados, left Lawrence on December 21 and arrived back in Virginia on January 28, 1752. (HNQ, 12/16/99) 1751 nend Oct 30 Richard Brinsley Sheridan (d.1816), Irish-born statesman and dramatist, spent most of life in England. His plays included "The School for Scandal" with Georgiana Cavendish as Lady Teazle, "The Rivals" and "the Critic." He also wrote the comic opera "The Duenna." In 1998 Fintan O?Toole wrote the biography "A Traitor?s Kiss: The Life of Richard Brinsley." (SFEC, 11/1/98, BR p.4)(WSJ, 1/7/00, p.W4)(HN, 10/30/00) 1751 nend Dec 23, France set plans to tax clergymen. (MC, 12/23/01) 1751 nend William Hogarth made his print series "The Four Stages of Cruelty." It illustrated that indulgence in vice caused corruption and cruelty. (SFC, 1/28/98, p.E1) 1751 nend Pietro Longhi painted ?Exhibition of a Rhinocerous at Venice.? It depicted Clara, a touring Indian rhinoceros owned by Dutch sea captain Douwemout Van der Meer. (SSFC, 3/27/05, p.E1) 1751 nend Benjamin Franklin published ?Experiments and Observations on Electricity? in England. (AH, 2/06, p.42) 1751 nend Voltaire published "Micromegas" in which he mentioned "aliens from outer space." This is believed to be the first mention of such aliens in literature. (SFEC, 1/25/98, Z1 p.8) 1751 nend Handel lost his sight. (LGC-HCS, p.37) 1751 nend The Liu clan built its ancestral hall called Liu Man Shek Tong in Hong Kong. (Hem., Dec. '95, p.160) 1751 nend In England Henry Pelham?s Whig government created the 3% consol. It paid 3% and consolidated the terms on a variety of previous issues with no maturity date. (Econ, 12/24/05, p.105) 1751 nend In Mexico on the Baha Peninsula the mission of St. Gertrude the Great was initiated and called "La Piedad" by Father Fernando Consag. (WSJ, 12/26/97, p.A9) 1752 nend Jan 1, Betsy Ross (Elizabeth Griscom Ross), flag maker who contributed to the design of the American flag, was born. (HN, 1/1/99)(MC, 1/1/02) 1752 nend Jan 23, Muzio Clementi, Italian composer, was born. (MC, 1/23/02) 1752 nend Feb 7, Publication, sale and distribution of the 1st 2 volumes of the Encyclopedie were summarily forbidden by order of King Louis XV. Chretien de Malesherbes, the French director of publications, managed to broker a compromise that included a layer of censorship and a 3rd volume was published by the end of 1753. (ON, 4/05, p.9) 1752 nend Feb 11, Pennsylvania Hospital, the 1st hospital in the US, opened. (MC, 2/11/02) 1752 nend Mar 13, Josef Reicha, composer, was born. (MC, 3/13/02) 1752 nend Mar 22, Johann Georg Joseph Spangler, composer, was born. (MC, 3/22/02) 1752 nend Mar 23, Pope Stephen II was elected to succeed Zacharias. He died 2 days later. (MC, 3/23/02) 1752 nend March 25 marked the first issue of the Halifax Gazette. (CFA, '96, p.42) 1752 nend Apr 4, Niccolo Antonio Zingarelli, composer (Andromeda), was born. (MC, 4/4/02) 1752 nend May 4, Pieter Snyers (71), Flemish painter, engraver, died. (MC, 5/4/02) 1752 nend May 10, Benjamin Franklin 1st tested his lightning rod. [see Jun 15] (MC, 5/10/02) 1752 nend May 11, The 1st US fire insurance policy issued in Philadelphia. (MC, 5/11/02) 1752 nend Jun 10, Benjamin Franklin's kite was struck by lightning as he flew it during a thunderstorm [see May 10, Jun 15]. (SFC, 6/10/09, p.D8) 1752 nend Jun 13, Fanny Burney, English writer, was born. (HN, 6/13/01) 1752 nend Jun 15, Benjamin Franklin and his son tested the relationship between electricity and lightning by flying a kite in a thunder storm. [see May 10] (HN, 6/15/01) 1752 nend Jul 7, Joseph Marie Jacquard, inventor of the first loom that could weave patterns, was born. (HN, 7/7/98) 1752 nend Jul 20, John C. Pepusch (85), English composer (Beggar's Opera), died. (MC, 7/20/02) 1752 nend Sep 1, The Liberty Bell arrived in Philadelphia. (MC, 9/1/02) 1752 nend Sep 3, The Gregorian Adjustment to the calendar was put into effect in Great Britain and the American colonies followed. At this point in time 11 days needed to be accounted for and Sept. 2 was selected to be followed by Sept. 14. People rioted thinking the government stole 11 days of their lives. [see Oct 5, 1582] (K.I.-365D, p.97)(SFEC, 9/27/98, BR p.5)(MC, 9/3/01) 1752 nend Sep 18, Adrien-Marie Lagendre, mathematician, worked on elliptic integrals, was born. (MC, 9/18/01) 1752 nend Oct 18, The opera "Le Devin du Village" by Jean-Jacques Rousseau premiered. (MC, 10/18/01) 1752 nend Oct 23, Nicolas Appert, inventor (food canning, bouillon tablet), was born. [see Oct 23, 1750] (MC, 10/23/01) 1752 nend Nov 3, Georg Friedrich Handel underwent eye surgery to remove a cataract by William Bromfield, Surgeon to the Princess of Wales, to restore his sight. The operation was only a short-term success. (http://gfhandel.org/) 1752 nend Nov 19, George Rogers Clark, frontier military leader in Revolutionary War, was born. (MC, 11/19/01) 1752 nend Nov 20, Thomas Chatterton (d.1770), English poet (Christabel), was born. His early death marked him as the "prototype of the fragile poet withered by the hostility of philistines." (WSJ, 1/15/98, p.A17)(MC, 11/20/01) 1752 nend Gouverneur Morris (d.1816), chief writer of the US Constitution (1787), was born in NY. Morrisania, the family manor, stretched for 1,900 acres from the Harlem River to Long Island Sound in what later became the Bronx. (WSJ, 5/28/03, p.D8) 1752 nend George Berkeley (1685-1753), Irish bishop and philosopher, wrote a poem that included the line "Westward the course of empire takes its way." The line later inspired the founders of Berkeley, Ca., to name their city and university after Berkeley. (SFEC, 4/18/99, Z1 p.2) 1752 nend In the summer of this year Benjamin Franklin installed the world?s 1st lightning rods at the Pennsylvania State House. (WSJ, 8/15/05, p.D8) 1752 nend The first Mission at the town of Loreto on the Baha Peninsula was completed. Father George Retz moved north from Mission St. Ignatius, where he had studied the Cochimi language, and formally established "La Piedad" as the mission of St. Gertrude the Great. (SFEC, 5/18/97, p.T5)(WSJ, 12/26/97, p.A9) 1752 nend James Ayscough advertised his invention of spectacles with double-hinged side pieces. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R21) 1752 nend In Russia Abram Petrovich Gannibal became a Major-General and was appointed in charge of all military engineering. (www.shaebia.org/wwwboard/contributedarticles/messages/58.html) 1752 1840 Fanny Burney, English writer. Her books included "Evelina." In 1911 she underwent a mastectomy without anesthesia. In 2001 Claire Harman authored the biography: "Fanny Burney." (SSFC, 12/23/01, p.M5) 1753 nend May 8, Miguel Hidalgo y Castilla, the father of Mexican independence, was born. (HN, 5/8/98)(MC, 5/8/02) 1753 nend Mar 9, Jean-Baptiste Kleber, French general, architect, was born. (MC, 3/9/02) 1753 nend Mar 17, The 1st official St Patrick's Day was celebrated. (MC, 3/17/02) 1753 nend Mar 25, Voltaire left the court of Frederik II of Prussia. (MC, 3/25/02) 1753 nend Mar 26, Benjamin Thompson (d.1814), Count Rumford, English physicist and diplomat, was born. He was a Tory spy in the American Revolution and discovered that heat equaled motion, which led to the 2nd law of thermodynamics. (WUD, 1994, p.1477)(WSJ, 7/28/98, p.A16)(SS, 3/26/02) 1753 nend Apr 5, British Museum formed. It opened in 1759. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R53)(MC, 4/5/02) 1753 nend Apr 28, Franz K. Achard, German physicist, was born. (MC, 4/28/02) 1753 nend May 6, French King Louis XV observed a transit of Mercury at Mendon Castle. (MC, 5/6/02) 1753 nend May 9, King Louis XV disbanded the French parliament. (MC, 5/9/02) 1753 nend May 29, Joseph Haydn?s "Krumme Teufel" premiered. (SC, 5/29/02) 1753 nend May 31, Pierre V. Vergniaud, French politician, Girondin orator (guillotined in 1793), was born. (MC, 5/31/02) 1753 nend Jun 7, Britain's King George II gave his assent to an Act of Parliament establishing the British Museum [see Apr 5]. (AP, 6/7/04) 1753 nend Jul 4, Jean-Pierre-Francois Blanchard (d.1809), French balloonist, was born. He made the 1st balloon flights in England and US. (www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/AVblanchard.htm) 1753 nend Jul 7, English parliament granted Jews English citizenship. (MC, 7/7/02) 1753 nend Jul 26, Georg Richmann (b.1711), German physicist, died of electrocution in St. Petersburg, Russia. Reportedly, ball lightning traveled along the apparatus and was the cause of his death. He was apparently the first person in history to die while conducting electrical experiments. (Econ, 3/29/08,p.104)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Richmann) 1753 nend Aug 3, Charles Earl Stanhope, radical politician, scientist, was born in England. (SC, 8/3/02) 1753 nend Aug 4, George Washington became a master mason. (MC, 8/4/02) 1753 nend Aug 10, Edmund Jennings Randolph, governor of Virginia and first U.S. attorney general, was born. (HN, 8/10/00) 1753 nend Aug 12, Thomas Bewick (d.1828), artist (British Birds, Aesop's Fables) was born in England. (http://www.nndb.com/people/067/000094782/) 1753 nend Aug 19, [Johann] Balthasar Neumann (66), German architect, died. (MC, 8/19/02) 1753 nend Sep 9, The 1st steam engine arrived in US colonies. (MC, 9/9/01) 1753 nend Oct 12, Sir Danvers Osborn (b.1715), British colonial governor of New York, hanged himself 5 days after arriving in NYC. His wife had recently died and the New York assembly refused to support him in the style he felt his rank deserved. (Econ, 1/12/08, p.75)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danvers_Osborn) 1753 nend Oct, Robert Dinwiddie, governor of Virginia, called a meeting to discuss the eviction of British settlers from homesteads west of the Appalachian Mountains by French soldiers from Canada. Major George Washington volunteered to deliver a letter of trespass to French authorities in the Ohio Valley. (ON, 9/05, p.1) 1753 nend Nov 30, Johann Baptist Schenk, composer, was born. (MC, 11/30/01) 1753 nend Nov 30, Benjamin Franklin received Godfrey Copley Penny ("A penny saved...!"). (MC, 11/30/01) 1753 nend Dec 3, Samuel Crompton, English inventor (mule-jenny spinning machine), was born. (MC, 12/3/01) 1753 nend Dec 12, George Washington, the adjutant of Virginia, delivered an ultimatum to the French forces at Fort Le Boeuf, south of Lake Erie, reiterating Britain?s claim to the entire Ohio river valley. Washington (22) was sent by Gov. Robert Dinwiddie to warn the French soldiers that they were trespassing on English territory. (HN, 12/12/98)(WSJ, 2/10/00, p.A16) 1753 nend Dec 14, French Captain Jacques Le Gardeur rejected the pretensions of the English to ownership of the Ohio Valley, but promised to forward Virginia Gov. Dinwiddie?s letter of trespass to his superiors in Canada. (ON, 9/05, p.2) 1753 nend Benjamin Franklin use the pages of his Poor Richard?s Almanac to make a case for using lightning rods atop tall structures making storms less dangerous. (WSJ, 8/15/05, p.D8) 1753 nend In the Virginia Piedmont Boswell?s Tavern was built and for some 150 years served horseback riders flagons of spirit through a barred window. The ride-up window thus predates the drive-in window. (SFEC, 1/25/98, Z1 p.8) 1753 nend The observation by Dr. James Lind, British naval surgeon, that fresh fruits and vegetables could cure scurvy marked the beginning of nutritional epidemiology. He conducted tests that showed the beneficial effects of lemons and oranges in treating the disease. (MT, Fall ?96, p.4)(ON, 4/01, p.8) 1753 nend Smallpox hit North America and a 38% infection rate was recorded in Boston. Benjamin Franklin lobbied for variolation. (NW, 10/14/02, p.47) 1753 nend In Sweden Linnaeus (1707-1778), father of systematics, authored ?Species Plantarum,? a compilation of some 6,000 plants from around the world. (NH, 4/1/04, p.39) 1753 nend Peter Kalm, Swedish-born naturalist, published the first of his 3 volumes of ?Travels in North America,? which described his 1748-1751 trip there. It was Linnaeus and the Swedish Royal Academy that had sent Kalm to America. Kalm later spent much of his life as a professor at Turku, Finland. In 2007 Paula Ivaska Robbins authored ?The Travels of Peter Kalm. (WSJ, 11/17/07, p.W11) 1754 nend Jan 3, Joseph Black, a medical student at the Univ. of Edinburgh, rediscovered carbon dioxide after pouring acid into a tall glass containing some chalk Black had read Helmont?s memoirs and so knew of gas sylvestris. A candle near the glass was snuffed out due to the outpouring of carbon dioxide. He also found that carbon dioxide will precipitate out of limewater when exposed to a strong source of carbon dioxide gas. Black later attained a professorship and had James Watt, engine-builder, as one of his first assistants. (NOHY, 3/90, p.5,42) 1754 nend Jan 4, Columbia University was founded as Kings College in NYC. [see July 7] (MC, 1/4/02) 1754 nend Jan 6, Major George Washington, while returning to Virginia, encountered a party of English settlers and militiamen at Will?s Creek sent by Gov. Dinwiddie to establish a fort and trading post at the Forks of the Ohio. (ON, 9/05, p.2) 1754 nend Feb 2, Charles Maurice de Tallyrand-Perigord (d.1838), minister of foreign affairs for Napoleon I, was born. He represented France brilliantly at the Congress of Vienna. (WUD, 1994, p.1450)(HN, 2/2/99) 1754 nend Feb 13, Charles-Maurice duke of Talleyrand-Perigord, French bishop, Napoleon's Foreign Minister, statesman (1815), was born. (MC, 2/13/02) 1754 nend Apr 2, A small expeditionary force of 159 men under Lt. Col. George Washington arrived at Will?s Creek and learned that the French had taken over the new Fort Prince George at the Forks of the Ohio from British soldiers and frontiersmen and renamed it Fort Duquesne. (ON, 9/05, p.2) 1754 nend Apr, Teedyuscung, a Lenape Indian, joined the Iraquois Indians in the Wyoming Valley along the banks of the Susquehanna River. (ON, 1/03, p.6) 1754 nend May 9, The first American newspaper cartoon was published. The illustration in Benjamin Franklin's Pennsylvania Gazette showed a snake cut into sections, each part representing an American colony; the caption read, "Join or die." (AP, 5/9/97)(HN, 5/9/98) 1754 nend May 12, Franz Anton Hoffmeister, composer, was born. (MC, 5/12/02) 1754 nend May 28, Col. George Washington led a 40-man detachment that defeated French and Indian forces in a skirmish near Great Meadows, Pa. (ON, 9/05, p.3) 1754 nend Jun 19, The Albany Congress opened. New York colonial Gov. George Clinton called for the meeting to discuss better relations with Indian tribes and common defensive measures against the French. The attendees included Indians and representatives from Connecticut, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, Pennsylvania and Rhode Island. Benjamin Franklin attended and presented his Plan of Union, which was adopted by the conference. The meeting ended on July 11. (AH, 2/06, p.45)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albany_Congress) 1754 nend Jul 3, George Washington surrendered the small, circular Fort Necessity (later Pittsburgh) in southwestern Pennsylvania to the French, leaving them in control of the Ohio Valley. This marked the beginning of the French and Indian War also called the 7 Years' War. In 2005 Fred Anderson authored ?The War That Made America: A Short History of the French and Indian War.? (HN, 7/13/98)(Arch, 1/05, p.46)(WSJ, 12/14/05, p.D15) 1754 nend Jul 7, King's College in New York City opened. The school was renamed Columbia College 30 years later. [see Jan 4] (AP, 7/7/97) 1754 nend Jul 11, Thomas Bowdler, the famous prude who bowdlerized Shakespeare, was born. (PGA, 12/9/98) 1754 nend Aug 2, Pierre Charles L'Enfant, French engineer who designed the layout of Washington, D.C. (1791), was born. (HN, 8/2/98) 1754 nend Aug 23, Louis XVI (d.1793), King of France (1774-1793), was born at Versailles. During the French Revolution he met his fate at the guillotine. He was the grandson of Louis XV and married Marie Antoinette. (AP, 8/23/97)(HN, 8/23/98) 1754 nend Sep 9, William Bligh, legendary captain of HMS Bounty, was born. [see Sep 10] (MC, 9/9/01) 1754 nend Sep 10, William Bligh, was born. He was the British naval officer who was the victim of two mutinies, the most famous on the HMS Bounty which was taken over by Fletcher Christian in 1789. [see Sep 9] (HN, 9/10/98) 1754 nend Oct 8, Henry Fielding (b.1707), English lawyer and author, died at 47. He wrote "Tom Jones" in 1749. A film based on the novel was made in 1963. A TV production premiered in 1998. (SFEM, 11/24/96, p.59)(SFC, 4/2/98, p.E1)(MC, 10/8/01) 1754 nend Oct 13, American Revolutionary War heroine Molly Pitcher was born. During the American Revolution, at the Battle of Monmouth, NJ, Molly helped out as a water carrier, gaining her nickname, Molly Pitcher. Her husband, John, was wounded during the battle and Molly dropped the water pitcher, taking up her husband's job of loading and firing a cannon. General George Washington appointed her a noncommissioned officer. [see Jun 28, 1778] (MC, 10/13/01) 1754 nend Nov 29, The Gnadenhutten mission, Pa., was attacked by renegade Lenape Indians and 11 white people were killed. (ON, 1/03, p.7) 1754 nend Dec, Lt. Col. George Washington resigned his commission. (ON, 9/05, p.5) 1754 nend Joseph Goupy caricatured Handel as a fat pig playing the keyboard in his drawing: "The Charming Brute." For this Handel struck Goupy from his will. (LGC-HCS, p.41) 1754 nend Under instructions from Governor Dinwiddie, of Virginia, Col. Jas. Innes established a fort at Wills Creek (Maryland). (www.rootsweb.com/~mdallegh/cumberla.htm) 1754 nend Thomas Chippendale published the first English book on furniture designs. He was also an upholsterer and a cabinetmaker. (SFC,12/17/97, Z1 p.16) 1754 nend The Royal Society of Arts was established in Britain. Its mission statement was: ?the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, in Great Britain, by bestowing Rewards, from Time to Time, for such Productions, Inventions, or Improvements, as shall tend to the Employing of the Poor, to the Increase of Trade, and to the Riches and Honour of this Kingdom, by the Promoting Industry and Emulation.? (www.adelphicharter.org/RSA_and_Intellectual_Property.asp) 1754 nend Thomas Mudge (1715-1794), English horologist, invented the lever escapement, which became used in watches ever since. (Econ, 11/19/11,p.p.106)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Mudge_%28horologist%29) 1754 nend The Carouge area of Geneva was ceded to the Kingdom of Sardinia. (SSFC, 1/7/01, p.T8) 1754 1757 Osman III succeeded Mahmud I in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii) 1754 1824 Joseph Joubert, French moralist. "Kindness consists in loving people more than they deserve." "To be capable of respect is today almost as rare as to be worthy of it." (AP, 3/22/97)(AP, 1/22/99) 1755 nend Jan 12, Tsarina Elisabeth established the 1st Russian University. (MC, 1/12/02) 1755 nend Feb 20, General Edward Braddock arrived from Great Britain to assume command of British forces in America and to lead the Virginia troops against the French and Indians in the Ohio Valley. (PCh, 1992, p.303) 1755 nend Mar 12, The 1st steam engine in America was installed to pump water from a mine. (MC, 3/12/02) 1755 nend Mar 14, Pierre-Louis Couperin, composer, was born. (MC, 3/14/02) 1755 nend Mar 24, Rufus King, framer of the U.S. Constitution, was born. (HN, 3/24/98) 1755 nend Apr 1, Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, French lawyer (Fisiologia del Gusto), was born. (MC, 4/1/02) 1755 nend Apr 10, Samuel Hahnemann, German physician, was born. (MC, 4/10/02) 1755 nend Apr 11, James Parkinson, English physician, was born. (HN, 4/11/01) 1755 nend Apr 15, Dr. Samuel Johnson, English writer, published his ?Dictionary of the English Language,? a selective English dictionary, after 9 years of work. The 1st edition had 42,773 entries. In 2005 Henry Hitchings authored ?Defining the World,? an account of Johnson?s work. (WSJ, 9/14/98, p.A30)(HN, 4/15/01)(WSJ, 10/12/05, p.D13) 1755 nend Jun 6, Nathan Hale(1776), American patriot who said "My only regret is that I have but one life to give for my country," was born. He was hanged by the British as a spy during the American Revolution (CFA, '96, p.48)(WUD, 1994, p.637)(HN, 6/6/98) 1755 nend Jun 14, In England the first edition of Dr. Johnson's "Dictionary" was published. (WSJ, 9/14/98, p.A30)(MC, 6/14/02) 1755 nend Jun 16, British captured Fort Beausejour and expelled the Acadians. The Accadians of Nova Scotia were uprooted by an English governor and forced to leave. Some 10,000 people moved to destinations like Maine and Louisiana. Some moved to Iles-de-la-Madeleine off Quebec. The Longfellow story "Evangeline" is based on this displacement. (SFEC, 8/22/99, p.T8,9)(SSFC, 6/2/02, p.C7)(MC, 6/16/02) 1755 nend Jun 30, Philippines closed all non-Catholic Chinese restaurants. (MC, 6/30/02) 1755 nend Jul 5, Sarah Siddons (d.1831), actress, was born at the Leg of Mutton Inn in Wales. She rose to fame as a protégée of Richard Brinsley Sheridan at the Drury Lane Theater and gained fame playing Lady Macbeth in Macbeth. (HN, 7/5/98)(WSJ, 7/27/99, p.A21) 1755 nend Jul 6, John Flaxman, the English sculptor who designed much of Wedgwood's original pottery, was born. (MC, 7/6/02) 1755 nend Jul 8, Britain broke off diplomatic relations with France as their disputes in the New World intensified. (HN, 7/8/98) 1755 nend Jul 9, General Edward Braddock was mortally wounded when French and Indian troops ambushed his force of British regulars and colonial militia, which was on its way to attack France's Fort Duquesne (Pittsburgh). Gen. Braddock's troops were decimated at Fort Duquesne, where he refused to accept George Washington's advice on frontier style fighting. British Gen'l. Braddock gave his bloody sash to George Washington at Fort Necessity just before he died on Jul 13. (A & IP, ESM, p.11)(HN, 7/9/98)(WSJ, 1/5/98, p.A20) 1755 nend Jul 13, Edward Braddock (60), British general, died following the July 9, 1755 battle at Fort Duquesne (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania). Out of the 1,400 British soldiers who were in involved in the battle, 900 of them died. Future President George Washington carried Braddock from the field and officiated at his burial ceremony. The general was buried in a road his men had built. The army then marched over the grave to obliterate any traces of it and continued to eastern Pennsylvania. After the French and Indian War (1754-1763), the Braddock Road remained a main road. In 1804, some workmen discovered human remains in the road near where Braddock was supposed to have been buried. The remains were re-interred on a small knoll adjacent to the road. In 1913 the marker was placed there. Braddock was born in Perthshire, Scotland, about 1695, the son of Major-General Edward Braddock (died 1725). (www.nps.gov/fone/braddock.htm) 1755 nend Aug 23, Jean Baptiste Lislet-Geoffroy, French geographer, was born. (HN, 8/23/98) 1755 nend Sep 8, British forces under William Johnson and 250 Indians defeated the French and their allied Indians at the Battle of Lake George, NY. (HN, 9/8/98)(SSFC, 4/23/06, p.G6) 1755 nend Sep 13, Bertrand Barere, French Revolutionist, was born in Tarbes. (MC, 9/13/01) 1755 nend Sep 18, Ft. Ticonderoga opened in NY. (MC, 9/18/01) 1755 nend Sep 24, John Marshall, fourth chief justice of the Supreme Court (1801-35), and U.S. secretary of state, was born. (HN, 9/24/98)(MC, 9/24/01) 1755 nend Sep 30, Francesco Durante, composer, died at 71. (MC, 9/30/01) 1755 nend Oct 24, A British expedition against the French held Fort Niagara in Canada ended in failure. (HN, 10/24/98) 1755 nend Nov 1, An 8.7 earthquake hit Lisbon, Portugal, and killed some 70,000 people. Heavy damage resulted from ensuing fires and tsunami flooding in Morocco and nearly a quarter of a million people were killed. In 2008 Nicholas Shrady authored ?The Last Day: Wrath, Ruin and Reason in the Great Lisbon Earthquake.? (HN, 11/1/98)(http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eqlists/eqsmosde.html)(Econ,4/5/08, p.86) 1755 nend Nov 2, Marie Antoinette (d.1793), Queen of France, was born. She was the daughter of Maria Theresa and Francis I; and wife of Louis XVI in 1770 and thus Queen of France. She was arrested by the Revolutionary Tribunal and beheaded on Oct. 15, 1793. (CFA, '96, p.58)(HN, 11/2/98) 1755 nend Nov 12, Gerhard JD von Scharnhorst, Prussian military minister of War (1807-10), was born. (MC, 11/12/01) 1755 nend Nov 17, Louis XVIII, 1st post-revolutionary king of France (1814-24), was born. (HN, 11/17/98)(MC, 11/17/01) 1755 nend Nov 18, The Cape Ann (Boston) earthquake, estimated at 6.0-6.5, hit the east coast from the Chesapeake Bay to Nova Scotia. (http://geology.about.com/library/bl/blboston1755eq.htm) 1755 nend Dec 3, Gilbert Stewart, portrait painter, was born. (HN, 12/3/00) 1755 nend Dec 31, Teedyuscung, a Lenape Indian, led 30 Lenape Indians on a raid against English plantations along the Delaware River. Over the next few days his band killed 7 men and took 5 prisoners. (ON, 1/03, p.6) 1755 nend William Russell Birch (d.1834), artist, was born in Warwickshire. He settled in Philadelphia with his son in 1794 and in 1800 published 28 drawn and engraved hand-colored images of Philadelphia. (SFC, 5/18/02, p.E6) 1755 nend Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote his "Discourse on the Origin of Inequality," in which he denounced private property as the root of all evil. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1755 nend Benjamin Franklin, a patriot of the American Revolution, served as a colonel of the Pennsylvania militia in the French and Indian War. Benjamin Franklin, at forty-nine, had already lived through two wars between the French and the English and their colonists. His face was puffy and smooth from gout, his once-powerful swimmer?s body overweight and rounded into a barrel shape. In recent years Benjamin had emerged as the pivot of power in Pennsylvania. His highly successful publishing business, coupled with his profitable post as deputy postmaster general for the six northern colonies, afforded him leisure time for scientific experiments as well as political activities. (HNQ, 8/6/01) 1755 nend The ?last specimen? of a dodo bird, a stuffed but rotted relic, was burned at the Ashmoleum Museum at Oxford, England. Fortunately, someone removed the head and the foot of the specimen and saved them. In 1996 by David Quammen authored The Song of the Dodo: Island Biogeography in an Age of Extinctions. In 2003 Clara Pinto-Correia authored ?Return of the Crazy Bird.? The London Museum of natural History later displayed a mounted specimen of Raphus cucullatus. no_source 1755 nend Watanabe Shiko (b.1683), Japanese painter based in Kyoto, died. (SFC, 12/8/05, p.E12) 1755 nend The annual 12-day Bergkirchweih beer festival began in Erlangen, Germany. (SSFC, 4/30/06, p.G7) 1755 nend Arthur Guinness began brewing a dark-brown stout in the town of Leixlip, Ireland. (WSJ, 9/12/08, p.B7) 1755 nend In Mexico the Holy Inquisition began using the dungeon at the fortress of San Juan de Ulua in Vera Cruz. (SFEC, 5/17/98, p.T12) 1755 1758 The French and Indian Wars began in the US. (A & IP, ESM, p.11) 1755 1828 Gilbert Stuart, American painter. He painted over 70 portraits of George Washington. (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.1410)(WSJ, 2/4/00, p.W12) 1755 1831 Hannah Adams was the first American woman to make a living as a writer. Her work included "A Summary History of New England." (SFEC, 8/27/00, Z1 p.2) 1755 1835 Louis Zara (d.2001 at 91) covered this period of the Eastern Mississippi Valley in his 1940 historical novel "This Land Is Ours." (SFC, 10/24/01, p.C6) 1756 nend Jan 27, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (d.1791) was born on Gertreiderstrasse in Salzburg, Austria, the son of violinist and composer Leopold Mozart. He later played string quartets with Johan Baptist Vanhal, Haydn and Dittersdorf. The young Mozart began composing minuets at age 5 and, with his older sister Marianne, gave concerts in Munich and Vienna from age 6. At 13, Mozart became director of concerts for the archbishop of Salzburg and in 1782 he married Constanze Weber against her father's wishes. Although Mozart gave piano concerts throughout Europe and composed more than 600 works, including 40 symphonies, he and his wife were plagued by debt. When Mozart died in 1791, probably of heart disease, he was buried in an unmarked pauper's grave. It was not until his works were published, in many cases near the end of the 19th century, that Mozart's genius became widely recognized. His works included "The Marriage of Figaro" and "The Magic Flute." In 2005 Stanley Sadie authored ?Mozart: The Early Years,? which chronicled Mozart?s life to age 25. (SFEC, 9/8/96, Par p.11)(HNPD, 1/26/99)(HN, 1/27/99)(WSJ, 12/8/05, p.D8) 1756 nend Feb 6, America's third vice president, Aaron Burr, was born in Newark, N.J. (AP, 2/6/97)(HN, 2/6/99) 1756 nend Feb 7, In Brazil the Indian Chief Sepe Tiaraju was killed at the hands of Portuguese and Spanish soldiers. (AP, 2/7/06) 1756 nend Mar 3, William Godwin (d.1836), English philosopher, novelist, essayist, political writer (Caleb Williams), was born. He was the husband of Mary Wollstonecraft. Wordsworth as a young man was a follower of the radical philosopher Godwin. (WUD, 1994, p.606)(WSJ, 6/23/98, p.A18)(SC, 3/3/02) 1756 nend Mar 17, St. Patrick's Day was 1st celebrated in NYC at Crown & Thistle Tavern. (MC, 3/17/02) 1756 nend Apr 13, Johann T. Gottlieb Goldberg (29), German klavecinist, composer, died. (MC, 4/13/02) 1756 nend Apr 14, Gov. Glen of South Carolina protested against 900 Acadia Indians. (MC, 4/14/02) 1756 nend Apr 15, Jacques Cassini (b.1677), French astronomer and cartographer, died. (http://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/cassini_jac.html) 1756 nend May 17, After a year and a half of undeclared war Britain declared war on France, beginning the French and Indian War. England hoped to conquer Canada. The final defeat of the French came in 1763 with the British victory at the Battle of Quebec on the Plains of Abraham. (HN, 5/17/98)(HNPD, 9/13/98)(http://tinyurl.com/afbze) 1756 nend Jun 4, Quakers left the assembly of Pennsylvania. (MC, 6/4/02) 1756 nend Jun 6, John Trumball, American painter, was born. (HN, 6/6/01) 1756 nend Jun 20, In India rebels defeated the British army at Calcutta. British soldiers were imprisoned in a suffocating cell that gained notoriety as the "Black Hole of Calcutta." Most of them died. The exact circumstances of this incident, such as the number of prisoners, originally put at 146, are disputed. (HN, 6/20/98)(AP, 6/20/07) 1756 nend Aug 14, French commander Louis Montcalm took Fort Oswego, New England, from the British. (HN, 8/14/98) 1756 nend Aug 31, The British at Fort William Henry, New England, surrendered to Louis Montcalm of France. (HN, 8/31/98) 1756 nend Sep 21, John Loudon McAdam, engineer who invented and gave his name to macadamized roads, was born. (HN, 9/21/98) 1756 nend Nov 4, Anthony van Hoboken, Rotterdam merchant-ship owner, was born. (MC, 11/4/01) 1756 nend Nov 12, Teedyuscung, a Lenape Indian, spoke with Gov. Denny at Easton, Pa., to discuss grievances. (ON, 1/03, p.6) 1756 nend Dec 6, British troops under Robert Clive occupied Fulta, India. (MC, 12/6/01) 1756 nend German-speaking Moravians founded the town of Lititz, 35 miles southeast of Harrisburg, Pa. Non-Moravians were not allowed to live there until 1855. (SSFC, 4/13/03, p.D6) 1756 nend At the outbreak of the war that was to settle the issue of control of North America between Britain and France, French colonists numbered only 55,000, the British colonists numbered about 1 million, and the Native Americans from coast to coast numbered about 600,000. (WSJ, 5/16/96, p.A-12) 1756 nend The British government gave money to the London Foundling Hospital on condition that it accept all children under two months old, with no questions asked. Many unwanted babies soon began to arrive and some three-quarters of the 15,000 babies that reached the hospital died before the government ended its support in 1760. (Econ, 10/17/09, p.99) 1756 nend Fussier French Sevres porcelain, under the patronage of King Louis XV, gained the upper hand in porcelain production over Meissen. Its trademark pictured cobalt-blue crossed swords. (WSJ, 8/28/98, p.W10) 1756 nend In Queretaro, Mexico, a palatial home was built and later converted into the hotel Casa de la Marquesa. (SSFC, 1/27/08, p.E5) 1756 nend Riedel Glass was founded in Bohemia. (WSJ, 11/18/99, p.A24) 1756 1763 The Seven Years War. France and Great Britain clashed both in Europe and in North America. In 2000 "Crucible of War" by Fred Anderson was published. France, Russia, Austria, Saxony, Sweden and Spain stood against Britain, Prussia and Hanover. Britain financed Prussia to block France in Europe while her manpower was occupied in America. (V.D.-H.K.p.223)(SFC, 7/7/96, BR p.7)(WSJ, 2/10/00, p.A16) 1756 1789 Johann Friedrich Doles, Bach?s pupil and successor as cantor at St. Thomas in Leipzig, continued to perform Bach?s music at the services. (LGC-HCS, p.32) 1756 1815 The great war or series of wars that broke out between England and France. (V.D.-H.K.p.228) 1756 1818 Henry Lee, American governor. On the death of George Washington: "To the memory of the Man, first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." (AP, 12/14/99) 1757 nend Jan 2, British troops occupied Calcutta, India. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Clive,_1st_Baron_Clive) 1757 nend Jan 4, Robert Francois Damiens made an unsuccessful attempt to assassinate King Louis XV of France. (HN, 1/4/01) 1757 nend Jan 11, Alexander Hamilton, first U.S. Secretary of Treasury, was born on St. Croix. After showing remarkable promise in finance, the young Hamilton was sent by a benefactor to King?s College in New York. In 1776, Hamilton joined the Continental Army, where he soon joined George Washington?s staff. After the war, Hamilton became active in New York politics, gaining a reputation as a supporter of a strong central government. In the struggle for the ratification of the Constitution, Hamilton collaborated with James Madison and John Jay in writing the Federalist Papers, which were instrumental in the passage of the Constitution. In 1789, newly elected President George Washington named Hamilton secretary of the treasury. During his tenure, Hamilton established the National Bank, introduced an excise tax, suppressed the Whiskey Rebellion and spearheaded the effort for the federal government to assume the debts of the states. In the presidential election of 1800, Hamilton broke the deadlock between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr by supporting Jefferson. The enmity between Hamilton and his longtime political enemy Burr grew worse during the 1804 campaign for governor of New York. Finally, on July 11, at Weehawken, N.J., the two men fought a duel. Hamilton was shot and died the next day of his injuries. (WUD, 1994 p.640)(AP, 1/11/98)(HN, 1/11/00)(HNPD, 1/11/00) 1757 nend Jan 16, Samuel McIntire, architect of Salem, Massachusetts, was born. (HN, 1/16/99) 1757 nend Jan 28, Antonio Bartolomeo Bruni, composer, was born. (MC, 1/28/02) 1757 nend Jan 28, Ahmed Shah, the first King of Afghanistan, occupied Delhi and annexed the Punjab. (HN, 1/28/99) 1757 nend Feb 13, John C. Hespe, Dutch journalist, politician, was born. (MC, 2/13/02) 1757 nend Mar 14, John Byng (52), British Admiral, was executed by a firing squad on board HMS Monarch for neglect of duty. Early in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), Byng was called on to relieve a British fort on the Mediterranean island of Minorca which was being attacked by French forces. He was sent with a small, undermanned fleet. Several ship were badly damaged in subsequent skirmishes with the French, prompting Byng to turn back to Gibraltar. The fort was eventually forced to capitulate. He was brought home, court-martialled and executed for breach of Articles of War. In 2007 his descendants sought a posthumous pardon. (HN, 3/14/99)(Reuters, 3/15/07)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Byng) 1757 nend Mar 27, Johann Wenzel Anton Stamitz (39), composer, died. (MC, 3/27/02) 1757 nend Apr 6, English king George II fired minister William Pitt, Sr. (MC, 4/6/02) 1757 nend May 6, Battle at Prague: Frederik II of Prussia beat emperor's army. (MC, 5/6/02) 1757 nend Jun 1, Ignaz J. Pleyel, Austrian composer, piano builder (Piano method), was born. (MC, 6/1/02) no_source 1757 nend Jun 18, Battle at Kolin, Bohemia: Austrian army beat Prussia. (MC, 6/18/02) 1757 nend Jun 19, The Second Coming of Christ occurred, according to the followers of Emanuel Swedenborg (the Church of the New Jerusalem). (DTnet 6/19/97) 1757 nend Jun 22, George Vancouver, surveyed America's Pacific coast from San Francisco to Vancouver, was born. (HN, 6/22/98) 1757 nend Jun 23, Forces of the East India Company led by Robert Clive (1725-1774) defeated Indians at Plassey and won control of Bengal. Lord Clive defeated Siraj-ud-daula, the Nawab of Bengal and exacted a payment of $140 million from Moghul ruler Mir Jafar and a Moghul title of nobility and rights to land around Calcutta. This effectively marked the beginning of British colonial rule in India. Clive served 2 terms as the governor of Bengal. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8)(SSFM, 4/1/01, p.40)(AP, 6/23/07) 1757 nend Jul 23, Giuseppe Domenico Scarlatti (71), Italian composer (La Silvia), died. (MC, 7/23/02) 1757 nend Jul 26, Benjamin Franklin (51) arrived in London and soon established himself at a house on Craven Street, which served as home, except for 2 intervals, for the next 16 years. (Sm, 3/06, p.98) 1757 nend Aug 9, English Ft. William Henry, NY, surrendered to French and Indian troops. (MC, 8/9/02) 1757 nend Sep 3, Charles X, Duke of Prussia, was born in Versailles, France. (MC, 9/3/01) 1757 nend Sep 6, Marie Joseph du Motier, Marquis de LaFayette, French soldier and statesman who aided George Washington during the American Revolution, was born in Auvergne, France. (AP, 9/6/07) 1757 nend Oct 9, Charles X, last Bourbon king of France (1824-30), was born. (MC, 10/9/01) 1757 nend Nov 5, Frederick II of Prussia defeated the French at Rosbach in the Seven Years War. (HN, 11/5/98) 1757 nend Nov 1, Antonio Canova (d.1822), Italian sculptor, was born. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Canova) 1757 nend Nov 22, Austrians defeated Prussians at Breslau in the Seven Years War. (HN, 11/22/98) 1757 nend Nov 28, William Blake (1757-1827), English artist-printer, was born in London. He wrote "Songs of Innocence" and "The Marriage of Heaven and Hell." His last book was "Jerusalem," of which he made only five copies. In 1996 Peter Ackroyd published: "Blake: A Biography." [see 1827] no_source 11 nend /28/98) no_source 1757 nend Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) helped set up America?s first street cleaning service in Philadelphia. (Econ, 2/28/09, SR p.5) 1757 nend Benjamin Franklin sailed for England. He spent almost two decades there as colonial agent, a combination lobbyist, ambassador, and banker, for Pennsylvania and, eventually Georgia, New Jersey and Massachusetts. He lived in London at 36 Craven St. (WSJ, 8/8/95, p. A12)(USAT, 9/22/03, p.16A) 1757 nend The Mission of San Javier was completed in San Javier on the Baha Peninsula. (SFEC, 5/18/97, p.T5) 1757 1774 Mustafa III succeeded Osman III in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii) 1758 nend Jan 2, The French began bombardment of Madras, India. (HN, 1/2/99) 1758 nend Feb 15, The 1st mustard manufactured in America was advertised in Philadelphia. (440 Int?l., 2/15/99)(HCB, 2003, p. 94) 1758 nend Mar 22, Jonathan Edwards (b.1703), US colonial theologian, philosopher (Great Awakening, Original Sin), died in New Jersey following an inoculation for smallpox. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Edwards) 1758 nend Apr 2, Johann Balthasar Konig (67), composer, died. (MC, 4/2/02) 1758 nend Apr 17, Frances Williams, the first African-American to graduate for a college in the western hemisphere, published a collection of Latin poems. (HN, 4/17/99) 1758 nend Apr 28, James Monroe (d.1831), later secretary of state and the fifth president of the United States (1817-1825), was born in Westmoreland County, Va. He created the Monroe Doctrine, warning Europe not to interfere in the Western Hemisphere. (HFA, ?96, p.28)(HNQ, 7/27/99)(HN, 4/28/02) 1758 nend May 6, Maximilien F.M.I. de Robespierre (d.1794), a leader of the French Revolution, was born. He was known as the "Sea-Green Incorruptible" from his sallow complexion. He decreed death for all those he considered enemies of the revolution. (V.D.-H.K.p.231)(HN, 5/6/99)(SSFC, 10/28/01, p.C5) 1758 nend Jun 23, British and Hanoverian armies defeated the French at Krefeld in Germany. (HN, 6/23/98) 1758 nend Jul 8, During the French and Indian War a British attack on Fort Carillon at Ticonderoga, New York, was foiled by the French. Some 3,500 Frenchmen defeated the British army of 15,000, which lost 2,000 men. (HN, 7/8/98)(AH, 10/02, p.27) 1758 nend Jul 24, George Washington was admitted to Virginia House of Burgesses. (MC, 7/24/02) 1758 nend Jul 26, British battle fleet under Gen. James Wolfe captured France's Fortress of Louisbourg on Ile Royale (Capre Breton Island, Nova Scotia) after a 7-week siege, thus gaining control of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River. (HN, 7/26/98)(MC, 7/26/02) 1758 nend Aug 25, The Prussian army defeated the invading Russians at the Battle of Zorndorf. Thousands were killed. (HN, 8/25/98)(chblue.com, 8/25/01) 1758 nend Aug 29, New Jersey Legislature formed the 1st Indian reservation. (MC, 8/29/01) 1758 nend Sep 12, Charles Messier observed the Crab Nebula and began a catalog. (MC, 9/12/01) 1758 nend Sep 18, James Abercromby was replaced as supreme commander of British forces after his defeat by French commander, the Marquis of Montcalm, at Fort Ticonderoga during the French and Indian War. (HN, 9/18/98) 1758 nend Sep 29, Horatio Nelson (d.1805), British naval commander who defeated the French and her allies on numerous occasions during the age of Napoleon, was born in Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk. He was made post-captain at the young age of 21. Nelson died at the moment of his greatest victory at the Battle of Trafalgar. Although a national hero, he displayed common human frailty. His colorful private life, coupled with his genius and daring as a naval commander, seem to make the Nelson story irresistible to every generation. (AP, 9/29/97)(HN, 9/29/98)(HNQ, 6/3/01) 1758 nend Oct 7, Paul Anton Wineberger, composer, was born. (MC, 10/7/01) 1758 nend Oct 10, Jean Pierre Chouteau, French fur trader, early St. Louis settler and "father of Oklahoma" was born in New Orleans. (AP, 10/10/08) 1758 nend Oct 16, Noah Webster (d.1843), US teacher lexicographer and publisher, was born in Hartford, Conn. He wrote the ?American Dictionary of the English Language.? (AHD, 1971, p.1452)(AP, 10/16/08) 1758 nend Nov 25, In the French and Indian War British forces under General John Forbes captured Fort Duquesne (the site of present day Pittsburgh, est. 1754). George Washington participated in the campaign. Forbes renamed the site Fort Pitt after William Pitt the Elder, who directed British military policy in the Seven Years' War of 1756-'63. Before his arrival, the French had burned the fort and retreated. (AP, 11/25/97)(ON, 9/05, p.5)(HNQ, 7/17/98) 1758 nend Dec 5, Johann Friedrich Fasch (70), composer, died. (MC, 12/5/01) 1758 nend Pope Benedict XIV removed the blanket proscription against the works of Copernicus from the Index of Forbidden Books. He left Galileo on the Index because a Pope had participated in the condemnation of Galileo. (WSJ, 10/22/99, p.W15) 1758 nend Pompeo Batoni made his bravura Grand Tour portrait of an English milord. (SFEC, 1/11/98, p.D7) 1758 nend A.Y. Goguet?s "The Origin of Laws, Arts, and Sciences, and their Progress among the Most Ancient Nations" was published in Paris. (RFH-MDHP, 1969, p.13) no_source 1758 nend Benjamin Franklin ordered Newtown Pippin apples delivered to London while he worked there as Commissioner for the Colonies in America. (T&L, 10/1980, p.42) 1758 nend Linnaeus, father of systematics, worked on his wasp specimens. (PacDis, Winter/?96, p.43) c 1758 nend In Taxco, Mexico, the Santa Prisca Cathedral was built in thanks by Don Jose de la Borda, who made his fortune there. (SFEC, 11/8/98, p.T6) 1759 nend Jan 6, George Washington and Martha Dandridge Custis were married. George had 28 slaves and Martha had 109. (AP, 1/6/98)(SFEC, 5/2/99, Z1 p.8) 1759 nend Jan 25, Robert Burns (d.1796), poet and song writer, who wrote "Auld Lang Syne" and "Comin? Thru the Rye," was born in Alloway, Scotland. He took traditional Scottish songs and fiddle tunes, and improved upon existing words, or added verses where they had been lost. "Should auld acquaintance be forgot, and never brought to mind, should auld acquaintance be forgot, and auld lang syne. For old lang syne, my dear, for old lang syne, we'll take a cup of kindness yet, for old lang syne." (EMN, 1/96, p.4,6)(HN, 1/25/99)(SFC, 12/30/99, p.A13)(MC, 1/25/02) 1759 nend Jan 31, Francois Devienne, composer, was born. (MC, 1/31/02) 1759 nend Feb 28, Pope Clement XIII allowed the Bible to be translated into various languages. (MC, 2/28/02) 1759 nend Mar 8, French King Louis XV revoked the license of the Encyclopedie as the 8th volume was about to be printed. (ON, 4/05, p.9) 1759 nend Apr 8, Francois de La Croix (76), composer, died. (MC, 4/8/02) 1759 nend Apr 13, The French defeated European Allies in Battle of Bergen. (HN, 4/13/98) 1759 nend Apr 14, Georg Friedrich Handel (74), German-born composer, died in London. He had composed some 30 oratorios. (LGC-HCS, p.41)(AP, 4/14/97)(SFC, 9/16/97, p.E1) 1759 nend Apr 23, British seized Basse-Terre and Guadeloupe in the Antilies from France. (HN, 4/23/99) 1759 nend Apr 27, Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin (d.1797), English writer, feminist (Female Reader), was born. "The mind will ever be unstable that has only prejudices to rest on, and the current will run with destructive fury when there are no barriers to break its force." (AP, 11/10/97)(MC, 4/27/02) 1759 nend May 1, British fleet occupied Guadeloupe, in the West Indies. [see Apr 23] (MC, 5/1/02) 1759 nend May 8, Hearing of his appointment in the west, General Napoleon Bonaparte left for Paris in order to obtain a different posting. (HN, 5/8/99) 1759 nend May 15, Maria Theresia von Paradis, composer, was born. (MC, 5/15/02) 1759 nend May 20, William Thornton, architect of the U.S. Capitol, actor, was born. (HN, 5/20/98) 1759 nend May 28, William Pitt the Younger, PM of England from 1783-1801 and 1804-1806, was born. He has been considered England's greatest PM. (HN, 5/28/99)(MC, 5/28/02) 1759 nend Jul 23, Russians under Saltikov defeated Prussians at Kay in eastern Germany, and one-fourth of Prussian army of 27,000 was lost. (AP, 7/23/97) 1759 nend Jul 24, Victor Emmanuel I, King of Sardinia (1802-21), was born. (MC, 7/24/02) 1759 nend Jul 25, British forces defeated a French army at Fort Niagara in Canada. During their 7 Years' War. (HN, 7/25/98)(SC, 7/25/02) 1759 nend Jul 26, The French relinquished Fort Carillon in Ticonderoga, New York, to the British under General Jeffrey Amherst. The British changed the name to Fort Ticonderoga. (HN, 7/26/98)(AH, 10/02, p.26) 1759 nend Aug 1, British and Hanoverian armies defeated the French at the Battle of Minden, Germany. The marquis de Lafayette was killed by a British cannonball and his son, Gilbert du Motier (2), inherited the title. In 1777 Lafayette joined the American Continental Army. (HN, 8/1/98)(ON, 2/09, p.1) 1759 nend Aug 18, The French fleet was destroyed by the British under "Old Dreadnought" Boscawen at the battle of Lagos Bay. (HN, 8/18/98) 1759 nend Aug 24, William Wilberforce (d.1833), was born in Hull, Yorkshire, England. He became best known for his efforts relating to the abolition of slavery in the British Empire. (www.nndb.com/people/824/000049677/)(HNQ, 12/6/02) 1759 nend Aug 24, Ewald C. von Kleist (44), German poet, died. (MC, 8/24/02) 1759 nend Sep 3, Pope Clement XIII officially placed the French Encyclopedie on the Vatican?s Index of Prohibited Books. (ON, 4/05, p.9) 1759 nend Sep 13, During the final French and Indian War, the Battle of Quebec [Canada] was fought. British Gen. James Wolfe?s army defeated Commander Louis Joseph de Montcalm?s French forces on the Plains of Abraham overlooking Quebec City. An English fleet of 20 ships led by General James Wolfe landed 3,600 English troops near Quebec in the early hours of the day. The fleet was sent up the St. Lawrence River to take the region from the French. "Measured by the numbers engaged," wrote historian Francis Parkman, the Battle of Quebec "was but a heavy skirmish; measured by results, it was one of the great battles of the world." On this rainy morning the armies of England and France clashed outside the walls of Quebec City and altered the balance of power of an entire continent. The battle on the Plains of Abraham lasted less than half an hour. As French forces withered and an English victory became apparent, Wolfe was shot in the chest, his third wound of the battle. He said to a distraught soldier just before he died, "Do not weep, my dear. In a few minutes I shall be happy." By the time the rain had washed away the blood, Quebec had surrendered to the British. Four years later, the Treaty of Paris gave England sole dominion over most of the land that Quebec City had governed, from Cape Breton Island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Mississippi River. (CFA, '96, p.54)(SFC, 7/7/96, BR p.7)(AP, 9/13/97)(HNQ,9/8/98)(HNPD, 9/19/98) 1759 nend Sep 14, Louis Joseph de Montcalm-Grozon, Marquis de Montcalm (b.1712) and chief of French forces, died at age 47 on the Plains of Abraham in Canada. (www.britannica.com) 1759 nend Sep 18, Quebec surrendered to the British and the Battle of Quebec ended. The French surrendered to the British after their defeat on the Plains of Abraham. (AP, 9/18/97)(HN, 9/18/98) 1759 nend Sep 18, British commander James Wolfe died at the Battle of Quebec. (MC, 9/18/01) 1759 nend Oct 11, Mason Weems, preacher (Episcopalian clergyman), was born. He was a noted seller of books where he would fictionalize history in stories like the one he wrote of George Washington in the book, "Life of Washington". People loved his fictionalized stories and often believed that they were true. One famous story which is not true is the story of Washington chopping down the cherry tree and the famous quote on not telling a lie. (MC, 10/11/01) 1759 nend Oct 20, Marie Jean Herault de Sechelles, French author, politician, French Revolutionary, was born. (MC, 10/20/01) 1759 nend Oct 26, Georges Jacques Danton, French Revolutionary leader, was born. He was an impassioned orator and minister of Justice. He was also the last hope of the moderates during the French Reign of Terror and his execution led directly to the overthrow of Robespierre in 1794. (MC, 10/26/01) 1759 nend Nov 10, Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller (d.1805), playwright, dramatist, historian and poet, was born. "A beautiful soul has no other merit than its own existence." [He was a friend of Goethe.] "Die Weltgeschichte ist das Weltgericht." (The history of the world is the verdict of the world). (WUD, 1994, p.1277)(AP, 8/2/98)(AP, 3/13/99)(HN, 11/10/00) 1759 nend Nov 24, There was a destructive eruption of Vesuvius. (MC, 11/24/01) 1759 nend Soga Shohaku (1730-1781), Japanese artist, created his ?Hanshan and Shide? about this time. (SFC, 1/14/06, p.E1) 1759 nend Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), English lexicographer, authored his novel ?History of Rasselas,? on the elusive nature of happiness. (WSJ, 9/18/08, p.A23) 1759 nend French philosopher Voltaire wrote his novel "Candide." (WUD, 1994, p.216) 1759 nend Economist Adam Smith (1723-1790), Glasgow professor on moral philosophy and pioneering economist, authored "The Theory of Moral Sentiments." (WSJ, 11/13/02,p.D10)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments) 1759 nend Kedleston Hall was begun by Sir Nathaniel Curzon, who moved the entire village of Kedleston, except for the church, a half mile. (NG, Nov. 1985, M. Girouard, p.686) 1759 nend John Smeaton built the Eddystone Lighthouse near Plymouth, England. It was the 3rd one erected at the site over 60 years. (WSJ, 6/27/00, p.A28)(ON, 5/06, p.5) 1759 nend Oliver Goldsmith, English poet, remarked: "As writers become more numerous, it is natural for readers to become more indolent." (NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.44) 1759 nend Dr. Samuel Johnson denounced advertisements as over-exaggerated and false. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1759 nend Elizabeth Petrovna, the daughter of Peter the Great, and Empress of All the Russias, was noted for her beauty. She obtained a good bit of Finland from Sweden, and her forces crushed the Prussians at Kunersdorf in 1759. The opposing (and losing) general was Frederich the Great, who did not lose many. (EHC, 5/12/98) 1759 nend Britain triumphed over France in the naval victory at Quiberon Bay. (WSJ, 3/14/00, p.A28) 1759 nend Josiah Wedgwood opened his first factory in Stoke-on-Trent, central England. It began making bone china in the 19th century. (SFC, 2/22/06, p.G6)(AP, 1/4/09) 1759 nend A group of 9 English merchants launched a new ironworks in Dowlais, Wales, using the regions abundant coal. By 1902 the firm, known as Guest, Keen & Nettlefolds Ltd., was the world's largest producer of nails. By 2004 GKN PLC had become a major auto parts supplier and had a new aerospace division. In 1987 Edgar Jones authored "A History of GKN." Volume 2 was published in 1990. (WSJ, 3/16/04, p.A1,8) 1759 nend France eliminated the public practice of sitting on the stage during theater and opera performances. (SFC, 3/9/07, p.E8) 1759 nend In Ireland Arthur Guinness purchased Mark Rainsford?s Ale Brewery and began producing his own recipe. (SFEC, 7/2/00, p.T8) 1759 1761 Jean-Honore Fragonard painted "The Lost Forfeit or Captured Kiss." (WSJ, 11/19/03, p.D12) 1759 1771 Emiland Gauthey, Burgundy canal engineer, remade Givry, France, over this period. (SSFC, 12/5/04, p.F5) 1759 1788 Charles III ruled as King of Spain. After a plague killed thousands in Alamos, Mexico, Charles III ordered homes to be rebuilt with mutual walls to prevent ramshackle structures by squatters. (WUD, 1994, p.249) 1759 1840 Pierre-Joseph Redoute, Flemish-born painter. He was one of the most celebrated flower painters and worked under the patronage of Empress Josephine Bonaparte. His 169 stipple engravings "Les Rose" were made in Paris between 1817-1824. (2000 Taschen Calendar) 1760 nend Jan 20, Charles III, King of Spain, was born. (HN, 1/20/99) 1760 nend Feb 14, Richard Allen (d.1831), 1st black ordained by a Methodist-Episcopal church, was born in Philadelphia. (HN, 2/14/98) 1760 nend Feb 16, Cherokee Indians held hostage at Fort St. George, SC, were killed in revenge for Indian attacks on frontier settlements. (HN, 2/16/99)(MC, 2/16/02) 1760 nend Mar 20, The great fire of Boston destroyed 349 buildings. (HN, 3/20/98) 1760 nend Apr 6, Charlotte Charke (b.1713), actress and writer, died. In 2005 Kathryn Shevelow authored ?Charlotte: Being a True Account of an Actress?s Flamboyant Adventures in Eighteenth-Century London?s Wild and Wicked Theatrical World.? (SSFC, 4/3/05, p.F3)(http://tinyurl.com/5jnfh) 1760 nend Apr 16, In England Laurence, 4th Earl Ferrers, was executed for the murder of his steward. [see May 5] (MC, 4/16/02) 1760 nend Apr 28, French forces besieging Quebec defeated the British in the second battle on the Plains of Abraham. (HN, 4/28/98) 1760 nend May 5, The fourth Earl Ferrers was driven from the Tower of London to be hanged as a felon, the last English nobleman to be executed this way. [see Apr 16] (HN, 5/5/99) 1760 nend May 10, Claude-Joseph Rouget de Lisle, soldier, author, composer ("La Marseillaise"), was born. (MC, 5/10/02) 1760 nend Jun 23, Austrians defeated the Prussians at Landshut, Germany. (HN, 6/23/98) 1760 nend Jul 31, Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick, foiled last French threat at Warburg and drove the French army back to Rhine River. (HN, 7/31/98) 1760 nend Aug 7, Ft. Loudon, Tennessee, surrendered to Cherokee Indians. (MC, 8/7/02) 1760 nend Aug 15, Frederick II (1712-1786), king of Prussia from 1740-1786, defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Liegnitz. (HN, 8/15/98) 1760 nend Sep 8, The French surrendered the city of Montreal to British Gen. Jeffrey Amherst. [see Sep 18, 1759] (HN, 9/8/98)(MC, 9/8/01) 1760 nend Sep 14, Luigi Cherubini (d.1842), Italian-born prodigy and French composer, was born. (www.britannica.com) 1760 nend Oct 9, Austrian and Russian troops entered Berlin and began burning structures and looting. (HN, 10/9/98) 1760 nend Oct 21, Katsushika Hokusai (d.1849), Japanese printmaker, was born. Hokusai was a master designer of color woodblock prints. His paintings included 36 views of Mt. Fuji done when he was 70. (SFC, 9/24/98, p.E3)(WSJ, 11/3/98, p.A20)(Econ, 6/4/11, p.54) 1760 nend Oct 23, The 1st Jewish prayer books were printed in US. (MC, 10/23/01) 1760 nend Oct 25, George II (August), king of Great-Britain (1727-60), died at 76. (MC, 10/25/01) 1760 nend Oct 25, King George III of Britain was crowned. He succeeded his late grandfather, George II and ruled until 1820. With the rule of George III the civil list (government officers, judges, ambassadors and royal staff) was paid by the Parliament in return for the king's surrender of the hereditary revenues of the crown. (AHD, 1971, p.552)(AP, 10/25/97)(HN, 10/25/01) 1760 nend Nov 3, Following the Russian capture of Berlin, Frederick II of Prussia defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Torgau (Germany). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Torgau) 1760 nend Nov 9, Henri-Philippe Gerard, composer, was born. (MC, 11/9/01) 1760 nend Nov 23, Gracchus Babeuf, French agrarian agitator, politician and writer, was born. (MC, 11/23/01) 1760 nend Nov 29, Major Roger Rogers took possession of Detroit on behalf of Britain. French commandant Belotre surrendered Detroit. (HN, 11/29/98)(MC, 12/29/01) 1760 nend Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788), English artist, painted a portrait of Ann Ford playing a musical instrument with her legs crossed. (WSJ, 12/19/02, p.D10) 1760 nend Juan Ruiz of Mexico painted "Christ Consoled by Angels." (WSJ, 3/3/98, p.A16) 1760 nend The book "The Life and Adventures of a Cat" was published and featured a cat named Tom, from whence all male cats began to be called Tom. Prior to this a male cat was called a ram. (SFEC, 1/11/98, Z1 p.8) 1760 nend The Church of San Tomas in the village of Las Trampas was built. It has thick square towers and heavy walls and is one of the 6 adobe missions scattered along the western shoulder of the Sangre de Cristo mountains between Taos and Santa Fe, New Mexico. (SFC, 5/12/96, p.T-5) 1760 nend The English settled in Maine following their victory in the French and Indian War. (SFC, 7/21/96, p.T6) 1760 nend A Belgian created roller skates by replacing the blades of ice skates with wheels. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1760 nend Lancelot "Capability" Brown, English garden designer, landscaped the grounds of Longleat estate, Wiltshire, England. (NG, Nov. 1985, M. Girouard, p.685) 1760 nend The British government ended its support for the London Foundling Hospital. (Econ, 10/17/09, p.99) 1760 nend In Canada a treaty was made with the Mi'kmaq Indians. It was later interpreted to support fishing for profit rights in their traditional 4 Atlantic provinces. (WSJ, 12/6/99, p.A27) 1760 nend Giovanni Battista Torre started a Paris shop selling books and prints. The shop was best know for its fireworks displays. In 1775 Torre?s son Anthony along with Paul Peter Colnaghi moved to London and established themselves as sellers and publishers of prints. In 2010 ?Colnaghi: the History? was published as part of a 250 year anniversary celebration. (Econ, 6/19/10, p.87) 1760 nend s George Stubbs created a painting of a thoroughbred horse. In 2003 it was sold at auction for $3.15 million. (AP, 7/10/03) 1760 nend s Louis XV and Madame de Pompadour built the La Petit Trianon at Versailles as a retreat. She died before it was finished. Louis XVI later gave it to Marie Antoinette. (SFEC, 8/9/98, p.26) 1760 nend s-1770s John Cadwalader, Revolutionary War General, commissioned dozens of furniture pieces from the finest craftsmen in Pennsylvania. He had married Elizabeth Lloyd, the wealthiest woman in colonial America. (WSJ, 9/24/99, p.W9) 1760 1820 George III ruled over Great Britain and Ireland. [see 1738-1820, George III] (AHD, 1971, p.552) 1760 1830 The Industrial Revolution largely occurred in Britain. Realizing the economic advantages, Britain did not allow the export of any machinery, methods or skilled men that might blunt its technological edge. Eventually, the lure of new opportunities convinced continental entrepreneurs and British businessmen to evade England?s official edict. Englishmen William and John Cockerill brought the Industrial Revolution to continental Europe around 1807 by developing machine shops in Liege, Belgium, transforming the country?s coal, iron and textile industries much as it had done in Britain. (HNQ, 5/16/01) 1761 nend Feb 3, Richard Nash (b.1674), the ?Master of Ceremonies? for Bath, England, died. Celebrated author, Oliver Goldsmith wrote ?The Life of Richard Nash? in 1762. In 2005 John Eglin authored ?The Imaginary Autocrat: Beau Nash and the Invention of Bath.? (Econ, 6/18/05, p.81)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beau_Nash) 1761 nend Mar 23, John W. de Winter, Dutch Vice-Admiral (Battle at Kamperduin), was born. (SS, 3/23/02) 1761 nend Mar 27, Johann Ludwig Steiner (72), composer, died. (MC, 3/27/02) 1761 nend Apr 17, Thomas Bayes (b.1702), English theologian and mathematician, died. He established a mathematical basis for probability inference based on sparse data. Sampling from a large population (the frequentist school) came to dominate the field in the modern era. In 2006 researchers suggested that the human brain might work in a Bayesian manner drawing strong inferences from sparse data. (www.britannica.com)(Econ, 1/7/06, p.70) 1761 nend Apr 20, Johann Gottlieb Karl Spazier, composer, was born. (MC, 4/20/02) 1761 nend May 13, Adrian Loosjes Pzn (1818, Dutch publisher, writer (Mauritius Lijnslager), was born. (MC, 5/13/02) 1761 nend May 22, The first life insurance policy in the United States was issued, in Philadelphia. (AP, 5/22/97) 1761 nend Jun 10, Puritan version of "Othello" opened in Newport, Rhode Island. (MC, 6/10/02) 1761 nend Jul 4, Samuel Richardson, English novelist, died at 72 in London. (WUD, 1994, p.1231) 1761 nend Sep 21, King George III of England was crowned. George was German and had been Elector of Hanover. Coincidentally, the composer Handel, who was working in London when King George was crowned, had gone to London after skipping out on his last job...working for George in Hanover. Fortunately for Handel, King George forgave him. (MC, 9/21/01) 1761 nend Dec 1, Madame Tussaud (d.1850), Swiss-born modeler in wax, was born. She founded the world-famous exhibition in London's Baker Street. [see Dec 7] (HN, 12/1/99)(MC, 4/16/02) 1761 nend Dec 7, Madame Tussaud [Marie Grosholtz], creator of the wax museum, was born. [see Dec 1] (MC, 12/7/01) 1761 nend Dec 25, Elisabeth Petrovna (~51), tsarina of Russia (1741-62), died. (MC, 12/25/01) 1761 nend St. Peter?s Episcopal Church was built in Philadelphia, Pa. The Protestant Episcopal Church of America was born with the Revolution and the break with the Anglican Church of Britain. (Hem, 6/96, p.108)(WSJ, 2/19/99, p.W13) 1761 nend French and Indians forces in the Ohio Valley were defeated. (ON, 1/03, p.7) 1761 nend In western North Carolina British soldiers razed Kituwha, the heart of the Cherokee Nation. Punitive raids here were repeated in 1776. (Arch, 9/02, p.70) 1761 nend The town of Killington was chartered in New Hampshire. (ST, 3/2/04, p.A1) 1761 nend Benjamin Franklin invented his glass armonica. (WSJ, 1/15/04, p.D8) 1761 nend The Earl of Huntington and the Earl of Ashburnham had a violent quarrel over the bedside of George III over who would have the honor of putting on the king?s shirt. (NG, Nov. 1985, M. Girouard, p.678) 1761 nend Monsignor Mario Guarnacci bequeathed his collection of Etruscan artifacts to the town of Volterra, in the hills of Tuscany, Italy. Most of the artifacts were dug from local tombs and are now displayed in chronological order in a museum. (SFEC, 11/24/96, T6) 1761 nend In Germany A.W. Faber created its first pencil. In 1898 the company got the current name Faber-Castell. The ?Castell 9000? pencil was born in 1905, when count Alexander von Faber Castell decided to give it a hexagonal shape to avoid falling when rolling on a desk. (Econ, 3/3/07, p.73)(www.designboom.com/contemporary/fabercastell.html) 1761 nend James Macpherson (1736-1796), Scottish poet, announced the discovery of an epic on the subject of Fingal (related to the Irish mythological character Fionn mac Cumhaill/Finn McCool) written by Ossian (based on Fionn's son Oisín). He then published poems by Ossian, the blind 3rd century poet, which became very popular and later exposed as a fraud. (WSJ, 7/26/08, p.W8)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Macpherson) 1761 nend A transit of Venus occurred. Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon observed it from Cape Town, South Africa. (Econ, 5/29/04, p.79) 1761 1845 Louis-Leopold Boilly, French painter. His work entailed a wide variety of subjects from genre paintings, gallants, historical canvasses, still lifes, formal and informal portraits. His work includes: Triumph of Marat (1794), Girl at a Window (1799), Game of Billiards (1807), Gallery du Palais Royal (1809), The Geography Lesson (1812). He produced some 500 genre paintings and some 5,000 small portraits along with a series of humorous lithographs. (WSJ, 1/8/96, p.A-16) (WSJ, 3/31/00, p.W16) 1762 nend Jan, In France Diderot published the 1st volume of illustrations for his Encyclopedie. (ON, 4/05, p.10) 1762 nend Feb 2, Thomas Arne's opera "Ataxerxes," premiered in London. (MC, 2/2/02) 1762 nend Feb 5, Martinique, a major French base in the Lesser Antilles of the West Indies, surrendered to the British. (HN, 2/5/99) 1762 nend Mar 10, Jean Calas, a French protestant (Huguenot), was tortured and executed in Toulouse on the charge that he had killed his son in 1761 to prevent him from converting to Catholicism. Voltaire took up the case believing that Catholic judges were biased. He wrote pamphlets and letters to support his case and urged high-placed friends to place the case before the Great Council of Louis XV. On March 9, 1765, Jean Calas and his family were acquitted and the death of the son was ruled a suicide. (ON, 4/06, p.10)(SFC, 3/9/07, p.E8) 1762 nend Mar 17, 1st St Patrick's Day parade was held in NYC. (MC, 3/17/02) 1762 nend May 19, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, German philosopher, was born. He developed ethical idealism out of Immanuel Kant's work. (HN, 5/19/99) 1762 nend Mar 25, Francesco Giuseppi Pollini, composer, was born. (MC, 3/25/02) 1762 nend Apr 13, Karl Friedrich Horn, composer, was born. (MC, 4/13/02) 1762 nend Apr 14, Giuseppe Valadier, Italian architect, archaeologist, was born. (MC, 4/14/02) 1762 nend Jun 5, English parliamentarian John Wilkes began publishing his North Briton journal. (www.lib.monash.edu.au/exhibitions/recent/xrecent.html) 1762 nend Jun 28, Catharine II, Russian Tsarina, grabbed power. [see Jul 17] (MC, 6/28/02) 1762 nend Jul 17, Peter III of Russia was murdered and his wife, Catherine II, took the throne. (HN, 7/17/98) 1762 nend Aug 5, Russia, Prussia and Austria signed a treaty agreeing on the partition of Poland. (HN, 8/5/98) 1762 nend Aug 12, George IV, King of England (1820-1830), was born. He was named Prince Regent in 1810 when his father was declared insane. (HN, 8/12/98)(WSJ, 4/5/02, p.W12) 1762 nend Aug 12, The British captured Cuba from Spain after a two month siege. (HN, 8/12/98) 1762 nend Aug 22, Ann Franklin became the first female editor of an American newspaper, the Newport, Rhode Island "Mercury." (AP, 8/22/00) 1762 nend Sep 17, Francesco Xaverio Geminiani, composer, died at 74. (MC, 9/17/01) 1762 nend Oct 5, Gluck's opera "Orfeo ed Euridice" had its premiere at Vienna?s Burgtheater on the namesday of Emp. Francis I. Gluck revised "Orpheus and Euridice" in 1774 for the Paris Royal Opera. (WSJ, 4/11/96, p.A-16)(WSJ, 10/21/99, p.A20)(MC, 10/5/01) 1762 nend Oct 5, The British fleet bombarded and captured Spanish-held Manila in the Philippines. (HN, 10/5/98) 1762 nend Oct 6, Francesco Onofrio Manfredini, composer, died at 78. (MC, 10/6/01) 1762 nend Oct 15, Samuel Adams Holyoke, composer, was born. (MC, 10/15/01) 1762 nend Oct 29, Andre-Marie Chenier, French poet (Elegies), was born. (MC, 10/29/01) 1762 nend Nov 1, Spencer Perceval, British Prime Minister, was born. (HN, 11/1/98) 1762 nend Nov 3, Spain acquired Louisiana. [see Dec 3] (MC, 11/3/01) 1762 nend Dec 3, France ceded to Spain all lands west of the Mississippi- the territory known as Upper Louisiana. [see Nov 3] (CO, Grolier's, 11/10/95)(HN, 12/3/98) 1762 nend Dec 31, The Mozart family moved from Vienna to Salzburg. (MC, 12/31/01) c 1762 nend Charles Joseph Natoire, artist, did a rendering of "The Cascade at the Villa Aldobrandini, Frascati." It later became part of the collection of the Pierpont Morgan Library. (SFEM, 4/6/97, p.16) 1762 nend The commedia dell?arte play "The King Stag" was written. It was about a good king who couldn?t find a wife after interviewing 2,000 candidates. (SFEC, 6/1/97, DB p.31) 1762 nend Nathony Benezet published "A Short Account of That Part of Africa Inhabited by the Negroes," and argued against slave trade. In 1994 the book was valued at $1800 as a collectors item. (WSJ, 12/9/94, p.R-8) 1762 nend Jean-Jacques Rousseau published his didactic novel "Emile," which spelled out his idea of his "natural system," and his work of political philosophy "The Social Contract." The books were banned in France and he was forced to leave. (WSJ, 2/18/97, p.A18)(SSFC, 1/4/04, p.M2) 1762 nend The Nicholas Brothers Chair Manufactory operated in Westminster, Mass. In 1900 the firm moved to Gardner and around 1907 was renamed to Nicholas & Stone. (SFC, 3/29/06, p.G6) 1762 nend The Harrison chronometer was invented. It allowed voyagers to calculate longitudinal distance. (SFC, 1/31/04, p.A1) 1762 nend Barings PLC, a British banking firm was founded [1763 also given]. It later financed the Louisiana Purchase [1803] and provided economic counseling to Queen Elizabeth II. The operation went bust in 1995. (WSJ, 2/27/95, p.A-10)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1762 nend Gosakuramachi ascended Japan?s throne. She ruled until 1770 and as of 2006 was Japan's last woman ruler. (AP, 9/6/06)(http://tinyurl.com/rcnhc) 1762 nend Abram Petrovich Gannibal (1696-1781), an African slave adopted by Peter the Great, was dismissed by Catherine the Great. He is the great-grandfather of Alexander Pushkin. (Econ, 8/20/05, p.66) 1762 1763 James Boswell experienced his 1st extended trip to London. His "London Journal" later recounted his meeting with Samuel Johnson numerous amorous affairs. (WSJ, 11/29/00, p.A24) 1762 1796 Catherine the Great ruled over Russia. (WSJ, 4/13/99, p.A16) 1763 nend Feb 10, Britain, Spain and France signed the Treaty of Paris ending the Seven Years? War, aka the French-Indian War. France ceded Canada to England and gave up all her territories in the New World except New Orleans and a few scattered islands including St. Pierre and Miquelon off the coast of Newfoundland. (HN, 2/10/97)(AP, 2/10/97)(AP, 2/10/08)(AH, 2/06, p.55) 1763 nend Feb 12, Pierre de Mariveaux (b.1688), French novelist and playwright, died. (SFC, 5/30/09, p.E2)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_de_Marivaux) 1763 nend Mar 6, Jean Xavier Lefevre, composer, was born. (MC, 3/6/02) 1763 nend Apr 2, Giacomo Gotifredo Ferrari, composer, was born. (MC, 4/2/02) 1763 nend Apr 7, Domenico Dragonetti, composer, was born. (MC, 4/7/02) 1763 nend Apr 19, Teedyuscung, a Lenape Indian leader, burned to death while sleeping in his cabin in the Wyoming Valley, Pa. The fire destroyed the whole Indian village. A few days later settlers from Connecticut arrived to resume their construction of a town. (ON, 1/03, p.6) 1763 nend Apr 30, London Journalist John Wilkes was confined in the Tower. (MC, 4/30/02) 1763 nend May 7, Indian chief Pontiac began his attack on a British fort in present-day Detroit, Michigan. Ottawa Chief Pontiac led an uprising in the wild, distant lands that later became Michigan, Ohio and Pennsylvania. (HN, 7/24/98)(HN, 5/7/99) 1763 nend May 16, The English lexicographer, author and wit Samuel Johnson first met his future biographer, James Boswell. (AP, 5/16/97) 1763 nend Jun 20, Theobald Wolfe Tone, Irish nationalist, was born. (MC, 6/20/02) 1763 nend Jun 23, Josephine Martinique, empress of France (1804-14), was born. (HN, 6/23/98)(MC, 6/23/02) 1763 nend Jul 17, John Jacob Astor (d.1848), American fur trader who died the richest man in the country, was born as a butcher's son in Germany. Astor arrived in New York in 1784 at age 20 and worked for a fur merchant. He built up his own fur business and invested in real estate. "Buy the acre, sell the lot." He married into the Brevoort family and left $20 million when he died. (HN, 7/17/98)(WSJ, 1/11/98, p.R18)(WSJ, 3/2/00, p.W10) 1763 nend Aug 5, Colonel Henry Bouquet decisively defeated the Indians at the Battle of Bushy Run in Pennsylvania during Pontiac's rebellion. (HN, 8/5/98) 1763 nend Aug 8, Charles Bulfinch, 1st US professional architect (Mass State House), was born in Boston, Mass. (MC, 8/8/02) 1763 nend Sep 26, English poet John Byrom (b.1692) died. The words "Tweedle-dum and Tweedle-dee" made their first appearance in print in "one of the most celebrated and most frequently quoted epigrams," satirizing the disagreements between George Frideric Handel and Giovanni Battista Bononcini, written by John Byrom. A nursery rhyme published in 1805 included the characters Tweedledum and Tweedledee as did Lewis Carroll?s ?Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There? (1871). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tweedledum_and_Tweedledee) 1763 nend Oct 5, August III (b.1796), son of August II, died. He was crowned King of Lithuania and Poland in 1734. (SSFC, 4/25/04, p.D12)(WSJ, 6/1/04, p.D8) 1763 nend Oct 7, George III of Great Britain issued a royal proclamation reserving for the crown the right to acquire land from western tribes. This closed lands in North America north and west of Alleghenies to white settlement and ended the acquisition efforts of colonial land syndicates. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 guaranteed Indian rights to land and self-government. (www.bloorstreet.com/200block/rp1763.htm)(SSFC, 8/29/04, p.M5)(Econ,9/16/06, p.46) 1763 nend Nov 15, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon began surveying Mason-Dixon Line between Pennsylvania and Maryland. They surveyed 233 miles by 1767 when Indians of the Six nations told them they could not proceed any further west. (MC, 11/15/01)(ON, 2/04, p.10) 1763 nend Nov 16, John Wilkes, English journalist, MP, and friend of American Colonies, was injured in duel. John Wilkes? protest of the Treaty of Paris of 1763 appeared in The North Briton No. 45. Silversmith and legendary Patriot Paul Revere crafted his Liberty Bowl to commemorate the two "Patriotic numbers" 92 and 45. The bowl, which weighed 45 ounces and held 45 gills, was inscribed with "Ninety-Two." The numbers had special significance to American Patriots, representing resistance to British taxation. The Massachusetts colonial assembly voted in 1768 92-17 to refuse British demands for repeal the Massachusetts Circular Letter, which had been penned by Samuel Adams in protest of the Townshend Revenue Act. Reference to the numbers 92 and 45 in songs and toasts helped solidify opposition throughout the 13 colonies. (MC, 11/16/01)(HNQ, 3/19/99) 1763 nend Dec 2, Touro Shul, the oldest existing US synagogue, was dedicated in Newport, RI. (MC, 12/2/01) 1763 nend Dec 28, John Molson, founder of the Montreal Molson brewery, was born. (MC, 12/28/01) 1763 nend The "Jnaneshvari" manuscript, a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, was completed in India. In this period Hindu books began to vie with Muslim texts in the perfection of their paper, calligraphy, illustration and binding. (WSJ, 12/11/01, p.A17) 1763 nend A Crown grant was made to Henry Laurens of Georgia, who later succeeded John Hancock as president of the Continental Congress in 1777. Laurens obtained control of the South Altamaha river lands and named it New Hope Plantation. (AP, 8/30/09) 1763 nend Pierre Laclede and stepson Auguste Chouteau notched a couple of trees that marked the site for Laclede?s Landing that became St. Louis. (SFC, 10/12/97, p.T5) 1763 nend British forces, under orders from Sir Jeffrey Amherst, distributed smallpox-infected blankets among American Indians in the 1st known case of its use as a biological weapon. (SFC, 10/19/01, p.A17)(NW, 10/14/02, p.50) 1763 nend The British proclaimed a law forbidding Americans to move farther west into the Mississippi Valley in order to avoid problems with the Indians. (V.D.-H.K.p.223) 1763 nend Sir George Baker, physician at the court of king George in England, published the treatisse: "Concerning the Cause of the Endemial Colic of Devonshire." Cider presses with lead fittings proved to be the culprit. (NH, 7/96, p.52) 1763 nend The capital of Brazil was changed from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro. (USAT, OW, 4/22/96, p.3)(SFEC, 8/8/99, p.T8) 1763 nend A Chinese map drawn by Mo Yi Tong imitated a world chart made in 1418. It showed barbarians paying tribute to the Ming emperor Zhu Di. The map was unveiled to the public in Beijing in 2006. (Econ, 1/14/06, p.80) 1763 nend Frederick the Great took over Die Konigliche Porzelan-Manufaktur. The royal porcelain factory was privatized by the state of Berlin in 2006. (Econ, 5/23/09, p.65) 1763 nend Russia annexed the Crimea peninsula from Crimean Tartars and Ottoman Turks. (SFC, 2/4/09, p.A5) 1763 1825 Jean Paul Richter, German author: "A timid person is frightened before a danger; a coward during the time; and a courageous person afterward." "Spring makes everything young again except man." (AP, 7/3/97)(AP, 3/20/98) 1763 1864 The Circassians, residents of the northwest Caucasus, fought against the Russians in the Russian-Circassian War only succumbing to a scorched earth campaign initiated in 1862 under General Yevdokimov. Afterwards, large numbers of Circassians fled and were deported to the Ottoman Empire, others were resettled in Russia far from their home territories. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circassians) 1763 1865 In 2003 Richard Clement authored "Books on the Frontier: Print culture in the American West 1763-1875." (SSFC, 1/4/04, p.M1) 1764 nend Jan 1, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart at 8 years old played for the Royal Family at Versailles in France. (MC, 1/1/02) 1764 nend Jan 19, Bolle Willum Luxdorph, a Danish diarist, described what is believed to be the first successful parcel bomb. (Econ, 11/6/10, p.74) 1764 nend Jan 25, Harvard Hall in Cambridge, Mass., burned to the ground and destroyed most of the 5,000 volumes in its library. (SFC, 5/10/97, p.A9) 1764 nend Feb 11, Marie-Joseph de Chenier, French poet (Cajus Graechus), was born. (MC, 2/11/02) 1764 nend Feb 15, The city of St. Louis was established as a French trading post. Pierre Laclede Ligue and stepson Auguste Chouteau notched a couple of trees that marked the site for Laclede?s Landing that became St. Louis. (SFC, 5/12/97, p.T5)(AP, 2/15/98)(440 Int?l., 2/15/99) 1764 nend Feb 21, John Wilkes was expelled from the English House of Commons for his "Essay on Women." (MC, 2/21/02) 1764 nend Mar 13, Charles Earl Grey (Whig), British Prime Minister (1830-1834), was born. (HN, 3/13/98)(MC, 3/13/02) 1764 nend Apr 3, John Abernethy, surgeon, was born in London. (MC, 4/3/02) 1764 nend Apr 3, Austrian arch duke Jozef crowned himself Roman Catholic king. (MC, 4/3/02) 1764 nend Apr 15, Jeanne-Antoinette-Poison LeNormant d'Etoiles, Marquis de Pomador, died. (MC, 4/15/02) 1764 nend Apr 19, The English Parliament banned the American colonies from printing paper money. (HN, 4/19/97) 1764 nend May 1, Benjamin Henry Latrobe, architect of the U.S. Capitol, was born. (HN, 5/1/98) 1764 nend May 1, Gottfried Rieger, composer, was born. (MC, 5/1/02) 1764 nend May 15, Johann Nepomuk Kalcher, composer, was born. (MC, 5/15/02) 1764 nend May 24, Bostonian lawyer James Otis denounced "taxation without representation" and called for the colonies to unite in demonstrating their opposition to Britain's new tax measures. (HN, 5/24/99) 1764 nend Jun 21, William Sydney Smith, British seaman, was born. He bested Napoleon Bonaparte at the port of St. Jean d'Acre in the Mediterranean Sea. (HN, 6/21/00) 1764 nend Jul 9, Ann Radcliffe, novelist who wrote Gothic romances set in Italy, was born. (HN, 7/9/98) 1764 nend Jul 16, Ivan VI (23), Emperor of Russia (1740-41), was murdered. (MC, 7/16/02) 1764 nend Sep 12, Jean Philippe Rameau, French composer (Castor en Pollux), died at 80. (MC, 9/12/01) 1764 nend Oct 22, Jean Marie I'aine Leclair (67), composer, died. (MC, 10/22/01) 1764 nend Oct 25, John Adams, future US president, wed Abigail Smith. He called her ?a constant feast.? Their marriage lasted 54 years. (AH, 10/04, p.15) 1764 nend Nov 16, Indians surrendered to British in Indian War of Chief Pontiac. (MC, 11/16/01) 1764 nend Nov 26, France banned Jesuits. (MC, 11/26/01) c 1764 nend Tiepolo painted his "Apotheosis of the Spanish Monarchy." It was a study for a ceiling in Madrid. (WSJ, 1/23/97, p.A12) 1764 nend Catherine the Great hired Etienne-Maurice Falconet (1716-1791) of France to create a statue of Peter the Great (d.1725). In 2003 Alexander M. Schenker authored "The Bronze Horseman: Falconet's Monument to Peter the Great." (WSJ, 12/18/03, p.D6) 1764 nend Horace Walpole (1717-1797), son of Sir Robert Walpole and 4th earl of Orford, authored "The Castle of Otranto," the 1st gothic novel. (WUD, 1994 p.1607)(SSFC, 8/11/02, p.M1) 1764 nend Voltaire [Francois Marie Arouet] (1694-1778), French philosopher, historian, dramatist and essayist, authored the "Philosophical Dictionary." (HNQ, 10/11/01) 1764 nend Half the slaves aboard the ship Sally, owned by the Brown family, died enroute to Rhode Island. (SSFC, 10/2/05, p.F3) 1764 nend Brown University was founded in Rhode Island by the Brown family. (SFC, 11/9/00, p.A22)(SSFC, 10/2/05, p.F3) 1764 nend The French established the 1st settlement on the Falkland Islands. (Econ, 7/15/06, p.36) 1764 nend In Mexico Ignacio de Jerusalem composed "Matins for Our Lady of Guadalupe." It was first performed the Mexico City Cathedral. (SFC, 6/24/97, p.B3) 1764 nend In Scotland the St. Andrew?s golf course remodeled and cut its hole number from 22 to 18. The 40 yard fairways were also enlarged. (SFEC, 8/10/97, Z1 p.4) 1764 1822 William Pinkney, American diplomat: "A definition is no proof." (AP, 2/15/99) 1765 nend Feb 9, Elisabetta de Gambarini (33), composer, died. (MC, 2/9/02) 1765 nend Mar 7, Joseph N. Niepce (d.1883), French lithographer, inventor (photography), was born. Photo etching was invented by Joseph Nicephore Niepce early in the 19th century. He also invented photography. His partner, L.J.M. Daguerre, perfected Niepce's process and popularized daguerreotypes as the first commercial photographs. (V.D.-H.K.p.273)(I&I, Penzias, p.114)(MC, 3/7/02) 1765 nend Mar 18, David H. Chass, Dutch baron, general (fought Napoleon at Waterloo), was born. (MC, 3/18/02) 1765 nend Mar 22, Britain enacted the Stamp Act to raise money from the American Colonies. This was the first direct British tax on the colonists. The Act was repealed the following year. The tax covered just about everything produced by the American colonists and began the decade of crisis that led to the American Revolution. The Stamp Act taxed the legal documents of the American colonists and infuriated John Adams. (AP, 3/22/97)(HN, 3/22/97)(A&IP, p.13,18) 1765 nend Mar 24, Austrian Empress Maria Theresa issued a decree to establish a School for Healing Animal Diseases. (StuAus, April '95, p.23) 1765 nend Mar 24, Britain enacted the Quartering Act, requiring American colonists to provide temporary housing to 10,000 British soldiers in public and private buildings. (AP, 3/23/97)(HN, 3/24/98) 1765 nend Apr 5, Edward Young (81), English poet (Love of Fame), died. (MC, 4/5/02) 1765 nend May 7, Adm. Nelson's flagship HMS Victory ran aground. (MC, 5/7/02) 1765 nend May 25, The Gambia was made a part of the British colony of SeneGambia with its headquarters at St. Louis. (http://www.vdiest.nl/gambia.htm) 1765 nend May 25, Pierre-Joseph Le Blan (53), composer, died. (SC, 5/25/02) 1765 nend May 28, Jean Baptiste Cartier, composer, was born. (MC, 5/28/02) 1765 nend May 29, Patrick Henry denounced the Stamp Act before Virginia's House of Burgesses. It was during this speech that Henry supposedly responded to cries of "Treason!" by declaring, "If this be treason, make the most of it," according to an 1817 biography of Henry by William Wirt, who wrote that he had confirmed the quote with former President Thomas Jefferson. (AP, 5/29/08) 1765 nend Jul 16, Prime Minister of England Lord Greenville resigned and was replaced by Lord Rockingham. (HN, 7/16/98) 1765 nend Aug 14, Massachusetts colonists challenged British rule by an Elm (Liberty Tree). (MC, 8/14/02) 1765 nend Aug 21, William IV (d.1837), king of England (1830-37) the "sailor king," was born. (WSJ, 4/27/00, p.A24)(SC, 8/21/02) 1765 nend Aug 25, In protest over the stamp tax, American colonists sacked and burned the home of Massachusetts governor Thomas Hutchinson. In 1774 he was exiled to Britain. In 1974 Bernard Bailyn authored ?The Ordeal of Thomas Hutchinson.? (HN, 8/25/98)(WSJ, 8/25/07, p.P9) 1765 nend Sep, Printing of Diderot?s complete Encyclopedie was finished despite unauthorized edits by Le Breton, his chief publisher. The French government prohibited distribution in Paris or near Versailles. (ON, 4/05, p.10) 1765 nend Oct 7, Delegates from nine of the American colonies met in New York to discuss the Stamp Act Crisis and colonial response to it. This "Stamp Act Congress" went on to draft resolutions condemning the Stamp and Sugar Acts, trial without jury and taxation without representation as contrary to their rights as Englishmen. (AP, 10/7/97)(HN, 10/7/98) 1765 nend Oct 19, The Stamp Act Congress, meeting in New York, drew up a declaration of rights and liberties. (AP, 10/19/97) 1765 nend Oct 20, William August (44) duke of Cumberland, English supreme commander, died. [see Oct 31] (MC, 10/20/01) 1765 nend Oct 21, Giovanni Paolo Pannini (Panini), Italian painter and architect, died at 73. (MC, 10/21/01) 1765 nend Oct 31, Duke of Cumberland, English politician and general, died. He butchered Scots at Culloden. [see Oct 20] (MC, 10/31/01) 1765 nend Nov 1, The Stamp Act went into effect, prompting stiff resistance from American colonists. (AP, 11/1/97)(HN, 11/1/98) 1765 nend Nov 14, Robert Fulton, inventor, was born. His steamboat, the Clermont, made its 1st voyage on Aug 17, 1807. (HN, 11/14/98)(WSJ, 7/27/04, p.D10) 1765 nend Nov 20, Friedrich Heinrich Himmel, composer (Von Himmel Hoch), was born. (MC, 11/20/01) 1765 nend Nov 23, Frederick County, Md., became the first colonial entity to repudiate the British Stamp Act. (AP, 11/23/07) 1765 nend Dec 8, Eli Whitney (d.1825), American inventor and manufacturer, was born. He invented the cotton gin. (CFA, '96, p.60)(HN, 12/8/00) 1765 nend In his Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law, John Adams wrote that power had been pursued throughout history for two very different ends: for tyranny on the one hand and for the freedom of the individual or the community on the other. (WSJ, 2/12/96, p.A-12) 1765 nend Carlo Cozzi (Gozzi), Italian fantasist, composed "The Green Bird." (WSJ, 12/15/95, p.A-16)(WSJ, 3/8/96, p. A-8)(SFC, 9/15/00, p.C1) 1765 nend In America the "Daughters of Liberty" was the first society of working women in the US and formed to boycott British products and woven goods. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1765 nend Shaw Furniture of Cambridge, Mass., was in business as early as this time and continued operating into the 1920s. During the 18th century Shaw made furniture using convict labor from Charleston State Prison. (SFC, 10/29/08, p.G2) 1765 nend More than 100 Africans perished on the slave ship Sally in the voyage from Africa. Some hanged themselves or starved to death. Some rebelled and were shot dead or drowned. In 2007 the ship's log book, detailing the deaths of slaves that occurred almost daily aboard the ship, was encased in glass in an exhibit at Brown University. (Reuters, 3/29/07) 1765 nend Britain also stationed a standing army of 6,000 in the colonies and required the colonists to provide for units in settled areas. Later evidence indicated that poor weather conditions led to poor crop seasons for 15 of 37 years prior to the Revolution. (SFC, 11/29/96, p.A14) c 1765 nend A group of men began meeting at one another?s houses in Birmingham, England, and helped develop over time new technologies that helped transform England to an industrial power; they included Josiah Wedgwood, Erasmus Darwin, Matthew Boulton, James Watt, and Joseph Priestley. In 2002 Jenny Uglow authored "The Lunar Men," and account of their work. (WSJ, 11/14/02, p.D6) 1765 nend John Taylor and Sampson Lloyd established a bank in Birmingham that grew to become Britain?s Lloyds TSB. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.105) 1765 nend Richard Hennessey, an exile Ireland, founded a spirits export business in the Cognac region of France. (SSFC, 10/16/11, p.N4) 1765 nend La Compagnie des Cristalleries de Baccarat, a glass factory, opened in France. (SFC, 2/22/06, p.G6) 1765 nend K. Niebuhr, Danish visitor to Mesopotamia, made copies of cuneiform inscriptions at Persepolis, which were later used and deciphered by George Grotefund. He observed that there was three kinds of writing--those which we now recognize as Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian. (RFH-MDHP, p.193) 1765 nend The Spanish King sent 92 rams and 128 ewes to Saxony. This led to the development of the German wool industry which set wool standards by the end of the century. (NG, 5.1988, pp. 575) 1765 nend The Spanish Crown hired Irishmen Col. Thomas O?Daly and Field Marshall Alexander O?Reilly to upgrade the defenses of all of Spain?s Caribbean ports. They expanded and improved El Morro and San Cristobal. (HT, 4/97, p.33) 1765 nend Eberhard put erasers on pencils. [see 1794] (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1765 nend Scotsman James Watt further refined Thomas Newcomen?s piston system steam engine innovation by adding a separate condenser. Watt took out a patent on his improved engine in 1769. (HNQ, 1/18/01) c 1765 1770 Tiepolo painted his "Annunciation." (WSJ, 1/23/97, p.A12) 1765 1775 Ships from Salem, Mass., typically carried 12,000 quintals (220 lbs. per quintal) of salt cod to Europe and the same amount to the West Indies. (NH, 5/96, p.59) 1765 nend James Smithson (d.1829), English scientist, was born. He bequeathed his entire estate to the United States to found an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, to be named the Smithsonian Institution. Smithson had the mineral smithsonite (carbonate of zinc) named for him. Alexander Graham Bell, scientist and inventor, escorted the remains of James Smithson, founder of the Smithsonian Institution, to the United States in 1904 for interment in the original Smithsonian building. (HNQ, 6/26/99) 1766 nend Jan 1, James Francis Edward Stuart (b.1688), son of James III, died. The English prince was known as the Old Pretender. (HN, 1/1/99)(WUD, 1994 ed., p.1410) 1766 nend Jan, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, philosopher and writer, arrived in London with Theresa Levasseur, his governess and mistress. He was able to receive a modest pension from George III. (WSJ, 2/18/97, p.A18) 1766 nend Feb 11, The Stamp Act was declared unconstitutional in Virginia. (MC, 2/11/02) 1766 nend Feb 13, Thomas Robert Malthus (d.1834), English economist, population expert (Law of Malthus), was born. (V.D.-H.K.p.253)(Internet) 1766 nend Feb 24, Samuel Wesley (d.1837), composer, organist (Exultate Deo), was born in Bristol, England. He studied, played, and preached Bach. (LGC-HCS, p.32)(MC, 2/24/02) 1766 nend Mar 5, Spanish official Don Antonio de Ulloa arrived in New Orleans to take possession of the Louisiana Territory from the French. (AP, 3/5/98) 1766 nend Mar 18, Britain repealed the Stamp Act of 1765. (AP, 3/18/97)(PCh, 1992, p.311) 1766 nend Mar 28, Joseph Weigl, Austrian composer, conductor (Emmeline), was born. (MC, 3/28/02) 1766 nend Apr 8, The 1st fire escape was patented: a wicker basket on a pulley and chain. (MC, 4/8/02) 1766 nend Apr 24, Robert Bailey Thomas, founder of the Farmer's Almanac, was born. (HN, 4/24/98) 1766 nend Jul 9, J. Schopenhauer, writer, was born. (MC, 7/9/02) 1766 nend Jul 11, Elisabeth Farnese (73), princess of Parma, queen of Spain, died. (MC, 7/11/02) 1766 nend Jul 24, At Fort Ontario, Canada, Ottawa chief Pontiac and William Johnson signed a peace agreement. (HN, 7/24/98) 1766 nend Sep 6, John Dalton, English scientist, was born. He developed the atomic theory of matter. (HN, 9/6/00) 1766 nend Sep 17, Samuel Wilson, the future Uncle Sam, was born in Menotomy Mass. Menotomy later became Arlington. Samuel moved to Troy, New York, where he and his brother set up meat packing plants which later provided food for the US Army during the War of 1812. (WC, Summer ?97, p.3) 1766 nend Nov 16, Rudolphe Kreutzer (d.1831), a leading French composer and violinist. Beethoven?s "Kreutzer" Sonata was dedicated to him. His Stradivarius violin sold for $1.58 mil. in 1998. (WUD, 1994, p.795)(SFC, 4/2/98, p.E4)(MC, 11/16/01) 1766 nend Nov 25, Pope Clement XIII warned of dangers of anti-Christian writings (MC, 11/25/01) 1766 nend Dec 5, London auctioneers Christie's held their 1st sale. The British auction house Christie?s was sold in 1998 to Francois Pinault, a French businessman and art collector. (HT, 3/97, p.74)(WSJ, 5/15/98, p.W12)(WSJ, 5/19/98, p.B10)(MC, 12/5/01) 1766 nend The Beekman Arms of Rhinebeck, NY, began serving beer. In 2000 it was the oldest continuously operating tavern in the US. (SFEC, 6/25/00, Z1 p.2) 1766 nend Jonathan Carver, an American-born British army officer, set out to cross the American continent, but was stopped in Minnesota by a war between the Sioux and Chippewa. (SFC, 1/31/04, p.D12) 1766 nend The dentist Woofendale from England was the first dentist in the US. (SFC, 8/14/99, p.B3) 1766 nend In London the first paved sidewalk was laid at Westminster. (SFC, 7/14/99, p.3) 1766 nend Henry Cavendish isolated hydrogen during experiments with H2O in England. (NH, 7/02, p.32) 1766 nend France handed its settlement on the Falkland Islands over to Spain. (Econ, 7/15/06, p.36) 1766 1817 Germaine de Stael, French author: "There are only two distinct classes of people on this earth: those who espouse enthusiasm and those who despise it." (AP, 7/10/00) 1766 1841 Thomas Bruce, the 7th Earl of Elgin. He arranged for the 5th century BC frieze sculpture of the Greek Parthenon, supposedly made under Phidias, to be sold to the British Museum for 35,000 pounds. This was arranged when Greece was under Ottoman rule. The marbles, originally painted, were unwittingly cleaned in the 1930s and their original patina removed. (SFC, 6/19/98, p.A12)(WUD, 1994, p.463) 1766 1848 Isaac D'Israeli, English author: "The wise make proverbs and fools repeat them." (AP, 2/26/00) 1767 nend Mar 15, Andrew Jackson (d.1845), seventh President of the United States known as "Old Hickory," was born in Waxhaw, South Carolina. The first American president to be born in a log cabin, Jackson was a hero of the War of 1812, an Indian fighter and a Tennessee lawyer. Neither a particularly intelligent man nor a wise one, Jackson became the symbol of his age by being the right man believing in the right things at the right time. Success was a race, Jackson believed, and the government?s primary responsibility was to guarantee that every man got a fair chance at winning. Jackson?s administration (1829-37) saw the development of modern-style political parties and changes in the voting laws that nearly tripled the electorate. Known for his strong will, Jackson was fond of saying: "When I mature my course I am immovable." Jackson was the first congressman from Tennessee and later became a senator and state supreme court judge. Jackson was involved in a number of duels and killed a man in one. Personal feuds with Thomas Jefferson led him out of public life for some time. Jackson was elected president in 1828 and served until 1837. He initiated the spoils system and had the first "Kitchen Cabinet" of intimate advisers. Jackson died June 8, 1845. In 1997 Max Byrd wrote "Jackson," a biographical novel. (AP, 3/15/97)(WSJ, 5/14/97, p.A20)(HNQ, 4/30/99)(HNPD, 4/30/99) 1767 nend Mar 25, Joachim Murat (d.1815), Napoleon's brother in law, was born in Labastide-Murat. He was a French marshal and became king of Naples (1808-1815). (WUD, 1994, p.941)(HN, 3/25/99)(HN, 3/25/99) 1767 nend Mar 30, Jonas Kristupas Glaubicas, one of the founders of the Vilnius school of baroque architecture, died. (LHC, 3/30/03) 1767 nend May 13, Mozart's opera "Apollo et Hyacinthus," premiered in Salzburg. (MC, 5/13/02) 1767 nend May 14, British government disbanded the import duty on tea in America. (MC, 5/14/02) 1767 nend May 18, Thaddaus Ferdinand Lipowsky (28), composer, died. (SC, 5/18/02) 1767 nend May 25, Ferdinand Franzl, composer, was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1767 nend May 25, Friedrich Johann Eck, composer, was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1767 nend Jun 7, Daniel Boone sighted present-day Kentucky. [see Jun 7, 1769] (HN, 6/7/01) 1767 nend Jun 15, Rachel Robards Jackson, U.S. first lady to Andrew Jackson, was born. She caused a scandal by marrying Jackson before divorcing her husband. (HN, 6/15/98) 1767 nend Jun 25, Mexican Indians rioted as Jesuit priests were ordered home. The Jesuits were expelled from Mexico and their work was taken over by the Dominican Fathers. (WSJ, 12/26/97, p.A9)(HN, 6/25/98) 1767 nend Jun 25, Georg Philipp Telemann (86), German composer, died. (MC, 6/25/02) 1767 nend Jun 29, The British Parliament approved the Townshend Revenue Acts, sponsored by statesman Charles Townshend (1725-1767), which imposed import duties on glass, lead, paint, paper and tea shipped to America. Colonists bitterly protested, prompting Parliament in 1770 to repeal the duties on all goods, except tea. (WUD, 1994, p.1499)(HN, 6/29/98)(AP, 6/29/07) 1767 nend Jul 11, John Quincy Adams (d.1848), son of John Adams and the sixth president of the United States, was born in Braintree, Mass. (AHD, 1971, p.14)(AP, 7/11/97)(HN, 7/11/98) 1767 nend Oct 9, The survey party of Mason and Dixon came to a halt after 233 miles when Indians of the Six Nations said they had reached the end of their commission. [see Oct 18] (ON, 2/04, p.10) 1767 nend Oct 18, The boundary between Maryland and Pennsylvania, the Mason-Dixon line, was agreed upon. It was first surveyed in 1763 to 1767 by two British astronomers, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, in order to settle a dispute between the Calvert and Penn families, the owners at that time of the two states in question. The survey, begun in 1763 and completed four years later, done by English surveyors Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon to resolve a land-grant boundary dispute between the families of Lord Baltimore and William Penn, resulted in the Mason-Dixon Line. The line, extended in 1784, came to be known as the dividing line between free-soil states and slave states. http://freespace.virgin.net/john.cletheroe/usa_can/usa/mas_dix.htm (AP, 10/18/97)(HNQ, 9/8/99) 1767 nend Oct 23, H. Benjamin Constant, [de Rebeque], French politician and writer, was born. (MC, 10/23/01) 1767 nend Dec 9, Benedetto Alfieri, Italian architect (San Giovanni Battista), died. (MC, 12/9/01) 1767 nend Fragonard (1732-1806) painted "The Swing." (SFC, 2/7/03, p.D2) 1767 nend Phillis Wheatley's (d.1784) poetry was published for the first time. She traveled to England in 1773, where her book "Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral" was hailed as the first published by an African American. In 1776 the African slave-born poet met with George Washington in Cambridge, just before the British evacuated Boston. (HNPD, 2/20/99)(SSFC, 7/25/04, p.F3) 1767 nend Laurence Sterne authored his novel "Tristram Shandy." (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1767 nend British explorer Jonathan Carver described petroglyph images of snakes and buffalo near a cave at bluffs in Minnesota called Wakan Tipi by the Dakota people. (LP, Spring 2006, p.23) 1767 nend Christophe Willibald Gluck, Vienna court Kappellmeister, composed his opera "Alcestis." It was revised in 1776 for the Royal Paris Opera. (WSJ, 10/21/99, p.A20) 1767 nend Burmese invaded the port city of Ayutthaya (Siam-Thailand), sacked the city and left it in ruins. The capital was then moved to Bangkok. (WSJ, 4/21/05, p.D7) 1767 nend Robert Clive returned from India to England with a huge fortune and was accused of embezzlement. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1767 nend George Hodgeson, British entrepreneur, cut a deal with the East India Company to start providing beer to the British Civil-service and merchant classes in the India colonies. He doubled the hop content to help preserve the beer on its long voyage. (WSJ, 8/13/04, p.W6) 1767 nend The English found their way to Tahiti. (SFEC, 3/2/97, p.T12) 1767 nend English slave traders captured 2 native nobles, Little Ephraim Robin John and Ancona Robin John on the west coast of Africa and took them in chains to Dominica. They soon escaped but were resold into slavery in Virginia. Some 4 years later they were taken to England and again resold and returned to Virginia. They later made it back to their home on the Calabar River (SE Nigeria) and became slave merchants themselves. In 2004 Randy J. Sparks authored ?The Princes of Calabar.? (WSJ, 5/21/04, p.W4) 1767 nend Louis Antoine de Bougainville of France sailed to the islands of New Guinea. He encountered the ritual of gift giving to one's enemy, which obligated the enemy to give back even more. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R4) 1767 nend In Scandinavia military ski competitions began to offer prize money. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1767 nend Horace de Saussure, Swiss scientist, developed a solar cooker using the greenhouse effect, in the form of several glass boxes set inside one another and placed on a dark surface. (SFC, 7/11/07, p.F5) 1767 1780 Bernardo Belotto (Il Canaletto), Italian topographical view painter, worked as court painter in Warsaw for Stanislaus II Augustus Poniatowski, the last King of Poland. (WSJ, 9/13/01, p.A18) 1767 1849 Maria Edgeworth, English novelist: "A straight line is the shortest in morals as in mathematics." (AP, 6/25/99) 1768 nend Jan 9, English cavalry sergeant Philip Astley staged the first modern circus, performing elaborate feats on the backs of horses racing around a ring. (MC, 1/9/02) 1768 nend Feb 11, A Samuel Adams letter, opposing Townshend Act taxes, was circulated among the American colonies. (MC, 2/11/02) 1768 nend Feb 12, Francis II, the Last Holy Roman Emperor (1792-1806), was born. (HN, 2/12/98)(MC, 2/12/02) 1768 nend Feb 24, Lithuania-Poland signed an eternal friendship treaty with Russia along with a guarantee of protection. Lithuania and Poland agreed not to change their state system. (LHC, 2/23/03) 1768 nend Mar 14, Vigilio Blasio Faitello (58), composer, died. (MC, 3/14/02) 1768 nend Mar 21, Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Fourier (d.1830), French mathematician, physicist and Egyptologist, was born. (HN, 3/21/98)(WUD, 1994, p.561) 1768 nend Apr 5, 1st US Chamber of Commerce formed in NYC. (MC, 4/5/02) 1768 nend Apr 7, Michel Mathieu (78), composer, died. (MC, 4/7/02) 1768 nend Apr 20, Giovanni AC Canaletto (70), Italian painter, cartoonist (Rialto), died. (MC, 4/20/02) 1768 nend May 10, The imprisonment of the journalist John Wilkes as an outlaw provoked violence in London, England. Wilkes was returned to parliament as a member for Middlesex. (HN, 5/10/99) 1768 nend May 15, By the Treaty of Versailles, France purchased Corsica from Genoa. (SFC, 12/3/96, p.A1)(HN, 5/15/99) 1768 nend May 20, Dolley Madison, first lady of President James Madison, was born. She was famous as a Washington hostess while her husband was secretary of state and president. (HN, 5/20/99) 1768 nend Jun 30, Elizabeth Kortright, later Elizabeth Monroe, first lady to U.S. President James Monroe, was born. (HN, 6/30/01) 1768 nend Jul 27, Charlotte Corday, French patriot who assassinated Jean Paul Marat, was born. (HN, 7/27/98) 1768 nend Aug 26, Capt James Cook departed from Plymouth with Endeavour to the Pacific Ocean. Daniel Solander and Joseph Banks accompanied Cook to catalog plants and animals of Australia and New Zealand on the 3-year journey. no_source 1768 nend Sep 4, Vicomte François René de Chateaubriand, French writer, novelist (Atala) and chef who gave his name to a style of steak, was born. (HN, 9/4/98)(MC, 9/4/01) 1768 nend Oct 1, English troops under general Gage landed in Boston. (MC, 10/1/01) 1768 nend Oct 28, Germans and Acadians joined French Creoles in their armed revolt against the Spanish governor of New Orleans. (HN, 10/28/98) 1768 nend Oct 28, Michel Blavet (68), French court flautist and composer, died. (MC, 10/28/01) 1768 nend Oct 30, 1st Methodist church in US was initiated at Wesley Chapel, NYC. (MC, 10/30/01) 1768 nend Nov 5, William Johnson, the northern Indian Commissioner, signed a treaty with the Iroquois Indians to acquire much of the land between the Tennessee and Ohio rivers for future settlement. (HN, 11/5/98) 1768 nend James Boswell (28) authored "Account of Corsica." (WSJ, 11/29/00, p.A24) 1768 nend John Dickinson (1732-1808) wrote "The Liberty Song." The refrain included the words: "Then join hand in hand, brave Americans all! By uniting we stand, by dividing we fall." (SFC, 11/2/02, p.D2) 1768 nend Cornelius de Pauw wrote a book on America. (WSJ, 8/28/97, p.A12) 1768 nend In Massachusetts the Jeremiah Lee Mansion was built in Marblehead. Lee later became a fatality of the Lexington-Concord battle. (SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T9) 1768 nend Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), US President (1801-1809), was elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses. (www.monticello.org/site/jefferson/timeline-jeffersons-life) 1768 nend The 1st four day royal meeting was held at the Royal Ascot track west of London. Horse racing there had begun in 1711. (SFC, 6/21/06, p.A2)(www.icons.org.uk/nom/nominations/royal-ascot) 1768 nend Seamen in London formed a union and imposed a port strike that virtually halted all shipping. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R27) 1768 nend William Smellie, a young Edinburgh botanist, was given the task of editing the first edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. (NH, 5/96, p.3)(WSJ, 4/22/99, A1) 1768 nend Johan Friedrich Struensee, a German doctor, was appointed as personal physician to the insane young King Christian VII of Denmark. The doctor became lover to the queen, Caroline Mathilde, the younger sister of George III of England. Struensee was arrested and executed after 2 years. (WSJ, 12/7/01, p.W16) 1768 nend In Guanajuato, Mexico, enslaved Indians struck a major silver vein in Guanajuato. (SSFC, 5/4/03, p.D7) 1768 nend Prithvi Narayan Shah, the founder of Nepal, defeated the Malla rulers. (AFP, 6/28/11) 1768 nend King Carlos III of Spain sent Father Junipero Serra from Mallorca to California. (SFEC, 3/12/00, p.T4) 1768 1771 Capt. James Cook charted the coasts of both the north and south islands of New Zealand and Australia. Cook made his historic voyages in colliers, slow but strong ships designed primarily for carrying coal. His ship was named the Endeavour. Cook's voyage to Australia kept a botanical record called the Banks Florilegium. The 738 original plates commissioned by Sir Joseph Banks was not printed until a 100 set limited edition in 1989. (SFC, 6/18/96, p.D1)(WSJ, 10/5/99, p.A24) 1768 1774 The Russian and Ottoman War. (HNQ, 5/6/02) 1768 1834 In India the brigand, Amir Khan Pindari, was finally bribed by the British to retire with a grant of sovereignty over 4 territories. (SFC, 2/7/98, p.E8) 1769 nend Jan 10, Michel Ney, French marshal (Waterloo), was born. (MC, 1/10/02) 1769 nend Mar 23, William Smith, geologist (Strata Identified by Organized Fossils), was born. (SS, 3/23/02) 1769 nend Mar 27, Josef Antonin Gurecky (60), composer, died. (MC, 3/27/02) 1769 nend Mar, King Carlos III of Spain chose Don Jose Galvez to protect interests in Mexico. Galvez sent Gaspar de Portola and Father Junipero Serra with 62 Spanish soldiers out to establish a settlement at San Diego and on a northerly journey from Loreto to found missions along the Baha Peninsula and into California. Jose Antonio Yorba was one of the 62 soldiers. For his loyalty he received 62,000 acres of land that included much of what later became Santa Ana, Tustin, Orange and Mosta Mesa. (SFEC, 5/18/97, p.T5)(SFEC, 3/1/98, p.W34)(SFC, 6/17/98, p.C4) 1769 nend Mar, Captain Portola set out with a group of soldiers, priests, Christian Native Americans and muleteers. Their intention was to go as far as Monterey Bay but passed it. Gaspar de Portola led the first European land expedition to sight the San Francisco Bay from land. Captain Portola had been appointed governor of Baja and Alta California and sent on an expedition to explore and replace the Jesuits with Franciscans in the Baja missions and start new Franciscan missions in Alta. (SFC, 5/19/96,City Guide, p.16)(Park, Spring/95)(SFC, 5/19/96,CityGuide, p.16) 1769 nend Apr 12, Giovanni Agostino Perotti, composer, was born. (MC, 4/12/02) 1769 nend Apr 20, Ottawa Chief Pontiac (bc1720) was murdered by an Indian in Cahokia. (WUD, 1994, p.1117)(HN, 4/20/98) 1769 nend Apr 22, Madame du Barry became King Louis XV's "official" mistress. (MC, 4/22/02) 1769 nend Apr 24, Arthur Wellesley, general, Duke of Wellington, was born. [see May 1] (HN, 4/24/98) 1769 nend May 1, Arthur Wellsley, Duke of Wellington "Iron Duke," was born. He defeated Napoleon at Waterloo and later became the British prime minister (1828-30). [see Apr 24] (HN, 5/1/99)(MC, 5/1/02) 1769 nend May 7, Giuseppe Farinelli, composer, singer, was born. (MC, 5/7/02) 1769 nend Jun 7, Daniel Boone first began to explore the present-day Bluegrass State as recognized by Kentucky's Historical Society. [see June 7, 1767] (AP, 6/7/97) 1769 nend Jun 11, Anne Newport Royall, American newspaper reporter, was born. (HN, 6/11/01) 1769 nend Jul 16, Father Junipero Serra founded Mission San Diego de Alcala, the 1st mission in Calif. The Franciscan friars soon planted cuttings of olive trees. California?s first olive press was established in Ventura County in 1871. (http://missions.bgmm.com/sdiego.htm)(SSFC, 8/27/06, p.F2) 1769 nend Aug 15, Napoleon Bonaparte (d.1821), Emperor of France (1804-1813, 1814-1815) and continental Europe, was born on the island of Corsica. (WUD, 1994, p.950)(AP, 8/15/97)(HN, 8/15/02)(MC, 8/15/02) 1769 nend Aug 18, Gunpowder in Brescia, Italy, church exploded and some 3,000 were killed. (MC, 8/18/02) 1769 nend Aug 29, Edmond Hoyle (b.1672), English games expert, died. (MC, 8/29/01) 1769 nend Sep 14, Baron Freidrich von Humboldt (d.1859), German naturalist and explorer who made the first isothermic and isobaric maps, was born. (HN, 9/14/98) 1769 nend Sep 18, John Harris built the 1st spinet piano in the US. (MC, 9/18/01) 1769 nend Oct, Captain Portola and his party camped at what is now Pacifica. Portola sent Sergeant Jose Ortega out to survey what was ahead. (SFC, 5/19/96,City Guide, p.16) 1769 nend Nov 1-1769 Nov 3, Sgt. Jose Francisco Ortega with his scouting party first looked upon SF Bay from the vicinity of Point Lobos. (SFEC, 2/9/97, p.W4) 1769 nend Nov 4, Portola received reports of a large bay ahead and went to see for himself. He crossed Sweeney Ridge in San Mateo County and saw the SF bay. Francisco de Ulloa was a navigator and member of the party. (SFC, 5/19/96,City Guide, p.16)(SFEC, 9/21/97, p.C7) 1769 nend Dec 13, Dartmouth College, in New Hampshire, received its charter. (AP, 12/13/97) 1769 nend Los Angeles was born as El Pueblo de Nuestra de Los Angeles. (SFEC,12/797, p.T3) 1769 nend Gluck completed his opera "Paride ed Elena." It was the last of 3 collaborations with librettist Raniero de? Calzabigi. It deals with the seduction of Helen by Paris. (WSJ, 7/14/04, p.D14) 1769 nend The Swinford toll bridge in Oxfordshire was built across the River Thames. In 2009 it was up for auction offering buyers a tax-free investment with a bit of historic charm. It has been free of income tax since the 18th century, when Parliament granted ownership of the bridge and its tolls to the Earl of Abingdon and "to his heirs and assignees for ever." (AP, 11/18/09) 1769 nend Wolfgang von Kempelen of Hungary invented the Automoton Chess Player. It was 1st demonstrated to the Austrian court in 1770. In 2001 the deception was analyzed by James W. Cook in his book "The Arts of Deception." In 2002 Tom Standage authored "The Turk," an examination of the 18th century fascination with automatons. (WSJ, 7/12/01, p.A14)(WSJ, 4/12/02, p.W12) 1769 nend The Writer, built by Geneva watchmakers, was a crafted mechanical puppet that sits at a mahogany desk and is able to write a 40-word sentence with a quill pen. (Hem., 2/96, p.112) 1769 nend Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot, a French military engineer, invented an ungainly, steam-powered tricycle and practical steam locomotives and steamboats appeared early in the next century, eventually superceded by the internal combustion engine. (HNQ, 1/18/01) 1769 nend In Morocco the Sea Gate (Porte de la Marine) was built in Mogador, later renamed Essaouira, to link the harbor to the medina. About this time Sultan Sidi Mohammad Ibn Abdelah transformed Mogador into an open city and encouraged its growth as a commercial port. (SFEC, 1/2/00, p.T4) 1769 nend Bhaktapur, Nepal, fell and the triumphant Gurkhas took Kathmandu as their capital. (SSFC, 9/21/03, p.C8) 1769 nend A transit of Venus took place. It was timed in Tahiti by the party of James Cook (Econ, 5/29/04, p.79) 1769 1772 Samuel Hearne, explorer for the Hudson Bay Company, maintained an journal and his notes of the land are still a standard reference. (NH, 5/96, p.30) 1769 1775 Prithvi Narayan Shah, with whom we move into the modern period of Nepal's history, was the ninth generation descendant of Dravya Shah (1559-1570), the founder of the ruling house of Gorkha. (www.infonepal.com.np/shahs.htm) 1769 1821 Napoleon Bonaparte, self-crowned emperor of France. (V.D.-H.K.p.232)(WSJ, 11/18/96, p.A10) 1769 1830 Sir Thomas Lawrence, English painter. He painted "Pinkie." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.812) 1769 1843 Howqua, aka Wu Bingjian, Chinese merchant. His father was permitted to trade silk and porcelain with foreigners. He lent large sums in silver dollars to foreign traders in exchange for a share of their shipments. He donated 1.1 million silver dollars toward reparations after the First Opium War. (WSJ, 1/11/98, p.R18) 1769 1849 Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt from 1805-1848. (WUD, 1994, p.892) 1769 1852 Apr 29, The First Duke of Wellington was born. This was the title of Arthur Wellesley, also known as the Iron Duke. He was a British soldier and statesman and defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. He became Prime Minister and served from 1828-1830. [see 1815, Napoleon & 1828-1830, Wellington] (CFA, '96, p.44)(AHD, p.1454) 1770 nend Feb 22, Jan Matyas Nepomuk August Vitasek, composer, was born. (MC, 2/22/02) 1770 nend March 5, British troops taunted by a crowd of colonists fired on an unruly mob in Boston and killed five citizens in what came to be known as the Boston Massacre. The fracas between a few angry Boston men and one British sentry ended with five men dead or dying in the icy street corner of King Street and Shrimton?s Lane. Captain Thomas Preston did not order the eight British soldiers under his command to fire into the hostile crowd. The nervous soldiers claimed to be confused by shouts of "Why do you not fire?" coming from all sides. Versions of the event rapidly circulated through the colonies, bolstering public support for the Patriot cause. The British Captain Preston and seven soldiers were defended by John Adams. The captain and five of the soldiers were acquitted, the other two soldiers were found guilty of manslaughter and were branded on the hand with a hot iron. The first colonist killed in the American Revolution was the former slave, Crispus Attucks, shot by the British at the Boston Massacre. The event was later illustrated by Boston engraver Paul Revere. (HFA, '96, p.26)(A&IP, Miers, p.18)(SFC, 12/18/96, p.A25)(AP,3/5/98)(HN, 3/5/98)(HNPD, 3/5/99)(WSJ, 4/12/08, p.W14) 1770 nend Mar 27, Giovanni B. Tiepolo (73), Italian painter (Banquet of Cleopatra), died. (MC, 3/27/02) 1770 nend Apr 7, William Wordsworth, English poet laureate, was born. He wrote "The Prelude" and "Lyrical Ballads." In 1998 Kenneth R. Johnston published "The Hidden Wordsworth: Poet, Lover, Rebel, Spy." The biography covered the first 30 years of the poet?s life. In 1896 Emile Legouis also published a biography of the poet?s youth. The poet was responsible for such phrases as: "love of nature," "love of man," and "emotion recollected in tranquility." (V.D.-H.K.p.230)(WSJ, 6/23/98, p.A18)(SFEC, 8/23/98, BR p.5)(HN, 4/7/99) 1770 nend Apr 9, Captain James Cook discovered Botany Bay on the Australian continent. (HN, 4/9/98) 1770 nend Apr 11, George Canning, British prime minister (1827) , was born. (HN, 4/11/98) 1770 nend Apr 12, British Parliament repealed the 1967 [Townshend] Townsend Acts that put duties on certain products imported to the US. (WUD, 1994, p.1499)(HN, 4/12/98) 1770 nend Apr 19, Capt. James Cook first saw Australia. [see Apr 9] (MC, 4/19/02) 1770 nend Apr 20, Captain Cook arrived in New South Wales, Australia. (HN, 4/20/98) 1770 nend Apr 28, Marie AC de Camargo (60), Spanish-Italian-Belgian dancer, died. (MC, 4/28/02) 1770 nend May 10, Charles Avison (61), composer, died. (MC, 5/10/02) 1770 nend May 16, Marie Antoinette (14), married the future King Louis XVI of France (15). (AP, 5/16/97)(HN, 5/16/98) 1770 nend Jun 3, Father Junipero Serra founded Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo on the shores of Monterey Bay as a chapel for the new Spanish Presidio of Monterey. A year later he moved the mission to Carmel. (SSFC, 11/25/01, p.C5)(www.sancarloscathedral.net/) 1770 nend Jun 7, Earl of Liverpool, (C) British PM (1812-27), was born. (SC, 6/7/02) 1770 nend Jul 6, The entire Ottoman fleet was defeated and destroyed by the Russians at the battle of Chesme [Cesme] on the Aegean Sea. (HN, 7/6/98)(WSJ, 4/29/99, p.A24)(HNQ, 8/25/99) 1770 nend Jun 11, Capt. James Cook, commander of the British ship Endeavour, discovered the Great Barrier Reef off Australia by running onto it. (AP, 6/11/97)(HN, 6/11/98) 1770 nend Jul 18, Isabel Godin, having traveled from Ecuador the length of the Amazon, reunited with her husband Jean Godin in French Guiana. (ON, 5/05, p.4) 1770 nend Aug 1, William Clark, American explorer, was born in Charlottsville, VA. He led the Corps of Discovery with Meriwether Lewis. (HN, 8/1/00)(MC, 8/1/02) 1770 nend Aug 24, Thomas Chatterton (b.1752), English poet (Revenge), committed suicide. (MC, 8/24/02) 1770 nend Aug 27, The German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) was born in Stuttgart. He wrote "The Science of Logic." Hegel greatly influenced Karl Marx. His method was to metaphysicize everything, that is, to discern in concrete reality the working of some Idea or Universal Mind. Hegel proposed that all change, all progress, is brought about by the conflict of vast forces. A world-historical figure or nation or event lays down a challenge. This thesis, as he called it, is opposed by an antithesis. The conflict between them is resolved, inevitably, by a synthesis of the two forces on a higher plane of being. (V.D.-H.K.p.258)(AP, 8/27/97)(HN, 8/27/98) 1770 nend Nov 13, George Grenville (58), British premier (1763-65), Stamp Act, died. (MC, 11/13/01) 1770 nend Nov 19, Albert Bertel Thorvaldsen, sculptor (Dying Lion), was born in Copenhagen, Denmark. (MC, 11/19/01) 1770 nend Dec 9, Gottlieb Theophil Muffat (80), composer, died. (MC, 12/9/01) 1770 nend Dec 12, The British soldiers responsible for the "Boston Massacre" were acquitted on murder charges. (HN, 12/12/98) 1770 nend Dec 16, Ludwig Von Beethoven (d.1827), German composer best known for his 9th Symphony, was born in Bonn. His Sixth Symphony "Pastorale" was in F-Major. Locks of his hair were cut off after his death and preserved by a number of collectors. (CFA, '96, p.60)(WUD, 1994, p.134)(WSJ, 5/29/96, p.A1,5)(AP,12/16/97)(SFC, 7/7/98, p.B3)(HN, 12/16/98) 1770 nend Dec 17, Johann Friedrich Schubert, composer, was born. (MC, 12/17/01) 1770 nend Dec 26, Pierre earl de Cambronne, French general (Waterloo, Elba), was born. (MC, 12/26/01) 1770 nend George Stubbs, Britain?s finest painter of animals, did a portrait of the Duke of Richmond?s imported yearling bull moose. It was commissioned by anatomist William Hunter (1718-1783) to see if the moose was related to the fossil Irish giant deer. (NH, 8/96, p.17) 1770 nend The "New England Psalm-Singer" by William Billings was released. (WSJ, 10/17/96, p.A20) 1770 nend Capt. George Cartwright, a British adventurer and entrepreneur, established the fishing village of Cartwright on the east coast of Labrador, Canada. (NH, 6/96, p.56) c 1770 nend A monastery was built in Cartagena, Colombia, that served as the seat of the Inquisition Tribunal for Spain. It later became the Hotel Santa Clara. (SSFC, 5/18/03, p.C12) 1770 nend Francois Boucher (b.1703), French painter, died. He painted "Diana." (Econ, 10/9/04, p.79) 1770 1772 John Copley painted the portrait of Samuel Adams in Boston. (WSJ, 6/14/95, p.A-14) 1770 1779 Shakers originated in England in the 1770s as the United Society of Believers in Christ?s Second Appearance. (SFC, 6/21/01, p.C2) 1770 1779 William Addis invented the toothbrush in the 1770s while a prisoner in Newgate Prison. (SFC, 7/14/99, Z1 p.3) 1770 1779 Blacks were 1st brought to Argentina in the 1770s to toil on large haciendas and work as domestic servants. (SSFC, 11/27/05, p.A24) 1771 nend Apr 13, Richard Trevithick, inventor of the steam locomotive, was born in Cornwall, Eng-land. (ON, 4/04, p.4) 1771 nend May 14, Robert Owen, English factory owner, socialist, was born. (MC, 5/14/02) 1771 nend May 14, Thomas Wedgwood, English physicist, was born. He is acknowledged as the first photographer. (HN, 5/14/99) 1771 nend Jun 3, Sydney Smith, preacher, reformer, author, was born in Woodford, Essex. (MC, 6/3/02) 1771 nend Jun 12, Patrick Gass, Sgt. of Lewis & Clark Expedition, was born in Falling Springs, PA. (MC, 6/12/02) 1771 nend Jun 24, E.I. Du Pont, chemist, was born. (HN, 6/24/98) 1771 nend Jul 12, James Cook sailed Endeavour back to Downs, England. (MC, 7/12/02) 1771 nend Jul 14, Father Junipero Serra founded the Mission San Antonio de Padua in California. (SFEC, 3/12/00, p.T4)(MC, 7/14/02) 1771 nend Jul 30, Thomas Gray (54), English poet, died. His work included "Elegy Written in a Country Church Yard" (1751). (MC, 7/30/02) 1771 nend Aug 15, Sir Walter Scott (d.1832), Scottish novelist who wrote "Ivanhoe" and "Rob Roy," was born. (WUD, 1994, p.1281)(HN, 8/15/98) 1771 nend Sep 8, Mission San Gabriel Archangel was formed in California. (MC, 9/8/01) 1771 nend Sep 10, The Scottish explorer Mungo Park (d.1806) was born. He settled the question as to the direction of flow of the Niger River as he traced the northern reaches of the African river in the 1790s. Park was one of the first explorers sponsored by England's African Associa-tion. He died in 1806 on another expedition to determine if the Niger linked with the Congo River. He reportedly drowned while fleeing attackers near Bussa, which is in present-day Nige-ria. (HNQ, 6/6/98) 1771 nend Sep 17, Tobias George Smollett, novelist (Adventures of Roderick Random), died at 50. (MC, 9/17/01) 1771 nend Nov 4, Carlo Goldoni's "Le Bourru Bienfaisant," premiered in Paris. (MC, 11/4/01) 1771 nend Nov 6, Alois Senefelder, inventor (lithography), was born. (MC, 11/6/01) 1771 nend Nov 11, Ephraim McDowell, surgeon (pioneered abdominal surgery), was born. (MC, 11/11/01) 1771 nend Dec 26, Claude A. Helvétius (56), French encyclopedist (L'esprit), died. (MC, 12/26/01) 1771 nend Fedot Ivanovich Choubine, Russian sculptor and painter, carved a bust of Catherine the Great. (Econ, 12/23/06, p.126)(http://tinyurl.com/y4ydna) 1771 nend A color engraving from this year of the fish Acarauna is on display at the Mariner's Mu-seum Library in Newport News, Va., USA. (Civil., Jul-Aug., '95, p.97) 1771 nend Mark Catesby had his work: "The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands" printed in London. (WSJ, 7/7/98, p.A14) 1771 nend In California Father Junipero Serra moved the Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Rio Carmelo over from Monterey. The Carmel mission was his 7th. (SFEC, 3/12/00, p.T5) 1771 nend Benjamin Banneker, black mathematician and surveyor, helped create the initial bounda-ries of Washington D.C. (SFC, 5/26/96, T-7) 1771 nend By this time some 50,000 British convicts were dumped on American shores. Most of them came from Middlesex, the county that includes London. (SFEC, 10/27/96, p.T9) 1771 nend A group of 79 underwriters established their Society of Lloyd's, Lloyd's of London, at the Lloyd's coffee shop. (Econ, 12/20/03, p.89) 1771 nend Britain?s Parliament named Benjamin Franklin to a committee to investigate how light-ning rods might help protect gunpowder. (WSJ, 8/15/05, p.D8) 1771 nend Joseph Priestley, English minister, grasped the rudiments of the carbon cycle after his experiments showed that mint in a sealed jar refreshed the air. (NG, Feb, 04, p.28) 1771 nend In Mexico Father Toribio Basterrechea, vicar of Huachinango, was convicted by the In-quisition of officiating at the marriage of two dogs. He was sentenced to 4 months of fasting and penance. (SFC, 9/18/96, p.A11) 1771 1858 Johann Baptist Cramer, composer and pianist, played Bach in public before 1800. (LGC-HCS, p.32) 1772 nend Feb 10, Louis Tocque (75), French painter, died. (MC, 2/10/02) 1772 nend Mar 10, Friedrich Von Schlegel (d.1829) was born. He was a German romantic poet and critic whose books included "Philosophy of History" and "History of Literature." "A historian is a prophet in reverse." (AP, 5/25/97)(HN, 3/10/99) 1772 nend Apr 11, Manuel Jose Quintana, Spanish author, poet (El Duque de Viseo), was born. (MC, 4/11/02) 1772 nend May 10, British Parliament passed the Tea Act, taxing all tea in the colonies. [see Apr 27, 1973] (HN, 5/10/98) 1772 nend May 11, Joseph Kerckhoff, Limburg surgeon, robber captain, was hanged. (MC, 5/11/02) 1772 nend May 20, William Congreve, English officer (design fire rocket), was born. (MC, 5/20/02) 1772 nend Jun 6, Haitian explorer Jean Baptiste-Pointe DuSable settled Chicago. [see Mar 12, 1773] (MC, 6/6/02) 1772 nend Jun 9, The 1st naval attack of Revolutionary War took place when residents of Provi-dence, RI., stormed the HMS Gaspee, burned it to the waterline and shot the captain. (WSJ, 6/24/03, p.A1) 1772 nend Jun 22, Slavery was in effect outlawed in England by Chief Justice William Murray, First Earl of Mansfield, following the trial of James Somersett. In 2005 Steven Wise authored ?Though the Heavens May Fall: The Landmark Trial that Led to the End of Human Slavery.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somersett%27s_Case)(Econ, 2/5/05,p.76)(ON, 12/08, p.9) 1772 nend Jul 13, Capt James Cook began a 2nd trip on the ship Resolution to South Seas. (MC, 7/13/02) 1772 nend Aug 11, An explosive eruption blew 4,000 feet off Papandayan, Java, and 3,000 people were killed. (MC, 8/11/02) 1772 nend Aug 19, Gustavus III of Sweden eliminated the rule of parties and establishes an abso-lute monarchy. It had been subordinate to parliament since 1720. (HN, 8/19/98)(MC, 8/19/02) 1772 nend Sep 1, Mission San Luis Obispo de Tolosa formed in California. Father Junipero Serra held the 1st Mass at San Luis Obispo. He left Father Jose Cavalier the task of building the state?s 5th mission. (SFEC, 10/11/98, p.T6)(MC, 9/1/02)(SSFC, 10/20/02, p.C1) 1772 nend Sep 26, New Jersey passed a bill requiring a license to practice medicine. (MC, 9/26/01) 1772 nend Oct 4, Francois-Louis Pierne, composer, was born. (MC, 10/4/01) 1772 nend Oct 21, Samuel Taylor Coleridge (d.1834), English poet and author, was born. His work included "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" and "Kubla Khan". (AP, 9/12/97)(HN, 10/21/00) 1772 nend Oct 30, Capt. Cook arrived with ship Resolution in Capetown. (MC, 10/30/01) 1772 nend Nov 2, The first Committees of Correspondence were formed in Massachusetts under Samuel Adams. (HN, 11/2/98) 1772 nend Dec 22, A Moravian missionary constructed the 1st schoolhouse west of Allegheny. (MC, 12/22/01) 1772 nend Beaumarchais wrote his "Barber" as an opera. Rossini later adopted it for his opera "Barber of Seville." (SFC, 8/13/96, p.B2) 1772 nend After Father Serra established a mission in Monterey, Ca, Pedro Fages and Father Juan Crespi set out to explore the SF Bay by land. (SFEC, 3/1/98, p.W34) 1772 nend Daniel Rutherford discovered nitrogen. (Dr, 7/17/01, p.2) 1772 nend Shoelaces were invented in England. (SFC, 8/28/98, p.B4) 1772 nend The Paris Faculty of Medicine declared potatoes to be an edible food. (SSFC, 10/5/08, p.A15) 1772 nend The French Veuve Clicquot champagne was first produced, but the first bottles were laid down for ten years. (AFP, 7/17/10) 1772 nend In Germany the silver and most of the silver-gilt in the Green Vault of Dresden was melted down and made into coin. (Econ, 9/16/06, p.95) 1772 nend Upon the partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, or simply Galicia, became the largest, most populous, and northernmost province of Austria where it remained until the dissolution of Austria-Hungary at the end of World War I. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galicia_(Central_Europe)) 1772 1801 Friedrich von Hardenberg, aka Novalis, visionary Romantic poet, novelist and political theorist. In 1997 a novel by English author Penelope Fitzgerald, "The Blue Flower," gave an ac-count of his life. (WSJ, 4/8/97, p.A20) 1772 1811 Rabbi Nachman of Bratslav, the grandson of the founder of Hasidism, used storytelling to teach his followers. (WSJ, 6/28/99, p.A24) 1772 1823 David Ricardo, English Economist and stockbroker. He postulated that landlords be-come rich at the expense of society. (V.D.-H.K.p.253)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R20) 1773 nend Jan 12, The first public museum in America was established, in Charleston, S.C. (AP, 1/12/98) 1773 nend Jan 17, Captain James Cook became the first person to cross the Antarctic Circle (66d 33' S). (HN, 1/17/99)(MC, 1/17/02) 1773 nend Feb 9, William Henry Harrison, the 9th president of the United States (March 4- April 4, 1841), was born in Charles City County, Va. (HN, 2/9/97)(AP, 2/9/99)(MC, 2/9/02) 1773 nend Feb 26, Construction was authorized for Walnut St. jail in Philadelphia, (1st solitary). (SC, 2/26/02) 1773 nend Mar 12, Jeanne Baptiste Pointe de Sable settled what is now known as Chicago. [see Jun 6, 1772] (MC, 3/12/02) 1773 nend Mar 26, Nathaniel Bowditch (d.1838), mathematician, astronomer, polyglot, author (Ma-rine Sextant), was born in Salem, Mass. In 1802 he published "The New American Practical Navigator." (SS, 3/26/02)(AH, 12/02, p.22) 1773 nend Apr 6, James Mill (d.1836), English philosopher, historian (Hist of British India) and economist, was born in Scotland. (V.D.-H.K.p.253)(WUD, 1994 p.909)(MC, 4/6/02) 1773 nend Apr 27, British Parliament passed the Tea Act. [see May 10, 1772] (HN, 4/27/98) 1773 nend May 10, To keep the troubled East India Company afloat, Parliament passed the Tea Act, taxing all tea in the American colonies. (HN, 5/10/99) 1773 nend May 15, Prince Clemens Von Metternich (d.1859), Chancellor of Austria, was born in Coblenz. His policies dominated Europe after the Congress of Vienna. (HN, 5/15/99)(WUD, 1994 ed., p.903) 1773 nend Jul 20, Scottish settlers arrived at Pictou, Nova Scotia (Canada). (MC, 7/20/02) 1773 nend Jul 21, Pope Clement XIV abolished the Jesuit order. He disbanded, defrocked, and stripped them of their sustenance. They were ignored by other orders and denounced as schemers and plotters. The Jesuits finally regained respectability in 1814after flourishing under-ground. (HN, 7/21/98)(MC, 7/21/02) 1773 nend Sep 1, Phillis Wheatley (d.1834), a slave from Boston, published a collection of poetry, "Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral," in London. Although she received her free-dom soon after, Wheatley?s last years saw only misery. (HN, 9/1/99)(HNPD, 2/21/00) 1773 nend Sep 11, Benjamin Franklin wrote "There never was a good war or bad peace." (MC, 9/11/01) 1773 nend Sep 14, Russian forces under Aleksandr Suvorov successfully stormed a Turkish fort at Hirsov, Turkey. (HN, 9/14/99) 1773 nend Oct 14, Britain's East India Company tea ships' cargo was burned at Annapolis, Md. (HN, 10/14/98) 1773 nend Nov 22, Robert Clive (~48), English occupier (India), died. (MC, 11/22/01) 1773 nend Dec 16, Some 50-60 "Sons of Liberty" of revolutionary Samuel Adams disguised as Mo-hawks defied the 3 cents per pound tax on tea boarded a British East India Tea Company ship and dumped 342 chests of British tea into the Boston Harbor in what became known as the Boston Tea Party. Parliament had passed the 1773 Tea Act not to regulate trade or make the colonies pay their own administrative costs, but to save the nearly bankrupt British East India Tea Company. The Tea Act gave the company a monopoly over the American tea trade and au-thorized the sale of 17 million pounds of tea in America at prices cheaper than smuggled Dutch tea. In spite of the savings, Americans would not accept what they considered to be taxation without representation. Overreacting to the Boston Tea Party, the British attempted to punish Boston and the whole colony of Massachusetts with the Intolerable Acts of 1774--another in the series of events that ultimately led to American independence. A bill for the tea ($196) was paid Sep 30, 1961. (HFA, '96, p.44)(A&IP, Miers, p.18)(SFEC,11/23/97, Par p.14)(AP,12/16/97)(HNPD, 12/16/98)(MC, 9/30/01) 1773 nend Dec 26, Expulsion of tea ships from Philadelphia. (MC, 12/26/01) 1773 nend Dec 27, George Cayley, founder of the science of aerodynamics, was born in England. (MC, 12/27/01) 1773 nend Dmitri Levitsky (1735-1822), Kiev born Russian-Ukrainian artist, painted a portrait of Katerina Khrouchtchova and princess Katerina Khonanskaia. (Econ, 12/23/06,p.126)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitry_Levitsky) 1773 nend Augustin Pajou, French sculptor, completed his bust of Madame du Barry. (WSJ, 3/18/98, p.A20) 1773 nend Phillis Wheatley, black poet, published "Poems on Various Subjects." (SFEC, 4/30/00, p.C12) 1773 nend Thomas Jefferson planted Yellow Newtown Pippin apples at his home in Monticello. (T&L, 10/1980, p.42) 1773 nend John Harrison (1693-1776) received a monetary award in the amount of £8,750 from the British Parliament for his achievements regarding the invention of the marine chronometer solv-ing the problem of establishing the East-West position or longitude of a ship at sea. He never received the official award, proclaimed in 1714, which was never awarded to anyone. (Econ, 5/1/10,p.80)(www.surveyhistory.org/john_harrison%27s_timepiece1.htm) 1773 nend In England Sir Robert Clive was acquitted of embezzlement. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1773 nend A group of English traders broke away from Jonathan's coffee house and moved to a new building. This became the forerunner of the London Stock Exchange (f.1801). (Econ, 12/20/03, p.89) 1773 nend The Samuel Deacon & Co. ad agency opened in London. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1773 nend A large earthquake destroyed so much of Antigua that the Spanish moved away and built a new capital on a plateau 30 miles away that became Guatemala City. (NG, 6/1988, p.798) (SFEM, 6/13/99, p.33) 1773 nend The Royal Captain, a merchant ship of the British East India Co., was lost off a coral reef in the Philippines. (WSJ, 7/21/00, p.W2) 1773 nend Captain James Cook found a group of islands 1800 miles northeast of New Zealand. They became known as the Cook Islands. "A couple of years ago, the Cook Islands hired a law-yer from the United States to draft an asset protection statute that instantly made the islands one of the best places in the world to protect assets from creditors. (Hem, 8/95, p.38) 1773 nend In Russia the Cossack Yemelyan Pugachev, pretending to be the dead emperor Peter III, incited a widespread rebellion. (SFC,10/28/97, p.A8) 1773 nend Samuel Johnson and James Boswell toured the countryside of Scotland. (SFC, 6/25/95, p.T-1) 1773 1777 William Bartram, American Quaker naturalist, was commissioned by Dr. John Fothergill to travel through the American South to hunt plants. Bartram?s travels led to the publication in 1791 of his "Travels Through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida." (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.10-12) 1773 1785 Warren Hastings served as the British governor-general of India. [see 1787] (WSJ, 5/1/00, p.A24)(WSJ, 2/22/00, p.A20) 1773 1793 Rule of Timur Shah. The capital of Afghanistan was transferred from Kandahar to Kabul because of tribal opposition. Constant internal revolts occurred. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1773 1827 Elizabeth de Meulan Guizot, French author: "Much misconstruction and bitterness are spared to him who thinks naturally upon what he owes to others, rather than on what he ought to expect from them." (AP, 7/18/99) 1773 1833 John Randolph, state representative from Virginia. He said of Edward Livingston, a mayor of NY and later a senator from Louisiana and US Sec. Of State, that he "shines and stinks like rotten mackerel by moonlight." (WSJ, 11/4/98, p.A20) 1774 nend Feb 10, Andrew Becker demonstrated a diving suit. (MC, 2/10/02) 1774 nend Feb 17, Raphaelle Peale, U.S. painter, was born. (HN, 2/17/98) 1774 nend Feb 22, English House of Lords ruled that authors do not have perpetual copyright. (MC, 2/22/02) 1774 nend Mar 4, The 1st sighting of the Orion nebula was made by William Herschel. (SC, 3/4/02) 1774 nend Mar 7, A 2nd Boston tea party was held. (SFEC,11/23/97, Par p.14) 1774 nend Mar 7, The British closed the port of Boston to all commerce. (HN, 3/7/98) 1774 nend Mar 25, English Parliament passed the Boston Port Bill. (MC, 3/25/02) 1774 nend Mar 28, Britain passed the Coercive Act against Massachusetts. [see May 20] (HN, 3/28/98) 1774 nend Apr 4, Oliver Goldsmith, Irish poet (She Stoops to Conquer), died. (MC, 4/4/02) 1774 nend Apr 19, Gluck's opera "Iphigenia in Aulis," premiered in Paris. (MC, 4/19/02) 1774 nend Apr, NYC patriots dumped 18 chests of tea off Murray?s Wharf. (WSJ, 10/16/02, p.D8) 1774 nend May 10, Louis XV (64), King of France (1715-74), died of smallpox and was succeeded by his grandson Louis XVI (19). Louis XVI soon appointed Charles Gravier, comte de Ver-gennes, as his new foreign minister. (AP, 5/10/97)(HN, 5/10/99)(PCh, 1992, p.318)(AH, 2/06, p.55) 1774 nend May 19, Ann Lee and eight Shakers sailed from Liverpool to New York. The religious group originated in Quakerism and fled England due to religious persecution. They become the first conscientious objectors on religious grounds and were jailed during the American Revolu-tion in 1776. In 1998 Suzanne Skees published "god Among the Shakers." The United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing is the full, proper name for the 19th-century religious group better known as the Shakers. Although they were the largest and best-known communal society a century ago, the Shakers were rarely referred to by their proper name. Outsiders dubbed them "Shakers" for the movements in their ritualistic dance. (DTnet 5/19/97)(WSJ, 3/27/98, p.W10)(HNQ, 7/2/98) 1774 nend May 20, The British Parliament passed the Coercive Acts to punish the colonists for their increasingly anti-British behavior. The acts closed the port of Boston. [see Mar 28] (HN, 5/20/99) 1774 nend May, The conjunction of the Moon, Mercury, Venus and Jupiter in the same constellation spread panic among the unenlightened in Europe. (NH, 6/00, p.10) 1774 nend Jun 1, The Boston Port Bill, the first bill of the Intolerable Acts (called by the Colonists) became effective. It closed Boston harbor until restitution for the destroyed tea was made (passed Mar. 25, 1774). (DTnet 6/1/97)(HN, 6/1/98) 1774 nend Jun 2, The Quartering Act, requiring American colonists to allow British soldiers into their houses, was reenacted. (HN, 6/2/98) 1774 nend Jun 13, Rhode Island became the 1st colony to prohibit importation of slaves. (MC, 6/13/02) 1774 nend Jul 11, Jews of Algiers escaped an attack of the Spanish Army. Jun 11 was also cited for this event. (MC, 7/11/02) 1774 nend Jul 12, Citizens of Carlisle, Penn., passed a declaration of independence. (MC, 7/12/02) 1774 nend Jul 16, Russia and the Ottoman Empire signed the treaty of Kuchuk-Kainardji, ending their six-year war. This brought Russia for the first time to the Mediterranean as the acknowl-edged protector of Orthodox Christians. (HN, 7/16/98)(WSJ, 4/29/99, p.A24) 1774 nend Jul 17, Capt Cook arrived at New Hebrides (Vanuatu). (MC, 7/17/02) 1774 nend Aug 1, British scientist Joseph Priestley succeeded in isolating oxygen from air in Calne, England. He called his new gas "dephlogisticated air.? (ON, 10/05, p.2)(AP, 8/1/07) 1774 nend Aug 6, Mother Ann Lee, founder of the Shaker Movement, arrived in NY. (MC, 8/6/02) 1774 nend Aug 12, Robert Southey, English poet laureate (1813-1843) and biographer of Nelson, was born. (HN, 8/12/98)(SC, 8/12/02) 1774 nend Aug 18, Meriwether Lewis, American explorer, was born in Charlottsville, VA. He led the Corps of Discovery with William Clark. (HN, 8/18/00)(MC, 8/18/02) 1774 nend Aug 28, Mother Elizabeth Ann Seton, the first American-born saint and the founder of the Sisters of St. Joseph, was born in New York City. She was canonized in 1975.. (AP, 8/28/97)(HN, 8/28/98)(RTH, 8/28/99) 1774 nend Sep 5, The first Continental Congress assembled in Philadelphia in a secret session in Carpenter's Hall with representatives from every colony except Georgia. Tensions had been tearing at relations between the colonists and the government of King George III. The British taking singular exception to the 1773 shipboard tea party held in Boston harbor. The dispute convinced Britain to pass the "Intolerable Acts"- 4 of which were to punish Mass. for the Boston Tea Party. Peyton Randolph of Williamsburg, Va., chaired the 1st Continental Congress. Its first official act was a call to prayer. (AP, 9/5/97)(HNQ, 6/25/00)(AH, 10/04, p.14)(AH, 4/07, p.31) 1774 nend Sep 13, Tugot, the new controller of finances, urged the king of France to restore the free circulation of grain in the kingdom. (HN, 9/13/98) 1774 nend Sep 26, John Chapman (d.1845), later known as Johnny Appleseed, was born in Mas-sachusetts. A pioneer agriculturalist of early America, Chapman began his trek in 1797, collect-ing apple seedlings from western Pennsylvania and establishing apple nurseries around the early American frontier. Chapman was a Swedenborgian missionary, a land speculator and an eccentric dresser (he hated shoes and seldom wore them. He planted orchards across western Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana from seed. (www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=94)(T&L, 10/1980,p.42)(ON, 4/09, p.10) 1774 nend Oct 14, Patrick Henry, in declaring his love of country in a speech during the First Conti-nental Congress on October 14, 1774, proclaimed, "I am not a Virginian, but an American." (HN, 8/2/98) 1774 nend Oct 20, The Continental Congress ordered the discouragement of entertainment. (MC, 10/20/01) 1774 nend Oct 26, The first Continental Congress, which protested British measures and called for civil disobedience, concluded in Philadelphia. (AP, 10/26/97)(HN, 10/26/98) 1774 nend Oct 26, Minute Men were organized in the American colonies. (MC, 10/26/01) 1774 nend Nov 14, Gaspare Luigi Pacifico Spontini, composer, was born. (MC, 11/14/01) 1774 nend Nov 26, A congress of colonial leaders criticized British influence in the colonies and af-firmed their right to "Life, liberty and property." (HN, 11/26/98) 1774 nend Dec 2, Johann Friedrich Agricola (54), German court composer and organist, died. (MC, 12/2/01) 1774 nend Dec 13, Some 400 colonists attacked Ft. William & Mary, NH. (MC, 12/13/01) 1774 nend Dec 16, Francois Quesnay (b.1694), French economist, died. He was the first to think of the economy as a system of interacting parts to be judged by the necessities and conveniences it produces. Quesnay wrote his Tableau Économique (1758), renowned for its famous "zig-zag" depiction of income flows between economic sectors. (Econ, 8/7/10,p.84)(www.economyprofessor.com/theorists/francoisquesnay.php) 1774 nend Dec 18, Empress Maria Theresa expelled Jews from Prague, Bohemia and Moravia. (MC, 12/18/01) 1774 nend Dec, In Paris nearly 100 feet of the Rue d?Enfer ("street of Hell") collapsed to a depth of 100 feet. (Hem., 3/97, p.129) 1774 nend Sir Francis Beaufort (d.1857) hydrogapher, was born near Navan in Co. Meath, Ireland. (NH, 11/1/04, p.51) 1774 nend Kaspar David Friedrich (d.1840), German painter and master of numinous landscapes, was born. He painted "Wreck of the Hope." (AAP, 1964)(WSJ, 7/16/98, p.A16) 1774 nend John Singleton Copley, painter, left for England. This allowed his student, Charles Will-son Peale, to step in as the most fashionable colonial portraitist. (SFC, 1/25/97, p.E3) 1774 nend Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) published his novel "The Sorrows of Young Werther." In 1887 French composer Jules Massenet (1842-1912) turned into an opera. The op-era premiered at the Imperial Theatre Hofoper in Vienna on February 16, 1892. (SFC, 9/17/10, p.F1)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werther) 1774 nend Ann Lee, leader of the United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing, arrived in the New World. She was a young Englishwoman and led the Shakers in their faith which is based on celibacy, confession of sin, and belief in human perfectibility. She never learned to read or write. They withdrew from the world into their own agricultural communities which spread to Ohio & Kentucky and produced a wealth of songs, as many as 10,000. One of the best known is Simple Gifts made famous by Aaron Copland in Appalachian Spring. (WSJ, 10/16/95, p. A-12)(SFC, 9/21/96, p.E4) 1774 nend Nicholas Cresswell, Englishman, arrived in the US and spent 3 years traveling and meeting prominent Americans of the time including George Washington, Thomas Jefferson and British Gen. William Howe. Cresswell kept a journal and in 2009 it was published as ?A Man Apart: The Journal of Nicholas Cresswell 1774-1781.? (WSJ, 4/11/09, p.W9) 1774 nend Tadeusz Kosciusko came to America from Poland after an unsuccessful love affair. He became a hero fighting the British in the American war for Independence. (SFEC, 11/24/96, T7) 1774 nend A Dutch merchant cobbled together the earliest mutual-style fund, Eendragt Maakt Magt (Unity creates Strength). The first modern mutual fund was launched in Boston in 1924. (Econ, 4/21/07, p.83) 1774 nend Captain Cook dropped anchor at the Marquesas Islands. (SFEC, 8/25/96, p.T6) 1774 nend Capt. Cook discovered the 13-square-mile Norfolk Island 1,000 miles east of Sidney. It was later turned into a penal settlement from which the last prisoner left in 1855. (AP, 8/12/02) 1774 nend Captain Cook discovered Norfolk Island, between new Caledonia and new Zealand, and dubbed it "paradise" in his log. The British later turned it into a penal colony and resettled the inhabitants of Pitcairn island there in 1856. (SFEM, 3/12/00, p.66) 1774 nend In England Georgiana Spencer (1757-1806) married William Cavendish, the 5th Duke of Devonshire. Spencer was the great-great-great-great-aunt of Princess Diana. In 1999 Amanda Foreman authored "Georgiana," a biography of Georgiana Spencer. (WSJ, 1/7/00, p.W4) 1774 nend In England Sir Robert Clive (b.1725), considered by some as the richest man ever, committed suicide. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R8) 1774 nend Mexico exported 600 tons of the cochineal shell, known as carmine, to Spain. The acid color was extracted from the shell of the tiny red beetle that grew on cactus leaves. It was used to manufacture a red dye that was used in British "redcoats" and by Betsy Ross to color the first US flag. (WSJ, 10/7/98, p.B1) 1774 nend A Scottish printer finally overturned a copyright monopoly that had allowed English booksellers to lock up the works of Shakespeare and other authors for nearly 2 centuries. (WSJ, 3/26/04, p.W6) 1774 nend Spain established a small settlement on the Falkland Islands, which lasted to 1811. An Argentine outpost was established in the 1820s. (Econ, 4/7/07, p.36) 1774 1781 The British army occupied Manhattan, Staten Island and western Long Island for 7 years. In 2002 Richard M. Ketchum authored "Divided Loyalties," an account of the Revolution-ary spirit in NY; Barnet Schecter authored "The Battle for New York," and Judith L. Van Buskirk authored "Generous Enemies," an account of interactions between loyalists and rebels during the war. (WSJ, 10/16/02, p.D8) 1774 1784 The 1997 film "Beaumarchais" by French director Edouard Molinaro focused on these years. (SFEC,11/23/97, DB p.14)(SFC,11/28/97, p.C15) 1774 1789 Abdul Hamid I succeeded Mustafa III in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii) 1774 1792 In France King Louis XIV ruled. (WUD, 1994, p.848) 1774 1852 George Chinnery, English watercolorist. He lived and worked in Hong Kong, Macao and Canton. (Hem., 3/97, p.92) 1775 nend Jan 8, John Baskerville (68), English printer, type designer, died. (MC, 1/8/02) 1775 nend Jan 11, In South Carolina Francis Salvador became the 1st Jew elected to office in America. [see Aug 1] (AH, 2/05, p.16) 1775 nend Jan 17, 9 old women were burned as witches for causing bad harvests in Kalisk, Poland. (MC, 1/17/02) 1775 nend Jan 22, Marshal Oscar von Lubomirski expelled Jews from Warsaw, Poland. (MC, 1/22/02) 1775 nend Jan 25, Americans dragged cannon up hill to fight the British at Gun Hill Road, Bronx. (MC, 1/25/02) 1775 nend Jan 28, Peter the Great, Czar of Russia, was born. (HN, 1/28/99) 1775 nend Feb 9, English Parliament declared the Mass. colony was in rebellion. (MC, 2/9/02) 1775 nend Feb 10, Charles Lamb (d.1834), critic, poet, essayist, was born in London, England. "No one ever regarded the first of January with indifference. It is the nativity of our common Adam." (AP, 12/31/97)(MC, 2/10/02) 1775 nend Feb 12, Louisa Adams, wife of John Quincy Adams was born. (HN, 2/12/98) 1775 nend Feb 21, As troubles with Great Britain increased, colonists in Massachusetts voted to buy military equipment for 15,000 men. (HN, 2/21/99) 1775 nend Feb 22, Jews were expelled from the outskirts of Warsaw, Poland. (MC, 2/22/02) 1775 nend Mar 17, Richard Henderson, a North Carolina judge, representing the Transylvania Company, met with three Cherokee Chiefs (Oconistoto, chief warrior and first representative of the Cherokee Nation or tribe of Indians, and Attacuttuillah and Sewanooko) to purchase (for the equivalent of $50,000) all the land lying between the Ohio, Kentucky and Cumberland rivers; some 17 to 20 million acres. It was known as the Treaty of Sycamore Shoals or The Henderson Purchase. The purchase was later declared invalid but land cession was not reversed. (www.tngenweb.org/cessions/17750317.html) 1775 nend Mar 19, In Italy 4 people were buried by avalanche for 37 days and 3 survived. [not clear if this was the date of the avalanche or the recovery date.] (MC, 3/19/02) 1775 nend Mar 19, Portuguese fleet was repulsed in attack on Montevideo, Uruguay. (AP, 3/19/03) 1775 nend Mar 22, British statesman Edmund Burke made a speech in the House of Commons, urging the government to adopt a policy of reconciliation with America. (AP, 3/22/99) 1775 nend Mar 23, In a speech to the Virginia Provincial Convention, assembled at Henrico Church in Richmond, American revolutionary Patrick Henry made his famous plea for independence from Britain, saying, "Give me liberty, or give me death!" (AP, 3/23/97)(AH, 2/06, p.50) 1775 nend Apr 7, Francis C. Lowell was born. He founded the 1st raw cotton-to-cloth textile mill. (MC, 4/7/02) 1775 nend Apr 8, Adam A. earl von Neipperg, Austrian general, Napoleon's wife Marie lover, was born. (MC, 4/8/02) 1775 nend Apr 13, Lord North extended the New England Restraining Act to South Carolina, Vir-ginia, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Maryland. The act forbade trade with any country other than Britain and Ireland. (HN, 4/13/99) 1775 nend Apr 14, The first American society for the abolition of slavery was organized by Benjamin Franklin and Benjamin Rush in Philadelphia. (AP, 4/14/97)(HN, 4/14/97) 1775 nend Apr 14, Gen. Thomas Gage, commander of British forces in North America, received or-ders from Parliament authorizing him to use aggressive military force against the American re-bels. (ON, 3/01, p.2) 1775 nend Apr 18, Several post riders set out to warn colonists of the British attack that started the American Revolution. One patriotic myth that grew out of that movement began with a poem Henry Wadsworth Longfellow called "Paul Revere's Ride." Paul Revere began his famous ride from Charlestown to Lexington, Mass., warning American colonists that the British were coming. American revolutionaries Paul Revere, William Dawes and Samuel Prescott warned that "the British are coming". Only Prescott galloped all the way to Concord. Revere was corralled by a British cavalry patrol near Lexington, MA; Dawes and Prescott escaped. A company of over 700 British troops marched toward Concord. 23-year-old church sexton Robert Newman hung two lanterns in the Old North Church to warn riders that the British were leaving Boston by boat to march on Concord. Every April, a descendant of the 18th-century patriot still climbs to the stee-ple of Old North Church and hangs two small tin and glass lanterns. (HN, 4/18/98)(ON, 3/01, p.2)(HNQ, 7/5/01)(AP, 4/18/07) 1775 nend Apr 19, Alerted by Paul Revere the American Revolutionary War began at Lexington Common with the Battle of Lexington-Concord. Capt. John Parker mustered 78 militiamen on the town green of Lexington to send a warning to the 700 British soldiers marching to Concord to seize weapons and gunpowder. Maj. Gen. Thomas Gage sent a force of 700 British troops to Concord, west of Boston, to capture colonial weapons and arrest Patriot leaders Samuel Adams and John Hancock. Arriving at Lexington on their way to Concord, the British were met on the town common by about 70 Minutemen. The "shot heard ?round the world" ignited the American Revolutionary War. No one knows who fired the first shot, but when the smoke cleared, eight Americans lay dead. The British suffered more than 250 casualties as they opposed more than 1,500 Massachusetts men. The events are documented in the 1997 book "Liberty by Thomas Fleming." Isaac Davis was among the first to die at Lexington and Concord. (HFA, '96, p.28)(V.D.-H.K.p.224)(AP, 4/19/97)(SFEC,11/23/97, Parp.14) (HN, 4/19/97)(HNPD, 4/19/99)(HNQ, 10/17/00) 1775 nend Apr 20, British troops began the siege of Boston. (HN, 4/20/98) 1775 nend Apr 23, Joseph Mallord William Turner, landscape painter, was born in England. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._M._W._Turner) 1775 nend Apr 23, Mozart's Opera "Il Re Pastore" was produced (Salzburg). (MC, 4/23/02) 1775 nend May 5, Benjamin Franklin arrived in Philadelphia following almost a decade in Europe. (AH, 2/06, p.52) 1775 nend May 10, The Second Continental Congress convened in Pennsylvania. It named George Washington as supreme commander. Benjamin Franklin represented Pennsylvania soon pre-sented his reworked Plan of Union under the title The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress)(AH, 2/06,p.47) 1775 nend May 10, Ethan Allen and his 83 Green Mountain Boys captured the British-held fortress at Ticonderoga, N.Y., on the western shore of Lake Champlain. They took the entire garrison captive without firing a shot. This was the 1st aggressive American action in the War of Inde-pendence. (AP, 5/10/97)(HN, 5/10/98)(ON, 3/00, p.4) 1775 nend May 20, North Carolina became the first colony to declare its independence. Citizens of Mecklenburg County, NC, declared independence from Britain. (HN, 5/20/98)(MC, 5/20/02) 1775 nend May, George Washington went to the Philadelphia State House where the Second Con-tinental Congress was meeting and John Adams moved to name him Commander-in-chief of the Continental army. (A & IP, ESM, p.13) 1775 nend Jun 7, The United Colonies changed name to United States. (HN, 6/7/98) 1775 nend Jun 12, In the 1st naval battle of Revolution the US ship Unity captured the British ship Margaretta. (MC, 6/12/02) 1775 nend Jun 14, The Continental Army, forerunner of the United States Army, was founded when the Continental Congress first authorized the muster of troops under its sponsorship. (HN, 6/14/98)(AP, 6/14/07) 1775 nend Jun 15, Word reached the Americans that the British intended to occupy the Charles-town peninsula. (HT, 3/97, p.30) 1775 nend Jun 15, The Second Continental Congress voted unanimously to appoint George Wash-ington head of the Continental Army. (AP, 6/15/97)(HN, 6/15/98) 1775 nend Jun 16, American Col. William Prescott led 1200 men from Cambridge to dig in at Bun-ker?s Hill but arrived at night and dug in at Breed?s Hill. A siege on Boston by Colonial militia generals John Stark and Israel Putnam prompted the British to attack. (HT, 3/97, p.30)(SFC, 4/2/97, Z1 p.6) 1775 nend Jun 17, The Battle at Bunker?s Hill was actually fought on Breed?s Hill near Boston. It lasted less than 2 hours and was the deadliest of the Revolutionary War. The British captured the hill on their third attempt but suffered over 1,000 casualties vs. about 400-600 for the Ameri-cans. Patriotic hero Dr. Joseph Warren died in the battle. Patriot General William Prescott alleg-edly told his men, "Don't one of you fire until you see the whites of their eyes!" British casualties were estimated at 226 dead and 828 wounded, while American casualties were estimated at 140 dead and 301 wounded. (SFC, 4/2/97, Z1 p.6)(AP, 6/17/98)(HNQ, 4/1/99)(AH, 10/07,p.72) 1775 nend Jul 2, George Washington arrived in Boston and took over as commander-in-chief of the new Continental Army. (HT, 3/97, p.33) 1775 nend Jul 3, Gen. George Washington took command of the Continental Army at Cambridge, Mass. (AP, 7/3/97) 1775 nend Jul 5, William Crotch, composer, was born. (MC, 7/5/02) 1775 nend Jul 5, The Olive Branch Petition was adopted by the Continental Congress and pro-fessed the attachment of the American people to George III. It expressed hope for the restora-tion of harmony and begged the king to prevent further hostile actions against the colonies. The following day, Congress passed a resolution written by Thomas Jefferson and John Dickinson, a "Declaration of the Causes and Necessities of Taking Up Arms," which rejected independence but asserted that Americans were ready to die rather than be enslaved. King George refused to receive the Olive Branch Petition on August 23 and proclaimed the American colonies to be in open rebellion. (HNQ, 7/2/99) 1775 nend Jul 10, Gen Horatio Gates, issued an order excluding blacks from Continental Army. [see Oct 8] (MC, 7/10/02) 1775 nend Jul 16, John Adams graduated from Harvard. (MC, 7/16/02) 1775 nend Jul 25, Anna Symmes Harrison, 1st lady, was born. (SC, 7/25/02) 1775 nend Jul 25, Maryland issued currency depicting George III trampling the Magna Carta. (SC, 7/25/02) 1775 nend Jul 26, The Continental Congress established a postal system for the colonies with Ben-jamin Franklin as the first postmaster general in Philadelphia. (AP, 7/26/97)(HN, 7/26/98) 1775 nend Jul 30, Captain Cook returned to England. (MC, 7/30/02) 1775 nend Aug 1, Francis Salvador and his men were ambushed by a group of Cherokees and Loyalists near present-day Seneca, South Carolina, while leading a militia group under the gen-eral command of Major Wilkinson. Salvador was wounded and then scalped by the Cherokees. (MC, 1/11/02) 1775 nend Aug 5, Lieutenant Juan Manuel de Ayala was the first European explorer to sail through the Golden Gate of California. He anchored at Angel Island and waited for the overland expedi-tion of Captain Juan Bautista de Anza. Isla de los Angeles, or Angel Island, was one of the first landforms named by the Spanish when they entered SF Bay. The Spanish fregata, Punta de San Carlos, was the first sailing vessel to enter the San Francisco Bay while on a voyage of ex-ploration. Ayala named Alcatraz Island after a large flock of pelicans, called alcatraces in Span-ish. (SFC, 5/19/96,City Guide, p.16)(CAS, 1996, p.19)(SFEC, 2/9/97,p.W4)(SFEC, 3/8/98, p.W38)(SFC, 12/26/01, p.A28) 1775 nend Aug 23, Britain's King George III refused the American colonies' offer of peace and pro-claimed the American colonies in a state of "open and avowed rebellion." (HN, 8/23/98)(AP, 8/23/07) 1775 nend Sep 13, Gotthold Lessing's "Die Juden," premiered in Frankfurt-am-Main. (MC, 9/13/01) 1775 nend Sep 25, British troops captured Ethan Allen, the hero of Ticonderoga, when he and a handful of Americans led an attack on Montreal, Canada. (AP, 9/25/97)(HN, 9/25/98) 1775 nend Oct 8, Officers decided to bar slaves and free blacks from Continental Army. [see Jul 10, Oct 23, Nov 12, Dec 31] (MC, 10/8/01) 1775 nend Oct 13, The U.S. Navy had its origins as the Continental Congress ordered the construc-tion of a naval fleet. The Continental Congress authorized construction of two warships. The 1st ship in the US Navy was the schooner Hannah. It was commissioned by George Washington and outfitted at Beverly, Mass. In 2006 Ian W. Toll authored ?Six Frigates: The Epic History of the Founding of the US Navy. (AP, 10/13/97)(HN, 10/13/98)(SFC, 2/12/00, p.B3)(Econ, 11/4/06, p.94) 1775 nend Oct 16, Portland, Maine, was burned by British. (MC, 10/16/01) 1775 nend Oct 23, Continental Congress approved a resolution barring blacks from army. (MC, 10/23/01) 1775 nend Oct 30, Fr. Lasuen founded Mission San Juan Capistrano, but the site was abandoned after eight days when they received word of an attack at the San Diego Mission. They quickly buried the bells for safe keeping and fled to the Presidio (fort) in San Diego for shelter. (http://missions.bgmm.com/sanjuanc.htm) 1775 nend Nov 7, Lord Dunmore promised freedom to male slaves who would join the British army. (MC, 11/7/01) 1775 nend Nov 10, The US Marines were organized under authority of the Continental Congress. Congress commissioned Samuel Nicholas to raise two Battalions of Marines. That very day, Nicholas set up shop in Philadelphia?s Tun Tavern. He appointed Robert Mullan, then the pro-prietor of the tavern, to the job of chief Marine Recruiter serving, of course, from his place of business at Tun Tavern. (AP, 11/10/97)(www.usmcpress.com/heritage/usmc_heritage.htm) 1775 nend Nov 12, General Washington forbade the enlistment of blacks. (MC, 11/12/01) 1775 nend Nov 12, US Gen. Montgomery began his siege of St. John?s and brought about the sur-render of 600 British troops. (ON, 3/00, p.6) 1775 nend Nov 13, American forces under Gen. Richard Montgomery captured Montreal. This was part of a two-pronged attack on Canada, with the goal of capturing Quebec entrusted to Bene-dict Arnold, who was leading a 1,100 man force through a hurricane ravaged Maine wilderness. In 2006 Thomas A. Desjardin authored ?Through A Howling Wilderness,? an account of Arnold?s march to Quebec. (AP, 11/13/97)(WSJ, 5/12/06, p.W5) 1775 nend Nov 17, George Washington was in Boston with his ragtag army facing 12,000 Redcoat regulars. (SFEC, 10/15/00, p.T12) 1775 nend Nov 28, The Second Continental Congress formally established the American Navy. (DTnet 11/28/97) 1775 nend Nov 29, The American Congress formed the Committee of Secret Correspondence with the mission of corresponding with friends in Great Britain, Ireland and other parts of the world. It April, 1777, its title was changed to Committee for Foreign Affairs. Members included Benjamin Franklin, Benjamin Harrison, John Jay, Thomas Johnson and John Dickinson. (AH, 2/06, p.54) 1775 nend Nov 29, Sir James Jay invented invisible ink. (MC, 11/29/01) 1775 nend Dec 6, Nicolas Isouard, composer, was born. (MC, 12/6/01) 1775 nend Dec 16, Jane Austen (d.1817), novelist, was born in [Steventon] Hampshire, England, as the 6th of 7 children [7th of 8]. Her well-educated parents encouraged reading and writing. Her work included "Sense and Sensibility" (1811), "Pride and Prejudice" (1812), "Mansfield Park" (1814) "Lady Susan" and "Emma" (1815). Her books "Persuasion" (1817) and "Northanger Ab-bey" were published posthumously. Austen's witty, well-constructed stories about realistic mid-dle-class characters challenged the limits of women writers. Although she called herself a "merely domestic" novelist, she greatly influenced the development of the modern novel. Aus-ten's most famous works were published between 1811 and 1816, shortly before she died in July 1817. Later in the 19th century critics appreciated Austen's writing more, and her novels remain popular today--for both literary critics and moviegoers, as they are widely read and adapted for the silver screen. "One does not love a place the less for having suffered in it unless it has all been suffering, nothing but suffering." Two biographies were published in 1997 with the same title: "Jane Austen: A Life," one by Calire Tomalin and the other by David Nokes. (SFEC, 5/11/97, BR p.10)(Hem., 5/97, p.102)(AP, 5/31/97)(SFEC,11/9/97, BR p.4)(WSJ, 11/17/97, p.A24)(HN, 12/16/98)(HNPD, 12/18/98) 1775 nend Dec 18-1775 Dec 27, In Philadelphia Benjamin Franklin, John Jay and Francis Daymon, members of the Committee of Secret Correspondence, met 3 times at Carpenter?s Hall with French agent Chevalier Julien-Alexandre Achard de Bonvouloir regarding French support for American Independence. (www.historynet.com/benjamin-franklin-revolutionary-spymaster.htm/3) 1775 nend Dec 22, Esek Hopkins was named the first commander of the US Navy. He took com-mand of the Continental Navy, a total of seven ships. (HFA,'96,.44)(AP, 12/22/97)(HN, 12/22/98) 1775 nend Dec 31, George Washington ordered recruiting officers to accept free blacks into the army. (HN, 12/31/98) 1775 nend Dec 31, The British repulsed an attack by Continental Army generals Richard Montgom-ery and Benedict Arnold at Quebec during a raging snowstorm; Montgomery was killed. (AP, 12/31/97)(SFEC, 1/10/99, p.T5) 1775 nend James Adair (~65) authored ?The History of the American Indians,? based on his experi-ences living in their midst. In 2005 Kathryn E. Holland Braund edited a new edition. (WSJ, 2/11/05, p.W6) 1775 nend Beaumarchais wrote his farce "The Barber of Seville." Beaumarchais reconceived his Barber opera as a play and turned it into a triumph at the Comedie Francaise. (WSJ, 12/19/96, p.A16)(SFC, 8/13/96, p.A20) 1775 nend Joseph Priestley published his book ?Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air.? He refuted some opinions of Lavoisier, who had recently named oxygen based on ex-periments modeled after Priestley?s work. In 1777 German chemist Karl Wilhelm Schele verified that he had independently isolated oxygen in 1772. no_source 10 nend /05, p.2) no_source 1775 nend Richard Brinsley Sheridan?s wrote "The Duenna." In 1940 Prokofiev composed the opera "Betrothal in a Monastery," based on Sheridan?s work. The Prokofiev work had its premiere in Prague. (WSJ, 5/7/98, p.A21)(SFC, 11/25/98, p.D1) 1775 nend Mozart at 19 composed Il Re Pastore, K. 208. It is considered the last major stage work from Mozart?s Salzburg period. (EMN, 1/96, p.3) 1775 nend Presbyterians made up the third largest denomination in America with more than 400,000 members. The largest denomination was made up of Congregationalists, with the sec-ond largest being Anglicans. (HNQ, 7/6/99) 1775 nend Tucson, Arizona was founded as a Spanish presidio. (AWAM, Dec. 94, p.31) 1775 nend Bodega Bay, Ca., was founded by the Spanish. (SFEC, 9/14/97, p.T3) 1775 nend Juan Manuel de Ayala named Alcatraz Island after a large flock of pelicans, called alca-traces in Spanish. (SFEC, 3/8/98, p.W38) 1775 nend Juan Bautista Anza, a 40-year-old Mexican captain, led 240 soldiers, priests and settlers to Monterey. Jose Manuel Valencia was one of the soldiers. His son, Candelario Valencia, later served in the military at the Presidio and owned a ranch in Lafayette and property next to Mis-sion Dolores. (SFEC, 9/21/97, p.C7) 1775 nend The 7th Virginia Volunteers first fought as militia in the War of Independence. (RC handout, 5/27/96) 1775 nend Lord Dunmore, Royal Governor of Virginia, called on local slaves to join the British side to suppress the American Revolution: ?When we win we will free you from your shackles.? The British issued similar proclamations throughout their North American colonies and enticed thou-sands of indentured servants and slaves, known as Black Loyalists, to the British side. (MT, summer 2003, p.8) 1775 nend The Hornet and the Wasp were frigates of the Continental Navy that fought British ships in Chesapeake Bay. (SFC, 8/17/98, p.A22) 1775 nend The Swedish chemist Scheele found a way to detect arsenic in the body. (SFEC, 12/22/96, zone1 p.2) 1775 nend Captain Cook on his 2nd voyage around the southern continent landed on an island (South Georgia) that he named after his sponsor, George III of England. He described the land as "savage and horrible." (NH, 2/97, p.54) 1775 nend Daniel Boone blazed a trail through the Cumberland Gap in Kentucky. (WSJ, 1/28/00, p.W8) 1775 nend Kabul became the capital of Afghanistan. (NG, V184, No. 4, Oct. 1993, p.66) 1775 nend Johann Wolfgang von Goethe moved to Weimar after Carl August asked him to be his secretary of state. (SSFC, 8/1/04, p.D10) 1775 nend Altar was founded in Mexico?s Sonora state as a military base. It?s location 60 miles south of Arizona later proved valuable as a jumping off point for immigrant smuggling to the US. (Econ, 8/12/06, p.31) 1775 nend In Mexico the Monte de Piedad (Mount of Pity), or National Pawn Shop, stands on the site of Montezuma's brother's palace in Mexico City. It was founded by the Count of Regla. As a lender of last resort the shop provided loans worth one-fifth to one-third an item?s value at inter-est rates of 4% a month. (Hem., 1/96, p.50)(SFC, 1/15/98, p.A10) 1775 nend In Mexico Manuel Arroyo of Real del Monte confessed to 30 counts of oral sex on men. He claimed that his doctor told him it was good for his health and a way to avoid evil thoughts about women. He was sentenced to 3 years in prison by the Inquisition. (SFC, 9/18/96, p.A11) 1775 nend Szymon Antoni Sobiekrajski, cartographer to King Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski, calculated that the center of Europe was in Suchowola, Eastern Poland. (WSJ, 7/14/04, p.A7) 1775 nend Catherine the Great of Russia received an ornament containing over 1000 diamonds, the "Sultan Feather" from the Turkish Sultan Abdulhamid. (WSJ, 2/10/98, p.A16) 1775 nend In Russia the Cossack Yemelyan Pugachev was captured and beheaded. (SFC,10/28/97, p.A8) 1775 1776 Juan Bautista de Anza led 198 colonists and 1,000 cattle from Sonora, Mexico, to Cali-fornia. (SFC, 6/7/00, p.A15) 1775 1781 George Washington got his brother-in-law, Fielding Lewis, to take charge of provisioning his regiments for the 6 years of the Revolutionary War. In 2002 Gordon S. Wood authored "The American Revolution: A History." (HT, 5/97, p.47)(WSJ, 3/8/02, p.AW9) 1775 1781 Some 5,000 Black Americans fought in the Revolutionary War. A silver coin commemo-rating their contribution was issued in 1998 to help finance a new memorial on the National Mall. (SFC, 2/26/98, p.A22) 1775 1781 The Royal Welch Fusiliers, a British regiment, was among the British troops that fought in the American Revolution during this period. In 2007 mark Urban authored ?Fusiliers: the Saga of a British Redcoat Regiment in the American Revolution. (WSJ, 11/15/07, p.D6) 1775 1782 More Revolutionary War engagements were fought in New Jersey--238--than in any other state. New York was second with 228. New Hampshire. The only one of the original 13 colonies not invaded by the British during the Revolutionary War was New Hampshire. (HNQ, 4/17/99)(HNQ, 7/31/99) 1775 1844 John Rubens Smith, British born painter. He came to the US in 1806 and produced nu-merous paintings of the emerging American landscape. He authored such books as: A Com-pendium of Picturesque Anatomy (1827), The Key to the Art of Drawing the Human Figure (1831), and the Juvenile Drawing-Book (1839). A collection of almost 700 drawings, paintings and engravings was acquired by the Library of Congress in 1993. (Civil., Jul-Aug., '95, p.66) 1775 1847 Daniel O'Connell, Irish political leader: "Bigotry has no head, and cannot think; no heart, and cannot feel." (AP, 8/12/98) 1775 1851 Joseph Mallord William Turner, English painter. In 1999 Anthony Bailey published "Standing in the Sun: A Life of J.M.W. Turner." (SFC, 4/29/97, p.B5)(SFEC, 2/7/99, BR p.6) 1775 1880 The Shaker community produced handmade furniture until 1880 when manufactured furniture became acceptable and their workshops were forced to close. The watercolors "Tree of Light" by Hannah Cohoon and "Gift Drawing" by Polly Collins were found in 1996 and put up for auction. (WSJ, 1/30/96, p.A-12) 1776 nend Jan 1-1776 Dec 31, In 2005 David McCullough authored ?1776,? and an account of Washington?s Continental Army throughout this year. (SSFC, 6/19/05, p.C1) 1776 nend Jan 2, 1st US revolutionary flag was displayed. (MC, 1/2/02) 1776 nend Jan 5, Assembly of New Hampshire adopted its 1st state constitution. (MC, 1/5/02) 1776 nend Jan 10, Thomas Paine (1737-1809), British émigré and propagandist, anonymously pub-lished "Common Sense," a scathing attack on King George III's reign over the colonies and a call for complete independence. It sold some 120,000 copies in just a few months, greatly af-fecting public sentiment and the deliberations of the Continental Congress leading up to the Declaration of Independence. He advocated an immediate declaration of independence from Britain. An instant bestseller in both the colonies and in Britain, Paine baldly stated that King George III was a tyrant and that Americans should shed any sentimental attachment to the monarchy. America, he argued, had a moral obligation to reject monarchy. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Paine)(AP, 1/10/98) 1776 nend Jan 14, George Washington commanded an army that consisted of some 9,000 men, up to half of whom were not fit for duty. (WSJ, 5/19/05, p.W10) 1776 nend Jan 16, Continental Congress approved the enlistment of free blacks. This led to the all-black First Rhode Island Regiment, composed of 33 freedmen and 92 slaves, who were prom-ised freedom if they served to the end of the war. The regiment distinguished itself at the Battle of Newport. (SFEC,11/23/97, Par p.19)(MC, 1/16/02) 1776 nend Feb 8, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's "Stella" premiered in Hamburg. (MC, 2/8/02) 1776 nend Feb 17, Edward Gibbon (1737-1794), English historian, published his 1st volume of " The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." He completed the 6-volume classic in 1788. (WUD, 1994 p.596)(WSJ, 5/26/07, p.P6) 1776 nend Mar 1, French minister Charles Gravier advised his Spanish counterpart to support the American rebels against the English. (HN, 3/1/99) 1776 nend Mar 2, Americans began shelling British troops in Boston. Henry Knox had managed to drag 58 canon and mortars from Fort Ticonderoga to the Dorchester Heights above Boston. (HN, 3/2/99)(WSJ, 5/20/05, p.W10) 1776 nend Mar 2, The American Secret Committee of Correspondence appointed Connecticut law-yer Silas Deane as a special envoy to negotiate with the French government for aid. (AH, 2/06, p.59) 1776 nend Mar 3, US commodore Esek Hopkins occupied Nassau, Bahamas. (SC, 3/3/02) 1776 nend Mar 5, A terrific storm wrecked British hope of a counterattack on Dorchester Heights in Boston, Mass. (WSJ, 5/20/05, p.W10) 1776 nend Mar 17, British forces evacuated Boston to Nova Scotia during the Revolutionary War. Suffolk Ct. Massachusetts declared this day Evacuation Day (AP, 3/17/97)(HN, 3/17/98)(SFEC, 4/25/99, Z1 p.8) 1776 nend Mar 25, The Continental Congress authorized a medal for General George Washington. (HN, 3/24/98) 1776 nend Mar 29, Mexican Captain Juan Bautista de Anza, Lt. Jose Moraga, and Franciscan priest Pedro Font arrived at the tip of San Francisco. De Anza planted a cross at what is now Fort Point. They camped at Mountain Lake and searched inland for a more hospitable area and found a site they called Laguna de los Dolores or the Friday of Sorrows since the day was Fri-day before Palm Sunday. Anza became known as the ?father of SF.? Mission Dolores was founded by Father Francisco Palou and Father Pedro Cambon. Rancho San Pedro, near what is now Pacifica, served as the agricultural center. Laguna de los Dolores was later believed to be a spring near the modern-day corner of Duboce and Sanchez. (SFC, 5/19/96,City Guide, p.16)(SFEC, 9/21/97, p.C7)(SFEC, 3/1/98,p.W34)(SFC, 2/19/11, p.A10) 1776 nend Mar 31, Abigail Adams wrote to her husband John that women were "determined to fo-ment a rebellion" if the new Declaration of Independence failed to guarantee their rights. (HN, 3/31/98) 1776 nend Mar, "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" was published by Adam Smith. He was the first to describe and explain the workings of the labor market and ar-gued for a laissez faire economy. [see 1723-1790, Smith] (WSJ, 11/30/95, p.A-20)(V.D.-H.K.p.214,253)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1776 nend Apr 1, Friedrich von Klinger's "Sturm und Drang," premiered in Leipzig. (MC, 4/1/02) 1776 nend Apr 3, George Washington received an honorary doctor of law degree from Harvard Col-lege. (AP, 4/3/97) 1776 nend Apr 12, North Carolina's Fourth Provincial Congress adopted the Halifax Resolves, which authorized the colony's delegates to the Continental Congress to support independence from Britain. (AP, 4/12/07) 1776 nend Apr 22, Johann Adolph Scheibe (67), German music theorist, composer, died. (MC, 4/22/02) 1776 nend Apr 26, Joan M. Kemper, Dutch lawyer (designed civil code law book), was born. (MC, 4/26/02) 1776 nend Apr, Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes, the French foreign minister, enlisted Pierre Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais, playwright and French spy, to establish a commercial firm to supply America with arms, munitions and equipment. (AH, 2/06, p.59) 1776 nend May 1, Adam Weishaupt founded the secret society of Illuminati. (MC, 5/1/02) 1776 nend May 2, France and Spain agreed to donate arms to American rebels. (HN, 5/2/98) 1776 nend May 4, Rhode Island declared its freedom from England, two months before the Declara-tion of Independence was adopted. (AP, 5/4/97)(HN, 5/4/98) 1776 nend May 10, George Thomas Smart, composer, was born. (MC, 5/10/02) 1776 nend May 12, Turgot, French minister of Finance, resigned. (MC, 5/12/02) 1776 nend May 13, Rodrigo Ferreira da Costa, composer, was born. (MC, 5/13/02) 1776 nend May 15, Virginia took the lead in instructing its delegates to go for complete independ-ence from Britain at the Continental Congress. (Civil., Jul-Aug., '95, p.60) 1776 nend May-1776 Jun, Betsy Ross finished sewing the 1st American flag. (www.ushistory.org/betsy/flagtale.html) 1776 nend Jun 7, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia proposed to the Continental Congress the resolu-tion calling for a Declaration of Independence: that "these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States..." Congress delayed the vote on the resolution until July 1. In the meantime, a committee consisting of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Roger Sherman, Benjamin Franklin and Robert R. Livingston was created to prepare a declaration of independence. (Civil., Jul-Aug., '95, p.60)(AP, 6/7/97)(HNQ, 7/3/98) 1776 nend Jun 10, The Continental Congress appointed a committee to write a Declaration of Inde-pendence. (HN, 6/10/98) 1776 nend Jun 11, John Constable (d.1837), English landscape painter (Hay Wain), was born. (SFC, 4/29/97, p.B5)(SC, 6/11/02) 1776 nend Jun 11, A committee to draft the document of Independence met. John Adams, Benja-min Franklin, Robert Livingston, Roger Sherman and Thomas Jefferson were the members. They immediately delegated the writing to Adams and Jefferson, and Adams gave it over to Jef-ferson. The events were later documented by Pauline Maier in her 1997 book: "American Scrip-ture: Making the Declaration of Independence." (Civil., Jul-Aug., '95, p.60)(AP, 6/11/97)(SFEC, 6/29/97, BR p.5) 1776 nend Jun 11-1776 Jul 4, The Continental Congress met and Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence, based on the principals of John Locke. But where Locke had used the word "property," Jefferson used the term "the pursuit of happiness." (V.D.-H.K.p.224-226) 1776 nend Jun 12 Virginia's colonial legislature became the first to adopt a Bill of Rights. The Vir-ginia Declaration of Rights granted every individual the right to the enjoyment of life and liberty and to acquire and possess property. The Virginia document was written by George Mason and was a precursor to the Declaration of Independence. In 1787 Mason refused to endorse the Declaration of Independence because it did not include a Bill of Rights. (SFEC, 7/27/97, Par p.8)(AP, 6/12/97)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R55) 1776 nend Jun 15, Delaware declared independence from both England and Pennsylvania with whom it had shared a royal governor. (WSJ, 5/30/00, p.A24) 1776 nend Jun 23, The final draft of Declaration of Independence was submitted to US Congress. (MC, 6/23/02) 1776 nend Jun 26, In San Francisco the St. Francis of Assisi Church, later Mission Dolores, was founded by Father Francisco Palleu. (SFEC, 1/30/00, DB p.26) 1776 nend Jun 27, Thomas Hickey, who plotted to hand George Washington over to British, was hanged. (MC, 6/27/02) 1776 nend Jun 28, Jefferson's document was placed before the Congress after some minor changes by Adams and Franklin. This event was immortalized in the painting by John Trumball. (Civil., Jul-Aug., '95, p.61) 1776 nend Jun 28, Colonists repulsed a British sea attack on Charleston, South Carolina. (HN, 6/28/98) 1776 nend Jun 28, Thomas Hickey, American sergeant convicted of treason, was hanged. (MC, 6/28/02) 1776 nend Jun 29, Settlers who had been waiting in Monterey headed north and gathered for Mass under a crude shelter at the new mission in San Francisco. (SFC, 5/19/96,City Guide, p.16) 1776 nend Jun, Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais established Hortalez et Cie, a fictitious company, to facilitate the transfer of arms to revolutionaries in America. It facilitated the transfer of weapons and munitions from France and Spain to the Americans. Under the scheme, France and Spain each loaned funds to the company for the purchase of munitions and the Americans would in turn pay for the material with rice, tobacco and other products. The scandal-plagued operation continued after the signing of the Franco-American alliance permitting open ship-ments of military aid between the two countries. (HNQ, 4/20/00) 1776 nend Jul 1, The Continental Congress, sitting as a committee, met on July 1, 1776, to debate a resolution submitted by Virginia delegate Richard Henry Lee on June 7. The resolution stated that the United Colonies "are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States." The com-mittee voted for the motion and, on July 2 in formal session took the final vote for independence. (HNQ, 7/1/99) 1776 nend Jul 1, The British fleet anchored off Sandy Hook in New York Bay. (WSJ, 11/16/99, p.A28) 1776 nend July 2, The Continental Congress passed Lee's resolution that "these united Colonies are, and of right, ought to be, Free and Independent States," and then spent two days over the wording of Jefferson's document. (Civil., Jul-Aug., '95, p.61)(AP, 7/2/97)(HN, 7/2/98) 1776 nend cJul 3, Caesar Rodney rode 80 miles from Dover to Philadelphia to vote for the Declara-tion of Independence. In 1998 the ride was commemorated by the US mint on the back of a new quarter. (SFC, 1/5/99, p.A2) 1776 nend Jul 4, The Continental Congress approved adoption of the amended Declaration of In-dependence, prepared by Thomas Jefferson and signed by John Hancock--President of the Continental Congress--and Charles Thomson, Congress secretary, without dissent. However, the New York delegation abstained as directed by the New York Provisional Congress. On July 9, the New York Congress voted to endorse the declaration. On July 19, Congress then re-solved to have the "Unanimous Declaration" inscribed on parchment for the signature of the delegates. Among the signers of the Declaration of Independence, two went on to become presidents of the United States, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. The Declaration of Inde-pendence was signed by president of Congress John Hancock and secretary Charles Thomson. John Hancock said, "There, I guess King George will be able to read that." referring to his signa-ture on the Declaration of Independence. Other signers later included Benjamin Rush and Robert Morris. Of the 56 signers of the Declaration of Independence, eight were born outside North America. In 2007 David Armitage authored ?The Declaration of Independence: A Global History.? (HN, 7/4/98)(SFC,12/19/97,p.B6)(SFC,2/9/98, p.A19)(HNQ, 9/10/00)(WSJ, 1/4/07, p.B11) no_source 1776 nend Jul 5, The Declaration of Independence was first printed by John Dunlop in Philadelphia. 200 copies were prepared July 5-6 and distributed to the states. (HN, 7/5/98)(HNQ, 7/4/99)(SFC, 7/4/01, p.A3) 1776 nend Jul 6, The US Declaration of Independence was announced on the front page of "PA Evening Gazette." (MC, 7/6/02) 1776 nend Jul 8, Col. John Nixon gave the first public reading of the Declaration of Independence to a crowd gathered at Independence Square in Philadelphia. The reading was announced by the "Liberty Bell." The bell had the inscription: "proclaim liberty throughout all the land onto all the inhabitants thereof." (AP, 7/8/97)(SFEC, 8/16/98, p.T5) 1776 nend Jul 9, The Declaration of Independence was read aloud to Gen. George Washington's troops in New York. (AP, 7/9/97) 1776 nend Jul 9, New York was the 13th colony to ratify the Declaration of Independence. (SFC, 7/7/96, T1) 1776 nend Jul 10, The statue of King George III was pulled down in New York City. (HN, 7/10/98) 1776 nend Jul 12, Capt. Cook departed with Resolution for 3rd trip to Pacific Ocean. (MC, 7/12/02) 1776 nend Jul 14, Jemima Boone (13), the daughter of Daniel Boone, and 2 friends were kidnapped by a group of 5 Shawnee and Cherokee Indians near Boonesborough, Kentucky. They were rescued on July 16 by Daniel Boone and 7 other Boonesborough men. (ON, 8/08, p.6) 1776 nend Jul 15, Declaration of Independence was read to every brigade in NYC. http://condor.stcloudstate.edu/~brixr01/theTIMEMACHINE.html no_source 1776 nend Jul 19, After New York?s Provincial Congress voted to endorse the declaration, Congress resolved on July 19 to have the "Unanimous Declaration" engrossed on parchment for the sig-nature of the delegates. (HNQ, 7/4/99) 1776 nend Jul 27, Silas Deane (1737-1789), secretly sent to France as America?s first official envoy, wrote a letter to the US Congress informing them that he has been successful beyond his ex-pectations. Deane had served as the Connecticut delegate to the Continental Congress. (http://tinyurl.com/lwd7xq)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silas_Deane) 1776 nend Aug 2, In Philadelphia most members of the Continental Congress began attaching their signatures to the parchment copy of the Declaration of Independence. Benjamin Harrison was one of the signers. His son and grandson later became the 9th and 23rd presidents of the US. Most of the 55 signatures were affixed on August 2, but Matthew Thornton of New Hampshire, who was not a member of Congress when the declaration was adopted, added his name in No-vember. (Civil., Jul-Aug., '95, p.61)(SFC, 5/7/96, p.A-6)(AP, 8/2/97)(HNQ,7/4/99) 1776 nend Aug 8, John Paul Jones was commissioned as a captain and appointed to command the Alfred. His orders were to harass enemy merchant ships and defend the American coast. (ON, 2/04, p.6)(Internet) 1776 nend Aug 27, The Americans were defeated by the British at the Battle of Long Island, New York. (HN, 8/27/98) 1776 nend Aug 29, General George Washington retreated during the night from Long Island to New York City. (HN, 8/29/98) 1776 nend Aug 29, Americans withdrew from Manhattan to Westchester. (MC, 8/29/01) 1776 nend Sep 2-9, The Hurricane of Independence killed 4,170 people from North Carolina to Nova Scotia. (WSJ, 9/13/01, p.B11) 1776 nend Sep 6, The Turtle, the 1st submarine invented by David Bushnell, attempted to secure a cask of gunpowder to the HMS Eagle, flagship of the British fleet, in the Bay of NY but got en-tangled with the Eagle?s rudder bar, lost ballast and surfaced before the charge was planted. Sergeant Ezra Lee released the bomb the next morning as a British barge approached. The brit-ish turned back and the bomb soon exploded. A month later the turtle was lost under British at-tack as it was being transported on a sailboat. (SFEC,11/23/97, Par p.14)(Arch, 5/05, p.36) 1776 nend Sep 6, A hurricane hit Martinique; 100 French & Dutch ships sank and 600 died. (MC, 9/6/01) 1776 nend Sep 9, The term "United States" was adopted by the second Continental Congress to be used instead of the "United Colonies." (AP, 9/9/97)(HN, 9/9/98) 1776 nend Sep 10, George Washington asked for a spy volunteer and Nathan Hale volunteered. (MC, 9/10/01) 1776 nend Sep 11, An American delegation consisting of Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and Ed-ward Rutledge met with British Admiral Richard Lord Howe to discuss terms upon which recon-ciliation between Britain and the colonies might be based. The talks were unsuccessful. In 2003 Barnet Schecter authored ?The Battle for New York: The City at the Heart of the American Revolution.? (AH, 6/03, p.61)(www.patriotresource.com/people/howe/page2.html) 1776 nend Sep 12, Nathan Hale left Harlem Heights Camp (127th St) for a spy mission. (MC, 9/12/01) 1776 nend Sep 15, British forces occupied New York City during the American Revolution. British forces captured Kip's Bay, Manhattan, during the American Revolution. (AP, 9/15/97)(HN, 9/15/99)(MC, 9/15/01) 1776 nend Sep 17, The Presidio of SF was formally possessed as a Spanish fort. The Spanish built the Presidio on the hill where the Golden Gate Bridge now meets San Francisco. (WSJ, 9/17/96, p.A12)(www.sfmuseum.org/hist6/founding.html) 1776 nend Sep 20, American soldiers, some of them members of Nathan Hale?s regiment, filtered into British-held New York City and stashed resin soaked logs into numerous buildings and a roaring inferno was started. A fourth of the city was destroyed including Trinity Church. The events are documented in the 1997 book "Liberty by Thomas Fleming." (SFEC,11/23/97, Par p.14)(WSJ, 9/14/01, p.W13) 1776 nend Sep 21, Nathan Hale was arrested in NYC by the British for spying for American rebels. (SFC, 9/20/03, p.A2) 1776 nend Sep 21, NYC burned down in the Great Fire 5 days after British took over. (MC, 9/21/01) 1776 nend Sep 22, American Captain Nathan Hale was hanged as a spy with no trial by the British in New York City during the Revolutionary War. He was considered as one of the incendiaries of the burning of NYC. Hale was commissioned by General George Washington to cross behind British lines on Long Island and report on their activity. His last words are reputed to have been, "I only regret that I have but one life to give for my country." (AP, 9/22/97)(SFEC,11/23/97, Par p.14)(HN, 9/22/98) 1776 nend Oct 3, Congress borrowed five million dollars to halt the rapid depreciation of paper money in the colonies. (HN, 10/3/98) 1776 nend Oct 9, A group of Spanish missionaries settled in present-day San Francisco. The formal dedication of Mission San Francisco de Asis was made. (SFC, 5/19/96,City Guide, p.16)(AP, 10/9/97) 1776 nend Oct 11, C. Randle painted: "A View of the New England Arm?d Vessels on Valcure Bay on Lake Champlain." It depicted the fleet of Benedict Arnold just before the Battle of Valcour Is-land on this day. The fleet was defeated but it slowed the British advance from Canada. (SFC, 7/1/97, p.A3) 1776 nend Oct 11, The naval Battle of Valcour Island on Lake Champlain was fought during the American Revolution. American forces led by Gen. Benedict Arnold suffered heavy losses, but managed to stall the British. (AP, 10/11/07) 1776 nend Oct 12, British Brigade began guarding Throgs Necks Road in Bronx. (MC, 10/12/01) 1776 nend Oct 13, Benedict Arnold was defeated at Lake Champlain by the British, who then re-treated to Canada for the winter. Arnold?s efforts bought the colonists 9 months to consolidate their hold in northern New York. In 2006 James L. Nelson authored ?Benedict Arnold?s Navy.? (HN, 10/13/98)(WSJ, 5/12/06, p.W5) 1776 nend Oct 18, In a NY bar decorated with bird tail, a customer ordered a "cocktail." (MC, 10/18/01) 1776 nend Oct 18, At the Battle of Pelham Col. John Glover and the Marblehead regiment collided with British Forces in the Bronx. (MC, 10/18/01) 1776 nend Oct 28, The Battle of White Plains was fought during the Revolutionary War, resulting in a limited British victory. Washington retreated to NJ. (AP, 10/28/06) 1776 nend Oct 29, Benjamin Franklin departed for France one month to the day after being named an agent of a diplomatic commission by the Continental Congress. He served from 1776-1778 on a three-man commission to France charged with the critical task of gaining French support for American independence. no_source 1776 nend Nov 1, Father Junipero Serra arrived at the site of Mission of San Juan Capistrano and re-founded it. His mission was to convert the members of the Acagchemem tribe called Juane-nos by the Spaniards. The tribe at the time was experiencing the end of a 7-year draught. (HT, 3/97,p.58)(http://gocalifornia.about.com/cs/missioncalifornia/a/capistranohist.htm) 1776 nend Nov 16, British troops captured Fort Washington on the north end of Manhattan during the American Revolution. (AP, 11/1697)(MC, 11/16/01) 1776 nend Nov 18, Hessians captured Ft Lee, NJ. (MC, 11/18/01) 1776 nend Nov 20, The British invaded New Jersey. (NH, 5/97, p.76) 1776 nend Nov 28, Washington and his troops crossed the Delaware River. (DTnet 11/28/97) 1776 nend Nov 30, Captain Cook began his 3rd and last trip to the Pacific South Seas. (MC, 11/30/01) 1776 nend Dec 2, George Washington's army began retreating across the Delaware River from New Jersey to Pennsylvania. In 2004 David Hackett Fischer authored "Washington's Crossing." (WSJ, 2/6/04, p.W8) 1776 nend Dec 5, Phi Beta Kappa was organized as the first American college scholastic Greek let-ter fraternity, at William and Mary College, Williamsburg, Va. In 2005 the honor society had some 600,00 members with about 15,000 new members joining annually. (AP, 12/5/97)(HN, 12/5/98)(WSJ, 11/4/05, p.W12) 1776 nend Dec 8, George Washington's retreating army in the American Revolution crossed the Delaware River from New Jersey to Pennsylvania. (AP, 12/8/97) 1776 nend Dec 19, Thomas Paine published his first "American Crisis" essay, writing: "These are the times that try men's souls." In the first of his Crises papers, Thomas Paine wrote, "These are the times that try men?s souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country." Written as Paine took part in the Revolutionary Army?s retreat across New Jersey in 1776, the pamphlet was ordered read to the troops in the Revolu-tionary encampments. (HFA, '96, p.44)(AP, 12/19/97)(HNQ, 9/21/99) 1776 nend Dec 23, Continental Congress negotiated a war loan of $181,500 from France. (MC, 12/23/01) 1776 nend Dec 23, Thomas Paine wrote "These are the times that try men's souls." (MC, 12/23/01) 1776 nend Dec 25, Gen. George Washington and his troops crossed the Delaware River for a sur-prise attack against 1,400 Hessian forces at Trenton, N.J. (AP, 12/25/97)(MC, 12/25/01) 1776 nend Dec 26, The British suffered a major defeat in the Battle of Trenton during the Revolu-tionary War. After crossing the Delaware River into New Jersey, George Washington led an at-tack on Hessian mercenaries and took 900 men prisoner. Two Americans froze to death on the march but none died in battle. There were 30 German casualties, 1,000 prisoners and 6 cannon captured. Four Americans were wounded in the overwhelming American victory, while 22 Hes-sians were killed and 78 wounded. The surprise attack caught most of the 1,200 Hessian sol-diers at Trenton sleeping after a day of Christmas celebration. The Americans captured 918 Hessians, who were taken as prisoners to Philadelphia. The victory was a huge morale booster for the American army and the country. The victory at Trenton was a huge success and morale booster for the American army and people. However, the enlistments of more than 4,500 of Washington?s soldiers were set to end four days later and it was critical that the force remain in-tact. General George Washington offered a bounty of $10 to any of his soldiers who extended their enlistments six weeks beyond their December 31, 1776, expiration dates. The American Revolution Battle of Trenton saw the routing of 1,400 Hessian mercenaries, with 101 killed or wounded and about 900 taken prisoner, with no Americans killed in the combat. Four Americans were wounded and two had died of exhaustion en route to Trenton. (AP, 12/26/97)(HN, 12/26/98)(SFC, 12/26/98, p.A3)(HNQ, 3/20/99)(HNQ,4/11/99)(HNQ, 12/26/99) 1776 nend Dec 26, Johann Gottlieb Rall, Hessian colonel and mercenary, died in battle of Trenton. (MC, 12/26/01) 1776 nend Dec 29, Charles Macintosh, patented waterproof fabric, was born in Scotland. (MC, 12/29/01) 1776 nend Augustin Pajou, French sculptor, completed his "Monument to Buffon." (WSJ, 3/18/98, p.A20) 1776 nend Fort Sullivan, outside the town of Charleston, S.C., was built primarily of palmetto logs and sand. Commanded by Colonel William Moultrie--for whom it was later renamed--the par-tially uncompleted Fort Sullivan on Sullivan?s Island bore the brunt of gunfire from a British naval force when the British tried to invade Charleston on June 28, 1776. The palmetto logs and sand from which the fort was primarily constructed absorbed most of the British shot, while the fort?s defenders managed to inflict disproportionate punishment to the British warships, one of which, the frigate Actaeon, ran hard aground and had to be abandoned and blown up by her crew. The successful defense of Charleston effectively left the Carolinas in the hands of the rebelling Pa-triots until a new invasion force returned to Charleston in February 1780. (HNQ, 10/25/01) 1776 nend Nano Nagle, a wealthy Irish woman, founded the Sisters of Presentation. At this time it was a crime in Ireland for a Catholic to teach or be taught. (SFC, 11/12/04, p.F11) 1776 nend A New York tavern keeper mixed a rum and "cocktail." The name was derived from rooster feathers used as ornaments for glasses. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1776 nend George Washington ordered his chief of artillery, Henry Knox, to establish an American arsenal to manufacture guns and ammunition for his army. Knox chose Springfield, Mass., on the Connecticut River. The Springfield Armory stayed open 173 years and was closed in 1967, but continues as a museum. (WSJ, 3/9/95, p.A-16) 1776 nend Col. George Rogers Clark was charged by the Virginia Assembly to seize the Northwest Territory. By 1778, Clark was in control of the land between Virginia and the Mississippi River?except Fort Sackville. (HNQ, 7/24/00) 1776 nend Margaret Corbin, the wife of an artilleryman, was badly wounded while serving in her husband?s gun crew at the Battle of Harlem Heights. (SFEC,11/23/97, Par p.19) 1776 nend The first issue of the US $2 bill was 49,000 notes by the Continental Congress as "bills of credit for the defense of America." (SFC, 9/14/96, p.A4) 1776 nend The Quakers of Pennsylvania abolished slavery within the Society of Friends and then took their crusade to society at large by petitioning the state legislature to outlaw the practice. (AH, 10/02, p.50) 1776 nend Don Marcos Briones came to San Francisco. His daughter, Juana Briones, was the first settler on Powell St. in North Beach. She was a battered wife and was the first California woman to get a divorce. (SFC, 5/26/97, p.A11) 1776 nend Spanish explorers encountered the native Havasupai Indians in Arizona. (SSFC, 2/19/06, p.F4) 1776 nend The southernmost of the Bantu peoples, the Xhosa, arrived at the Fish River in South Africa. (Enc. of Africa, 1976, p.169) 1776 nend The Russian Bolshoi Theater was founded. (SFC, 3/29/01, p.A11) 1776 nend Ike Taiga (b.1723), Japanese painter based in Kyoto, died. (SFC, 12/8/05, p.E1) 1776 nend David Hume, Scottish philosopher, died. He was the first prominent European atheist. Hume said "the overriding force in all our actions is? the desire for self-gratification. In order to survive, society has to devise strategies to channel our passions in constructive directions." "The most unhappy of all men is he who believes himself to be so." (WSJ, 5/10/96, p.A-8)(SFC, 3/20/99, p.B4)(WSJ, 12/14/01, p.W14) 1776 nend The Dutch built a slave house on Goree Island off the coast of Senegal. (SFC, 7/9/03, p.A10) 1776 1781 During this period Britain sent 60,000 troops to America. (WSJ, 5/16/96, p.A-12) 1776 1781 It is estimated that 30,000 Hessian soldiers fought for the British during the American Revolution. After Russia refused to provide troops for the war, the German states of Brunswick, Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Hanau, Waldeck, Anspach-Bayreuth and Anhalt-Zerbst supplied merce-nary soldiers, collectively referred to as Hessians. Seven thousand Hessians died in the war and another 5,000 deserted and settled in America. The British paid the German rulers for each soldier sent to North America and an additional sum for each killed. (HNQ, 3/31/99) 1776 1781 During the Revolutionary War some 100 ships were scuttled in the Elizabeth River in Portsmouth, Virginia, to prevent their capture by the British. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.15) c 1776 1781 Molly Corbin manned a cannon during the American Revolution and was wounded. She was cited for bravery and sent to the Invalid Regiment at West Point where she received half the male pay. She was also denied the daily rum ration until her complaints were heard. (SFEC, 6/4/00, Z1 p.3) 1776 1789 Charles Burney wrote "A General History of Music" that covers this period. (LGC-HCS, p.36) 1776 1822 E.T.A. Hoffman, German poet and novelist, author of "The Tales of Hoffman." The ballet "Coppelia" was based on one of his tales. (Harvard BDM, p.294)(SFC, 11/19/96, p.E1)(WSJ, 6/10/97, p.A16) 1776 1836 The correspondence between Thomas Jefferson and James Madison is documented in "The Republic of Letters" by James Morton Smith in 3 volumes published by Norton 1995. The two men are believed to have met in 1776 in the Virginia House of Delegates. (WSJ, 2/2/95, p.A-16) 1776 1841 Jane Austin, English author. She wrote "Sense and Sensibility." (WSJ, 3/25/96, p.A-1) 1776 1856 Amadeo Avogadro, Italian chemist. (V.D.-H.K.p.324) 1776 1876 The population of California Native Americans diminished from about 300,000 to 20,000. (SFC, 5/19/96,City Guide, p.16) 1777 nend Jan 3, Gen. George Washington's army routed the British led by Cornwallis in the Battle of Princeton, N.J. (AP, 1/3/98)(HN, 1/3/99) 1777 nend Jan 12, Franciscans founded Mission Santa Clara de Asis, the 8th of California?s original 21 missions. (SFC, 8/19/00, p.A13)(MC, 1/12/02) 1777 nend Jan 15, The people of New Connecticut declared their independence. The tiny republic became the state of Vermont in 1791. (AP, 1/15/99)(ST, 3/2/04, p.A1) 1777 nend Feb 13, The Marquis de Sade was arrested without charge and imprisoned in Vincennes fortress. (MC, 2/13/02) 1777 nend Mar 13, Congress ordered its European envoys to appeal to high-ranking foreign officers to send troops to reinforce the American army. (HN, 3/13/99) 1777 nend Mar 31, A young Abigail Adams encouraged her husband John to give women voting privileges in the new American government. She wrote to her husband on this day while he was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention: "I desire you would remember the ladies and be more generous to them than were your ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of husbands. Remember all men would be tyrants if they could. If particular care and at-tention are not paid to the ladies we are determined to foment a rebellion, and will not hold our-selves bound to obey any laws in which we have no voice or representation." Twenty years later her husband was a candidate in America?s first real election. (HNPD, 3/30/99) 1777 nend Mar, The Rev. Patrick Bronte was born on St. Patrick?s Day in County Down, Ireland. He married Maria Branwell of Cornwall in 1812 and they had six children that included the writers Charlotte and Emily. Mrs. Branwell died in 1821 at 38. (WP, 1952, p.34) 1777 nend Apr 12, Henry Clay, the "Great Compromiser", American politician and statesman, was born. He ran unsuccessfully for president three times. [see Apr 22] (HN, 4/12/99) 1777 nend Apr 14, NY adopted a new constitution as an independent state. Governeur Morris was the chief writer of the state constitution. [see Apr 20] (MC, 4/14/02)(WSJ, 5/28/03, p.D8) 1777 nend Apr 16, New England's minute men, Green Mountain Boys, routed British regulars at the Battle of Bennington. (HN, 4/16/98)(MC, 4/16/02) 1777 nend Apr 20, New York adopted a new constitution as an independent state. [see Apr 14] (MC, 4/20/02) 1777 nend Apr 22, Henry Clay, American statesman, the "Great Compromiser," was born. Henry Clay of Kentucky was a master politician in the era preceding the Civil War. Clay was a lawyer by trade. He began his lengthy political career in the Kentucky legislature and made three un-successful bids as the Whig Party's presidential candidate. [see Apr 12] (HN, 4/22/98)(HNPD, 6/29/98) 1777 nend Apr 26, Sybil Ludington (16) rode from NY to Ct rallying her father?s militia. (MC, 4/26/02) 1777 nend Apr 30, Karl Friedrich Gauss, German mathematician, was born. He researched infini-tesimal calculus, algebra and astronomy. He was also a pioneer in topology and is considered one of the world's great mathematicians. His methods in World War II helped disarm magnetic mines (HN, 4/30/99) 1777 nend May 1, Richard Brinsley Sheridan's "School for Scandal," premiered in London with Georgiana Cavendish as Lady Teazle. "Its assumptions are that lust and greed - when allied with beauty and cunning - deserve to triumph over dullness and age." He also wrote "A Trip to Scarborough," a rewrite of a Restoration original. (WSJ,11/24/95, p.A-6)(WSJ, 11/20/98, p.W6)(MC, 5/1/02) 1777 nend May 12, The 1st ice cream advertisement appeared in the Philip Lenzi NY Gazette. (MC, 5/12/02) 1777 nend May 13, University library at Vienna opened. (MC, 5/13/02) 1777 nend May 16, Button Gwinnet, US revolutionary leader, died from wounds. (MC, 5/16/02) 1777 nend Jun 13, Marquis de Lafayette landed in the United States to assist the colonies in their war against England. (HN, 6/13/99) 1777 nend Jun 14, The Continental Congress in Philadelphia adopted the Stars and Stripes, cre-ated by Betsy Ross, as the national flag. America's Flag Day, commemorates the date when John Adams spoke the following words before the Continental Congress in Philadelphia. "Re-solved, that the Flag of the thirteen United States shall be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the Union be thirteen stars, white on a blue field, representing a new constellation." Over the years, there have been 27 versions of the American flag. The present version was adopted on July 4, 1960, when Hawaii became the 50th state. In 2005 Marc Leepson authored ?Flag: An American Biography.? (AP, 6/14/97)(HNQ, 6/14/98)(WSJ, 7/1/05, p.W4) 1777 nend Jul 1, British troops departed from their base at the Bouquet river to head toward Ticon-deroga, New York. (HN, 7/1/00) 1777 nend Jul 2, Vermont became the 1st American colony to abolish slavery. [see Mar 1, 1780] (SC, 7/2/02) 1777 nend Jul 4, No member of Congress thought about commemorating the adoption of the Decla-ration of Independence until July 3 - one day too late. So the first organized elaborate celebra-tion of independence occurred the following day: July 4, 1777, in Philadelphia. (http://tinyurl.com/mpsa8y) 1777 nend Jul 6, British forces under Gen. Burgoyne captured Fort Ticonderoga from the Ameri-cans. (AP, 7/6/97)(MC, 7/6/02) 1777 nend Jul 7, American troops gave up Fort Ticonderoga, on Lake Champlain, to the British. (HN, 7/7/98) 1777 nend Jul 8, The Continental frigate Hancock was captured by the British ships Rainbow and Flora. The prisoners, including cabin-boy John Blatchford, were taken to Halifax. (ON, 1/00, p.4) 1777 nend Jul 27, Thomas Campbell, Scottish writer (The Pleasures of Hope), was born. (HN, 7/27/01) 1777 nend Jul 27, The Marquis of Lafayette arrived in New England to help the rebellious colonists fight the British. (HN, 7/27/98) 1777 nend Jul 31, The Marquis de Lafayette, a 19-year-old French nobleman, was made a major-general in the American Continental Army. (AP, 7/31/97) 1777 nend Jul, John Paul Jones was given command of the 20-gun ship Ranger at Portsmouth, New Hampshire. He was then ordered to report to a Secret Committee in Paris, that included Benjamin Franklin. (ON, 2/04, p.6) 1777 nend Aug 14, Hans Christian Oersted, Danish scientist, was born. He discovered electromag-netism. (HN, 8/14/00) 1777 nend Aug 16, American forces won the Revolutionary War Battle of Bennington, Vt. (AP, 8/16/97) 1777 nend Aug 16, France declared a state of bankruptcy. (HN, 8/16/98) 1777 nend Aug 22, With the approach of General Benedict Arnold's army, British Colonel Barry St. Ledger abandoned Fort Stanwix and returns to Canada. (HN, 8/22/98) 1777 nend Sep 3, The American flag (stars & stripes), approved by Congress on June 14th, was carried into battle for the first time by a force under General William Maxwell. (HN, 9/3/00) 1777 nend Sep 11, General George Washington and his troops were defeated by the British under General Sir William Howe at the Battle of Brandywine in Pennsylvania. Posing as a gunsmith, British Sergeant John Howe served as General Gage's eyes in a restive Massachusetts colony. (HN, 9/11/98) 1777 nend Sep 16, Nathan Rothschild (d.1836), banker, was born in Frankfurt. He was the son of Mayer Rothschild (1744-1812), who rose from the Frankfurt ghetto to become the banker to Prince William of Prussia. Nathan worked in London as a banker and invested Prussian money in the Napoleonic Wars and smuggled it to Wellington in Spain. He was the first to hear news from Waterloo and sold stock to convince other investors that the British had lost. His agents bought the stock at low prices. His 4 brothers established banks in Vienna, Naples and Paris. (WSJ, 1/11/98,p.R18)(www.rothschildarchive.org/ib/?doc=/ib/articles/BW3bNathan)y 1777 nend Sep 19, During the Revolutionary War, American soldiers won the first Battle of Sara-toga, aka Battle of Freeman's Farm (Bemis Heights). American forces under Gen. Horatio Gates met British troops led by Gen. John Burgoyne at Saratoga Springs, NY. (AP, 9/19/97)(www.americanrevolution.com/BattleofSaratoga.htm) 1777 nend Sep 20, British Dragoons massacred sleeping Continental troops at Paoli, Pa. Prior to launching a surprise night attack on Anthony Wayne?s Continental division at Paoli, General Charles Grey ordered his troops to rely entirely on their bayonets. To ensure that his troops obeyed, he had his men remove the flints from their weapons so they could not be fired. (MC, 9/20/01)(HNQ, 8/19/02) 1777 nend Sep 25, English general William Howe conquered Philadelphia. [see Sep 26] (MC, 9/25/01) 1777 nend Sep 26, The British army launched a major offensive during the American Revolution, capturing Philadelphia. [see Sep 25] (HN, 9/26/99)(AP, 9/26/97) 1777 nend Sep 27, At the Battle of Germantown the British defeated Washington's army. English General William Howe occupied Philadelphia. [see Sep 25,26] (MC, 9/27/01) 1777 nend Sep 30, The Congress of the United States, forced to flee in the face of advancing Brit-ish forces, moved to York, Pennsylvania. (AP, 9/30/00) 1777 nend Oct 4, George Washington's troops launched an assault on the British at Germantown, Penn., resulting in heavy American casualties. (AP, 10/4/97) 1777 nend Oct 7, The second Battle of Saratoga began during the American Revolution. During the battle General Benedict Arnold was shot in the leg. Another bullet killed his horse, which fell on Arnold, crushing his leg. The "Boot Monument" sits close to the spot where Arnold was wounded, and is a tribute to the general?s heroic deeds during that battle. Although Arnold?s ac-complishments are described on the monument, it pointedly avoids naming the man best known for betraying his country. The British forces, under Gen. John Burgoyne, surrendered 10 days later. (AP, 10/7/97)(HNQ, 7/20/01) 1777 nend Oct 7, Simon Fraser, English general, died in the battle of Saratoga, NY. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Simon_Fraser_of_Balnian) 1777 nend Oct 15, Tory Maj. James Graves Simcoe was appointed commandant of Queen's Rang-ers to combat American rebels. (MC, 10/15/01) 1777 nend Oct 17, General John Burgoyne with British forces of 5,000 men surrendered to General Horatio Gates, commander of the American forces at Schuylerville, NY. In the fall of 1777, the British commander Gen'l. Burgoyne and his men were advancing along the Hudson River. After Burgoyne had retreated to the heights of Saratoga, the Americans stopped and surrounded them. The surrender was a turning point in the American Revolution, demonstrating American determination to gain independence. After the surrender, France sided with the Americans, and other countries began to get involved and align themselves against Britain. (AP, 10/17/97)(HN, 10/17/98)(HNPD, 10/17/99)(SSFC, 6/30/02, p.C10) 1777 nend Nov 15, The Continental Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation in York, Pa. These instituted the perpetual union of the United States of America and served as a precursor to the U.S. Constitution. The structure of the Constitution was inspired by the Iroquois Confed-eracy of six major northeastern tribes. The matrilineal society of the Iroquois later inspired the suffragist movement. (PCh, 1992, p.325)(AP, 11/15/97)(SFEC, 4/19/98, BR p.2)(HN, 11/15/98) 1777 nend Nov 30, San Jose, California, was founded by the Spanish as El Pueblo de San Jose de Guadeloupe, California's first town. (SFEC, 7/11/99, BR p.1)(SFC, 9/2/99, p.A12)(SFC, 11/30/07, p.B4) 1777 nend Nov 30, Jean-Marie Leclair (74), composer, died. (MC, 11/30/01) 1777 nend Dec 2, British officers under Gen. Howe met in the Philadelphia home of Lydia Darragh to discuss plans to the attack American forces on December 5, just prior to Gen. Washington?s planned move to Valley Forge. Mrs. Darragh listened in on the plans and sent word to White-marsh of the impending attack. (ON, 8/07, p.8) 1777 nend Dec 8, Britain?s Gen. Howe withdrew to Philadelphia following a failed attempt on American forces encamped at Whitemarsh. (ON, 8/07, p.8) 1777 nend Dec 8, Captain Cook left the Society Islands (French Polynesia). (MC, 12/8/01) 1777 nend Dec 12, Rev. Benjamin Russen was hanged at Tyburn, England, for rape. (MC, 12/12/01) 1777 nend Dec 17, France recognized American independence. (AP, 12/17/97) 1777 nend Dec 18, The 1st America Thanksgiving Day commemorated Burgoyne's surrender at Saratoga. A national Thanksgiving was declared by Congress after the American victory over the British at the Battle of Saratoga in December 1777. For many years Thanksgiving celebra-tions were haphazard with Presidents Washington, Adams and Madison declaring occasional national festivities. (HNPD, 11/26/98)(MC, 12/18/01) 1777 nend Dec 19, Gen. George Washington led his army of about 11,000 men to Valley Forge, Pa., to camp for the winter. [see Dec 17] (AP, 12/19/97) 1777 nend Dec 23, Alexander I, Czar of Russia, was born. (HN, 12/23/98) 1777 nend Jean-Baptiste Greuze painted a portrait of Benjamin Franklin. (WSJ, 8/26/97, p.A14) 1777 nend The Acagchemem Indians built a small adobe church at Mission San Juan Capistrano. It?s been renamed the Serra Chapel and is the oldest building still in use in California. In 1791 a bell tower was completed. (HT, 3/97,p.60)(http://gocalifornia.about.com/cs/missioncalifornia/a/capistranohist.htm) 1777 nend George Washington wrote a letter offering Nathaniel Sackett $50 a month to set up an intelligence network. (SFC, 7/17/02, p.A3) 1777 nend The circular saw was invented. (SFC, 7/14/99, p.4) 1777 nend Captain James Cook, while exploring the Pacific, reported on long-board surfers in Tahiti and Oahu and observed that the sport appeared recreational rather than competitive. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1777 nend Marie Joseph Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier, the Marquis de Lafayette, arrived in the US in his own boat and offered his services to Gen?l. George Washington. (WSJ, 1/15/97, p.A12) 1777 nend An Italian scientist became the 1st to identify a certain eel as female. In 1882 another scientist figured out how to identify a male eel. (SFC, 7/22/00, p.E4) 1777 nend George Washington led a campaign against the British and their Iroquois allies in Penn-sylvania, New York, and the Ohio country. These included the Six Nations Indians: Mohawk, Cayuga, Onondaga, Seneca, Oneida, and Tuscarora. In 2005 Glenn F. Williams published ?The Year of the Hangman: George Washington?s Campaign Against the Iroquois. (WSJ, 7/26/05, p.D8) 1777 nend Stavropol was founded in south-western Russia during the Russo-Turkish War of 1768?1774 as a military encampment. In 1785 it was designated as a city. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stavropol) 1777 1778 Some 2,000 American soldiers died at Washington?s Valley Forge encampment in Penn. over a harsh weather period of 7 months. (WSJ, 1/3/02, p.A7) 1777 1787 Juan Bautista de Anza served as the governor of New Mexico. (SFC, 6/7/00, p.A15) 1777 nend Vermont including the town of Killington declared independence from New York and New Hampshire. It became a country unto itself, coined its own money, set up its own postal service and elected its own president. The Republic of Vermont stayed independent until 1791. (SFEC, 4/2/00, p.A6)(ST, 3/2/04, p.A5) 1777 1810 Phillip Otto Runge, German artist. (WSJ, 7/16/98, p.A16) 1777 1811 Heinrich von Kleist, writer. His work included "St. Cecilia or The Power of Music." (SFC, 2/19/96, p.E1) 1777 1851 Hans Christian Ursted (Oersted), Danish physicist. (AHD, 1971, p.911) 1778 nend Jan 10, Carolus Linnaeus [Carl von Linné, b.1707], Swedish botanist, died. His system for classifying living organisms in a hierarchy placed kingdoms at the top and species at the bot-tom. (HN, 5/23/01)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolus_Linnaeus) 1778 nend Jan 18, English navigator Captain James Cook discovered the Hawaiian Islands, which he dubbed the "Sandwich Islands" after the First Lord of the Admiralty, Lord Sandwich. About 350,000 Hawaiians inhabited them. Cook first landed on Kauai and then Niihau where his men introduced venereal disease. (Wired, 8/95, p.90)(AP, 1/18/98)(HN, 1/18/99) 1778 nend Jan 27, Nicolo Piccinni's (1728-1800) opera "Roland" premiered in Paris. (WUD, 1994 p.1088)(MC, 1/27/02) 1778 nend Feb 6, The United States won official recognition from France as the nations signed a treaty of aid in Paris. The Franco-American Treaty of Alliance bound the 2 powers together "for-ever against all other powers." It was the first alliance treaty for the fledgling US government and the last until the 1949 NATO pact. Benjamin Franklin signed for the US. (WSJ, 6/17/96, p.A15)(AP, 2/6/97)(AH, 2/06, p.59) 1778 nend Feb 6, England declared war on France. (MC, 2/6/02) 1778 nend Feb 13, Fernando Sor, composer, was born. (MC, 2/13/02) 1778 nend Feb 14, The American ship Ranger carried the recently adopted Star and Stripes to a foreign port for the first time as it arrived in France. (AP, 2/14/98) 1778 nend Feb 22, Rembrandt Peale, American painter who painted excellent portraits of the found-ing fathers of the United States, was born. (HN, 2/22/99) 1778 nend Feb 23, Baron von Steuben joined the Continental Army at Valley Forge. (HN, 2/23/98) 1778 nend Feb 25, Jose Francisco de San Martin (d.1850) was born in Argentina. He liberated Ar-gentina, Chile and Peru. Protector of Peru (1821-1822). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn)(ON,10/09, p.8) 1778 nend Feb 28, Rhode Island General Assembly authorized the enlistment of slaves. (MC, 2/28/02) 1778 nend Mar 5, Thomas A. Arne (67), English composer (Alfred, Rule Britannia), died. (MC, 3/5/02) 1778 nend Mar 7, Capt. James Cook 1st sighted the Oregon coast and named Perpetua Cape in honor of St. Perpetua?s Day. (SSFC, 9/21/08, p.E7) 1778 nend Mar 15, In command of two frigates, the Frenchman la Perouse sailed east from Botany Bay for the last lap of his voyage around the world. (HN, 3/15/99) 1778 nend Mar 15, Nootka Sound, Vancouver Island, was discovered by Captain Cook. (HN, 3/15/98)(MC, 3/15/02) 1778 nend Mar 22, Captain Cook sighted Cape Flattery in Washington state. (MC, 3/22/02) 1778 nend Apr 1, Oliver Pollock, a New Orleans businessman, created the "$" symbol. (HN, 4/1/98)(OTD) 1778 nend Apr 10, William Hazlitt (d.1830), essayist, critic, was born in Maidstone, Kent, England. (AP, 11/10/99)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hazlitt) 1778 nend Apr 18, John Paul Jones attacked the British revenue cutter Husar near the Isle of Man, but it escaped. Soon thereafter he raided Whitehaven and burned one coal ship. (ON, 2/04, p.6) 1778 nend Apr 22, James Hargreaves, inventor (spinning jenny), died. (MC, 4/22/02) 1778 nend Apr 23, US Captain John Paul Jones attempted to kidnap the Earl of Selkirk, but he only got Lady Selkirk's silverware. (ON, 2/04, p.6) 1778 nend Apr 24, US Ranger Captain John Paul Jones captured the British ship Drake. (ON, 2/04, p.6)(Internet) 1778 nend May 11, William Pitt Sr. (69), English premier (1756-61, 66-68), died. (MC, 5/11/02) 1778 nend May 30, Voltaire (b.1694), French writer born as Francois-Marie Arouet, died. His books included Candide (1759). (www.online-literature.com/voltaire/) 1778 nend Jun 7, George Byran "Beau" Brummell (d.1840), English wit, was born. He influenced men's fashion and introduced trouser to replace breeches. (HN, 6/7/99) 1778 nend Jun 18, American forces entered Philadelphia as the British withdrew during the Revolu-tionary War. (AP, 6/18/97)(HN, 6/18/98) 1778 nend Jun 19, General George Washington?s troops finally left Valley Forge after a winter of training. Washington left to intercept the British force on its way to New York City. (HN, 6/19/98)(MC, 6/20/02) 1778 nend Jun 27, The Liberty Bell came home to Philadelphia after the British left. (MC, 6/27/02) 1778 nend Jun 28, "Molly Pitcher," Mary Ludwig Hays McCauley, wife of an American artilleryman, carried water to the soldiers during the Revolutionary War Battle of Monmouth, N.J. and, sup-posedly, took her husband's place at his cannon after he was overcome with heat. Tempera-tures reportedly reached 96 degrees in the shade. According to myth she was presented to General George Washington after the battle. Her actual existence is a matter of historical de-bate and the outcome of the battle was inconclusive. (SFEC,11/23/97, Par p.19)(HNQ, 7/25/99)(AP, 6/28/08)(SSFC, 6/28/09,p.B12) 1778 nend Jun, George Washington appointed Benedict Arnold as military governor of Philadelphia. (ON, 11/01, p.1) 1778 nend Jul 2, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (b.1712), Swiss-born writer and philosopher, died in France. He was considered part of the French Enlightenment along with Voltaire and Diderot. In 2005 Leo Damrosch authored ?Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Restless Genius.? (www.infed.org/thinkers/et-rous.htm)(WSJ, 6/7/00, p.A24) 1778 nend Jul 3, The Wyoming Massacre occurred during the American Revolution in the Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania. As part of a British campaign against settlers in the frontier during the war, 360 American settlers, including women and children, were killed at an outpost called Win-termoot's Fort after they were drawn out of the protection of the fort and ambushed. (HNQ, 11/5/98)(MC, 7/3/02) 1778 nend Jul 8, George Washington headquartered his Continental Army at West Point. (MC, 7/8/02) 1778 nend Jul 10, In support of the American Revolution, Louis XVI declared war on England. (HN, 7/10/98) 1778 nend Jul 27, British and French fleets fought to a standoff in the first Battle of Ushant. (HN, 7/27/98) 1778 nend Summer, American Captain Leonard Helm occupied fort Sackville the British having withdrawn to Detroit. (HNQ, 7/24/00) 1778 nend Aug 9, Captain Cook reached Cape Prince of Wales in the Bering straits. (MC, 8/9/02) 1778 nend Aug 14, Augustus Montague Toplady (b.1740), English Calvinist hymn writer (Rock of Ages), died. His best prose work is the "Historic Proof of the Doctrinal Calvinism of the Church of England" (London, 1774). (MC, 8/14/02)(Wikipedia) 1778 nend Aug 20, Bernardo O'Higgins was born in Chile. He later won independence for Chile. (MC, 8/20/02) 1778 nend Aug 31, British killed 17 Stockbridge Indians in Bronx during Revolution. (MC, 8/31/01) 1778 nend Sep 3, Jean Nicolas Auguste Kreutzer, composer, was born. (MC, 9/3/01) 1778 nend Sep 5, Gideon Olmstead and 3 fellow Americans took over the British sloop Active and sailed it toward the New Jersey coast, where it was intercepted by the American brig Conven-tion, owned by the state of Pennsylvania. A state court ruled the sloop a prize of the state. An appeals committee overturned the Philadelphia court. Olmstead spent the next 30 years fighting for his claim and won in 1808. [see Mar 6, 1779] (ON, 12/01, p.9) 1778 nend Sep 7, Shawnee Indians attacked and laid siege to Boonesborough, Kentucky. (HN, 9/7/98) 1778 nend Sep 17, The 1st treaty between the US and Indian tribes was signed at Fort Pitt. (MC, 9/17/01) 1778 nend Oct 3, Capt. Cook anchored off Alaska. (MC, 10/3/01) 1778 nend Nov 9, Giovanni Battista Piranesi (58), Italian etcher, died. (MC, 11/9/01) 1778 nend Nov 11, British redcoats, Tory rangers and Seneca Indians in central New York state killed more than 40 people in the Cherry Valley Massacre. A regiment of 800 Tory rangers un-der Butler (1752-1781) and 500 Native forces under the Mohawk war chief Joseph Brant (1742-1807), fell upon the settlement, killing 47, including 32 noncombatants, mostly by tomahawk. (www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Cherry-Valley-Massacre)(AP, 11/11/07) 1778 nend Nov 14, Johann Nepomuk Hummel, composer, was born. (MC, 11/14/01) 1778 nend Nov 26, Captain Cook discovered Maui in the Sandwich Islands, later named Hawaii. (MC, 11/26/01) 1778 nend Nov 27, John Murray, publisher, was born. (MC, 11/27/01) 1778 nend Dec 17, Humphrey Davy (d.1829), English chemist who discovered the anesthetic effect of laughing gas (1799), was born. (HN, 12/17/98)(Dr, 7/17/01, p.2)(ON, 12/01, p.7) 1778 nend Dec 17, The British?under Lt. Col. Henry Hamilton?returned and recaptured Fort Sackville (near Vincennes, Indiana). (HNQ, 7/24/00) 1778 nend Dec 26, Juan Lovera, artist, was born: ?artist of independence?: originator of Venezuelan historical painting: paintings commemorate Venezuela?s independence dates. (440.com) 1778 nend Dec 29, British troops, attempting a new strategy to defeat the colonials in America, cap-tured Savannah, the capital of Georgia. (HN, 12/29/98) 1778 nend John Singleton Copley, American artist, painted "Watson and the Shark." The work was based on a real life incident from 1749 in Cuba?s Havana Harbor, where Brook Watson (14) lost half a leg to a shark. Watson went on to become the Lord Mayor of London. (WSJ, 4/9/99, p.W16) 1778 nend Thomas West, a Jesuit priest (c.1720-1779), wrote the ?Guide to the Lakes,? the first guidebook to the Lake District of England. (Econ, 4/3/10, p.88)(http://tinyurl.com/y4prxbr) 1778 nend Federalists won over anti-Federalists in a crucial New York state ratifying convention for the Constitution. (WSJ, 6/10/98, p.A18) 1778 nend In the winter of 1778, American troops stationed at West Point on the Hudson River nicknamed the place "Point Purgatory." Now the site of the famous military academy, during the Revolutionary War West Point was a strategic highland on the Hudson. Both the British and the Americans considered it very important for controlling the vital Hudson. (HNQ, 5/29/00) 1778 nend British troops ordered ships in Newport Harbor, R.I., to be sunk as French naval forces approached. (SFC, 3/12/99, p.A9) 1778 nend Benjamin Franklin, on a diplomatic mission in France, approved a plan by John Paul Jones to disrupt British merchant shipping along Britain's undefended west coast. (ON, 2/04, p.6) 1778 nend Ethan Allen, the hero of Ticonderoga, was released from prison in England as part of a prisoner exchange. (ON, 3/00, p.6) 1778 nend In New York City Robert Edwards, a Welsh buccaneer, or his son supposedly leased 77 acres of prime land to Trinity Church on a 99-year lease. The land later included what became Wall street. The land was supposed to revert to his descendants but that didn't happen. The case was to go to court in 1999. (SFEC, 1/10/99, p.A13) 1778 nend Benjamin Tallmadge, under orders from George Washington, organized a spy network in NYC, the heart of the British forces. The code name for the group was Samuel Culper and it be-came known as the Culper Gang. (MT, Fall/99, p.6) 1778 nend A census in Argentina showed that about 30% of the 24,363 residents of Buenos Aires were African. (SSFC, 11/27/05, p.A24) 1778 nend Juan Bautista de Anza led a punitive expedition across new Mexico and Colorado against the Comanches. His forces cornered and killed Comanche Chief Cuerno Verde and other leaders at what later became Rye, Colo. (SFC, 6/7/00, p.A15) 1778 nend The king of the Big Island of Hawaii sent his warrior-general Kamehameha to Lana?i, un-der the rule of Maui, after being thwarted in a bid to conquer Maui. Kamehameha?s troops de-stroyed everyone on the island, which event gave the island its name. Lana?i means "day of conquest." (SFEM, 10/13/96, p.24) 1778 nend Joshua Spoontree was murdered by three ruffians hired by his wife. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.21) 1778 nend In England the Catholic Relief Act was enacted. It inspired London riots in Jun 1780. (HNQ, 2/24/99) 1778 nend Botanist Joseph Banks (1743-1820) became president of the British Royal Society. He had accompanied Capt. Cook to catalog plants and animals of Australia and New Zealand on the 3-year journey (1768-1771). (Econ, 7/11/09, p.87)(www.nndb.com/people/077/000100774/) 1878 nend A repressive general of the Russian Czar was shot and wounded by revolutionary Vera Zasulich. She was able to talk a jury into acquitting her. Oscar Wilde?s first play, ?Vera? (1883), was inspired by her actions. (SFC, 9/24/08, p.E1) 1778 nend King Carlos III of Spain sent Spanish settlers from the Canary Islands to Louisiana. They settled in St. Bernard Parish and became known as Islenos or Spanish Cajuns. (SFC, 9/4/00, p.B2) 1778 1781 Under the Treaty of Commerce and Friendship, France aided the American revolutionar-ies. Some 44,000 French troops served during the American War of Independence. (AP, 5/3/03) 1778 1788 John Adams began a series of numerous missions to Europe. He was the first American ambassador to the court of St. James. Adams was able to negotiate a treaty with the Dutch government and secured a loan of $2 million. He also arranged a secret treaty with Brittain that recognized American territorial rights in the Mississippi Valley. (A&IP, Miers, p.20)(WSJ, 12/22/98, p.A16) 1778 1829 Sir Humphrey Davy, British chemist. He discovered 12 chemical elements. (AHD, 1971 p.337) 1779 nend Jan 5, Stephen Decatur (d.1820), U.S. naval hero during actions against the Barbary pirates and the War of 1812, was born. [see 1820 Decatur-Barron duel] (HFA, '96, p.26)(HN, 1/5/99) 1779 nend Jan 5, Zebulon Montgomery Pike, explorer, (Pike's Peak), was born. (MC, 1/5/02) 1779 nend Feb 14, American Loyalists were defeated by Patriots at Kettle Creek, Ga. (HN, 2/14/98) 1779 nend Jan 18, Peter Roget, thesaurus fame, inventor (slide rule, pocket chessboard), was born. (MC, 1/18/02) 1779 nend Feb 7, William Boyce (67), composer, died. [see Feb 16] (MC, 2/7/02) 1779 nend Feb 14, Captain James Cook (b.1728), English explorer, was killed on the Big Island in Hawaii. In 2002 Tony Horwitz authored "Blue Latitudes," and Vanessa Collingridge authored "Captain Cook: A Legacy Under Fire." (WSJ, 10/2/02, p.D12)(www.royal-navy.mod.uk/static/pages/3521.html) 1779 nend Feb 16, William Boyce, English organist, composer (Cathedral Music), died. [see Feb 7] (MC, 2/16/02) 1779 nend Feb 25, Fort Sackville, originally named Fort Vincennes, was captured by Colonel George Rogers Clark in 1779. Col. Clark led a force of some 170 men from Kaskaskia to lay siege to Fort Sackville in January, and received Hamilton?s surrender on February 25. With the surrender of Fort Sackville, American forces gained effective control of the Old Northwest, thereby affecting the outcome of the Revolutionary War. The fort, which Clark described as ?a wretched stockade, surrounded by a dozen wretched cabins called houses,? was located near present-day Vincennes, Indiana. (HNQ, 7/24/00)(AP, 2/25/08) 1779 nend Mar 6, The US Congress declared that only the federal government, and not individual states, had the power to determine the legality of captures on the high seas. This was the basis for the 1st test case of the US Constitution in 1808. (ON, 12/01, p.9) 1779 nend Mar 31, Russia and Turkey signed a treaty by which they promised to take no military action in the Crimea. (HN, 3/31/99) 1779 nend Apr 24, Mr. H. Sykes, an English optician living in Paris, wrote to Ben Franklin and ex-plained a delay in sending an order for special spectacles, complaining that he was having diffi-culty making them. Franklin is believed to have ordered his first pair of bifocals from Sykes. (www.antiquespectacles.com/topics/franklin/franklin.htm) 1779 nend May 13, War of Bavarian Succession ended. (SS, Internet, 5/13/97) 1779 nend May 23, Benedict Arnold, military governor of Philadelphia, wrote a query to the British asking what they would pay for his services. He had already begun trading with the British for personal profit and faced charges. (ON, 11/01, p.1) 1779 nend May 25, Henry M. Baron de Kock, Dutch officer, politician, was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1779 nend May 28, Thomas Moore, Irish poet, was born. (HN, 5/28/01) 1779 nend Jun 16, Spain, in support of the US, declared war on England. (MC, 6/16/02) 1779 nend Jun 16, Vice-Admiral Hardy sailed out of Isle of Wight against the Spanish fleet. (MC, 6/16/02) 1779 nend Jun 18, French fleet occupied St Vincent. (MC, 6/18/02) 1779 nend Jul 4, A French fleet occupied Grenada. (Maggio) 1779 nend Jul 10, Alois Basil Nikolaus Tomasini, composer, was born. (MC, 7/10/02) 1779 nend Jul 15, Clement Moore, founder of the General Theological Seminary in New York City, was born. (HN, 7/15/98) 1779 nend Jul 16, American troops under General Anthony Wayne, aka Mad Anthony Wayne, cap-tured Stony Point, NY, with a loss to the British of more than 600 killed or captured. (HN, 7/16/98)(http://hhr.highlands.com/stpt.htm) 1779 nend Jul 24, The Siege of Gibraltar by the Spanish and French was begun. British Gen. George Eliott led the 5,000 man Gibraltar garrison. The siege was finally lifted on Feb 7, 1783. In 1965 T.H. McGuffie authored "The Siege of Gibraltar, 1779-1783). (HN, 2/7/99)(ON, 7/01, p.8) 1779 nend Aug 1, Francis Scott Key, author of the "Star Spangled Banner," was born. (HN, 8/1/98) 1779 nend Aug 7, Carl Ritter, cofounder of modern science of geography, was born in Quedlinberg, Prussia. (MC, 8/7/02) 1779 nend Aug 19, Americans under Major Henry Lee took the British garrison at Paulus Hook, New Jersey. (HN, 8/19/98) 1779 nend Sep 2, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (d.1844), French king of the Netherlands (1806-10), was born in Corsica. He was one of 3 younger brothers of Napoleon I. (www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Louis-Napoleon-Bonaparte) 1779 nend Sep 10, Louis Alexandre Piccinni, composer, was born. (MC, 9/10/01) 1779 nend Sep 13, Frederick II of Prussia issued a manifesto in which he bemoaned the increased use of coffee and called for more consumption of beer. (SFC, 1/30/99, p.D3) 1779 nend Sep 23, During the Revolutionary War, the American navy under John Paul Jones, commanding from Bonhomie Richard, defeated and captured the British man-of-war Serapis. An American attack on a British convoy pitted the British frigate HMS Serapis against the American Bon Homme Richard. The American ship was commanded by Scotsman John Paul Jones, who chose to name the ship after Benjamin Franklin's ?Poor Richard?s Almanack.? Fierce fighting ensued, and when Richard began to sink, Serapis commander Richard Pearson called over to ask if Richard would surrender and Jones responded, "I have not yet begun to fight!"--a response that would become a slogan of the U.S. Navy. Pearson surrendered and Jones took control of Serapis. The Bonhomie Richard sank 2 days after the battle. In 1959 the film Jean Paul Jones starred Robert Stack. (TVM, 1975, p.294)(AP, 9/23/97)(HN, 9/23/98)(HNPD, 9/23/98)(Arch,9/02, p.17) 1779 nend Sep 27, John Adams was named to negotiate the Revolutionary War's peace terms with Britain. (AP, 9/27/97) 1779 nend Oct 9, The Luddite riots being in Manchester, England in reaction to machinery for spin-ning cotton. (HN, 10/9/00) 1779 nend Oct 11, Polish nobleman General Casimir Pulaski died two days after being mortally wounded while fighting for American independence during the Revolutionary War Battle of Sa-vannah, Ga. Brig. Gen. Casimir Pulaski had come to America in 1777. In 2005 an attempt to confirm his remains using DNA was inconclusive. (AH, 10/04, p.15)(AP, 6/24/05)(AP, 10/11/07) 1779 nend Dec 25, A court-martial was convened against Benedict Arnold. He defended himself successfully on 6 of 8 charges but was convicted of illegally issuing a government pass and us-ing government wagons to transport personal goods. (ON, 11/01, p.2) 1779 nend Nov 4, John W. Pieneman, historical painter (Battle at Waterloo), was born. (MC, 11/4/01) 1779 nend Nov 13, Thomas Chippendale (61), English furniture maker, died. (MC, 11/13/01) 1779 nend Dec 6, Jean-Baptiste Simeon Chardin (80), French still life painter, died. (MC, 12/6/01) 1779 nend Dec 19, Auguste-Gaspard-Louis Desnoyers, engraver, was born in Paris, France. (MC, 12/19/01) 1779 nend Dec 23, Benedict Arnold was court-martialed for improper conduct. He followed the time-honored military tradition of using government carts to transport his personal items. He was rou-tinely sentenced to be censured by Gen. Washington- a formality which the thin-skinned Arnold took personally, ultimately leading him to switch allegiance to the British cause. (MC, 12/23/01) 1779 nend Frances Trollope was born the daughter of a clergyman and raised near Bristol. She produced 35 novels and 5 travel books. In 1998 Pamela Neville-Sington wrote the biography "Fanny Trollope: The Life and Adventures of a Clever Woman." (WSJ, 12/11/98, p.W10) 1779 nend Charles Willson Peale (1741-1827) painted the portrait ?George Washington at Prince-ton.? In 2006 it was auctioned for a $21.3 million, a record price for an American portrait. (SFC, 1/11/06, p.G2)(SSFC, 1/22/06, p.A3) 1779 nend Richard Samuel (d.1787), British painter, sent the Royal Academy exhibition his ?Nine Living Muses of Great Britain.? The 1778 painting featured a group of female writers and artists that included the Swiss-Austrian painter Angelica Kauffman (1741-1807). (Econ, 3/22/08, p.97)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelica_Kauffmann) 1779 nend The captured journal of British officer Henry De Berniere was published by John Gill, member of the Sons of Liberty. Gill had printed many anti-British pamphlets including the rebel newspaper Boston Gazette. (AH, 10/01, p.56) 1779 nend The play "Nathan der Weise" (Nathan the Wise) by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, German playwright, was 1st produced. It is set in Jerusalem in 1193 and shows a humane Jewish mer-chant, Nathan, spreading benevolence and reconciliation among local Muslims and Christians. Nathan tells Saladin a story: "My council is: Accept the matter wholly as it stands ?Let each one believe his ring to be the true one." (WSJ,11/24/95, p.A-6)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R55)(WSJ, 1/4/02, p.A11) 1779 nend Richard Brinsley Sheridan wrote his play "The Critic." It was a rewrite of a Restoration original. (WSJ, 11/20/98, p.W6) 1779 nend Ethan Allen authored "A Narrative of Ethan Allen?s Captivity." (ON, 3/00, p.6) 1779 nend The Gluck opera "Iphigenie en Tauride" was composed. (WSJ, 8/12/97, p.A12) 1779 nend There were 21 regiments of loyalists in the British army estimated at 6500-8000 men. Washington reported a field army of 3468 men. (SFEC,11/23/97, Par p.19) 1779 nend Thomas Jefferson (36) was wartime governor of Virginia and James Madison (28) served in his cabinet. (WSJ, 2/2/95, p.A-16) 1779 nend John Adams drafted most of the Massachusetts state constitution. (WSJ, 12/22/98, p.A16) 1779 nend The Italian grappa distillery, Ditta Bortolo Nardini, was founded. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.104) 1780 nend Jan 2, A blizzard hit Washington's army at the Morristown, NJ, winter encampment. (AH, 2/05, p.16) 1780 nend Jan 2, Johann Ludwig Krebs (b.1713), German composer, died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Ludwig_Krebs) 1780 nend Feb 9, Walenty Karol Kratzer, composer, was born. (MC, 2/9/02) 1780 nend Feb 14, William Blackstone (56), English lawyer, died. (MC, 2/14/02) 1780 nend Mar 1, Pennsylvania became the first U.S. state to abolish slavery (for new-borns only). It was followed by Connecticut and Rhode Island in 1784, New York in 1785, and New Jersey in 1786. Massachusetts abolished slavery through a judicial decision in 1783. [see Jul 2, 1777] (HN, 3/1/98)(SC, 3/1/02)(HNQ, 5/29/02) 1780 nend Mar 17, Thomas Chalmers, 1st moderator (Free Church of Scotland 1843-47), was born. (MC, 3/17/02) 1780 nend Mar 26, The 1st British Sunday newspaper appeared as the British Gazette and Sunday Monitor. (SS, 3/26/02) 1780 nend Mar 27, August L. Crelle, German inventor, mathematician (1st Prussian Railway), was born. (MC, 3/27/02) 1780 nend Apr 4, Edward Hicks (d.1849), Quaker preacher and painter, was born. His work included over 60 paintings that were all titled "The Peaceable Kingdom.? (WSJ, 11/16/99, p.A28)(SFC, 9/25/00, p.F1)(HN, 4/4/01) 1780 nend Apr, George Washington censured Benedict Arnold for his misdeeds as governor of Philadelphia. (ON, 11/01, p.2) 1780 nend May 4, American Academy of Arts & Science was founded. (MC, 5/4/02) 1780 nend May 12, Charleston, SC, fell to the British in the US Revolutionary War. (SC, internet, 5/12/97)(HN, 5/12/98) 1780 nend May 19, A mysterious darkness enveloped much of New England and part of Canada in the early afternoon; the cause has never been determined. (HFA, '96, p.30)(DTnet 5/19/97) 1780 nend May, The Virginia continentals surrendered to Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton, commander of the British Legion, following his victory at Waxhaws, SC. Tarleton then led the British troops to a massacre of the surrendering Virginia regulars and militiamen, eliminating the last organized force in South Carolina. During the course of the Revolutionary War, Tarleton became one of the most hated men in America. (HNQ, 9/26/00)(AH, 10/07, p.29) 1780 nend Jun, The East India ship Princess Royal landed at Bengkulu on Sumatra with American rebels. The prisoners were sent to Fort Marlboro to be trained as British soldiers. (ON, 1/00, p.5) 1780 nend Jun, The London riots led by George Gordon in opposition to the Catholic Relief Act of 1778 took place. (HNQ, 2/24/99) 1780 nend Aug 5, Benedict Arnold took over the command of West Point from American Major Gen. Robert Howe. (ON, 11/01, p.2) 1780 nend Aug 16, American troops under Gen. Horatio Gates were badly defeated by the British at the Battle of Camden, South Carolina. (HFA, '96, p.36)(HN, 8/16/98)(ON, 12/01, p.9) 1780 nend Aug 22, HMS Resolution returned to England without Capt Cook. (MC, 8/22/02) 1780 nend Aug 24, King Louis XVI abolished torture as a means to get suspects to confess. (HN, 8/24/98) 1780 nend Aug 29, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (d.1867), French painter, was born. His work included the "Portrait of Monsieur de Norvins" and "Valpincon Bather." (WUD, 1994, p.731)(WSJ, 7/1/96, p.A11)(MC, 8/29/01) 1780 nend Aug 30, General Benedict Arnold betrayed the US when he promised secretly to surrender the fort at West Point to the British army. Arnold whose name has become synonymous with traitor fled to England after the botched conspiracy. His co-conspirator, British spy Major John Andre, was hanged in an act of spite by Washington ("it's good for the armies"). (MC, 8/30/01) 1780 nend Sep 21-22, General Benedict Arnold, American commander of West Point, met with British spy Major John André to hand over plans of the important Hudson River fort to the enemy. Unhappy with how General George Washington treated him and in need of money, Arnold planned to "sell" West Point for 20,000 pounds--a move that would enable the British to cut New England off from the rest of the rebellious colonies. Arnold's treason was exposed when André was captured by American militiamen who found the incriminating plans in his stocking. Arnold received a timely warning and was able to escape to a British ship, but André was hanged as a spy on October 2, 1780. Condemned for his Revolutionary War actions by both Americans and British, Arnold lived until 1801. (HNPD, 9/21/98) 1780 nend Sep 23, British spy John Andre was captured along with papers revealing Benedict Arnold's plot to surrender West Point to the British. Arnold had switched sides partly because he disapproved of the US French alliance. (AP, 9/23/97)(SFEC,11/23/97, Par p.19) 1780 nend Sep 25, American General Benedict Arnold joined the British. (MC, 9/25/01)(ON, 11/01, p.5) 1780 nend Oct 2, British spy John Andre was hanged in Tappan, N.Y., for conspiring with Benedict Arnold. (AP, 10/2/97) 1780 nend Oct 6, Over 1500 Patriot fighters assembled on the outskirts of Cowpens, South Carolina, to confront Loyalist forces of British Major Patrick Ferguson. (ON, 12/07, p.6) 1780 nend Oct 7, Colonial patriots slaughtered a loyalist group at the Battle of King's Mountain in South Carolina. Patrick Ferguson (36), English Major in South Carolina, died in the battle along with some 200 Loyalists. Patriot losses numbered 30 with 62 wounded. (HN, 10/7/99)(ON, 12/07, p.7) 1780 nend Oct 10, A Great Hurricane killed 20,000 to 30,000 in Caribbean. (MC, 10/10/01) 1780 nend Oct 20, M. Pauline Bonaparte, Corsican duchess of Parma and Guastalla, was born. (MC, 10/20/01) 1780 nend Oct 31, The HMS Ontario was lost with barely a trace and as many as 130 people aboard during a gale on Lake Ontario. In 2008 explorers found the 22-gun British warship. Canadian author Arthur Britton Smith chronicled the history of the HMS Ontario in a 1997 book, "The Legend of the Lake." (AP, 6/14/08) 1780 nend Oct, Gen. Washington ordered Major General Nathanael Greene to replace Gen. Horatio Gates and take command of the southern Department of the Continental Army. (ON, 12/01, p.9) 1780 nend Nov 29, Maria Theresa Hapsburg (63), Queen of Austria, died. (MC, 11/29/01) 1780 nend Dec 4, At the Battle of Rugeley's Mill, South Carolina, Colonel William Washington attacked a fortified log barn with 107 Loyalists inside. When the Patriot?s small arms proved ineffective, Washington cut a log to resemble a cannon and demanded the surrender of the Loyalists. The "Quaker guns" used in the American War of Independence were fashioned out of logs to resemble cannon. Fooled by the fake cannon, the promptly gave up. Quaker guns were also decisive at the May 1780 Battle of Hunt?s Bluff, also in South Carolina. (HNQ, 4/24/00) 1780 nend George Stubbs, British painter, created his portrait of a poodle. (SFC, 6/25/99, p.A3) 1780 nend Goethe published a fragment of Faust. (V.D.-H.K.p.239) 1780 nend The Warren Tavern was built in Charlestown and named after Gen?l. Joseph Warren, who was killed at the battle of Bunker Hill. (HT, 3/97, p.34) c 1780 nend It was Alexander Hamilton?s idea to establish a central bank and consolidate the state debts left over from the Revolutionary War. (WSJ,2/13/97, p.A18) 1780 nend John Paul Jones? "Continental Ship of War," Ranger, was captured by the British at the fall of Charleston, South Carolina, and was added to the Royal Navy under the name of Halifax. (NG, Sept. 1939, J. Maloney p.362) 1780 nend US Gen?l. Benedict Arnold, newly married and strapped for cash to maintain an extravagant lifestyle, began providing information to the British. He eventually joined the British as a brigadier general. (SFC, 7/1/97, p.A3) 1780 nend Guillaume Raynal, a French historian, proclaimed Puerto Rico to be "in proportion to its size the very best island in the New World." (SFEC, 4/26/98, p.A3) 1780 nend The mission of San Lorenzo in the Native American pueblo of Picuris was built. It has no bell towers, is flanked by curved buttresses, and is one of the 6 adobe missions scattered along the western shoulder of the Sangre de Cristo mountains between Taos and Santa Fe, New Mexico. (SFC, 5/12/96, p.T-5) 1780 nend A Japanese whaling ship ran aground near the western end of the Aleutian Islands. Rats from the ship reached the nearest island giving it the name Rat Island. The incident introduced the non-native Norway rat, also known as the brown rat, to Alaska. The rats terrorized all but the largest birds on the island. In the Fall of 2008 poison was dropped onto the island from helicopter-hoisted buckets for a week and a half. By mid 2009 there were no signs of living rats and some birds had returned. (Econ, 1/20/07, p.43)(Reuters, 6/12/09) 1780 nend The giant Mosasaurus dinosaur head was found in the Netherlands near Maastricht. [see 1794] (NYT, 6/7/96, p.A4) 1780 nend A deadly hurricane hit the Windward and Leeward Islands and 20-22,000 people were killed. (SFC, 11/30/98, p.A2) 1780 nend In England Richard Brinsley Sheridan, playwright, entered Parliament as a supporter of the Whig politician Charles James Fox, who supported the American colonies against George III. (WSJ, 11/20/98, p.W6)(WSJ, 1/7/00, p.W4) 1780 nend In France a communal grave at the Cemetery of the Innocents in Paris cracked and spilled into the cellars of adjoining houses and prompted its closure. (Hem., 3/97, p.129) 1780 nend Salomon Gessner, printer, poet and friend of Goethe, founded the Neue Zurcher Zeitung (NZZ). In 2005 the newspaper celebrated its 225th birthday. (Econ, 4/2/05, p.45) 1780 nend The Ottomans build the al-Ajyad Castle in Mecca to protect the city and its Muslim shrines from invaders. The castle was torn down by the Saudis in 2001 to make way for a trade center and hotel complex. Turkey called this a "cultural massacre." (SFC, 1/8/02, p.A6) 1780 nend Sheep were introduced to Ireland from Scotland. (SFCM, 10/14/01, p.25) 1780 nend In Peru Jose Gabriel Condorcanqui led a failed Indian revolt against the Spanish. (SFC, 12/20/96, p.B4) 1780 nend s Steel pens were developed as more durable than quills. (SFC, 7/26/04, p.F4) 1780 nend s Antoine Lavoisier and Pierre-Simon Laplace, chemists, demonstrated that the byproducts of fire weighed as much as the original wood and demolished the idea that heat was caused by the release of phlogiston. (WSJ, 12/10/99, p.W12) 1780 nend s English plumber, William Watts, built a tower to let fall drops of molten lead to a water well in his cellar to create shot for guns. Just as raindrops turn spherical on falling, so did his lead drops. His tower stood till 1968. (SFC, 6/22/96, p.E4) 1780 1783 A 4-year war between England and the Dutch was fought. (SFC, 3/31/98, p.F4) 1780 1792 The intellectual development over this period of American President James Madison is covered in a 1995 book by Lance Banning titled: The Sacred Fire of Liberty: James Madison and the Founding of the Federal Republic. (WSJ, 12/20/95, p.A-12) 1780 1820 Some 5,000 cases came before the Spanish Inquisition from which only 6 Spaniards were prosecuted for Judaism. (WSJ, 4/16/98, p.A20) 1780 1830 Louis-Leopold Boilly devoted himself in this period to painting aspects of the common man in France. His paintings include A Game of Billiards (1807) and Moving Day (1822). (WSJ, 11/7/95, p.A-1) 1780 1831 Karl von Clausewitz, German military officer and author of books on military science. In his 1st book "On War" he wrote: "War is an act of force to compel our enemy to do our will." (WUD, 1994, p.273)(WSJ, 4/1/99, p.A10) 1780 1839 The Maharajah Ranjit Singh lived in India. He consolidated Sikh rule after splintering conflicts with Punjab's Mughal court and Afghan and Persian invaders. (SFC, 9/22/99, p.E1) 1780 1842 William Ellery Channing, American clergyman: "How the 'I' pervades all things!" (AP, 12/14/98) 1781 nend Jan 5, A British naval expedition led by Benedict Arnold burned Richmond, Va. Arnold led some 1,600 British and Loyalist troops in the destructive raid on Richmond. (AP, 1/5/98)(AH, 2/06, p.14) 1781 nend Jan 17, Daniel Morgan?s Continental regiments routed British forces at Cowpens, South Carolina. 300 British soldiers were killed or wounded and 500 taken prisoner. The cavalry skirmish at Cowpens was bloody but inconclusive. (ON, 12/01, p.10)(AH, 2/06, p.15) 1781 nend Feb 25, American General Nathanael Greene crossed the Dan River on his way to his March 15th confrontation with Lord Charles Cornwallis at Guilford Court House, N.C. (HN, 2/25/98) 1781 nend Feb, Gen. Washington, sensitive to the pleas of the Virginia Governor, ordered Lafayette south with a picked force of some 1,200 New England and New Jersey troops. (http://xenophongroup.com/mcjoynt/laf_va.htm) 1781 nend Mar 1, The Continental Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation, following ratification by Maryland. (AP, 3/1/08) 1781 nend Mar 13, Astronomer William Herschel discovered the planet Uranus, which he named 'Georgium Sidus,' in honor of George III. He initially though it was a comet. It is the 7th planet from the sun and revolves around the sun every 84.02 years. It is 14.6 time the size of Earth and has five satellites. (AHD, p.1408)(HFA, '96, p.26)(AP, 3/13/98)(HN, 3/13/99)(MC, 3/13/02) 1781 nend Mar 15, Gen. Nathanael Greene engaged British forces under Cornwallis at Guilford Court-House, North Carolina. Greene retreated after inflicting severe casualties on Cornwallis? army. (ON, 12/01, p.10) 1781 nend Mar, The Continental cavalry under Col. Henry Lee, the father of Robert E. Lee, surprised and cut to pieces the Loyalist cavalry near Hillsborough, NC. Ninety Loyalists were killed with no losses to Lee. (AH, 10/07, p.29) 1781 nend Apr 8, Premiere of Mozart's violin sonata K379. (MC, 4/8/02) 1781 nend Apr 25, Gen. Nathanael Greene engaged British forces at Hobkirk?s Hill, South Carolina, and was forced to retreat. (ON, 12/01, p.10) 1781 nend Apr 29, French fleet stopped Britain from seizing the Cape of Good Hope. (MC, 4/29/02) 1781 nend May 1, Emperor Josef II decreed protection of population. (MC, 5/1/02) 1781 nend May 2, In Charles Town, S.C., William Collings sold his wife to Thomas Schooler, with her bed and clothing for $2 and a half dozen bowls of gross. (SFEC, 2/8/98, Z1 p.8) 1781 nend May 13, British Gen. William Phillips died of a fever Petersburg, Va., as his forces confronted the American army under Lafayette. Phillips had commanded the artillery battery whose fire had killed Lafayette?s father at the Battle of Minden (1759). (ON, 2/09, p.5) 1781 nend May 14, Abram Petrovich Gannibal (b.1696), an African slave adopted by Peter the Great, died. He served Peter in various important capacities including spy and privy councilor. He is the great-grandfather of Alexander Pushkin. In 2005 Hugh Barnes authored ?Gannibal: The Moor of Petersburg.? (Econ, 8/20/05,p.66)(www.shaebia.org/wwwboard/contributedarticles/messages/58.html) 1781 nend May 25, Ferdinand, archduke of Austria-Este, Governor-General (Sicily), was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1781 nend Jun 9, George Stephenson, English engineer, inventor of the steam locomotive, was born in Newcastle, England. (HN, 6/9/01)(MC, 6/9/02) 1781 nend Jun 11, A Peace Commission created by Congress was composed of John Adams, John Jay, Benjamin Franklin, Henry Laurens and Thomas Jefferson. Congress decided to appoint a commission to negotiate terms for peace rather than entrust John Adams alone with the negotiations. On June 15 Congress modified the 1779 peace instructions to include only as essential U.S. independence and sovereignty. (HNQ, 6/23/98) 1781 nend Summer, Emily Geiger was said to have crossed British lines in North Carolina to deliver an urgent message to American Gen. Nathaniel Greene as Greene?s army retreated from British forces under Gen. Francis Rawdon. (ON, 11/01, p.9) 1781 nend Jul 5, Stamford Raffles, founder of Singapore, was born. (MC, 7/5/02) 1781 nend Jul 6, In Virginia the Battle of Green Spring took place on the Jamestown Peninsula. It was the last major engagement of the Revolutionary War prior to the Colonial?s final victory at Yorktown in October. (LP, Spring 2006, p.60) 1781 nend Jul 27, Mauro Giuseppe Sergio Pantaleo Giuliani, composer, was born. (MC, 7/27/02) 1781 nend Aug 1, English army under Lord Cornwallis occupied Yorktown, Virginia. (MC, 8/1/02) 1781 nend Aug 12, Robert Mills, architect and engineer, was born. His designs include the Washington Monument, the National Portrait Gallery and the U.S. Treasury Building. (HN, 8/12/00) 1781 nend Aug 20, George Washington began to move his troops south to fight Cornwallis. (MC, 8/20/02) 1781 nend Aug 22, Col. William Campbell (36), West Virginia Patriot militia leader, died of an apparent heart attack during the siege of Yorktown. Campbell had led his militia in the Patriot victory on October 7, 1780, at the Battle of King's Mountain in South Carolina (ON, 12/07, p.7) 1781 nend Aug 30, The French fleet of 24 ships under Comte de Grasse arrived in the Chesapeake Bay to aid the American Revolution. The fleet defeated British under Admiral Graves at battle of Chesapeake Capes. (HN, 8/30/00)(MC, 8/30/01) 1781 nend Aug, Lt. Gen. Cornwallis began the defensive earthworks around Yorktown with 8,300 regulars and 2,000 escaped slaves, who believed British victory would mean freedom. The British army numbered 8,700. (NG, 6/1988, p.808)(SFEC,11/23/97, Par p.19) 1781 nend Sep 4, Mexican Provincial Governor, Felipe de Neve, founded Los Angeles. He founded El Pueblo de Nuestra Senora la Reina de Los Angeles (Valley of Smokes), originally named Nuestra Senora la Reina de Los Angeles de Porciuncula, by Gaspar de Portola, a Spanish army captain and Juan Crespi, a Franciscan priest, who had noticed the beautiful area as they traveled north from San Diego in 1769. 44 Spanish settlers named a tiny village near San Gabriel, Los Angeles. Los Angeles, first an Indian village Yangma, was founded by Spanish decree. 26 of the settlers were of African ancestry. (HFA, '96, p.38)(AP, 9/4/97)(SFEC, 4/12/98, Par p.20)(HN,9/4/98)(SFEC, 9/20/98, Z1 p.4)(HN, 9/4/00)(MC, 9/4/01) 1781 nend Sep 5, The British fleet arrived off the Virginia Capes and found 26 French warships in three straggling lines. Rear Adm. Thomas Graves waited for the French to form their battle lines and then fought for 5 days. Outgunned and unnerved he withdrew to New York. The French had some 37 ships and 29,000 soldiers and sailors at Yorktown while Washington had some 11,000 men engaged. French warships defeated British fleet, trapping Cornwallis in Yorktown. (NG, 6/1988, p.763)(SFEC,11/23/97, Par p.19)(MC, 9/5/01) 1781 nend Sep 6, Anton Diabelli, Austria publisher and composer, was born. (MC, 9/6/01) 1781 nend Sep 6, Martha Jefferson (b.1748), wife of Thomas Jefferson, died. (www.whitehouse.gov/history/firstladies/mj3.html) 1781 nend Sep 8, Gen. Nathanael Greene engaged British forces at Eutaw Springs, South Carolina, and was forced to retreat. (ON, 12/01, p.10) 1781 nend Sep 16, Lt. Gen. Lord Charles Cornwallis directed the sinking of a fleet of ships at Yorktown to block a French landing and to keep them out of enemy hands. (NG, 6/1988, p.806) 1781 nend Sep 28, American forces in the Revolutionary War, backed by a French fleet, began their siege of Yorktown Heights, Va. 9,000 American forces and 7,000 French troops began the siege of Yorktown. (AP, 9/28/97)(MC, 9/28/01) 1781 nend Oct 1, James Lawrence, naval hero (War of 1812-"Don't give up the ship!"), was born. (MC, 10/1/01) 1781 nend Oct 6, Americans and French began the siege of Cornwallis at Yorktown, the last battle of Revolutionary War. (MC, 10/6/01) 1781 nend Oct 9, General George Washington commenced a bombardment of the Lord Cornwallis's encircled British forces at Yorktown, Virginia (Battle of Yorktown Revolutionary War). For eight days Lord Cornwallis endured the Americans heavy bombardment and had no choice but to surrender his 9,000 troops. It was considered that Washington had achieved the inconceivable with victory at Yorktown and that the British were defeated. (HN, 10/9/99)(MC, 10/9/01) 1781 nend Oct 17, Cornwallis was defeated at Yorktown. [see Oct 16,19] (MC, 10/17/01) 1781 nend Oct 19, Major General Lord Charles Cornwallis, surrounded at Yorktown, Va., by American and French regiments numbering 17,600 men, surrendered to George Washington and Count de Rochambeau at Yorktown, Va. Cornwallis surrendered 7,157 troops, including sick and wounded, and 840 sailors, along with 244 artillery pieces. Losses in this battle had been light on both sides. Cornwallis sent Brig. Gen. Charles O'Hara to surrender his sword. At Washington's behest, Maj. Gen. Benjamin Lincoln accepted it. Washington himself is seen in the right background of ?The Surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown? by artist John Trumbull. After conducting an indecisive foray into Virginia, Lt. Gen. Charles Lord Cornwallis retired to Yorktown on August 2, 1781. On August 16, General Washington and Maj. Gen. Jean Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau, began marching their Continental and French armies from New York to Virginia. The arrival of a French fleet, and its victory over a British fleet in Chesapeake Bay, sealed the trap. (NG, 6/1988, p.808)(AP, 10/19/97)(HNPD, 10/19/98)(HN, 10/19/98) 1781 nend Oct (mid), French siege engineers under American command destroyed the British fortifications at Yorktown. (SFC, 7/7/96, BR p.7) 1781 nend Nov, British Capt. Luke Collingwood, commander of the slave ship Zong, in the face of endemic dysentery that had already killed 7 crewmen and 60 of 470 slaves, ordered his crew to throw sick slaves overboard in order to claim insurance money at the end of the voyage. Over 100 slaves were cast overboard. In 2007 Marcus Rediker authored ?The Slave Ship,? an account of this and the slave trade from 1700-1808. (WSJ, 10/11/07,p.D8)(www.umich.edu/~ece/student_projects/slavery/the_zong.html) 1781 nend Dec 11, David Brewster, physicist and inventor (kaleidoscope), was born in Scotland. (MC, 12/11/01) 1781 nend Mozart broke with his patron, the archbishop of Salzburg, and struck off on his own. Mozart?s opera "Idomeneo" was composed. (V.D.-H.K.p.236)(WSJ, 1/6/00, p.A20) 1781 nend Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), English lexicographer, essayist and poet, authored ?Lives of the English Poets.? (ON, 11/06, p.9)(WSJ, 9/18/08, p.A23) 1781 nend Immanuel Kant published his "Critique of Pure Reason." The questions of whether the universe has a beginning and whether it is limited in space are described as antinomies (that is, contradictions). This is because he saw compelling arguments for and against. [see 1790] (BHT, Hawking, p.8) 1781 nend The earliest reference to the New Orleans Mardi Gras "Carnival" appeared in a report to the Spanish colonial governing body. The Perseverance Benevolent & Mutual Aid Association became the first of hundreds of clubs and carnival organizations formed in New Orleans. (www.mardigrasneworleans.com/history.html) 1781 nend Asprey of London was founded. They established themselves based on accouterments and paraphernalia for tea parties. (SFEM,10/26/97, p.4) 1781 nend John Quincy Adams (14) served as secretary to the American ambassador to Russia. (SFEC, 10/25/98, Z1 p.12) 1781 nend Benedict Arnold led raids on the privateering towns of New London and Groton, Connecticut. At Fort Griswold 83 patriots including Col. William Ledyard were killed upon surrendering to the British forces. (AH, 10/01, p.A10) 1781 nend Count Arco, a secretary of Austria?s Archbishop of Salzburg, fired Mozart from the service of the Archbishop. Mozart then began working on his comic opera ?The Abduction from the Seraglio,? which premiered the next year. (WSJ, 4/25/08, p.W14) 1781 nend Tupak Katari, Aymara Indian leader, laid siege to La Paz, Bolivia, for 109 days. A Spanish army finally broke through and Katari was executed by being drawn and quartered. (SFC, 4/5/01, p.A12)(WSJ, 1/8/04, p.A1) 1781 nend In Colombia the Comunero Revolt was the most serious revolt against Spanish authority before the war for independence. The most important uprising began among artisans and peasants in Socorro (in present day Santander Department). The imposition of new taxes by the viceroy stimulated the revolt further. (http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+co0019)) 1781 nend Chobei Takeda I (32) started a business selling traditional Japanese and Chinese medicines in Doshomachi, Osaka. In 1925 it was incorporated as Chobei Takeda & Co., Ltd., with capital of 5.3 million yen and Chobei Takeda V as president. The Company changed its name to Takeda Pharmaceutical Industries, Ltd. in 1943. Its English name was changed to Takeda Chemical Industries, Ltd. in 1961. (Econ, 11/20/10, SR p.9) 1781 nend Soga Shohaku (b.1730), Japanese artist, died. (SFC, 1/14/06, p.E1) 1781 1782 Smallpox, reduced the Mandans, a Missouri River tribe of 40,000 people, down to 2,000 survivors. They partially recovered, increasing their numbers to some 12,000 by 1837. (www.madoc1170.com/madoc.htm) 1781 1841 Karl Friedrich Schinkel, German architect and artist. (WSJ, 7/16/98, p.A16) 1781 1865 Andres Bello, diplomat, politician (a Senator in Chile - his adopted country), educator, poet and author of a Spanish grammar, was born in Venezuela. His selected writings were published by the Oxford Library of Latin America in 1998. (WSJ, 2/3/98, p.A20) 1782 nend Jan 7, The 1st US commercial bank, Bank of North America, opened in Philadelphia. (MC, 1/7/02) 1782 nend Jan 18, Daniel Webster (d.1852, aka Black Dan) American political leader, Senator and orator, lawyer, statesman, administrator and diplomat, was born in Salisbury, N.H. In 1830 he proclaimed "Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable!" He was Secretary of State before the Civil War. (HFA, '96, p.22)(AHD, p.1452)(WSJ, 9/30/97, p.A20)(AP, 1/18/98)(HN,1/18/99) 1782 nend Mar 4, Johann Wyss, Swiss folklorist, writer (Swiss Family Robinson), was born. (SC, 3/4/02) 1782 nend Mar 8, The Gnadenhutten massacre took place as some 90 Christian Delaware Indians were slain by militiamen in Ohio in retaliation for raids carried out by other Indians. (AP, 3/8/98)(AH, 4/07, p.14) 1782 nend Mar 18, John C. Calhoun (d.1850), U.S. statesman, was born. He served as US vice-president from 1825-1832 under Adams and Jackson. (HN, 3/18/99)(WUD, 1994, p.210) 1782 nend Mar 25, Carolina [Maria A] Bonaparte, (countess Lipona), sister of Napoleon), was born. (MC, 3/25/02) 1782 nend Apr 12, The British navy won its only naval engagement against the colonists in the American Revolution at the Battle of Les Saintes in the West Indies off Dominica. A British fleet beat the French. (HN, 4/12/99)(MC, 4/12/02) 1782 nend Apr 19, Netherlands recognized the United States. (HN, 4/19/97) 1782 nend Apr 21, Friedrich Froebel, German educator and founder of kindergarten, was born. (HN, 4/21/98)(MC, 4/21/02) 1782 nend Jun 20, Congress approved the Great Seal of the United States and the eagle as its symbol. (AP, 6/20/97)(SFC, 6/2/04, G9) 1782 nend Jul 15, Farinelli (77), Italian castrato, died. (MC, 7/15/02) 1782 nend Jul 16, Mozart's opera "Das Entfuehrung aus dem Serail" (The Abduction from the Seraglio) premiered in Vienna. (MC, 7/16/02) 1782 nend Jul 26, John Field, pianist, composer (Nocturnes), was born in Dublin, Ireland. (MC, 7/26/02) 1782 nend Jul, "Die Entfuehrung aus dem Serail" (Abduction from the Seraglio) by Mozart was first performed. (SFC, 6/28/96, p.D6)(WSJ, 8/11/98, p.A16) 1782 nend Aug 2, George Washington created the Honorary Badge of Distinction. [see Aug 7] (MC, 8/2/02) 1782 nend Aug 7, General George Washington created the Order of the Purple Heart, a decoration to recognize merit in enlisted men and noncommissioned officers. Washington authorized the award of the Purple Heart for soldiers wounded in combat. (AP, 8/7/97)(HN, 8/7/98) 1782 nend Aug 7, A statue of Peter the Great was unveiled in St. Petersburg on the 100th anniversary of his accession to the throne. It was made by French sculptor Etienne-Maurice Falconet (1716-1791), who spent 12 years on the work. Empress Catherine commissioned it in 1765. (WSJ, 8/5/06, p.P12) 1782 nend Aug 18, Poet and artist William Blake married Catherine Sophia Boucher. (HN, 8/18/00) 1782 nend Sep 13, The British fortress at Gibraltar, under siege by French and Spanish forces since 1789, held off a heavy attack of battering ships. (HN, 9/13/98)(ON, 7/01, p.9) 1782 nend Oct 27, Niccolo Paganini (d.1840), composer and violin virtuoso, was born in Genoa, Italy. He was both syphilitic and consumptive since early manhood and died of TB in Nice. (WP, 1951, p.21)(MC, 10/27/01) 1782 nend Nov 5, The Continental Congress elected John Hanson of Maryland its chairman, giving him the title of "President of the United States in Congress Assembled." (AP, 11/5/99) 1782 nend Nov 30, The United States and Britain signed preliminary peace articles in Paris, recognizing American independence and ending the Revolutionary War. (AP, 11/30/97)(HN, 11/30/98) 1782 nend Dec 5, Martin Van Buren, 8th US President (1837-1841) was born in Kinderhook, N.Y. He was the first chief executive to be born after American independence. (AP, 12/5/08) 1782 nend Dec 14, Charleston, SC, was evacuated by British. (MC, 12/14/01) 1782 nend Dec 29, 1st nautical almanac in US was published by Samuel Stearns in Boston. (MC, 12/29/01) 1782 nend Zayn al-Din, the John James Audubon of Indian art, painted "A Painted Stork." (SFC, 2/7/98, p.E1) 1782 nend J. Hector St. John de Crevecoeur authored his "Letters From an American Farmer." (SFEC, 9/17/00, BR p.8) 1782 nend French writer Pierre Choderlos de Laclos wrote his novel "Les Liaison Dangereuses." It was made into the opera "The Dangerous Liaisons" in 1994 by Conrad Susa and Philip Littell. (WSJ, 3/25/98, p.A20) 1782 nend The first English Bible in America was published. (WSJ, 8/7/98, p.W13) 1782 nend The Unitarians were established as a religious group. They encouraged their members to seek spiritual truth based on human experience, not allegiance to creeds and doctrines. In 1961 they merged with the Universalists. (SFC, 4/20/04, p.B2) 1782 nend The Presidio at Santa Barbara, Ca., was built by the Spanish military. (SFEC, 5/4/97, p.T6) 1782 nend Father Serra held Easter Day services on the beach in Ventura, Ca., and founded the Mission San Buenaventura. (SSFC, 10/14/01, p.T8)(SFCM, 7/18/04, p.16) 1782 nend Elias Boudinot served as president of the Continental Congress. (WSJ, 8/7/98, p.W13) 1782 nend The US declared the eagle was as its national bird. (SFC, 6/18/99, p.A3) 1782 nend Lexington, Kentucky, was established and became the first commercial and cultural center west of the Allegheny Mountains. (SFEM, 3/12/00, p.47) 1782 nend John Goodricke, a deaf mute astronomer, explained the varying brightness of the star Algol as being the result of 2 stars orbiting a common center of gravity. He thus explained the first "eclipsing binary." (NH, 10/96, p.62) 1782 nend British Capt. George Vancouver sailed by Lana?i, Hawaii, and noted its "naked appearance." (SFEM, 10/13/96, p.24) 1782 nend The Comedie Francaise installed benches in the pit to prevent a mob-like atmosphere. (SFC, 3/9/07, p.E8) 1782 nend In Switzerland Anna Goeldi was beheaded as a witch for an alleged case of poisoning. A museum on Goeldi was opened in Mollis in 2007 on the 225th anniversary of her death. In 2008 the canton of Glarus said she should be exonerated because the execution was a miscarriage of justice. Goeldi was exonerated on August 27, 2008. (AP, 6/11/08)(AP, 8/27/08) 1782 nend The Wat Phra Kaew Temple was built in Bangkok, Thailand. It houses the most sacred image of Thai Buddhism, the Emerald Buddha. (Hem, 3/95, p.58)(SFCM, 9/23/07, p.22) 1782 nend The Grand Palace was built by King Rama I on the Chao Phraya River. The city of Bangkok grew up around it. (SFEC, 7/16/00, p.T14) 1782 1785 Mozart during this period wrote six string quartets dedicated to Haydn. (T&L, 10/80, p. 103) 1782 1849 William Miller, US religious leader. His followers founded the Adventist Church in 1845. The Seventh-Day Adventists broke from the Adventist Church in 1846, stressing legalism and Sabbatarianism, with strong views on diet, health and medicine. (HNQ, 9/29/99) 1782 1854 Susan Edmonstone Ferrier, Scottish novelist: "There are plenty of fools in the world; but if they had not been sent for some wise purpose, they wouldn't have been here; and since they are here they have as good a right to have elbow-room in the world as the wisest." (AP, 10/3/97) 1782 1857 Anne Sophie Swetchine, Russian-French author: "The chains which cramp us most are those which weigh on us least." (AP, 8/25/97) 1783 nend Jan 20, The fighting of the Revolutionary War ended. Britain signed a peace agreement with France and Spain, who allied against it in the American War of Independence. (HFA, '96, p.22)(HN, 1/20/99) 1783 nend Jan 23, Stendahl (d.1842), [Marie Henri Beyle], French critic and writer (Le Rouge et de Noir), was born. In 1997 Jonathon Keates published his book "Stendhal," which covers the writer?s life story. "Beauty is the promise of happiness." "One can acquire everything in solitude, except character." (WSJ, 3/25/97, p.A16)(AP, 12/4/97)(AP, 6/6/98)(MC, 1/23/02) 1783 nend Feb 3, Spain recognized United States' independence. (AP, 2/3/97)(HN, 2/3/99) 1783 nend Feb 4, Britain declared a formal cessation of hostilities with its former colonies, the United States of America. (AP, 2/4/97) 1783 nend Feb 5, Sweden recognized the independence of the United States. (AP, 2/5/97)(HN, 2/5/99) 1783 nend Feb 7, The Siege of Gibraltar, pursued by the Spanish and the French since July 24, 1779, was finally lifted. [see Sep 13, 1782] (HN, 2/7/99)(ON, 7/01, p.10) 1783 nend Mar 5, King Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski granted rights to Jews of Kovno. (MC, 3/5/02) 1783 nend Mar 8, Hannah Hoes Van Buren, wife of Martin Van Buren, was born. (HN, 3/8/98) 1783 nend Apr 3, Washington Irving (d. Nov 28, 1859), essayist, author, historian, biographer, attorney/lawyer, American writer (Legend of Sleepy Hollow & Rip Van Winkle), was born in New York City. "No man is so methodical as a complete idler, and none so scrupulous in measuring out his time as he whose time is worth nothing." (DTnet 11/28/97)(HN, 4/3/98)(AP, 9/10/98) 1783 nend Apr 10, Hortense E. de Beauharnais, French queen of Netherlands (1806-10), was born. (MC, 4/10/02) 1783 nend Apr 11, After receiving a copy of the provisional treaty on 13 March, Congress proclaimed a formal end to hostilities with Great Britain. (HN, 4/11/99) 1783 nend Apr 29, David Cox (d.1857), English watercolorist, was born. He books included ?Treatise on Landscape Painting? (1813). (SFC, 4/29/97,p.B5)(www.chrisbeetles.com/pictures/artists/Cox_David/Cox_David.htm) 1783 nend May 4, In India Tipu Sultan was enthroned as the ruler of Mysore after the death of Haider Ali in a simple ceremony at Bednur. (www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20080048779) 1783 nend May 9, Alexander Ross, pioneer, fur trader, was born in Canada. (MC, 5/9/02) 1783 nend May 10, Niccola Benvenuti, composer, was born. (MC, 5/10/02) 1783 nend May 30, The first American daily newspaper, The Pennsylvania Evening Post, began publishing in Philadelphia. (HN, 5/30/01) 1783 nend Jun 1, Last British troops sailed from New York. (MC, 6/1/02) no_source 1783 nend Jun 4, The Montgolfier brothers launched their 1st hot-air balloon (unmanned) in a 10-minute flight over Annonay, France. (http://inventors.about.com/od/astartinventions/ss/airship_2.htm) 1783 nend Jun 8, In Iceland the Lakagicar volcano began erupting. Over the next 6 months it built a lava dam 40 miles long and 540 feet high in a month. The Laki volcano wiped out 75% of the crops, which led to a severe famine that killed some 10,000 people, 20% of the population, reducing the population to some 40,000 people. This was described by Haraldur Sigurdson in an article titled Volcanic Pollution and Climate: Eos 63, Aug. 10, 1982. The Laki eruption sent poisonous gases across Europe. (NH, 9/97, p.38)(SFEC, 9/19/99, p.A18)(AM, 7/00, p.40)(ON, 2/04,p.9)(Econ, 12/22/07, p.132)(Econ, 4/24/10, p.62)(Econ, 5/29/10, p.85) 1783 nend Jun 8-1784 Feb, A series of 10 eruptions from the Laki Craters on Iceland changed atmospheric conditions in most of the Northern Hemisphere. This also generated a cascade of events that led to record low levels of water in the Nile River and brought famine to the region. By 1785 a sixth of Egypt?s population had either perished or fled. (http://tinyurl.com/y9xemq)(Econ, 12/22/07, p.134) 1783 nend Jul 24, Simon Bolivar (d.1830), was born in Caracas, Venezuela. He was a soldier and statesmen who led armies of liberation throughout much of South America, including Ecuador, Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, Peru and Bolivia, which took its name from Bolivar. Bolivar, called "the Liberator," was a leader in Venezuela for struggles of national independence in South America. He formed a Gran Colombia that lasted 8 years but broke apart into Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador. Bolivar died of tuberculosis. (AHD, p.148)(SFC, 6/14/97, p.E3)(AP, 7/24/97)(HNQ, 3/30/00) 1783 nend Jul 24, Georgia became a protectorate of tsarist Russia. (MC, 7/24/02) 1783 nend Aug 7, John Heathcoat (d.1861), English inventor of lace-making machinery (1809), was born. In 1816 Luddites burned down his Nottingham factory. (MC, 8/7/02)(Internet) 1783 nend Aug 27, The 1st hydrogen balloon flight (unmanned), made by Professor Jacques Charles, successfully completed its inaugural flight in Paris. (www.twinring.jp/english/balloon/what_balloon/) 1783 nend Sep 3, The Treaty of Paris between the United States and Great Britain officially ended the Revolutionary War. The Treaty of 1783, which formally ended the American Revolution, is also known as the Definitive Treaty of Peace, the Peace of Paris and the Treaty of Versailles. Under the treaty, Great Britain recognized the independence of the United States. The treaty bears the signatures of Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and John Jay. (AP, 9/3/97)(HNQ, 7/19/98)(HN, 9/3/98)(MC, 9/3/01) 1783 nend Sep 3, Mackinac Island, Michigan, passed into US hands following the Paris Peace Treaty, (SSFC, 7/27/03, p.C5) 1783 nend Sep 11, Benjamin Franklin drafted the Treaty of Paris. [see Sep 3] (MC, 9/11/01) 1783 nend Sep 19, Jacques Etienne Montgolfier launched a duck, a sheep and a rooster aboard a hot-air balloon at Versailles, France. (AP, 9/19/06) 1783 nend Sep 26, Jane Taylor, children's writer, was born. She was best known as the author of "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star." (HN, 9/26/99) 1783 nend Oct 6, Benjamin Hanks patented a self-winding clock. (MC, 10/6/01) 1783 nend Oct 15, Francois Pilatre de Rozier (Jean Piletre de Rozier) made the first manned flight in a hot air balloon. The first flight was let out to 82 feet, but over the next few days the altitude increased up to 6,500 feet. [see Jun 5] (HN, 10/15/98)(MC, 10/15/01) 1783 nend Oct 23, Virginia emancipated slaves who fought for independence during the Revolutionary War. (HN, 10/23/98) 1783 nend Oct 29, Jean-Baptiste Le Rond d'Alembert (66), philosopher, mathematician, died. He co-compiled the Encyclopedia with Denis Diderot. (MC, 10/29/01) 1783 nend Nov 1, Continental Army dissolved and George Washington made his "Farewell Address." [See Nov 2] (MC, 11/1/01) 1783 nend Nov 2, Gen. George Washington issued his "Farewell Address to the Army" near Princeton, N.J. (AP, 11/2/97) 1783 nend Nov 3, Washington ordered the Continental Army disbanded from its cantonment at New Windsor, NY, where it had remained since defeating Cornwallis in 1781. (MC, 11/3/01) 1783 nend Nov 21, Jean-Francois Pilatre de Rozier (1754-1785) and the Marquis d?Arlandes made the first free-flight ascent in a balloon, to over 500 feet, in Paris. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Romain)(NPub, 2002, p.2) 1783 nend Nov 23, Annapolis, Md., became the US capital until June 1784. [see Nov 26, 1783] (MC, 11/23/01) 1783 nend Nov 25, The British evacuated New York, their last military position in the United States during the Revolutionary War. (AP, 11/25/97) 1783 nend Nov 26, The city of Annapolis, Maryland, was the first peacetime U.S. capital. The U.S. Congress met at Annapolis November 26, 1783-June 3, 1784, following the signing of the Treaty of Paris on September 3, 1783, formally ending hostilities between Great Britain and her former colony. New York was the capital from 1785 until 1790, followed by Philadelphia until 1800 and then Washington, D.C. (HNQ, 6/15/00) 1783 nend Dec 4, Gen. George Washington said farewell to his officers at Fraunces Tavern in NYC. In 2003 Stanley Weintraub authored "General Washington's Christmas Farewell." (AP, 12/4/97)(SFEC, 6/21/98, p.T4)(WSJ, 12/10/03, p.D8) 1783 nend Dec 9, The 1st execution at English Newgate-jail took place. (MC, 12/9/01) 1783 nend Dec 20, Antonio Francisco Jawer Jose Soler (54), Spanish composer (Fandango), died. (MC, 12/20/01) 1783 nend Dec 22, Washington resigned his military commission. [see Dec 23] (MC, 12/22/01) 1783 nend Dec 23, George Washington resigned as commander-in-chief of the Army and retired to his home at Mount Vernon, Va. (AP, 12/23/97) 1783 nend Dec 31, Import of African slaves was banned by all of the Northern American states. (MC, 12/31/01) 1783 nend Augustin Pajou, French sculptor, completed his "Psyche Abandoned." (WSJ, 3/18/98, p.A20) 1783 nend John Mitchell wrote a paper in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal society of London in which he pointed out that a star that was sufficiently massive and compact would have such a strong gravitational field that light could not escape. (BHT, Hawking, p.82) 1783 nend Antonio Salieri (1750-1825), Italian composer, wrote his opera "Les Danaides." (WSJ, 1/14/04, p.D10) 1783 nend Noah Webster (1758-1843), a Connecticut schoolmaster, published the first edition of his American spelling book. As a Grammatical Institute of the English Language, the Spelling Book was influential in standardizing and differentiating, from the British forms, English spelling and pronunciation in America. (ON, 12/09, p.9)(Econ, 6/18/11, p.34) 1783 nend Thomas Jefferson (40) of Virginia, US President (1801-1809) began serving in US Congress and continued for two years. (www.monticello.org/site/jefferson/private-banks-quotation) 1783 nend Oliver Evans (1755-1819), American inventor, designed an automated gristmill. (WSJ, 6/4/08, p.A19)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Evans) 1783 nend Loyalist Tory homes in Maine were taken apart and moved to New Brunswick, Canada, and reassembled. Boatloads of newcomers from New York and New England moved. Some of the new arrivals froze to death in makeshift shelters that winter. (SFEC, 5/25/97, p.T6,7) 1783 nend The so-called 1838 Aroostook War stemmed from a boundary dispute that had loomed since 1783 between Maine and New Brunswick and was not settled by the Peace of Ghent. After Maine became a state in 1820, it disregarded British claims in making land grants to settlers along the Aroostook River. (HNQ, 9/30/99) 1783 nend Nebula NGC 2261 was discovered by William Herschel. (http://observing.skyhound.com/archives/jan/NGC_2261.html) 1783 nend William Alexander (b.1726), American Revolutionary War general, died. Before the revolution, William Alexander petitioned Parliament for the right to the earldom of Stirling, Scotland. The title was never formally conferred upon him, but Alexander was generally known throughout the colonies as "Lord Stirling." (WUD, 1994 p.36)(HNQ, 8/14/02) 1783 nend English Architect Thomas Leverton (1795-1885) designed the fanlight window above an entry in London?s Bedford Square. (WSJ, 11/18/06,p.P11)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Leverton_Donaldson) 1783 nend In Britain William Pitt (24) became prime minister and the youngest leader of the Tories. He was one of Great Britain?s greatest peacetime leaders and served a prime minister from 1783-1801 and from 1804 until his death in 1806. Pitt was the son of William Pitt the Elder, who served as prime minister from 1766 to 1768. (SFC, 6/20/97, p.A22)(WSJ, 3/26/99, p.W10)(HNQ, 1/29/00) 1783 nend In England executions were moved from Tyburn Gallows in Hyde Park to Newgate Prison. (SFEM, 3/21/99, p.24) 1783 nend James Man founded a sugar cooperage and brokerage at 23 Harp Lane in the City of London. The company later became known as the Man Group. (www.mangroupplc.com/assets/pdf/media/press-pack.pdf)(Econ, 5/22/10,p.78) 1783 nend Captain Samuel Turner, a British army officer, traveled through Bhutan and Tibet. (Econ, 1/31/09, p.91) 1783 nend Some 3,000 Blacks, who had obtained British certificates of freedom for their loyalty in the American Revolution, arrived in Nova Scotia and spent some miserable years there. In 1785 a delegation sailed to Britain where they were offered passage to Africa in return for establishing a British colony in Sierra Leone. (MT, summer 2003, p.8) 1783 nend John H. Molson (19) acquired a share in a log cabin brewery on the banks of the St. Lawrence River and began the Molson beer empire. (WSJ, 6/29/04, p.A11) 1783 nend After this year German officially replaced Latin as the language of instruction in Austria. (StuAus, April '95, p.17) 1783 nend Mount Asama, one of Japan's largest and most active volcanoes, had a major eruption. (AP, 9/15/04) 1783 nend Yosa Buson (b.1716), Japanese painter based in Kyoto, died. His work included ?Landscapes on silver Ground? (1782). (SFC, 12/8/05, p.E1)(SFC, 1/14/06, p.E10) 1783 nend The Kirov Ballet was founded in St. Petersburg. (WSJ, 7/16/02, p.D6) 1783 nend Catherine the Great annexed the Crimea to the Russian empire. 83% or the residents were Tatars. (SFC, 1/4/99, p.A8)(Econ, 2/25/06, p.55) 1783 nend The great Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler introduced latin squares as a new kind of magic squares. It later formed the basis for the ?sudoku? number game. (www.cut-the-knot.org/arithmetic/latin.shtml)(Econ, 5/21/05, p.67) 1783 1786 Japan suffered one of its worst famines in history when exceptional cold destroyed the rice harvest. As many as 1 million people died. Most of the impact for this was due to the eruptions of the Laki volcano in Iceland beginning in June, 1783. (Econ, 12/22/07, p.134) 1783 1840 Constantine Samuel Rafinisque, naturalist and author of the Walam Olum. (NH, 10/96, p.14) 1784 nend Jan 14, The United States ratified a peace treaty with England, the Treaty of Paris, ending the Revolutionary War. (HFA, '96, p.22)(AP, 1/14/98) 1784 nend Jan 26, In a letter to his daughter, Benjamin Franklin expressed unhappiness over the eagle as the symbol of America. He wanted the turkey. (AP, 1/26/98) 1784 nend Feb 7, In Iceland the Lakagicar (Laki) volcano ceased its eruptions. Smoke from the 8 months of eruptions caused one of the longest and coldest winters in Europe. [see Jun 8, 1783] (ON, 2/04, p.10) 1784 nend Feb 22, A U.S. merchant ship, the "Empress of China," left New York City for the Far East. (AP, 2/22/99) 1784 nend Feb 28, John Wesley (1703-1791) chartered the Methodist Church. His teaching emphasized field preaching along with piety, probity and respectability. In 2003 Roy Hattersley authored "A Brand from the Burning: The Life of John Wesley." (MC, 2/28/02)(WSJ, 6/13/03, p.W19) 1784 nend Feb 29, Marquis de Sade was transferred from Vincennes fortress to the Bastille. (HN, 2/29/00) 1784 nend Mar 1, E. Kidner opened the 1st cooking school in Great Britain. (SC, 3/1/02) 1784 nend Apr 2, Pierre Leclair (74), composer, died. (MC, 4/2/02) 1784 nend Apr 5, Louis [Ludwig] Spohr, German violin virtuoso, composer (Faust), was born. (MC, 4/5/02) 1784 nend Apr 15, The first balloon flight occurred in Ireland. [see Jun 5, 1783 in France] (HN, 4/15/98) 1784 nend Apr 29, Premiere of Mozart's Sonata in B flat, K454 (Vienna). (MC, 4/29/02) 1784 nend Apr, The idea of resetting clocks forward an hour in the spring and back an hour in the fall was first suggested by Benjamin Franklin in his essay "An Economical Project for Diminishing the Cost of Light," published in the Journal de Paris, as a way to save electricity. (http://news.yahoo.com/s/livescience/whostarteddaylightsavingtime) 1784 nend May 20, Peace of Versailles ended the war between France, England, and Holland. (HN, 5/20/98) 1784 nend May 25, Jews were expelled from Warsaw by Marshall Mniszek. (SC, 5/25/02) 1784 nend Jun 4, Elizabeth Thible became the first woman to fly aboard a Montgolfier hot-air balloon, over Lyon, France. (AP, 6/4/07) 1784 nend Jun 9, John Carroll was appointed supervisor of US Catholic Missions. (MC, 6/9/02) 1784 nend Jun 16, Holland forbade orange clothes. (MC, 6/16/02) 1784 nend Jun 24, In a tethered flight from Baltimore, Maryland, Edward Warren (13) became the 1st to fly in a balloon on US soil. (NPub, 2002, p.3) 1784 nend Jun 29, Caesar Rodney (b.1728), US judge, Delaware representative as a signer of the Declaration of Independence, died. He was later depicted on the Delaware state quarter (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_Rodney) 1784 nend Jul 1, Wilhelm Friedmann Bach (73), composer (Sinfonias 64), died. (MC, 7/1/02) 1784 nend Jul 30, Denis Diderot (b.1713), French philosopher, critic, and encyclopedist, died. "Men will never be free until the last king is strangled with the entrails of the last priest." (WSJ, 6/15/99, p.A16)(www.giga-usa.com/quotes/authors/denis_diderot_a001.htm) 1784 nend Aug 14, The 1st Russian settlement in Alaska was established on Kodiak Island. Grigori Shelekhov, a Russian fur trader, founded Three Saints Bay. (MC, 8/14/02) 1784 nend Aug 23, Eastern Tennessee settlers declared their area an independent state and named it Franklin; a year later the Continental Congress rejected it. (MC, 8/23/02) 1784 nend Sep 20, Packet and Daily, the first daily publication in America, appeared on the streets. (HN, 9/20/98) 1784 nend Oct 13, Ferdinand VII, king of Spain, was born. (HN, 10/13/98) 1784 nend Oct 19, Leigh Hunt (d.1859), English journalist, essayist, poet and political radical, was born. He was a friend and advisor to Shelley and Lord Byron and wrote the poems "Abou Ben Adhem" and "Jenny Kissed Me." (HN, 10/19/99)(www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/PRleigh.htm) 1784 nend Oct 19, John McLoughlin, Hudson's Bay Co. pioneer in Oregon Country, was born. (MC, 10/19/01) 1784 nend Oct, Pierre Eugene Du Simitiere (b.1736), artist and philosopher, died. He helped design the 1st Great Seal of the US. (WSJ, 5/19/05, p.D8)(http://tinyurl.com/d23rr) 1784 nend Nov 1, Maryland granted citizenship to Lafayette and his descendents. (MC, 11/1/01) 1784 nend Nov 24, Zachary Taylor, the 12th president of the United States, was born in Orange County, Va. (AP, 11/24/97) 1784 nend Nov 28, Ferdinand Reis, composer, was born. (MC, 11/28/01) 1784 nend Nov 29, American Dr. John Jeffries paid Frenchman Jean-Pierre Blanchard £100 pounds for a balloon flight in England during which he made some atmospheric measurements. (ON, 10/03, p.6) 1784 nend Dec 13, Samuel Johnson (b.1709), English lexicographer, essayist, poet and moralist best known for "The Dictionary of the English Language," died. "Patriotism is the last refuge of a scoundrel." -- (To which Ambrose Bierce replied, "I beg to submit that it is the first.") Johnson, an antagonist of slavery, left behind an annuity and much of his personal property to his black valet, Francis Barber (b.1735-1801). In 1791 Boswell wrote the celebrated "The Life of Samuel Johnson." In 1955 Walter Jackson Bate (1918-1999) published "The Achievement of Samuel Johnson" and in 1977 the biography "Samuel Johnson." In 2000 Adam Potkay authored "The Passion for Happiness," in which he argued that Samuel Johnson should be included in the Anglo-Scottish Enlightenment along with David Hume, Adam Smith and Edward Gibbon. In 2000 Peter Martin authored "A Life of James Boswell." In 2008 Peter Martin authored ?Samuel Johnson: A biography.? (AP, 10/8/97)(WSJ, 11/29/00, p.A24)(ON, 11/06, p.10)(SSFC, 10/28/07,p.M3)(WSJ, 9/18/08, p.A23) 1784 nend John Filson, schoolmaster, published the stories of Daniel Boone as narrated to him by Boone. (SFEC, 7/23/00, Z1 p.2) 1784 nend Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais wrote "The Marriage of Figaro," the sequel to "The Barber of Seville." A 1997 film, "Beaumarchais," was a look at the artist, who was also a womanizer, a spy and an arms runner. (WSJ, 12/19/96, p.A16)(SFEC,11/23/97, DB p.14) 1784 nend William Blake coined the term "transmography," to describe artistic processes of continual invention and cumulative transformation. (LSA, Spring 1995, p.17) 1784 nend Philosopher Emmanuel Kant posed the question ?What is enlightenment?? (WSJ, 9/1/04, p.AD10) 1784 nend Mozart composed four piano concertos. The G Major is K. 453 (K is for Kochel who catalogues all of Mozart?s work in chronological order). (T&L, 10/80, p. 103) 1784 nend Trenton, North Carolina, was founded. (SFC, 3/10/99, p.A3) 1784 nend George Washington met a 16-year-old slave named Venus, who later bore a mulatto son named West Ford who lived in special favor at Mt. Vernon. In 1998 descendants of Ford set out to prove that Washington was his father. (SFC, 11/23/98, p.A6) 1784 nend Thomas Jefferson excavated an Indian burial mound on his property in Virginia. (TV Doc.) 1784 nend Virginia Congressman Thomas Jefferson (41) became the US Commissioner and Minister to France. He continued there to 1798 and negotiated commercial treaties with European nations along with Ben Franklin and John Adams. (www.monticello.org/site/jefferson/private-banks-quotation) 1784 nend Ben Franklin, while serving as US Minister to France, came up with the idea of manipulating the hours of the business day so that shops would both open and close earlier, when it was still light outside. (WSJ, 10/26/95, p.A-22) 1784 nend NY state awarded Thomas Paine 227 acres in New Rochelle. (SSFC, 4/1/01, p.A7) 1784 nend Phillis Wheatley, black poet, died. Only a child of about eight when she was kidnapped and brought to America as a slave, Phillis Wheatley was given the name of her Boston master, tailor John Wheatley. With his wife Susanna, John Wheatley treated the young girl kindly, providing an education that included the classical languages and literature. Her work, lost and forgotten until the publication of a new edition in 1834, was used by abolitionists to prove that blacks were not intellectually inferior to white. (HNPD, 2/21/00) 1784 nend The British gave their Indian allies from New York a large parcel of land southwest of Toronto after they fled to Canada following the American war of independence. In 2006 the Six Nations Iroquois Confederacy claimed that part of this land had been sold without their proper consent for a new housing development in Caledonia. (Econ, 9/16/06, p.46) 1784 nend England?s Quarry Bank Mill on the river Bollin at Styal was built by merchant Samuel Greg to supply cotton to the weavers of Lancashire. Raw cotton from America was processed on the latest machinery, Richard Arkwright?s water frame. (Econ, 9/24/11, SR p.3) 1784 nend The Hotel de Salm, a palace, was built in Paris. It became the headquarters of Napoleon's Legion of Honor. (WSJ, 11/16/95, p.A-18) 1784 nend King Louis XVI appointed a French commission to examine the theory of ?animal magnetism,? developed by German Dr. Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815). The commission, which included American ambassador Benjamin Franklin, branded Mesmer a fraud. (WSJ, 12/8/04, p.A1) 1784 nend The 1st Spanish military officer who explored the Mayan ruins of Palenque thought it was Atlantis risen. (SSFC, 12/7/03, p.C10) 1784 1789 Thomas Jefferson?s years in Paris are depicted in a film titled "Jefferson in Paris." He served as an American minister and Sally Hemmings accompanied him as his daughter?s servant. (WSJ, 4/6/95, p.A-12)(WSJ, 11/6/98, p.W15) 1784 1849 Peter De Wint, watercolorist. (SFC, 4/29/97, p.B5) 1785 nend Jan 1, "Daily Universal Register" (Times of London) published its 1st issue. [see Jan 1, 1788] (MC, 1/1/02) 1785 nend Jan 4, Jacob Ludwig Carl Grimm, German philosopher who wrote Grimm?s Fairy Tales, was born. (HN, 1/4/99)(MC, 1/4/02) 1785 nend Jan 6, Haym Salomon (44) died in Philadelphia. He helped finance the US revolution. (MC, 1/6/02) 1785 nend Jan 7, The first balloon flight across the English Channel was made. Frenchman Jean-Pierre Blanchard and the American Dr. John Jeffries crossed the English Channel for the first time in a hydrogen balloon. (HN, 5/15/98)(HN, 1/7/99) 1785 nend Jan 11, Continental Congress convened in NYC. (MC, 1/11/02) 1785 nend Jan 21, Chippewa, Delaware, Ottawa and Wyandot Indians signed a treaty of Fort McIntosh, ceding present-day Ohio to the United States. (HN, 1/21/99) 1785 nend Feb 24, Carlo Bonaparte (39), Corsican attorney, died. (MC, 2/24/02) 1785 nend Mar 1, Philadelphia Society for the Promotion of Agriculture was organized. (SC, 3/1/02) 1785 nend Mar 7, Alessandro Manzoni, poet, novelist (Betrothed), was born in Italy. (MC, 3/7/02) 1785 nend Mar 10, Thomas Jefferson was appointed minister to France, succeeding Benjamin Franklin. (AP, 3/10/98)(HN, 3/10/98) 1785 nend Mar 19, Pierre-Joseph-Guillaume Zimmermann, composer, was born. (MC, 3/19/02) 1785 nend Mar 27, Louis XVII, Pretender to the throne (1793-1795) during the French Revolution, was born. His father may have been Marie Antoinette?s Swedish lover, Count Axel von Fersen. (HN, 3/27/98)(SFC, 4/20/00, p.A18)(MC, 3/27/02) 1785 nend Apr 21, Russian Tsarina Catharina II ended nobility privileges. (MC, 4/21/02) 1785 nend Apr 26, John James Audubon (d.1851), American naturalist, bird watcher (ornithologist) and artist, was born in Haiti and educated in France. The engraving of America's indigenous turkey, which Benjamin Franklin nominated as the national bird, appeared in John James Audubon's classic work "Birds of America," a book of 435 hand-colored engravings prepared from his wildlife paintings begun in 1820. An artist and naturalist, Audubon was one of the first to study and paint American birds in their natural surroundings. Audubon came to America at 18 and failed in several business ventures. (440 Int?l. internet,4/26/97, p.5)(AP, 4/26/98)(HN, 4/26/98)(HNPD,7/15/98) 1785 nend Apr, Elizabeth Marsh (b.1735), traveler and writer, died of breast cancer in Calcutta, India. In 1769 she had published ?The Female Captive,? an account of her captivity in a Muslim court. In 2007 Linda Colley authored ?The Ordeal of Elizabeth Marsh: A Woman in World History.? (Econ, 7/14/07, p.89)(www.lrb.co.uk/v29/n12/mant01_.html) 1785 nend May 9, James Pollard Espy, meteorologist (Philosophy of Storms), was born in Pennsylvania. (MC, 5/9/02) 1785 nend May 9, British inventor Joseph Bramah patented a beer-pump handle. (MC, 5/9/02) 1785 nend May 23, Benjamin Franklin in Paris spoke of his invention of bifocals in a letter to friend and philanthropist George Whatley. (www.antiquespectacles.com/topics/franklin/franklin.htm) 1785 nend Jun 15, Two French balloonists died in the world's 1st fatal aviation accident. (MC, 6/15/02) 1785 nend Jul 4, The first Fourth of July parade was held in Bristol, Rhode Island. It served as a prayerful walk to celebrate independence from England. (SFC, 7/5/97, p.A3) 1785 nend Jul 17, France limited the importation of goods from Britain. (HN, 7/17/98) 1785 nend Jul 20, Mahmud II, sultan of Turkey (1808-39), Westernizer, reformer, was born. (MC, 7/20/02) 1785 nend Jul 23, Prussia's Frederick the Great formed Die Furstenbund (League of German Princes). (AP, 7/23/97) 1785 nend Aug 15, Thomas De Quincey, English writer (Confessions of English Opium Eater), was born. (MC, 8/15/02) 1785 nend Aug 15, French cardinal De Rohan (51), Bishop of Strasbourg, was arrested in the affair of the diamond necklace. (PC, 1992, p.335) 1785 nend Aug 20, Oliver Hazard Perry, US Naval hero ("We have met the enemy"), was born in Rhode Island. (MC, 8/20/02) 1785 nend Sep 1, Mozart published his 6th string quartet opus 10 in Vienna. (MC, 9/1/02) 1785 nend Sep 28, Napoleon Bonaparte (16) graduated from the military academy in Paris. He was 42nd in a class of 51. (MC, 9/28/01) 1785 nend Oct 18, Benjamin Franklin was elected president of Pennsylvania. Special balloting unanimously elected Franklin the sixth President of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania, replacing John Dickinson. (AH, 2/06,p.47)(http://help.com/post/275760-why-is-benjamin-franklin-important) 1785 nend Nov 17, Church of England was organized in New England. (MC, 11/17/01) 1785 nend Nov 21, William Beaumont, surgeon, was born. He later studied digestion by peering through a natural opening of the stomach wall in a young Indian in Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin. (MC, 11/21/01) 1785 nend Nov 23, John Hancock was elected President of the Continental Congress for the second time. (HN, 11/23/98) 1785 nend Dec 8, Antonio Maria Mazzoni (68), composer, died. (MC, 12/8/01) 1785 nend Dec 26, Laurent Clerc, teacher, was born: 1st deaf teacher in U.S., helped establish American School for the Deaf in Connecticut. (440.com) 1785 nend Dec 29, Johann Heinrich Rolle (69), composer, died. (MC, 12/29/01) 1785 nend Jean-Antoine Houdon sculpted a white marble bust of the Marquis de Condorcet. (WSJ, 8/26/97, p.A14) 1785 nend Romney painted Emma, Lady Hamilton, the passion of sea-hero Nelson. (SFEC, 2/1/98, p.T8) 1785 nend James Madison wrote the petition "Memorial and Remonstrance" for circulation in Virginia to oppose the use of public funds for Christian education. (WSJ, 9/1/99, p.A24) 1785 nend William Paley (1743-1805), an orthodox Anglican and conservative moral and political thinker, published ?The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy.? (www.wmcarey.edu/carey/paley/paley.htm) 1785 nend US Congress decided that the country?s monetary system would be based on a silver coin called a dollar, similar to that of the Spanish dollar. The first American silver dollar was minted in 1794. (HNQ, 1/5/00) 1785 nend John Adams, the new US ambassador to Britain, presented himself to King George. (Econ, 1/28/06, p.80) 1785 nend Thomas Jefferson succeeded Benjamin Franklin as US ambassador to France. (http://history.state.gov/milestones/1776-1783/BFranklin) 1785 nend The American Continental Congress? Land Grant Act of 1785 set aside land for schools. In anticipation of the country expanding with new states, the Continental Congress took possession of all land won during the Revolution, dividing it into 640-acre sections and selling it for $1 an acre. Thirty-six sections comprised a township, and within each township, one section was set aside to support public schools. (HNQ, 4/3/99) 1785 nend The University of Georgia was the first state university chartered, in 1785, but was not established until 1801. The University of North Carolina was chartered in 1789 and was the first state university in the U.S. to begin instruction, in 1795. (HNQ, 12/3/01) 1785 nend Barbary pirates seized American ships and imprisoned their crew in Algiers for 11 years. Military and ransom operations raised issues of Congressional approval and appropriations that bedeviled Thomas Jefferson as both Sec. of State and as president. The issue is covered in the 1997 book: Separating Power: Essays on the Founding Period" by Gerhard Casper. (SFEC, 1/4/98, BR p.9) 1785 nend James Hutton presented his Theory of the Earth. Here he formulated the principle of "uniformitarianism," which stated that geological features were understandable as having resulted from processes still occurring (i.e. volcanism, erosion, and deposition). Hutton had studied physiology at Leyden and wrote his thesis on the circulation of the blood. He wrote of Earth as a kind of super-organism, whose proper study is planetary physiology. (RFH-MDHP, p.70)(DD-EVTT, p.16)(NOHY, 3/90, p.192) 1785 nend Manual Gonzalez, the 3rd mayor of Pueblo San Jose de Guadelupe (California), conscripted local residents to build the town?s 1st City Hall. (SFC, 8/10/05, p.B4) 1785 nend Prince George of England after mentioning to his wife that he liked her right eye, was presented with a Christmas painting of the eye. It started a London fad and eye paintings flourished for a brief time. (SFEC, 10/5/97, Z1 p.6) 1785 nend In Canada Loyalist graduates of Harvard and King?s College founded the Univ. of New Brunswick. (SFEC, 5/25/97, p.T7) 1785 nend Chechen people launched an armed struggle for freedom and independence under the leadership of Sheikh Mansur. (www.chechnyafree.ru) 1785 nend Marie-Joseph de Condorcet (1743-1794), French philosopher and mathematician, wrote the ?Essay on the Application of Analysis to the Probability of Majority Decisions,? one of his most important works. This work described several now famous results, including Condorcet's jury theorem, which states that if each member of a voting group is more likely than not to make a correct decision, the probability that the highest vote of the group is the correct decision increases as the number of members of the group increases. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet) 1785 nend In Sweden the first Illis Quorum Meruere Labores (For Those Whose Labors Have Deserved It), a gold medal, was awarded. (NH, 4/97, p.31) 1785 1812 This period in the life of Martha Ballard, Maine herbalist and mid-wife, was covered by Ballard in her diaries and later uncovered by historian Laurel Thatcher Ulrich and portrayed in a 1998 TV documentary for "The American Experience." (WSJ, 1/8/98, p.A7) 1786 nend Jan 4, Mozes Mendelssohn (56), Jewish-German philosopher (Haksalah), died. (MC, 1/4/02) 1786 nend Jan 8, Nicholas Biddle, head of the first United States bank, was born. (HN, 1/8/99) 1786 nend Jan 16, The Council of Virginia passed the Virginia Act for Establishing Religious Freedom. Thomas Jefferson had drafted The Virginia Act for Establishing Religious Freedom in 1779 three years after he wrote the Declaration of Independence. (HN, 1/16/99)(WSJ, 12/14/02,p.W17)(http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/sacred/vaact.html) 1786 nend Jan 26, Benjamin Robert Haydon, painter (Waiting for The Times, Wordsworth Ascending), was born in Plymouth. (MC, 1/26/02) 1786 nend Feb 24, Wilhelm Carl Grimm (d.1859), compiler of "Grimm's Fairytales," was born in Germany. (HN, 2/24/98)(WUD, 1994, p.623) 1786 nend Feb 24, Charles Cornwallis, whose armies had surrendered to US at Yorktown, was appointed governor-general of India. [see Sep 12] (MC, 2/24/02) 1786 nend Mar 22, Joachim Lelevelis was born in Warsaw. He became a renowned historian and Prof. at Vilnius Univ. He died May 29, 1861 in Paris. (LHC, 3/22/03) c 1786 nend Apr 6, Sacagawea (also Sacajawea), American explorer, was born. (HN, 4/6/01) 1786 nend Apr 16, Sir John Franklin, arctic explorer, was born. He discovered the North-West Passage. (HN, 4/16/99) 1786 nend Apr 20, John Goodricke (21), English deaf and dumb astronomer, died. (MC, 4/20/02) 1786 nend Apr, The process of moving the bones from the Cemetery of the Innocents to the new site in the limestone quarries began. The process took 2 years. The Revolutionary Government of Paris had decided to relieve congestion and improve sanitary conditions by emptying the city cemeteries into an official ossuary. The Cemetery of the Innocents and other church cemeteries were moved to the limestone quarries south of the city. (Hem., 3/97, p.129)(SSFC, 11/12/06, p.G3) 1786 nend May 1, The opera "The Marriage of Figaro," by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, premiered in Vienna. (AP, 5/1/97) 1786 nend May 19, John Stanley (74), composer, died. (MC, 5/19/02) 1786 nend May 21, Carl W. Scheele (43), Swedish pharmacist, chemist, died. (MC, 5/21/02) 1786 nend Jun 13, Winfield Scott, U.S. Army general famous for his victories in the War of 1812 and the War with Mexico, was born. (HN, 6/13/98) 1786 nend Jun 19, Gen. Nathanael Greene died of sunstroke at his Georgia plantation. In 1960 Theodore Thayer authored "Nathanael Greene, Strategist of the American Revolution." In 1973 William Johnson authored "Life and Correspondence of Nathanael Greene." (ON, 12/01, p.12) 1786 nend Jul 11, Morocco agreed to stop attacking American ships in the Mediterranean for a payment of $10,000. (HN, 7/11/98) 1786 nend Jul 24, Jean-Louis Nicollet, French explorer, was born. (HN, 7/24/02) 1786 nend Aug 8, The US Congress adopted the silver dollar and decimal system of money. (MC, 8/8/02) 1786 nend Aug 8, Jacques Balmat and Dr. Michel-Gabriel Paccard became the first men to climb Mont Blanc in France. (HN, 8/8/98)(ON, 4/04, p.1) 1786 nend Aug 17, Davy Crockett, American frontiersman and politician who died in the defense of the Alamo, was born. (HN, 8/17/98) 1786 nend Aug 25, Ludwig I (d.1868), King of Bavaria, was born. He later had an affair with international courtesan, Lola Montez. (MC, 8/25/02) 1786 nend Aug 29, Shay?s Rebellion began in Springfield, Mass. Daniel Shay led a rebellion in Massachusetts to protest the seizure of property for the non-payment of debt. Shay was a Revolutionary War veteran who led a short-lived insurrection in western Massachusetts to protest a tax increase that had to be paid in cash, a hardship for veteran farmers who relied on barter and didn?t own enough land to vote. The taxes were to pay off the debts from the Revolutionary War, and those who couldn?t pay were evicted or sent to prison.. [see Jan 25, 1787] (HNQ, 7/6/00)(www.shaysnet.com/dshays.html) 1786 nend Sep 9, George Washington called for the abolition of slavery. (HN, 9/9/98) 1786 nend Sep 11, The US Convention of Annapolis opened with the aim of revising the articles of confederation. (HN, 9/11/98) 1786 nend Sep 12, Despite his failed efforts to suppress the American Revolution, Lord Cornwallis was appointed governor general of India. [see Feb 24] (HN, 9/12/98) 1786 nend Sep 14, Two French ships appeared off the coast of Monterey, the first foreign vessels to visit Spain's California colonies. Aboard was a party of eminent scientists, navigators, cartographers, illustrators, and physicians. For the next ten days Jean Francois de La Pérouse, the commander of this expedition, took detailed notes on the life and character of the area. Perouse?s notes were later published under the title ?Life in a California Mission: Monterey in 1786: The Journals of Jean Francois De LA Perouse.? (http://tinyurl.com/fbuud) 1786 nend Sep 26, France and Britain signed a trade agreement in London. (HN, 9/26/99) 1786 nend Oct 20, Harvard University organized the 1st astronomical expedition in US. (MC, 10/20/01) 1786 nend Nov 18, Karl Maria Friedrich Ernst von Weber, German composer (Der Freischutz), was born. (MC, 11/18/01) 1786 nend Dec 18, Carl Maria von Weber, German romantic composer (Der Freischutz), was born. (MC, 12/18/01) 1786 nend Dec 20, Pietro Raimondi, composer, was born. (MC, 12/20/01) 1786 nend Dec 26, Daniel Shay led a rebellion in Massachusetts to protest the seizure of property for the non-payment of debt. Shay was a Revolutionary War veteran who led a short-lived insurrection in western Massachusetts to protest a tax increase that had to be paid in cash, a hardship for veteran farmers who relied on barter and didn?t own enough land to vote. The taxes were to pay off the debts from the Revolutionary War, and those who couldn?t pay were evicted or sent to prison. [see Jan 25, 1787] (HN, 12/26/98)(HNQ, 7/6/00) 1786 nend Scotsman Gregor MacGregor (d.1845), later known as His Serene Highness Gregor I, Prince of Poyais, was born in Scotland. [see 1811] (SSFC, 1/18/04, p.M2)(WSJ, 1/30/04, p.W9) 1786 nend Andres Lopez of Mexico painted "Sacred Heart of Jesus." (WSJ, 3/3/98, p.A16) 1786 nend George Morland painted "The Wreck of the Haswell." (WSJ, 9/3/98, p.A20) 1786 nend Tiepolo painted "The Third Temptation of Jesus." (SSFC, 12/17/06, p.M6) 1786 nend Robert Burns published his first book of poetry in Kilmarnock, Scotland. (SFC, 9/30/98, Z1 p.3) 1786 nend Nicolas-Edme Restif de la Bretonne began writing in a new genre, the nighttime prowl. His "Les Nuits de Paris ou Le Spectateur nocturne" was a rambling account of 1,001 nights wandering the streets of Paris. (SFCM, 10/14/01, p.35) 1786 nend Rev. Henry Channing gave a sermon on the occasion of the hanging of a 12-year old mulatto girl, Hannah Ocuish, in New London, Connecticut. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.20) 1786 nend Mission Santa Barbara in California was founded as a place for the Franciscan friars to assemble and convert the native Chumash Indians. (SFEC, 5/4/97, p.T6) 1786 nend Encke, the most frequent visiting comet was first observed. Its period is only 3.3 years. NASA planned a rendezvous for 1984. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.223) 1786 nend Meg Nicholson (d.1828) attempted to stab King George III. She was sent to Bedlam and died there at age 77. (WSJ, 1/29/03, p.D10) 1786 nend French explorer Jean-Francois de Galaup de la Perouse set foot near Makena Beach on the Hawaiian island of Maui. (SFEC, 9/7/97, p.T5) 1786 nend Capt. Francis Light landed in Penang (Malaysia) and built Fort Cornwallis. Light, acting on behalf of the East India Company, swindled the island from the ruling sultan with a promise of protection. The British usurped the land to break the Dutch monopoly on the spice trade. (SFEC, 8/3/97, p.T8)(SFEM, 12/19/99, p.8)(SFC, 12/8/05, p.E7) 1786 nend Graaff-Reinet, the major town of the Easter Karoo in South Africa, was founded. (Nat. Hist., 3/96, p.60) 1786 nend Frederick II (b.1712), King of Prussia, died. In 2000 Giles MacDonogh authored "Frederick the Great." (WSJ, 4/27/00, p.A24) 1786 1859 Marceline Desbordes-Valmore, French actress and poet: "Who will give me back those days when life had wings and flew just like a skylark in the sky." (AP, 2/28/99) 1787 nend Jan 11, Titania and Oberon, moons of Uranus, were discovered by William Herschel. (www.skyhound.com/george.html) 1787 nend Jan 25, Shays' Rebellion suffered a setback when debt-ridden farmers led by Capt. Daniel Shays failed to capture an arsenal at Springfield, Mass. Small farmers in Springfield, Massachusetts led by Daniel Shays continued their revolt against tax laws. Federal troops broke up the protesters of what later became known as Shay?s Rebellion. [see Aug 29, 1786] (AP, 1/25/98)(HN, 1/25/99)(www.sjchs-history.org/Shays.html) 1787 nend Feb 4, Shay?s Rebellion, an uprising of debt-ridden Massachusetts farmers, failed. (HN, 2/4/99) 1787 nend Feb 18, Austrian emperor Josef II banned children under 8 from labor. (MC, 2/18/02) 1787 nend Feb 23, Emma Hart Willard, pioneer in higher education for women, was born. (HN, 2/23/98) 1787 nend Mar 8, Karl Ferdinand von Grafe was born. He helped create modern plastic surgery. (MC, 3/8/02) 1787 nend Mar 16, George S. Ohm, German scientist, was born. He gave his name to the ohm unit of electrical resistance. [HN later said Mar 16, 1789] (HN, 3/16/99)(WUD, 1994 p.1001) 1787 nend Apr 12, Philadelphia's Free African Society formed. (MC, 4/12/02) 1787 nend May 10, The British Parliament impeached Warren Hastings. There was an effort to impeach the governor-general of India. Edmund Burke indicted Warren Hastings, governor-general of India (1773-1785), on 21 charges for high crimes and misdemeanors. The trial lasted 7 years and Hastings was acquitted on all charges. (SFEC, 11/1/98, BR p.11)(WSJ, 5/1/00, p.A24)(MC, 5/10/02) 1787 nend May 13, Arthur Phillip set sail from Portsmouth, Great Britain, with 11 ships of criminals to Australia. By year?s end some 50,000 British convict servants were transported to the American colonies in commutation of death sentences. After the American Revolution, Britain continued dumping convicts in the US illegally into 1787. Australia eventually replaced America for this purpose. Penal transports continued until 1853, which left a remarkable legacy: an almost totally unexplored continent settled largely by convicted felons. (HNQ, 1/24/99)(www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=35) 1787 nend May 14, Delegates began gathering in Philadelphia for a convention to draw up the U.S. Constitution. (AP, 5/14/97) 1787 nend May 25, The Constitutional Convention convened in Philadelphia after enough delegates showed up for a quorum. The Founding Fathers turned to the Rushworth's Collections of England for revolutionary precedents. George Washington presided. [see May 25, 1777] Rhode Island refused to send delegates. (AP, 5/25/97)(WSJ, 3/10/99, p.A22)(HN, 5/25/99)(Econ, 9/16/06, p.44) 1787 nend May 28, Johann Georg Leopold Mozart (67), Austrian composer, died. (MC, 5/28/02) 1787 nend May 29, The "Virginia Plan" was proposed. (SC, 5/29/02) 1787 nend May, Eight ships left Great Britain carrying the first of what would be the largest transportation of convicts in history to Botany Bay in New South Wales, Australia. Penal transports continued until 1853, which left a remarkable legacy: an almost totally unexplored continent settled largely by convicted felons. (http://www.csmi.med.ed.ac.uk/session1/group65/index.htm) 1787 nend Jun 28, Sir Henry G. W. Smith, leader of British-Indian forces, was born. (HN, 6/28/98) 1787 nend Jul 2, The Marquis de Sade shouted from Bastille that prisoners were being slaughtered. (SC, 7/2/02) 1787 nend Jul 13, Congress, under the Articles of Confederation, enacted the Northwest Ordinance, establishing rules for governing the Northwest Territory, for admitting new states to the Union and limiting the expansion of slavery. (AP, 7/13/97)(HN, 7/13/98) 1787 nend Jul 30, The French parliament refused to approve a more equitable land tax. (HN, 7/30/98) 1787 nend Aug 2, Horace de Saussure, Swiss scientist, reached the top of Mont Blanc. (MC, 8/2/02) 1787 nend Aug 6, The Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia began to debate the articles contained in a draft of the United States Constitution. (AP, 8/6/97) 1787 nend Aug 10, Mozart completed his "Eine Kleine Nachtmusik." (MC, 8/10/02) 1787 nend Aug 13, The Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia. (HN, 8/13/98) 1787 nend Aug 17, Jews were granted permission in Budapest, Hungary, to pray in groups. (SC, 8/17/02) 1787 nend Aug 22, Inventor John Fitch demonstrated his steamboat, the Perseverance, on the Delaware River to delegates of the Continental Congress. In 2004 Andrea Sutcliffe authored ?Steam: The Untold Story of America?s First Great Invention.? (AP, 8/22/99)(WSJ, 7/27/04, p.D10) 1787 nend Aug 24, Wolfgang A. Mozart completed his viola sonata in A, K526. (MC, 8/24/02) 1787 nend Sep 4, Louis XVI of France recalled parliament. (HN, 9/4/98) 1787 nend Sep 17, The Constitution of the United States was completed and signed by a majority of delegates (12) attending the constitutional convention in Philadelphia. The US Constitution went into effect on Mar 4, 1789. Clause 3 of Article I, Section 8 empowered Congress to "regulate Commerce with foreign nations, among the several states, and with the Indian Tribes." Two of the signers went on to become presidents of the United States. George Washington, the president of the Constitutional Convention, and James Madison both signed the Constitution. The US Constitution is the world's oldest working Constitution. James Mason of Virginia refused to sign the document because he thought it made the federal government too powerful believed that it should contain a Bill of Rights. (HFA, '96, p.38)(AP, 9/17/97)(HN, 9/17/98)(WUD, 1994, p.314)(WSJ,4/9/99, p.W17)(HNQ, 5/19/99)(WSJ, 3/31/06, p.A1) 1787 nend Sep 17, The US Constitution included the Connecticut, or "Great," Compromise in which every state was conceded an equal vote in the Senate irrespective of its size, but representation in the House was to be on the basis of the "federal ratio," an enumeration of the free population plus three fifths of the slaves. (SSFC, 11/2/03, p.M6) 1787 nend Sep 17, The "College of Electors" (electoral college) was established at the Constitutional Convention with representatives to be chosen by the states. Pierce Butler of South Carolina first proposed the electoral college system. [see Sep 13, 1788] (SFC, 11/9/00, p.A14)(WSJ, 11/9/00, p.A26) 1787 nend Sep 17, The Electoral College, proposed by James Wilson, was the compromise that the Constitutional Convention reached. In 2004 George C. Edwards III authored ?Why the Electoral College Is Bad for America.? (www.usconstitution.net/consttop_elec.html)(SSFC, 10/17/04, p.M3) 1787 nend Sep 27, The US Constitution was submitted to states for ratification. [see Sep 28] (MC, 9/27/01) 1787 nend Sep 28, Congress voted to send the just-completed Constitution of the United States to state legislatures for their approval. [see Sep 27] (AP, 9/28/97) 1787 nend Oct 27, The first of the Federalist Papers, a series of 77 essays calling for ratification of the U.S. Constitution, was published in a New York newspaper. The essays by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay were written under the pseudonym ?Publius? and later published as "The Federalist Papers." (AP, 10/27/97)(WSJ, 11/19/98, p.A1)(WSJ, 12/29/07, p.A8) 1787 nend Oct 29, Mozart's opera Don Giovanni opened in Prague. Don Giovanni was first performed at the Prague?s Estates Theater with Mozart at the piano and conducting the orchestra. It was a sensational success. (V.D.-H.K.p.236)(SFC, 4/14/96, T-12)(HN, 10/29/00) 1787 nend Nov 15, Christoph W. Ritter von Gluck (73), composer (Iphigenie Tauride), died. (MC, 11/15/01) 1787 nend Nov 18, Louis-Jacques Daguerre, French painter (daguerreotype), was born. (MC, 11/18/01) 1787 nend Nov 18, Sojourner Truth, abolitionist and feminist, was born. [see Nov 19] (MC, 11/18/01) 1787 nend Nov 18, The 1st Unitarian minister in US was ordained in Boston. (MC, 11/18/01) 1797 nend Nov 19, Sojourner Truth (d.1883), abolitionist and women's rights advocate, was born. "Religion without humanity is a poor human stuff." [see Nov 18] (HN, 11/19/98)(AP, 10/29/00) 1787 nend Nov 21, Samuel Cunard (d.1865), founder of the 1st regular Atlantic steamship line, was born in Canada. (MC, 11/21/01)(WSJ, 7/1/03, p.D8) 1787 nend Nov 23, Anton Schweitzer (52), composer, died. (MC, 11/23/01) 1787 nend Nov 25, Franz Xavier Gruber, Austria, organist and composer (Silent Night), was born. (MC, 11/25/01) 1787 nend Nov 29, In France Louis XVI promulgated an edict of tolerance, granting civil status to Protestants. (HN, 11/29/98)(WSJ, 11/1/01, p.A19) 1787 nend Dec 7, Delaware became the first state to ratify the U.S. Constitution. (AP, 12/7/97) 1787 nend Dec 10, Thomas H. Gallaudet, a pioneer of educating the deaf, was born in Philadelphia. (AP, 12/10/07) 1787 nend Dec 12, Pennsylvania became the second state to ratify the U.S. Constitution. (AP, 12/12/97) 1787 nend Dec 18, New Jersey became the third state to ratify the U.S. Constitution. (AP, 12/18/97) 1787 nend Dec, William Wilberforce, on the suggestion of PM William Pitt, introduced a motion in British Parliament for the abolition of the slave trade. (ON, 4/05, p.2) 1787 nend Robert Barker, an Irish painter, is credited with inventing the panorama and patented the idea in this year. (WSJ, 9/3/98, p.A20) 1787 nend Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) authored ?Panopticon,? a plan for prison construction and management. (SSFC, 9/12/04, p.M1)(http://cartome.org/panopticon2.htm) 1787 nend Peter Markoe (1752?-1792) authored ?An Algerine Spy in Pennsylvania.? His satirical provocation helped to push the US Congress authorized a Navy and to dispatch Marines to subdue the pirates of Tripoli. (WSJ, 6/2/07, p.P8) 1787 nend The Mission La Purisima Concepcion in Lompoc, Ca., was founded. It is now a 900 acre state park. (AWAM, Dec. 94, p.67) no_source 1787 nend Rev. Richard Allen and Absalom Jones decided to form the Free African Society, a non-denominational religious mutual aid society for the black community. Eventually this society grew into the African Church of Philadelphia. (www.pbs.org) 1787 nend Quatremiere de Quincy coined the term "Baroque" and defined it as absurdity carried to excess. (WSJ, 8/18/99, p.A17) 1787 nend Alexander Hamilton (32) became the first US Treasury secretary. (WSJ, 11/19/98, p.A1) 1787 nend Alexander Hamilton sponsored a New York law that recognized adultery as the only ground for divorce. It remained in force until 1967. (WSJ, 8/6/07, p.B1) 1787 nend Thomas Jefferson toured Bordeaux while serving as US ambassador to France. He purchased cases Haut-Brion, d?Yquiem, and Margaux for himself and George Washington. (WSJ, 9/1/06, p.A9) 1787 nend In the US the Northwest Ordinance abolished slavery and marked the establishment of segregation and separate churches for blacks. It included the sentence: "Religion, morality and knowledge are necessary to good government..." (SFC, 6/24/96, p.A19) 1787 nend A private mint struck the first penny. It was 100% copper and known as the Fugio cent. (USAT, 7/19/01, p.3A) 1787 nend The first left and right shoes were made. (SFEC, 1/30/00, Z1 p.2) 1787 nend The younger brother of William Blake, Robert, died. His death deeply affected William and marked the genesis of Blake?s Illuminated Works. (LSA, Spring 1995, p.17) 1887 nend In Argentina the last census to include blacks as a separate category indicated that about 2% of the population in Buenos Aires was African. (SSFC, 11/27/05, p.A24) 1787 nend Granville Sharp, English abolitionist, formed the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade. (ON, 12/08, p.9) 1787 nend Thomas Clarkson, deacon in the Church of England, led the formation of the original abolitionist committee, the interdenominational ?Committee to Effect the Abolition of the Slave Trade.? His anti-slavery committee distributed 1,000 copies of ?A Letter to our Friends in the Country, to inform them of the state of the Business.? This was later considered as possibly the 1st direct-mail fund-raising letter. In 2004 Adam Hochschild authored ?Bury the Chains: Prophets and Rebels in the Fight to Free an Empire?s Slaves.? (SSFC, 1/23/05, p.F1)(ON, 4/05, p.1) 1787 nend Henry Hobhouse, a Bristol slave trader, bought the Hadspen country house in Somerset, England, and rebuilt it. (Econ, 5/3/08, p.23) 1787 nend English ships transported some 38,000 slaves this year. (Econ, 12/23/06, p.93) 1787 nend British settlers bought land from African tribal leaders in Sierra Leone and used it as a haven for freed African slaves. The indigenous community, dominated by the Mende, wiped out the first settlers. A 2nd group followed in 1792. The settlers intermarried but held themselves aloof, monopolized power and discriminated against the original population. In 2005 Simon Schama authored ?Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves and the American Revolution.? (SFC, 3/11/98, p.A10)(SFC, 2/14/98, p.A8)(WSJ, 5/31/00, p.A26)(Econ,8/27/05, p.66)(MT, summer 2003, p.8) 1787 nend Gen. Thomas Gage, former commander of British forces in North America, died at age 66. In 1948 John Richard Alden authored "General Gage in America." (ON, 3/01, p.4) 1787 nend Morocco became the first country to recognize the US as a sovereign nation. Pres. Washington acknowledged Morocco?s recognition in 1789. (SFC, 8/15/98, p.E4)(SFCM, 3/27/05, p.19) 1787 1788 In Milan the Teatro alla Scala was built by Giuseppe Piermarini in neo-Classical style. (WSJ, 12/26/01, p.A26)(SSFC, 1/27/02, p.C9) 1787 1826 Joseph von Fraunhofer, German physicist, using advanced optical techniques, found that the spectrum of Newton?s rainbow ribbon is marred by a large number of thin dark crosslines. The lines are called Fraunhofer lines but were not explained until the work of Kirchoff 50 years later. (SCTS, p.6) 1787 1863 Richard Whately, British theologian: "Honesty is the best policy, but he who acts on that principle is not an honest man." (AP, 1/24/01) 1787 1948 William Herschel and other astronomers spotted 5 moons circling Uranus during this period. (SFC, 12/23/05, p.A4) 1788 nend Jan 1, The Times, London's oldest running newspaper, was first published. [see Jan 1, 1785] (HN, 1/1/99) 1788 nend Jan 1, Quakers in Pennsylvania emancipated their slaves. (MC, 1/1/02) 1788 nend Jan 2, Georgia became the fourth state to ratify the U.S. Constitution. (HFA, '96, p.22)(AP, 1/2/98) 1788 nend Jan 9, Connecticut became the fifth state to ratify the U.S. Constitution. (AP, 1/9/99) 1788 nend Jan 18, The first English settlers arrived in Australia's Botany Bay to establish a penal colony. They found the location unsuitable and Capt. Arthur Philip moved on to Sydney Cove. England sent the first sheep along with convicts to Australia. (NG, 5.1988, pp. 575)(SFEC, 1/4/98, p.T4)(AP, 1/18/98)(Econ, 5/7/05,Survey p.14) 1788 nend Jan 20, The pioneer African Baptist church was organized in Savannah, Ga. (MC, 1/20/02) 1788 nend Jan 22, George Gordon (d.1824), (6th Baron Byron) aka Lord Byron, English poet, was born with a deformed foot. His work included "Lara," "Childe Harold?s Pilgrimage" and "Don Juan." He died in Greece at Missolonghi on the gulf of Patras preparing to fight for Greek independence. In 1997 the biography: "Byron: The flawed Angel" by Phyllis Grosskurth was published. (WUD, 1994, p.204,917)(SFC, 6/9/97, p.D3)(SFEC, 11/15/98, Z1p.10)(HN, 1/22/99) 1788 nend Jan 26, The 1st fleet of ships carrying 736 convicts from England landed at Sydney Cove, New South Wales, Australia. The first European settlers in Australia, led by Capt. Arthur Phillip, landed in present-day Sydney. The day is since known as Australia?s national day. In 2006 Thomas Keneally authored ?The Commonwealth of Thieves: The Story of the Founding of Australia.? (AP, 1/26/98)(HN, 1/26/99)(WSJ, 9/19/00, p.A1)(Econ, 7/15/06, p.83) 1788 nend Jan 31, Charles Edward Stuart (67), The Young Pretender, died. (HN, 1/31/99)(MC, 1/31/02) no_source 1788 nend Feb 1, Isaac Briggs and William Longstreet patented the steamboat on this day. (440 Int'l, 2/1/1999) 1788 nend Feb 5, Sir Robert Peel (d.1850), British prime minister through the early 1800s, was born. He founded the Conservative Party and the London Police Force whose officers were called "bobbies." (HN, 2/5/99)(Econ, 6/30/07, p.93) 1788 nend Feb 6, Massachusetts became the sixth state to ratify the U.S. Constitution. (AP, 2/6/97)(HN, 2/6/99) 1788 nend Feb 22, Arthur Schopenhauer (d.1860), German philosopher (Great Pessimist), was born: "Hatred comes from the heart; contempt from the head; and neither feeling is quite within our control." (AP, 12/9/99)(MC, 2/22/02) 1788 nend Mar 7, Alexander Hamilton published his Federalist Paper 65 in the New York Packet. It discussed the subject of impeachment. (USAT, 9/14/98, p.4A) 1788 nend Mar 21, Almost the entire city of New Orleans, Louisiana, was destroyed by fire. 856 buildings were burned. (HN, 3/21/99)(MC, 3/21/02) 1788 nend Mar 29, Charles Wesley, hymn writer and brother of John Wesley, died. (MC, 3/29/02)(WSJ, 6/13/03, p.W19) 1788 nend Apr 4, Last of the Federalist essays was published. The series of 85 letters were written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay urging ratification of the US Constitution. Defects in the Articles of Confederation became apparent, such as the lack of central authority over foreign and domestic commerce and the inability of Congress to levy taxes, leading Congress to endorse a plan to draft a new constitution. (MC, 4/4/02) 1788 nend Apr 5, Franz Pforr, German painter, cartoonist (Lukasbund), was born. (MC, 4/5/02) 1788 nend Apr 12, Carlo Antonio Campioni (67), composer, died. (MC, 4/12/02) 1788 nend Apr 15, Mary Delany (b.1700), English artist and writer, died. She became known for her ?Flora Delanica,? a collection of 985 botanically accurate portraits of flowers in bloom. In 2011 Molly Peacock authored ??The Paper Garden: An Artist Begins Her Life?s work at 72.? (Econ, 6/11/11, p.86)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Delany) 1788 nend Apr 28, Maryland became the seventh state to ratify the US constitution, but on condition that a Bill of Rights be added. (AP, 4/28/07)(WSJ, 9/20/08, p.A21) 1788 nend May 10, Augustin-Jean Fresnel, optics pioneer, physicist, was born. (MC, 5/10/02) 1788 nend May 18, Hugh Clapperton, African explorer, was born in Annan, Scotland. (SC, 5/18/02) 1788 nend May 23, South Carolina became the eighth state to ratify the U. S. Constitution. (AP, 5/23/97)(HN, 5/23/98) 1788 nend May 29, Jacques Aliamet (61), French etcher, engraver, died. (SC, 5/29/02) 1788 nend Jun 11, The 1st British ship to be built on Pacific coast was begun at Nootka Sound, BC. (SC, 6/11/02) 1788 nend Jun 21, The U.S. Constitution went into effect as New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify it. (AP, 6/21/97) 1788 nend Jun 25, Virginia ratified the U.S. Constitution. (AP, 6/25/97) 1788 nend Jul 6, Ten thousand troops were called out in Paris as unrest mounted in the poorer districts over poverty and lack of food. (HN, 7/6/98) 1788 nend Jul 15, Louis XVI jailed 12 deputies who protest new judicial reforms. (HN, 7/15/98) 1788 nend Jul 19, Prices plunged on the Paris stock market. (HN, 7/19/98) 1788 nend Jul 20, The governor of the French colony of Pondicherry, Vietnam, abandoned plans to place King Nhuyen Anh back on the throne. (HN, 7/20/98) 1788 nend Jul 26, New York became the 11th state to ratify the Constitution. (AP, 7/26/97) 1788 nend Aug 2, Thomas Gainsborough (61), English painter, died. His work included the 1771 portraits of the Viscount and Viscountess Ligonier and "Blue Boy." (HN, 5/14/01)(AAP, 1964)(MC, 5/14/02)(WSJ, 12/19/02, p.D10)(MC, 8/2/02) 1788 nend Aug 8, King Louis XVI called the French States and Generals together. (MC, 8/8/02) 1788 nend Aug 8, Louis FAD Duke de Richelieu (92), French marshal, died. (MC, 8/8/02) 1788 nend Aug 27, Jacques Neeker was named French minister of Finance. (MC, 8/27/01) 1788 nend Sep 13, The Congress of the Confederation authorized the first national election, and declared New York City the temporary national capital. The Constitutional Convention authorized the first federal election resolving that electors (electoral college) in all the states will be appointed on January 7, 1789. The Convention decreed that the first federal election would be held on the first Wednesday in February of the following year. (AP, 9/13/97)(HN, 9/13/00) 1788 nend Sep 15, An alliance between Britain, Prussia and the Netherlands was ratified at the Hague. (HN, 9/15/99) 1788 nend Sep 19, Charles de Barentin became lord chancellor of France. (HN, 9/19/98) 1788 nend Sep 22, Theodore Hook, English novelist best known for "Impromptu at Fulham," was born. (HN, 9/22/98) 1788 nend Sep 23, Louis XVI of France declared the Parliament restored. (HN, 9/23/98) 1788 nend Sep 24, After having been dissolved, the French Parliament of Paris reassembled in triumph. (HN, 9/24/98) 1788 nend Oct 6, The Polish Diet decided to hold a four year session. (HN, 10/6/98) 1788 nend Oct 24, Sarah Josepha Hale, magazine editor and poet whose book Poems for Our Children included "Mary Had a Little Lamb" (the first words to be recorded in sound), was born. (HN, 10/24/98) 1788 nend Dec 18, Camille Pleyel, Austrian piano builder and composer, was born. (MC, 12/18/01) 1788 nend Dec 23, Maryland voted to cede a 100-square-mile area for the seat of the national government; about two-thirds of the area became the District of Columbia. (AP, 12/23/97) 1788 nend Dec 30, Francesco Zuccarelli (86), Italian rococo painter and etcher, died. (MC, 12/30/01) 1788 nend Pierre-Paul Prud?hon (1758-1823), French artist, painted "Love Seduces Innocence, Pleasure Entraps, and Remorse Follows." (WSJ, 4/8/98, p.A20) 1788 nend John Adams published "A Defense of the Constitutions." (WSJ, 12/22/98, p.A16) 1788 nend The Narrative of John Blanchford was published. Blanchford (15), a Massachusetts cabin-boy, had been captured by the British and sent to prison in Halifax and later to Sumatra from where he escaped after a 6 year ordeal. (ON, 1/00, p.5) 1788 nend ?The Art of Cookery, Made Plain and Easy? by Hannah Glasse was published in London. (SFC, 5/4/05, p.G10) 1788 nend Mozart?s Don Giovanni was performed in conservative Vienna but was not a success. (V.D.-H.K.p.236) 1788 nend Mozart composed his 41st symphony titled by his publisher as the Jupiter. (T&L, 10/80, p. 103) 1788 nend Rules were set for the game of cricket. (Econ, 4/24/04, p.81) 1788 nend Buffalo clover... nearly knee-high... afforded a rich pasture. An image of the fertile frontier penned by historian S.P. Hildreth. After 1907 the clover was unseen until 1989 when it emerged in some topsoil delivered to a botanist?s backyard. (NG, Jan. 94, p.144) 1788 nend As British settlers arrived in Australia the native Aborigines are believed to have numbered about 750,000, and to have inhabited Australia for up to 70,000 years. (AP, 1/30/08) 1788 nend A botanical garden opened in Puerto de la Cruz on Tenerife Island (Canary Islands). (SSFC, 4/16/06, p.F7) 1788 nend A great fire destroyed much of the wooden city of Kyoto, Japan. (WSJ, 1/25/06,p.D10)(www.city.kyoto.jp/koho/eng/historical/chronology.html) 1788 nend A salon from Paris of this time was later transferred [c1993] to the Legion of Honor Museum in San Francisco, Ca. (WSJ, 11/16/95, p.A-18) 1788 1789 King George III suffered a mental breakdown. (WSJ, 1/29/03, p.A1) 1780 1800 In 2007 Jay Winik authored ?The Great Upheaval: America and the Birth of the Modern World, 1788-1800.? (WSJ, 9/14/07, p.W5) 1788 1865 C.J. Thomson, Danish museum curator, contributed to the Three Age System classification of early man from stone to bronze to iron. (RFH-MDHP, 1969, p.25) 1789 nend Jan 7, The first U.S. presidential election was held. Americans voted for electors who, a month later, chose George Washington to be the nation's first president. (AP, 1/7/98) 1789 nend Jan 21, Baron Paul Thierry d?Holbach (b.1723), a French-German author, philosopher, encyclopedist and a prominent figure in the French Enlightenment, died. In 2010 Philipp Blom authored ?A Wicked Company: The Forgotten Radicalism of the European Enlightenment,? the story of the Paris salon run by Baron Paul Thierry d?Holbach. (Econ, 10/30/10, p.90)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach) 1789 nend Jan 23, Georgetown University was established by Jesuits in present-day Washington, D.C., as the 1st US Catholic college. (AP, 1/23/98)(MC, 1/23/02) 1789 nend Feb 2, Armand-Louis Couperin (63), French composer, organist at Notre Dame, died. (MC, 2/2/02) 1789 nend Feb 4, Electors unanimously chose George Washington to be the first president of the United States and John Adams as vice-president. The results of the balloting were not counted in the US Senate until two months later. Washington accepted office at the Federal Building of New York. His first cabinet included Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton as first secretary of the Treasury, Henry Knox, and Edmund Randolph. (A & IP, ESM, p.10)(WSJ, 3/12/97, p.A18)(AP, 2/4/07) 1789 nend Feb 8, Ludwig Wilhelm Maurer, composer, was born. (MC, 2/8/02) 1789 nend Mar 2, Pennsylvania ended the prohibition of theatrical performances. (SC, 3/2/02) 1789 nend Mar 4, The Constitution of the United States, framed in 1787, went into effect as the first Federal Congress met in New York City. Lawmakers then adjourned for the lack of a quorum (9 senators, 13 representatives). In 2006 Robert V. Remini, historian of the US House of Representatives, authored ?The House.? (WUD, 1994, p.314)(AP, 3/4/98)(HN, 3/4/98)(SC, 3/4/02) 1789 nend Mar 4, Pavel P. Gagarin, Russian monarch, was born. (SC, 3/4/02) 1789 nend Mar 16, George S. Ohm (d.1854), German scientist, was born. He gave his name to the ohm unit of electrical resistance. [WUD says Mar 16, 1787] (HN, 3/16/02)(WUD, 1994 p.1001) 1789 nend Apr 1, The U.S. House of Representatives held its first full meeting, in New York City. Frederick Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania was elected the first House Speaker. (AP, 4/1/98) 1789 nend Apr 6, The first US Congress began regular sessions at Federal Hall on Wall Street, NYC. (HN, 4/6/98)(MC, 4/6/02) 1789 nend Apr 8, The U.S. House of Representatives held its first meeting. (HN, 4/8/98) 1789 nend Apr 16, George Washington left Mount Vernon, Va., for the first presidential inauguration in New York. (AP, 4/16/97)(HN, 4/16/98) 1789 nend Apr 21, John Adams was sworn in as the first vice president of the United States. (AP, 4/21/97)(HN, 4/21/98) 1789 nend Apr 23, President-elect Washington and his wife moved into the first executive mansion, the Franklin House, in New York. George Washington was inaugurated at Federal Hall and lived at 3 Cherry Street in New York City. In 1790, with construction on the new federal capital underway, the government was moved temporarily to Philadelphia, where Washington served out his two terms. He is the only president who never resided in the White House. (AP, 4/23/97)(HNPD, 12/22/98) 1789 nend Apr 28, Fletcher Christian lead a mutiny on the Bounty as the crew of the British ship set Captain William Bligh and 18 sailors adrift in a launch in the South Pacific. Richard Hough later authored: "Captain Bligh and Mr. Christian." http://www.visi.com/~pjlareau//bounty1.html (AP, 4/28/97)(HN, 4/28/98)(SFC, 10/9/99, p.A20)(MC, 4/28/02) 1789 nend Apr 30, George Washington was inaugurated and took office in New York as the first president of the United States. He took his oath of office on the balcony of Federal Hall on Wall Street and spoke the words ?So help me God,? which all future US presidents have repeated. The oath as prescribed by the Constitution makes no mention of God of the Bible. (AP, 4/30/97)(HN, 4/30/98)(SSFC, 1/18/09, p.W4)(AH, 4/07, p.31) 1789 nend May 5, In France the Estates General, summoned by King Louis XVI, convened to repair the national finances. It sat for several weeks in May and June, but came to an impasse as the three Estates clashed over their respective powers. It was brought to an end when many members of the Third Estate formed themselves into a National Assembly, signaling the outbreak of the French Revolution. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estates-General_of_1789) 1789 nend May 7, The first inaugural ball was held in New York in honor of President and Mrs. George Washington. (AP, 5/7/97) 1789 nend May 10, Joaquim Jose da Silva Xavier, Tiradentes, rebel for Independence, was arrested. He was betrayed by Joaquim Silverio dos Reis, a participant of the movement, in exchange of waiving of his due taxes; Silverio?s name is carved in Brazilian History as The Betrayer. (SFC, 2/26/99,p.E2)(www.v-brazil.com/culture/historic-characters/tiradentes.html) 1789 nend May 12, The Society of St. Tammany was formed by Revolutionary War soldiers. It later became an infamous group of NYC political bosses. (SC, internet, 5/12/97) 1789 nend May 12, In England William Wilberforce laid out his case for the abolition of slavery to the House of Commons. This speech directly led to Britain?s abolition of slavery in 1807. (WSJ, 5/12/07, p.P14) 1789 nend Jun 1, Congress passed its first act which mandated the procedure for administering oaths of public office. (DTnet 6/1/97)(HN, 6/1/98) 1789 nend Jun 4, The US constitution, enacted as sovereign law, went into effect. (V.D.-H.K.p.300)(MC, 6/4/02) 1789 nend Jun 10, Bernard-Jordan de Launay, military governor of the Bastille, suspended the prisoners? daily supervised walks outside the Bastille walls. (ON, 4/01, p.1) 1789 nend Jun 14, Captain William Bligh of the HMS Bounty arrived in Timor in a small boat. (HN, 6/14/98) 1789 nend Jun 17, The Third Estate in France declared itself a national assembly, and undertook to frame a constitution. (AP, 6/17/97) 1789 nend Jun 20, Oath on the Tennis Court in Versailles, France, bonded members of the Third Estate to resist eviction until they have a new constitution. (MC, 6/20/02) 1789 nend Jul 4, The US passed its first tariff which included a 15% duty on imported nails among other things. (Maggio)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R50) 1789 nend Jul 9, In Versailles, the French National Assembly declared itself the Constituent Assembly and began to prepare a French constitution. (HN, 7/9/98) 1789 nend cJul 11, In France just days before the Bastille was taken the tavern keepers and wine merchants of Belleville, angered by levies on food and drink, sacked the local tax collector?s office. (SFEC, 6/28/98, p.T8) 1789 nend Jul 13, Parisians rioted over an increase in price of grain. The mob plundered the armories and opened the prison gates of St. Lazare. The King at Versailles refused to withdraw his troops from Paris. (MC, 7/13/02) 1789 nend July 14 , Bastille Day. Tens of thousands of the citizens of Paris stormed the Bastille, the Paris fortress used as a prison to hold political prisoners, and released the seven prisoners inside at the onset of the French Revolution. Over 100 rioters were killed or wounded. The average Frenchman was 5 foot 2 and weighed 105 pounds. France?s Louis XIV made a diary entry that read ?Rien? (nothing). Historian Francois Furet (1927-1997), a leading writer on the French Revolution, was best known for his work: "Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution." He refuted Marxist interpretations of the events that preceded and followed the fall of the monarchy. In 1939 W. Higgins edited "The French Revolution Told by Contemporaries." (AP, 7/14/97)(HN, 7/14/98)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R12)(ON, 4/01, p.1)(Econ,6/25/05, p.52)(SFC, 7/15/97, p.A18) 1789 nend Jul 14, The French Revolution. "It was not the literate and cultured minority of Frenchmen who brought down the government, as had been the case in England and America. Instead it was the common people, who marched upon the king and queen in their palace at Versailles. The Jacobins promulgated a Declaration of Rights of Man and of the Citizen that went beyond the American Bill of Rights in affirming, "Nothing that is not forbidden by Law may be hindered, and no one may be compelled to do what the Law does not ordain," for "Liberty consists in being able to do anything that does not harm others." (V.D.-H.K.p.230-231)(SFC, 6/23/96, Z1 p.2) 1789 nend Jul 15, The electors of Paris set up a "Commune" to live without the authority of the government. (HN, 7/15/98) 1789 nend Jul 18, Robespierre, a deputy from Arras, France, decided to back the French Revolution. (HN, 7/18/98) 1789 nend Jul 22, Thomas Jefferson became the first head of the U.S. Department of Foreign Affairs. (HN, 7/22/98) 1789 nend Jul 23, The Great Fear swept through France as the Revolution continued. (MC, 7/23/02) 1789 nend Jul 27, President Washington signed a measure establishing the Department of Foreign Affairs, forerunner of the Department of State. (AP, 7/27/08) 1789 nend Aug 4, The Constituent Assembly in France dissolved feudal system by abolishing the privileges of nobility. (HN, 8/4/98)(MC, 8/4/02) 1789 nend Aug 7, The U.S. War Department was established by Congress. (AP, 8/7/97) 1789 nend Aug 21, Augustin-Louis Baron Cauchy, French mathematician, was born. (SC, 8/21/02) 1789 nend Aug 25, Mary Ball Washington, mother of George, died. (MC, 8/25/02) 1789 nend Aug 26, The Constituent Assembly in Versailles, France, approved the final version of the Declaration of Human Rights. (HN, 8/26/99) 1789 nend Aug 27, French National Assembly issued "Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen." (MC, 8/27/01) 1789 nend Sep 1, Lady Marguerite Blessington, beautiful English socialite and author, was born. She wrote a biography of Lord Byron. (HN, 9/1/99) 1789 nend Sep 2, The Treasury Department, headed by Alexander Hamilton, was created in New York City and housed in Fraunces Tavern at 54 Pearl St. (AP, 9/2/97)(HN, 9/2/98)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R43) 1789 nend Sep 11, Alexander Hamilton was appointed the first U.S. secretary of the treasury. During his tenure, Hamilton established the National Bank, introduced an excise tax, suppressed the Whiskey Rebellion and spearheaded the effort for the federal government to assume the debts of the states. In the presidential election of 1800, Hamilton broke the deadlock between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr by supporting Jefferson. The enmity between Hamilton and his longtime political enemy Burr grew worse during the 1804 campaign for governor of New York. (AP, 9/11/97)(HNPD, 1/11/99) 1789 nend Sep 12, Franz Xaver Richter, composer, died at 79. (MC, 9/12/01) 1789 nend Sep 13, Start of the US National Debt as the government took out its first loan, borrowed from the Bank of North America (NYC) at 6 percent interest. The US debt had reached $77 million when Washington became president. (MC, 9/13/01)(WSJ, 10/1/03, p.B1) 1789 nend Sep 13, Guardsmen in Orleans, France, opened fire on rioters trying to loot bakeries, killing 90. (HN, 9/13/98) 1789 nend Sep 15, James Fenimore Cooper (d.1851), American novelist, was born in Burlington, NJ. He is best known for "The Pioneers" and "Last of the Mohicans." "The press, like fire, is an excellent servant, but a terrible master." (AP, 6/25/97)(HN, 9/15/99) 1789 nend Sep 15, The U.S. Department of Foreign Affairs was renamed the Department of State. (AP, 9/15/97) 1789 nend Sep 16, Jean-Paul Marat set up a new newspaper in France, L'Ami du Peuple (The Friend of the People). (HN, 9/16/98)(ON, SC, p.7) 1789 nend Sep 18, The 1st loan was made to pay salaries of the US president & Congress. [see Sep 13] (MC, 9/18/01) 1789 nend Sep 22, The US Act 1 Stat. 70 temporarily established a post office and created the Office of the Postmaster General. (AP, 9/22/97)(www.usps.com/history/his1_5.htm) 1789 nend Sep 22, Russian forces under Aleksandr Suvorov drove the Turkish army under Yusuf Pasha from the Rymnik River, upsetting the Turkish invasion of Russia. (HN, 9/22/99) 1789 nend Sep 24, President George Washington appointed John Jay as the 1st Chief Justice. (MC, 9/24/01) 1789 nend Sep 24, The US Federal Judiciary Act was passed. It created a six-person Supreme Court and provided for an Attorney General. (AP, 9/24/97)(AH, 10/04, p.14) 1789 nend Sep 25, The first United States Congress [proposed] adopted 12 amendments to the Constitution and sent them to the states for ratification. Ten of the amendments became the Bill of Rights. 14 copies were hand written and 13 were sent to the individual states. (WUD, 1994, p.1703)(AP, 9/25/97)(HN, 9/25/98)(SFC, 1/20/02, p.A11) 1789 nend Sep 26, Thomas Jefferson was appointed America's first Secretary of State; John Jay the first chief justice of the United States; Samuel Osgood the first Postmaster-General; and Edmund Jennings Randolph the first Attorney General. (AP, 9/26/97)(SFC, 8/16/99, p.A21) 1789 nend Sep 28, Richard Bright, physician (Bright's Disease, nephritis), was born in England. (MC, 9/28/01) 1789 nend Sep 29, The U.S. War Department established a regular U.S. army with a strength of several hundred men. (AP, 9/29/97)(HN, 9/29/98) 1789 nend Sep, Fletcher Henderson left Tahiti with the Bounty with a light crew. 16 men were left abandoned. (ON, 3/04, p.9) 1789 nend Oct 3, George Washington proclaimed the 1st national Thanksgiving Day to be Nov 26. (MC, 10/3/01) 1789 nend Oct 10, In Versailles France, Joseph Guillotin said the most humane way of carrying out a death sentence is decapitation by a single blow of a blade. (HN, 10/10/98) 1789 nend Oct 10, Pierre-Louis Couperin, composer, died at 34. (MC, 10/10/01) 1789 nend Oct 15, George Washington went to New England on the 1st presidential tour. (MC, 10/15/01) 1789 nend Nov 2, The property of the Church in France was taken away by the state. (HN, 11/2/98) 1789 nend Nov 5, French National Assembly declared all citizens equal under law. (MC, 11/5/01) 1789 nend Nov 8, Bourbon Whiskey, 1st distilled from corn, was made by Elijah Craig in Bourbon, Ky. (MC, 11/8/01) 1789 nend Nov 13, Benjamin Franklin wrote a letter to a friend in which he said, "In this world nothing can be said to be certain, except death and taxes." (AP, 11/13/97) 1789 nend Nov 18, Louis Jacques Daguerre (d.1851), French painter, physicist and photography pioneer, was born. He invented the process of setting the impression on a light-sensitive, silver-coated metallic plate and developed by mercury vapor. See contrasting info 1765-1833, Nicephore Niepce, French lithographer. (AHD, 1971, p.332)(HN, 11/18/00) 1789 nend Nov 20, New Jersey became the first state to ratify the Bill of Rights. (HFA, '96, p.18)(AP, 11/20/97) 1789 nend Nov 21, North Carolina became the 12th state to ratify the U.S. Constitution. (AP, 11/21/97) 1789 nend Nov 26, George Washington proclaimed on Oct 3 that Nov 26 be a National Thanksgiving Day in honor of the new Constitution. He made it clear that the day should be one of prayer and giving thanks to God, to be celebrated by all the religious denominations. In 1863 Pres. Lincoln designated the last Thursday of November as Thanksgiving Day. (HFA, '96, p.42)(AP, 11/26/97)(HN, 11/26/98) 1789 nend Dec 3, Claude-Joseph Vernet, French seascape painter, died. (MC, 12/3/01) 1789 nend Dec 13, The National Guard was created in France. (HN, 12/13/98) 1789 nend Dec 28, Lydia Darrragh (b.1729), American spy, died in Philadelphia. Her exploits in 1777 did not become public until the publication of an anonymous article in 1827. (ON, 8/07, p.8)(www.lexidigital.com/bcdarwomen4.htm) 1789 nend Dec, In India?s city of Coringa 3 tidal waves caused by a cyclone destroyed the harbor city at the mouth of the Ganges river. Most ships were sunk and some 20,000 people drowned. (www.emergency-management.net/cyclone.htm) 1789 nend Johann Friedrich Overbeck (d.1869), German Nazarene artist, was born. (SSFC, 1/27/02, p.C7) 1789 nend The ballet "La fille mal gardee" had its premiere. It included dialogue and singing as well as dancing. (SFEC, 8/25/96, DB p.37) 1789 nend William Blake published his "Songs of Innocence." (WSJ, 4/23/97, p.A16) 1789 nend Rev. Gilbert White (1720-1793) authored ?The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne, in the County of Southampton.? One chapter was about a local tortoise named Timothy. In 2006 Verlyn Klinkenborg authored ?Timothy; Or, Notes Of an Abject Reptile,? a look at the parson from the point of view of the tortoise. (WSJ, 2/11/06, p.P11) 1789 nend In 1999 Rachel Wright authored "Paris: 1789," an informative children's book of Parisian life on the eve of the Revolution. (SFEC, 5/9/99, Par p.8) 1789 nend Tammany Hall was a powerful Democratic political organization in NYC, founded as a fraternal benevolent society. The name was based after a Delaware Indian Chief, Tamanen or Temmenund, later facetiously canonized as patron saint of the US. The Tammany Hall officials lost on Nov. 6, 1894. (HFA, '96, p.42) 1789 nend In the US the Church of England Episcopal Church fomally separated from the Church of England became the Protestant Episcopal Church of the USA. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episcopal_Church_%28United_States%29))1789 Congress introduced paid chaplains. In 1983 the SupremeCourt ruled in Marsh vs. Chambers that it is not a violation of theEstablishment Clause to have paid legislative chaplains. In 2002 Michael 1789 nend The US Alien Tort Claims Act (ATCA) was meant to combat piracy. The Alien Tort Stature (ATS) was intended to be used to prosecute pirates for crimes committed outside the US. (SFC, 8/11/00, p.A13)(SFC, 3/13/02, p.A8)(WSJ, 10/6/03, p.A1)(WSJ,7/12/04, p.A16) 1789 nend The first tobacco advertisement came out in the US. It depicted an Indian smoking a long clay pipe. (SFEC, 5/24/98, Z1 p.10) 1789 nend Georgetown College was founded in Washington DC. (WSJ, 3/28/96,p.A-15) 1789 nend Massachusetts commenced work on the Middlesex Canal. It was completed in 1808. (Panic, p.12) 1789 nend The University of North Carolina was chartered. It was the first state university in the U.S. to begin instruction, in 1795. The University of Georgia was the first state university chartered, in 1785, but was not established until 1801. (HNQ, 12/3/01) 1789 nend Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794), French nobleman and chemist, presented a paper on the geology of the Earth that proposed that sea level had oscillated over time, as opposed to a stationary sea with linear sedimentation. (NH, 12/98, p.14)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier) 1789 nend Martin Klaproth, German chemist, discovered Uranium. It named after the planet Uranus discovered 8 years earlier. (NH, 7/02, p.36)(WSJ, 3/18/05, p.C1) 1789 nend The HMS Bounty made a brief stop at the Cook Island of Rarotonga before moving on to Pitcairn Island. (SFEC, 1/5/97, p.T6) 1789 nend The flower China Rose was introduced to Europe. (TGR, 1995, p.4) 1789 nend Ethan Allen (b.1738), leader of Vermont?s Green Mountain Boys, died. In 1949 Stewart H. Holbrook authored "Ethan Allen." In 1969 Charles A. Jellison authored "Ethan Allen: Frontier Rebel." (WUD, 1994 p.39)(ON, 3/00, p.6) 1789 nend The prison ship Lady Julian delivered over 200 women to the penal colony at Sydney harbor. In 2002 Sian Rees authored "The Floating Brothel: The Extraordinary True Story of an Eighteenth-Century Ship and Its Cargo of Female Convicts." (SSFC, 3/3/02, p.M3) 1789 nend Smallpox was introduced to Australia and caused devastation among the aborigines. (SFC, 10/19/01, p.A17) 1789 nend In Brazil poet and dentist Joaquim Jose da Silva Xavier helped launch the first Brazilian rebellion against the country's Portuguese rulers. (AP, 4/19/03) 1789 nend English Thomas Clarkson and his fellow abolitionists published 700 posters with the image of the slave ship Brookes loaded with 482 slaves. The ship, owned by the Brookes family of Liverpool, operated between the Gold Coast of Africa and Jamaica. (Econ, 2/24/07, p.72) 1789 nend Thomas Stokes built clocks in London. (SFC, 11/13/96, z-1 p.6) 1789 nend In England part of the art collection, 181 paintings, of Sir Robert Walpole was sold by his heirs to Catherine the Great for 40,000 Pounds. (WSJ, 3/3/97, p.A16) 1786 nend William Playfair, Scottish draughtsman for James Watt, produced an ?atlas? of Britain using 44 charts and no maps. (Econ, 1/8/05, p.75) c 1789 nend The Marquis de Lafayette wrote the original version of the Declaration of the Rights of Man. He was appalled by the excesses of the revolution and fled to Austria where he was imprisoned for 5 years. (WSJ, 1/15/97, p.A12) 1789 nend A French decree allowed wine and coffee to be served on the same premises. (Econ, 10/22/11, p.105) 1789 nend Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyes, a delegate to the Estates General, said the third estate is everything, has nothing but wants to be something. (Econ, 6/12/10, p.65) 1789 nend The French dwarf Richeborg stood 23 inches and was costumed as a baby in diapers during the French Revolution. In the arms of innocent girls he could eavesdrop on sensitive conversations and carried secret dispatches in and out of Paris. (SFC, 6/23/96, Z1 p.2) 1789 nend The bankruptcy of the French government brought banks across Europe to their knees. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R48) 1789 nend Tobias Schmidt, a German piano maker, built the first guillotine. (SFC, 5/2/98, p.E4) 1789 nend In Germany the Brandenburg Gate of Berlin was built. (SFEC, 7/27/97, p.T5) 1789 nend Russian soldiers under the leadership of Jose Pascual Domingo de Ribas y Boyons (aka Osip Deribas) chased Ottoman forces from the barracks hamlet of Khadjibey. He recognized the site?s potential for a military base to control the mouths of the Danube, Dniester, Dnieper and Bug rivers. Odessa became the name of the city built there. (Econ, 2/26/11, p.91) 1789 1793 Alexander Mackenzie, Scottish-born fur trader, became the 1st European to cross the North American continent. (SFC, 1/31/04, p.D12) 1789 1795 John Jay served as the first chief justice of the US Supreme Court. (WUD, 1994, p.764)(WSJ, 8/7/98, p.W13) 1789 1807 Selim III succeeded Abdul Hamid I in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii) 1789 1837 Ben Wilson covered this period in his 2007 book ?The Making of Victorian Values: Decency and Dissent in Britain, 1789-1837.? (WSJ, 3/24/07, p.P12)(Econ, 4/7/07, p.81) 1789 1854 John Martin, British artist. He was known as "Mad Martin" for his paintings of monumental disasters. His work included "Assuaging of the Waters" (1840), "The Eve of the Deluge," and "The Deluge." (SFEC, 5/4/97, DB p.9)(SFEM, 5/11/97, p.6) 1789 1914 In 2006 Michael Burleigh authored ?Earthly Powers: The Clash of Religion and Politics in Europe from the French Revolution to the Great War.? (Econ, 2/25/06, p.87) 1790 nend Jan 4, President Washington delivered the 1st "State of the Union" address. (MC, 1/4/02) 1790 nend Jan 6, Johann Trier (73), composer, died. (MC, 1/6/02) 1790 nend Jan 21, Joseph Guillotine proposed a new, more humane method of execution: a machine designed to cut off the condemned person's head as painlessly as possible. (HN, 1/21/99) 1790 nend Jan 26, Mozart's opera "Cosi Fan Tutte" premiered in Vienna. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cos%C3%AC_fan_tutte) 1790 nend Feb 1, The US Supreme Court convened for 1st time in Royal Exchange Building, New York City, the nations temporary capital. (www.supremecourthistory.org) 1790 nend Feb 6, The last stone of the Bastille, torn down by order of the French revolutionary leaders, was presented to the National Assembly. (ON, 4/01, p.3) 1790 nend Feb 11, The first petition to Congress for emancipation of the slaves was made by the Society of Friends. (HNQ, 1/11/99) 1790 nend Feb 20, Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II (48) died. (AP, 2/20/98)(MC, 2/20/02) 1790 nend Feb 26, As a result of the Revolution, France was divided into 83 departments. (HN, 2/26/99) 1790 nend Mar 1, President Washington signed a measure authorizing the first US Census. The Connecticut Compromise was a proposal for two houses in the legislature-one based on equal representation for each state, the other for population-based representation-that resolved the dispute between large and small states at the Constitutional Convention. Connecticut delegate Roger Sherman's proposal led to the first nationwide census in 1790. The population was determined to be 3,929,625, which included 697,624 slaves and 59,557 free blacks. The most populous state was Virginia, with 747,610 people and the most populous city was Philadelphia with 42,444 inhabitants. The average cost of this year?s census was 1.13 cents per person. (HNQ, 7/13/01)(AP,3/1/08)(http://www.genealogybranches.com/censuscosts.html) 1790 nend Mar 8, George Washington delivered the first State of the Union address. (HN, 3/8/98) 1790 nend Mar 14, Captain Bligh returned to England with news of the mutiny on the Bounty. (ON, 3/04, p.9) 1790 nend Mar 21, Thomas Jefferson (46) reported to President Washington in New York as the new US Secretary of state. (AP, 3/21/97)(www.monticello.org/site/jefferson/private-banks-quotation) 1790 nend Mar 22, Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) became the first US Secretary of State. As Secretary of State, he served on the first Board of Arts, the body that reviewed patent applications and granted patents. Jefferson was one of a triumvirate that served as both America?s first patent commissioner and first patent examiner. (HN, 3/22/97)(www.archipelago.org/vol10-34/matsuura.htm) 1790 nend Mar 24, King George ordered the Admiralty to capture Fletcher Henderson for the mutiny on the Bounty. (ON, 3/04, p.9) 1790 nend Mar 26, US Congress passed a Naturalization Act. It required a 2-year residency. (SS, 3/26/02) 1790 nend Mar 27, The shoelace was invented. (MC, 3/27/02) 1790 nend Mar 29, John Tyler, the 10th president of the United States (1841-1845), was born in Charles City County, Va. He was also the first vice-president to succeed to office on the death of a president. (AP, 3/29/97)(HN, 3/29/99)(MC, 3/29/02) 1790 nend Mar 31, In Paris, France, Maximilien Robespierre was elected president of the Jacobin Club. (HN, 3/31/99) 1790 nend Apr 3, Revenue Marine Service (US Coast Guard) was created. (MC, 4/3/02) 1790 nend Apr 10, President George Washington signed into law the first United States Patent Act. The Patent Board was made up of the Secretary of State, Secretary of War and the Attorney General and was responsible for granting patents on "useful and important" inventions. In the first three years, 47 patents were granted. Until 1888 miniature models of the device to be patented were required. [see July 31] (HN, 4/10/98)(HNQ, 8/6/99)(AP, 4/10/07) 1790 nend Apr 17, Benjamin Franklin (born 1706), American statesman, died in Philadelphia at age 84. He mechanized the process of making sounds from tuned glass with his glass armonica. In 2000 H.W. Brands authored his Franklin biography: "The First American." In 2003 Walter Isaacson authored "Benjamin Franklin: An American Life." In 2005 Philip Dray authored ?Stealing God?s Thunder,? an account of Franklin?s work with lightning rods. (AP, 4/17/97)(WSJ, 9/20/00, p.A24)(WSJ, 7/3/03, p.D8)(WSJ, 8/15/05,p.D8) 1790 nend May 21, Paris was divided into 48 zones. (HN, 5/21/98) 1790 nend May 26, Territory South of River Ohio was created by Congress. (HN, 5/26/98) 1790 nend May 29, Rhode Island became the last of the 13 original colonies to ratify the United States Constitution. They held out for an amendment securing religious freedom. The state was largely founded by Baptists fleeing persecution in Massachusetts. (SFC, 6/24/96, p.A19)(AP, 5/29/97)(HN, 5/29/98) 1790 nend May 31, The US copyright law was enacted. (MC, 5/31/02) 1790 nend May, John Tanner (9) was kidnapped from his home in northern Kentucky by Saginaw Indians. He was taken to an area near what later became Saginaw, Michigan, where he learned the Ojibway language. After about 2 years he was sold to a woman named Net-no-kwa, who took him up to northern Michigan and later to Manitoba, Canada. (ON, 4/10,p.4)(http://baptisthistoryhomepage.com/ky.boone.tanner.j.kidnapd.html) 1790 nend Jun 9, The "Philadelphia Spelling Book" was the first US work to be copyrighted. (WSJ, 6/14/00, p.A1)(MC, 6/9/02) 1790 nend Jun 9, Civil war broke out in Martinique. (HN 6/9/98) 1790 nend Jul 3, In Paris, the Marquis of Condorcet proposed granting civil rights to women. (HN, 7/3/98) 1790 nend Jul 9, The Swedish navy captured one third of the Russian fleet at the naval battle of Svensksund in the Baltic Sea. (HN, 7/9/98) 1790 nend Jul 12, The French Assembly approved a Civil Constitution providing for the election of priests and bishops. (HN, 7/12/98) 1790 nend Jul 16, The District of Columbia was established as the seat of the United States government. (AP, 7/16/97) 1790 nend Jul 17, Economist Adam Smith (b.1723), Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economy, died. In 2001 Emma Rothschild authored "Economic Sentiments: Adam Smith, Condorcet, and the Enlightenment." In 2002 Peter J. Dougherty authored "Who?s Afraid of Adam Smith." In 2010 Nicholas Phillipson authored ?Adam Smith: An Enlightened Life.? (WSJ, 6/21/01, p.A16)(WSJ, 11/13/02,p.D10)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith)(Econ, 8/7/10, p.84) 1790 nend Jul 26, US Congress passed Alexander Hamilton?s Assumption plan making it responsible for state debts. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Report_on_the_Public_Credit) 1790 nend Jul 26, An attempt at a counter-revolution in France was put down by the National Guard at Lyons. (HN, 7/26/98) 1790 nend Jul 31, The U.S. Patent Office granted its first patent to Samuel Hopkins of Vermont, developer of a new method the manufacture of pot and pearl ash, potash. [see Apr 10] (HN, 7/31/98)(HNQ, 8/6/99) 1790 nend Aug 2, The enumeration for the first US census began. It showed that 3,929,326 people were living in the US of which 697,681 were slaves, and that the largest cities were New York City with 33,000 inhabitants; Philadelphia, with 28,000; Boston, with 18,000; Charleston, South Carolina, with 16,000; and Baltimore, with 13,000. Census records for Delaware, Georgia, New Jersey, and Virginia were lost sometime between 1790 and 1830. (AP, 8/2/06)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1790_United_States_Census) 1790 nend Aug 4, US Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton urged that ten boats for the collection of revenue be built. This was to stop smuggling, especially of coffee, which was hampering trade. The Coast Guard was born as the Revenue Cutter Service. The Coast Guard was empowered to board and inspect any vessel in US waters and any US boat anywhere in the world. (Smith., 8/95, p.25)(HFA, '96, p.36)(SFC, 5/20/96, p.A-16)(AP,8/4/00) 1790 nend Aug 9, The Columbia returned to Boston Harbor after a three-year voyage, becoming the first ship to carry the American flag around the world. (AP, 8/9/97) 1790 nend Sep 4, Jacques Necker was forced to resign as finance minister in France. (HN, 9/4/98) 1790 nend Oct 3, John Ross, Chief of the United Cherokee Nation from 1839 to 1866, was born near Lookout Mountain, Tennessee. Although his father was Scottish and his mother only part Cherokee, Ross was named Tsan-Usdi (Little John) and raised in the Cherokee tradition. A settled people with successful farms, strong schools, and a representative government, the Cherokee resided on 43,000 square miles of land they had held for centuries. (LCTH, 10/3/99) 1790 nend Oct 21, Alphonse-Marie Louis de Lamartine, writer (Rene), was born in Macon, France. (MC, 10/21/01) 1790 nend Oct 21, The Tricolor was chosen as the official flag of France. (HN, 10/21/98) 1790 nend Oct 23, Slaves revolted in Haiti. (MC, 10/23/01) 1790 nend Oct 28, NY gave up claims to Vermont for $30,000. (MC, 10/28/01) 1790 nend Nov 11, Chrysanthemums were introduced into England from China. (MC, 11/11/01) 1790 nend Nov 17, August Ferdinand Mobius, mathematician, inventor (Mobius strip), was born. (MC, 11/17/01) 1790 nend Dec 6, Congress moved from New York City to Philadelphia, where Washington served out his two terms. He is the only president who never resided in the White House. (AP, 12/6/97)(HNPD, 12/22/98) 1790 nend Dec 17, An Aztec calendar stone was discovered in Mexico City. (HFA, '96, p.44)(MC, 12/17/01) 1790 nend Dec 19, Sir William Parry, England, Arctic explorer, was born. (HN, 12/19/98) 1790 nend Dec 20, In Pawtucket, Rhode Island, 23-year-old British subject Samuel Slater began production of the first American spinning mill. The British jealously guarded their technological superiority in the early stages of the Industrial Revolution, making it illegal for machinery, plans and even the men who built and repaired them to leave the country. After serving a 7-year mill apprenticeship in England, Slater recognized the potential offered in America. He memorized the plans for intricate machine specifications, disguised himself as a farm worker and in 1789 sailed to a new life across the Atlantic. Slater entered into a partnership with Rhode Island merchant Moses Brown and built a small spinning mill--the equivalent of 72 spinning wheels. At first, Slater's Mill employed only a handful of children between the ages of 7 and 12, but by 1800, he had more than 100 employees. By the time of Slater's death in 1835, he owned or had an interest in 13 textile mills and left an estate of almost $700,000. From this small beginning, America's own Industrial Revolution grew. [see Dec 21] (AP, 12/20/97)(HNPD, 12/20/98)(WSJ, 9/23/04, p.D10) 1790 nend Dec 21, Samuel Slater opened the first cotton mill in the United States in Rhode Island. [see Dec 20] (HN, 12/21/98) 1790 nend Dec 23, Jean François Champollion, French founder of Egyptology, was born. He deciphered the Rosetta Stone. (HN, 12/23/99) c 1790 nend Henry Fuseli painted his famous work "The Nightmare" wherein a sleeping woman has a glowing demon on her chest and a lantern-eyed stallion parting the curtains behind. He also painted "Woman Standing at a Dressing Table or Spinet" about this time. (SFC, 10/31/96, p.E1)(WSJ, 4/1/99, p.A20) 1790 nend Ito Jakuchu (1716-1800), Japanese painter, created his "Compendium of Vegetable and Insects." (WSJ, 12/1/98, p.A20)(SFC, 1/14/06, p.E1) 1790 nend Thomas Rowlandson, English artist, painted "The Lock-Up." (WSJ, 4/1/99, p.A20) 1790 nend Goethe?s "Faust: Ein Fragment," first appeared. (V.D.-H.K.p.239) 1790 nend Alexander Hamilton published his "Report on the Public Credit." (WSJ, 12/3/01, p.A17) 1790 nend Emmanuel Kant published his "Critique of Judgement." His analysis of the nature of art and aesthetic experience proved to be a major influence on modern ideas. These ideas were later revisited by Murdoch in her 1998 work "Existentialists and Mystics." [see 1781] (WSJ, 2/17/98, p.A20) 1790 nend Beethoven composed his "Cantata on the Death of Emperor Joseph II." (WSJ, 8/17/00, p.A20) 1790 nend The opera "The Philosopher?s Stone" was composed and first performed. A 1997 score showed that a number of composers wrote various sections. Mozart?s name was associated with the 2nd act finale and a duet. It was a singspiel based on fairytales with a libretto by Emanuel Schikaneder. Other composers included Johann Baptist Henneberg, Benedikt Schack, Franz Haver Gerl and Emanuel Schikaneder. (SFC, 6/13/97, p.C11)(WSJ, 11/4/98, p.A20) 1790 nend In South Carolina a 900-square-foot octagonal house was built about this time by Scottish immigrant William McKimmy. Ruins of the structure were found in 2009 on the banks of the May River in Blufton. The design took off in 1848 following the publication of ?A Home for All? by Orson Fowler, a self-taught architect and phrenologist. (SFC, 2/22/10, p.A6)(SSFC, 7/24/11, p.A2) 1790 nend The Episcopal Church was founded. (SFC, 5/16/96, p.A-11) 1790 nend The US government issued $80 million in bonds to cover Revolutionary War debts and their trade established the financial activity on Wall Street. (WSJ, 10/9/97, p.A16) 1790 nend The US Trade and Intercourse Act prohibited states from acquiring land from Indians without federal approval. (SFC, 1/13/99, p.A9)(SSFC, 8/29/04, p.M5) 1790 nend US Minister to France, Gouverneur Morris, said that the French "have taken Genius instead of Reason for their Guide, adopted Experiment instead of Experience, and wander in the Dark because they prefer Lightning to Light." In 2000 Susan Dunn published "Sister Revolutions: French Lightning, American Light." (SFEC, 5/7/00, Par p.28) 1790 nend The celerifere bicycle appeared in Paris about this time and was a two-wheeled, un-steerable vehicle that the rider propelled by striking his feet on the ground. This was improved upon with a bar to steer the front wheel in 1816 by Baron von Drais of Germany, and was called a draisine. The ordinary, which had a high front wheel, wire-spoked wheels and solid rubber tires, was developed in the 1870s. (HNQ, 10/29/99) 1790 nend The US census categorized the population as "free white person, all other free persons except Indians, and slaves." (SFC,12/26/97, p.A21) 1790 nend The US population was 20% African and numbered about 760,000. (SFC, 12/18/96, p.A25) 1790 nend Fletcher Christian landed at Pitcairn Island. (SFC, 6/13/97, p.A14) 1790 nend In Australia Pemulway, an Aboriginal warrior, speared and killed the governor?s gamekeeper at Botany Bay and waged war against the British for 12 years. His head was later sent to England. Eric Willmot later authored "Pemulway, the Rainbow Warrior." (SFEC, 9/10/00, p.T4) 1790 nend In the Sandwich Islands [Hawaii] King Kamehameha built the Puukohola Heiau temple on the Big Island near the village of Kawaihau. It was built to the war god Ku-Ka?ili-moku. The king?s armies soon swept over all the Hawaiian islands and united the people for the first time. (SFEC, 9/7/97, p.T8) 1790 nend Pineapples were introduced to the Sandwich Islands later called Hawaii. (SFEC,11/9/97, Z1 p.2) 1790 nend The Haleakala Volcano on Maui erupted. (SFEC, 8/27/00, p.T8) 1790 nend La Fenice opera house in Venice was designed. It burned down for the 1st time in 1836. (WSJ, 9/24/05, p.P12) 1790 nend A bronze Buddha was cast in Japan. In 1945 it was donated by the Gump family to the city of San Francisco. It resides in the Japanese Tea Garden and was in need of $81,000 worth of repairs. (SFC, 12/30/96, p.A11) 1790 nend In Porto, Portugal, the House of Sandeman winery was found by the Scot, George Sandeman. (SFEC, 7/12/98, p.T8) 1790 nend s Denmark became the 1st country to abolish slavery. (WSJ, 2/26/02, p.A22) 1790 nend s Floreana Island in the Galapagos began serving as a mail drop for whalers and seal hunters. (SFEC, 11/19/00, p.T8) c 1790 nend s King Kamehameha slaughtered virtually everyone on the island of Lanai (which means day of conquest) after being thwarted in his bid to conquer Maui. (SSFC, 8/26/01, p.T10) 1790 1792 Sans-culottes (French for without knee-breeches) was a term created during this period by the French to describe the poorer members of the Third Estate, according to the dominant theory because they usually wore pantaloons (full-length trousers) instead of the chic knee-length culotte. The term came to refer to the ill-clad and ill-equipped volunteers of the Revolutionary army during the early years of the French Revolutionary Wars, but, above all, to the working class radicals of the Revolution. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sans-culottes) 1790 1799 In 2009 Marcus Daniel authored ?Scandal & Civility: Journalism and the Birth of American Democracy,? a study of the American press during this period. (WSJ, 3/3/09, p.A11) 1790 1799 The revolutionary tide that swept Europe during this period was later covered by R.R. Palmer in his book ?The Age of the Democratic Revolution.? (WSJ, 8/25/07, p.P9) 1790 1830 The ?Dalton Minimum,? a period of low solar activity and especially cold climate, began this year and lasted to 1830. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalton_Minimum) 1790 1848 Nicola Vaccai, Italian composer. He composed a version of "I Capuletti ed I Montecchi," that was also done by Bellini. (WSJ, 11/10/98, p.A20) 1790 1869 Alphonse Marie Louis de Prat de Lamartine, French poet, historian and statesman. (WUD, 1994, p.803) 1790 nend s Tadeusz Kosciusko returned to Poland and united the country in the battle against Prussian and Russian domination. (SFEC, 11/24/96, T7) 1790 nend s The solitaire of Rodrigues, a flightless pigeon, was last seen. (NH, 11/96, p.24) 1791 nend Jan 14, Calvin Phillips, shortest known adult male (67 cm; 2' 2"), was born. (MC, 1/14/02) 1791 nend Feb 12, Peter Cooper, industrialist, philanthropist (Cooper Union), was born. (MC, 2/12/02) 1791 nend Feb 20, Carl Czerny, pianist, composer (Schule der Virtuosen), was born in Vienna, Austria. (MC, 2/20/02) 1791 nend Feb 25, President George Washington signed a bill creating the Bank of the United States. (HN, 2/25/99) 1791 nend Mar 3, Congress established the U.S. Mint. (HN, 3/3/99) 1791 nend Mar 3, The 1st Internal Revenue Act taxed distilled spirits and carriages. (SC, 3/3/02) 1791 nend Mar 4, President Washington called the US Senate into its 1st special session. (SC, 3/4/02) 1791 nend Mar 4, Vermont was admitted as the 14th state. It was the first addition to the original 13 colonies. (HN, 3/4/98)(AP, 3/4/98) 1791 nend Mar 4, 1st Jewish member of US Congress, Israel Jacobs (Pennsylvania), took office. (SC, 3/4/02) 1791 nend Mar 6, Anna Claypoole Peale, painted miniatures, was born. (MC, 3/6/02) 1791 nend Mar 10, John Stone of Concord, Mass, patented a pile driver. (MC, 3/10/02) 1791 nend Mar 10, Pope condemned France's Civil Constitution of the clergy. (MC, 3/10/02) 1791 nend Mar 11, Samuel Mulliken of Philadelphia was the 1st to obtain more than 1 US patent. (MC, 3/12/02) 1791 nend Mar 21, Captain Hopley Yeaton (1740-1812) of New Hampshire became the first commissioned officer of the US Revenue Cutter Service. no_source 1791 nend Mar 23, Etta Palm, a Dutch champion of woman's rights, set up a group of women's clubs called the Confederation of the Friends of Truth. (HN, 3/23/99) 1791 nend Mar 4, Vermont was admitted as the 14th state. It was the first addition to the original 13 colonies. (HN, 3/4/98)(AP, 3/4/98) 1791 nend Mar 29, Pres. George Washington and French architect Pierre Charles L?Enfant examined the a site along the Potomac River that would become the US capital. Maryland and Virginia had ceded land to the federal government to form the District of Columbia. Chosen as the permanent site for the capital of the United States by Congress in 1790, President Washington was given the power by Congress to select the exact site?an area ten-miles square, made up of land given by Virginia and Maryland. Washington became the official federal capital in 1800. In 2008 Fergus Bordewich authored ?Washington: The Making of the American Capital.? (HNQ, 8/13/00)(HN, 8/2/98)(WSJ, 8/8/08, p.A13) 1791 nend Apr 23, The 15th president of the United States, James Buchanan, was born in Franklin County, Pa. (AP, 4/23/97) 1791 nend Apr 12, Francis Preston Blair, Washington Globe newspaper editor, was born. (HN, 4/12/98) 1791 nend Apr 15, Surveyor General Andrew Ellicott consecrated the southern tip of the triangular District of Columbia at Jones Point. (WSJ, 7/25/00, p.A20) 1791 nend Apr 18, National Guardsmen prevented Louis XVI and his family from leaving Paris. (HN, 4/18/98) 1791 nend Apr 23, James Buchanan, was born in Franklin County, Pa. He was the fifteenth U.S. president (1857-1861) and the only president not to marry. (AP, 4/23/97)(HN, 4/23/99) 1791 nend Apr 27, Samuel F.B. Morse, inventor, was born in Boston. He created the telegraph and the code which bears his name. Morse was a well-known painter who gained a wide reputation as a portrait artist. He graduated from Yale in 1810 and then studied painting in England for several years. Morse painted two notable portraits of Lafayette, was a founder of the National Academy of Design in 1826 and became professor of painting and sculpture at New York University in 1832-a position he held until his death in 1872. Morse invented the first practical recording telegraph in America and developed the Morse code, revolutionizing communication. (HN, 4/27/99)(HNQ, 2/26/00) 1791 nend Apr, William Wilberforce again introduced a motion in British Parliament for the abolition of the slave trade, but lost by a vote of 163 to 88. (ON, 4/05, p.2) 1791 nend May 3, Poland adopted a new Constitution. It was designed to redress long-standing political defects of the Polish?Lithuanian Commonwealth and its traditional system of "Golden Liberty." The constitution put Lithuania under Polish domination. It is generally regarded as Europe's first and the world's second modern codified national constitution, following the 1788 ratification of the US Constitution. (SFC, 4/25/09,p.B1)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_May_3,_1791)(Voruta#27-28, 7/1996, p.13) 1791 nend May 8, Capt. Edward Edwards set sail from Tahiti in the Pandora with the Bounty mutineers abandoned by Fletcher Henderson. (ON, 3/04, p.9) 1791 nend May 9, Francis Hopkinson (53), US writer, music, lawyer, died. (MC, 5/9/02) 1791 nend May 14, In Mexico a time capsule was placed atop a bell tower at Mexico City's Metropolitan Cathedral when the building's topmost stone was laid, 218 years after construction had begun. Workers restoring the church found it in October, 2007. (AP, 1/15/08) 1791 nend May 16, James Boswell?s celebrated 2-volume work, "The Life of Samuel Johnson," was published. In 2001 Adam Sisman authored "Boswell?s Presumptuous Task," an account of how Boswell came to write the Johnson biography. (WSJ, 8/24/01, p.W8)(ON, 11/06, p.10) 1791 nend May 28, Joseph Schmitt (57), composer, died. (MC, 5/28/02) 1791 nend May 29, Pietro Romani, composer, was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1791 nend Jun 9, John Howard Payne, American playwright and actor, was born. (HN, 6/9/01) 1791 nend Jun 20, King Louis XVI of France attempted to flee the country in the so-called Flight to Varennes, but was caught. (AP, 6/20/97) 1791 nend Jun 21, King Louis XVI and the French royal family were arrested in Varennes. In 2003 Timothy Tackett authored "When the King Took Flight," an examination of the political culture during this period of transformation. (HN, 6/21/98)(SSFC, 5/18/03, p.M6) 1791 nend Jul 7, Benjamin Rush, Richard Allen and Absalom Jones founded the Non-denominational African Church. (HN, 7/7/98) 1791 nend Jul 13, The bones of the greatest French satirist, philosopher, and writer, Voltaire (Jean-Marie Arouet) were enshrined in the Pantheon in Paris. (MC, 7/13/02) 1791 nend Jul 14-1791 Jul 17, Riots took place in Birmingham, England. The houses of Joseph Priestley and other political dissenters were burned to the ground. Priestley had rejected various supernatural elements of Christianity, criticized the Church of England, and supported the French Revolution. (SFC, 1/9/09, p.E3)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priestley_Riots) 1791 nend Jul 16, Louis XVI was suspended from office until he agreed to ratify the constitution. (HN, 7/16/98) 1791 nend Jul 17, National Guard troops opened fire in Paris on a crowd of demonstrators calling for the deposition of the king. (HN, 7/17/99) 1791 nend Jul 24, Robespierre expelled all Jacobins opposed to the principles of the French Revolution. (HN, 7/24/98) 1791 nend Jul 25, Free African Society (FAS) leaders drew up a plan to organize the African Church. Richard Allen purchased a site for a church for the African-American community in Philadelphia. It later stood as the oldest parcel of land continuously owned by African Americans. The Richard Allen Museum contains 19th century artifacts from the church. (www.pbs.org) 1791 nend Jul 26, Franz Xavier Wolfgang Mozart, 6th child of Austrian composer WAM, was born. (MC, 7/26/02) 1791 nend Aug 1, Robert Carter III, a Virginia plantation owner, freed all 500 of his slaves in the largest private emancipation in U.S. history. (HN, 8/1/98) 1791 nend Aug 2, Samuel Briggs and his son patented a nail-making machine. (MC, 8/2/02) 1791 nend Aug 4, The chief item in the Peace of Sistova agreement between the Austrian Empire and Turkey was the return of Belgrade to Turkey. The peace initiative resulted from the terms of the Convention of Reichenbach between Prussia and Austria. Belgrade had been taken in 1789 by the Holy Roman emperor Joseph II. (HNQ, 6/25/99) 1791 nend Aug 14, Haitian slaves, led by voodoo priest Boukman Dutty, gathered to plan a revolution. (SFCM, 5/30/04, p.9)( http://tinyurl.com/yun3k3) 1791 nend Aug 26, John Fitch and James Rumsey, rival inventors, were both granted a US patent for a working steamboat. (MC, 8/26/02)(WSJ, 7/27/04, p.D10) 1791 nend Aug 29, The Pandora under Capt. Edward Edwards sank in Endeavour Strait (later Torres Strait) between Australia and New Guinea. 33 crewmen and 4 prisoners died. They managed to use small boats and arrived in Timor on Sep 16. (ON, 3/04, p.9) 1791 nend Sep 1, Lydia Sigourney, US religious author (How to Be Happy), was born. (SC, 9/1/02) 1791 nend Sep 3, The French National Assembly passed a French Constitution passed. (MC, 9/3/01) 1791 nend Sep 5, Giacomo Meyerbeer, Vogelsdorf Germany, opera composer (Les Huguenots, Le Prophete), was born. (MC, 9/5/01) 1791 nend Sep 6, Mozart?s last opera "La Clemenza di Tito," premiered in Prague. It was composed for the coronation festivities of the King of Bohemia. (WSJ, 4/10/00, p.A44)(MC, 9/6/01) 1791 nend Sep 9, French Royalists took control of Arles and barricaded themselves inside the town. (HN, 9/9/98) 1791 nend Sep 13, France's King Louis XVI accepted a constitution. (MC, 9/13/01) 1791 nend Sep 14, Louis XVI solemnly swore his allegiance to the French constitution. (HN, 9/14/98) 1791 nend Sep 22, Michael Faraday (d.1867), English physicist, was born in London. He demonstrated that a magnetic field induces a current in a moving conductor. He invented the dynamo, the transformer and the electric motor. (V.D.-H.K.p.269)(HN, 9/22/00) 1791 nend Sep 26, J.L.A. Theodore Gericault, French painter, was born. (MC, 9/26/01) 1791 nend Sep 27, Jews in France were granted French citizenship. Jews were granted religious and civic rights in 1791. (HN, 9/27/98)(WSJ, 8/7/00, p.A13) 1791 nend Sep 30, Mozart's opera "The Magic Flute" premiered in Vienna, Austria. (AP, 9/30/97) 1791 nend Oct 1, In Paris, the National Legislative Assembly held its first meeting. (HN, 10/1/98) 1791 nend Nov 3, Gen. St. Clair moved his force of approximately 1,400 men to some high ground on the upper Wabash River. St. Clair was looking for the forces of Michikinikwa (Chief Little Turtle 1752-1812), who had recently defeated Gen. Josiah Harmar?s (1753-1813) army. St. Clair deployed only minimal sentry positions. [see Nov 4] (DoW, 1999, p.168) 1791 nend Nov 4, General Arthur St. Clair, governor of Northwest Territory, was badly defeated by a large Indian army near Fort Wayne. Miami Indian Chief Little Turtle (1752-1812) led the powerful force of Miami, Wyandot, Iroquois, Shawnee, Delaware, Ojibwa and Potawatomi that inflicted the greatest defeat ever suffered by the U.S. Army at the hands of North American Indians. Some 623 regulars led by General Arthur St. Clair were killed and 258 wounded on the banks of the Wabash River near present day Fort Wayne, Indiana. The staggering defeat moved Congress to authorize a larger army in 1792. (HNQ, 8/10/98)(HN, 11/4/98) 1791 nend Dec 4, Britain's Observer, oldest Sunday newspaper in world, was 1st published. (MC, 12/4/01) 1791 nend Dec 5, Austrian composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart died in Vienna, Austria, at age 35. His first opera was "Idomeneo." In 1920 Hermann Abert authored ?W.A. Mozart.? In 1991 Georg Knepler authored "Wolfang Amade Mozart," a Marxist view of Mozart in his times. In 1995 Maynard Solomon published a psychoanalytic biography of Mozart. In 1999 Peter Gay authored a Penguin short life of Mozart and Robert W. Gutman authored the comprehensive biography "Mozart." (SFEC, 2/2/97, DB. p.54)(AP, 12/5/97)(WSJ, 12/2/99, p.A20)(WSJ,3/1/08, p.W8) 1791 nend Dec 15, The US Bill of Rights, the first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution, took effect following ratification by Virginia. The First Amendment declared the separation of church and state and guaranteed freedom of religion, speech, the press and assembly. In 2007 Anthony Lewis authored ?Freedom for the Thought That We Hate: A biography of the Frist Amendment.? (SFC, 6/24/96, p.A19)(AP, 12/15/97)(SFC, 1/21/04, p.D2)(Econ,1/12/08, p.75) 1791 nend Dec 17, NYC traffic regulation created the 1st 1-way street. (MC, 12/17/01) 1791 nend Dec 22, Alexander Hamilton paid a $600 installment of $1,000 in blackmail to James Reynolds, who threatened to expose Hamilton?s relationship with Reynolds? wife. Hamilton had begun a relationship with Maria Reynolds during the summer. A 2nd payment was made Jan 3. (WSJ, 11/19/98, p.1,12)(ON, 10/05, p.5) 1791 nend Jose Cardero, a Spanish artist in California, painted "Vista del Presidio de Monterey." (SFC, 4/21/99, p.E6) 1791 nend Alexander Hamilton authored his ?Report on the Subject of Manufactures.? (Econ, 9/1/07, p.74) 1791 nend The opera "The Beneficent Dervish" was initially attributed to Emanuel Schikaneder but a 1997 find indicated that Mozart wrote the work. Schikaneder was a Vienna theater impresario who had commissioned "The Magic Flute." (SFC, 6/13/97, p.C11) 1791 nend The Berlin Sing-Academie was established. (SFC, 8/6/99, p.C13) 1791 nend In Berlin, Germany, the Brandenburg Gate was completed. It stood 66 feet tall and 213 feet wide, and was topped by the copper Quadriga, a sculpture of a goddess riding into the city aboard a chariot. It was restored in 2002. (AP, 10/2/02) 1791 nend James Madison opposed the plans of Alexander Hamilton for a National Bank. Hamilton started the 1st Bank of the US. It did the work of a central bank even though private investors held most of its shares. It was dissolved in 1811. (WSJ, 12/20/95, p.A-12)(WSJ, 11/19/04, p.A8)(Econ, 12/24/05, p.91) 1791 nend Aaron Burr (1756-1836), later US vice president (1801-1805), was elected as US Senator from New York (1791-1797). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron_Burr) 1791 nend The US Providence Bank was later reported to have profited from traffic in slaves to the New World. The bank eventually became part of FleetBoston Financial Corp. (SFC, 3/10/00, p.D3) 1791 nend A document was released in 2004 from Pittsfield, Mass., that contained a 1791 bylaw to protect the windows of a new meeting house from baseball players. (SFC, 5/12/04, p.A2) 1791 nend William Sprague opened the 1st US carpet mill in Philadelphia. (SFCM, 10/10/04, p.8) 1791 nend Legend says the Harel family began making Camembert cheese before this time. The family had given a priest refuge, who in gratitude gave them the recipe. In 2003 Pierre Boisard authored "Camembert: A National Myth." (SSFC, 7/27/03, p.M3) 1791 nend Frantisek Koczwara, a Bohemian musician, died in a London brothel from auto-asphyxiation. (SSFC, 3/18/01, DB p.49) 1791 nend Grigory A. Potemkin (b.1739), Russian army officer, statesman, Catherine II's lover, died. In 2002 Simon Sebag Montefiore authored "Prince of Princes: The Life of Potemkin." (MC, 9/13/01)(WSJ, 2/14/02, p.A18) 1791 nend John Wesley (b.1703), English evangelist and theologian, died. He founded the Methodist movement. (WUD, 1994, p.1622)(WSJ, 6/13/03, p.W19) 1791 nend In Australia officials granted parcels of land around Sydney to convicts who have served their time, beginning years of dispossession of Aborigines that continued as white settlers dispersed throughout Australia. Clashes between Aborigines and settlers led to tens of thousands of deaths among Aborigines and hundreds of settler deaths. (AP, 1/30/08) 1791 nend Sheikh Mansur, Chechen leader, was captured and died in the Schlusselburg Fortress. (www.chechnyafree.ru) 1791 nend The United Irishmen Society was formed. Inspired by the French Revolution many Catholics and Protestants took up the cause of Irish nationalism during the next decade. (SFEC, 12/22/96, Z1 p.6) 1791 nend The Marquesas Islands were officially discovered. Over a 30 year period western diseases ravaged the populace and only about 2,000 of 100,000 people survived. (SFEC, 8/25/96, p.T6) 1791 nend In St. Domingue Toussaint L?Ouverture joined the slave rebellion against plantation owners and later led a colonial revolt against France. In 1995 Madison Smart Bell authored "All Souls Rising," a novel set in this period. (SFEC, 1/26/97 BR, p.10)(SSFC, 4/8/01, BR p.4)(SFCM, 5/30/04, p.10) 1791 1824 Theodore Gericault, French painter. He painted "Mounted Officer of the Imperial Guard." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.593) 1792 nend Jan 17, One of the first US Treasury bonds was issued to Pres. George Washington and bears the earliest use of the dollar sign. (WSJ, 5/29/98, p.W9) 1792 nend Jan 28, Rebellious slaves in Santo Domingo launched an attack on the city of Cap. (HN, 1/28/99) 1792 nend Feb 7, Cimarosa's opera "Il Matrimonio Segreto," premiered in Vienna. (MC, 2/7/02) 1792 nend Feb 15, Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Delambre (42), astronomer and surveyor, was elected to the French Academy of Sciences to help establish the length of a proposed new unit of measurement, the meter. (ON, 2/09, p.8) 1792 nend Feb 20, President Washington signed an act creating the U.S. Post Office. [see Feb 20, 1789, May 8, 1794] (HN, 2/20/98)(AP, 2/20/98) 1792 nend Feb 21, US Congress passed the Presidential Succession Act. [see Mar 1] (MC, 2/21/02) 1792 nend Feb 23, Joseph Haydn?s 94th Symphony in G premiered. (MC, 2/23/02) 1792 nend Feb 23, Humane Society of Massachusetts was incorporated. It erected life-saving stations for distressed mariners. (MC, 2/23/02) 1792 nend Feb 23, Joshua Reynolds (68), English portrait painter (Simplicity), died. (MC, 2/23/02) 1792 nend Feb 29, The composer Gioacchino Antonio Rossini (d.1868) was born in Pesaro, Italy. His work included the opera "La Donna del Lago," based on the Walter Scott romance "The lady of the Lake." (WUD, 1994, p.1246)(WSJ, 7/29/97, p.A12)(AP, 2/29/00)(HN, 2/29/00) 1792 nend Mar 1, US Presidential Succession Act was passed. [see Feb 21] (SC, 3/1/02) 1792 nend Mar 4, Oranges were introduced to Hawaii. (SC, 3/4/02) 1792 nend Mar 10, John Stuart (78), 3rd earl of Bute, English premier (1760-63), died. (MC, 3/10/02) 1792 nend Mar 16, Sweden's King Gustav III was shot and mortally wounded during a masquerade party by a former member of his regiment. He was murdered by Count Ankarstrom at an opera. It became the inspiration for Giuseppe Verdi's Un Ballo in Maschera. Gustav died 13 days later. (AP, 3/16/06)(WSJ, 1/28/07, p.P10) 1792 nend Mar 20, In Paris, the Legislative Assembly approved the use of the guillotine. (HN, 3/20/99) 1792 nend Mar 23, Franz Joseph Haydn?s "Symphony No. 94 in G Major," also known as the "Surprise Symphony," was performed publicly for the first time, in London. (AP, 3/23/97) 1792 nend Mar 29, Gustav III, King of Sweden (1771-92), died of wounds inflicted by an assassin on March 16. (AP, 3/16/06) 1792 nend Mar/Apr, Speculator William Duer defaulted on Hamilton?s freshly exchanged "Stock in the Public Funds," and caused the first American stock market crash. Hamilton injected liquidity, asked the banks not to call in loans and allowed merchants to pay customs duties with short-term notes. (WSJ, 3/24/97, p.A16)(WSJ, 8/14/01, p.A12) 1792 nend Apr 1, Gronings feminist Etta Palm demanded women's right to divorce. (MC, 4/1/02) 1792 nend Apr 2, Congress passed the Coinage Act, which authorized establishment of the U.S. Mint. It established the US dollar defined in fixed weights of gold and silver. State chartered banks issued paper money convertible to gold or silver coins to ease business transactions. U.S. authorized $10 Eagle, $5 half-Eagle & 2.50 quarter-Eagle gold coins & silver dollar, dollar, quarter, dime & half-dime. (HFA, '96, p.28)(AP, 4/2/97)(WSJ, 1/13/98, p.A1)(HN, 4/2/98) 1792 nend Apr 4, American abolitionist Thaddeus Stevens, U.S. Radical Republican congressional leader, was born in Danville, Vt.. (AP, 4/4/98)(HN, 4/4/98) 1792 nend Apr 5, George Washington cast the first presidential veto, rejecting a congressional measure for apportioning representatives among the states. (AP, 5/5/97)(HN, 5/5/97) 1792 nend Apr 14, Pres. George Washington appointed David Rittenhouse, the foremost scientist of America, the first director of the US Mint at a salary of $2000 per annum. Rittenhouse was then in feeble health and lived at the northwest corner of Seventh and Arch Streets, then one of the high places of Old Philadelphia, where he had an observatory and where he later died and was first buried. (www.coinfacts.com/mint_history/mint_history_1792/mint_history_1792.htm) 1792 nend Apr 20, France declared war on Austria, Prussia, and Sardinia, marking the start of the French Revolutionary wars. (AP, 4/20/97)(HN, 4/20/98) 1792 nend Apr 21, Jose da Silva Xavier, Tiradentes, considered by many to be Brazil's George Washington, was drawn and quartered by the Portuguese. He was hung in Rio de Janeiro. His body was broken apieces. With his blood, a document was written declaring his memory infamous. His head was exposed in Vila Rica. Pieces of his body were exposed in the cities between Vila Rica and Rio, in an attempt to scare the people who had listened to the independence ideas of Tiradentes. (AP,4/19/03)(www.v-brazil.com/culture/historic-characters/tiradentes.html) 1792 nend Apr 22, President Washington proclaimed American neutrality in the war in Europe. (HN, 4/22/98) 1792 nend Apr 24, Capt. Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle, an officer stationed in Strasbourg, composed "La Marseillaise," which later became the national anthem of France. (AP, 4/24/97)(HN, 4/24/98) 1792 nend Apr 25, Highwayman Nicolas Jacques Pelletier became the first person under French law to be executed by guillotine. (AP, 4/25/97)(HN, 4/25/98) 1792 nend Apr 30, John Montague (73), 4th Earl of Sandwich, English Naval minister, died. (MC, 4/30/02) 1792 nend May 7, Capt. Robert Gray discovered Gray's Harbor in Washington state. (MC, 5/7/02) 1792 nend May 8, US established a military draft. (MC, 5/8/02) 1792 nend May 8, British Capt. George Vancouver sighted and named Mt. Rainier, Wash. (MC, 5/8/02) 1792 nend May 11, The Columbia River was discovered and named by Captain Robert Gray. (HN, 5/11/98)(MC, 5/11/02) 1792 nend May 12, A toilet that flushed itself at regular intervals was patented. (MC, 5/12/02) 1792 nend May 13, Giovanni-Maria Mastaia-Ferretti, later Pope Pius IX, "Pio Nono" (1846-78), was born at Sinigaglia. (PTA, 1980, p.510)(MC, 5/13/02) 1792 nend May 16, Denmark abolished slave trade. (MC, 5/16/02) 1792 nend May 17, Stock traders signed the Buttonwood Agreement in New York City at the Tontine Coffee House Company near a Buttonwood tree, where business had been transacted in the past. 24 merchants formed their exchange at Wall and Water Streets where they fixed rates on commissions on stocks and bonds. This later developed into the New York Stock Exchange. A market crash and almost total halt in credit, trading and liquidity prompted the Buttonwood Agreement under the influence of Alexander Hamilton. The organization drafted its constitution on March 8th, 1817, and named itself the "New York Stock & Exchange Board." (WSJ, 3/24/97, p.A19)(HN,5/17/98)(www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/crash/timeline/) 1792 nend May 18, Russian troops invaded Poland. (HN, 5/18/98) 1792 nend May 19, The Russian army entered Poland. (DTnet 5/19/97) 1792 nend May 21, Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis (d.1843), French engineer and mathematician, was born. He became first person to describe the Coriolis force. (SFC, 5/21/09,p.D10)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaspard-Gustave_Coriolis) 1792 nend Jun 1, Kentucky became the 15th state of the Union. (AP, 6/1/97) no_source 1792 nend Jun 4, Captain George Vancouver claimed Puget Sound for Britain. Englishman George Vancouver sailed into the SF Bay on his ship Discovery in this year and explored the Santa Clara Valley. Vancouver sailed the Inside Passage, the 1000-mile waterway between Puget Sound and Alaska. (SFEC, 3/1/98, p.W34)(HN, 6/4/98)(WSJ, 11/5/99, p.W12) 1792 nend Jun 4, John Burgoyne, soldier, playwright, died. (MC, 6/4/02) 1792 nend Jul 18, American naval hero John Paul Jones died in Paris at age 45. His body was preserved in rum in case the American government wished him back. In 1905 his body was transported to the US and placed in a crypt in Annapolis. In 2003 Evan Thomas authored "John Paul Jones: Sailor, Hero, Father of the American Navy." (AP, 7/18/97)(SSFC, 6/22/03, p.M3) 1792 nend Jul 30, The French national anthem "La Marseillaise" by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle, was first sung in Paris. (AP, 7/30/99) 1792 nend Jul 31, The foundation-stone was laid for the US Mint by David Rittenhouse, Esq. The property was paid for and deeded to the United States of America for a consideration of $4266.67 on July 18, 1792. The money for the Mint was the first money appropriated by Congress for a building to be used for a public purpose. (www.coinfacts.com/mint_history/mint_history_1792/mint_history_1792.htm) 1792 nend Aug 4, Percy Bysshe Shelley (d.1822), English poet and author who wrote "Prometheus Unbound," was born in Field Place, England. He married Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, author of "Frankenstein." He wrote the poem "Adonais." (WUD, 1994, p.1314)(HN, 8/4/98) 1792 nend Aug 5, Frederick 7th baron Lord North (60), English premier, died. He presided over Britain's loss of its American colonies (1770-82). (MC, 8/5/02) 1792 nend Aug 10, Some 10,000 Parisians attacked the Tuileries Palace of Louis XVI at the instigation of Georges Jacques Danton (33), after Louis ordered his Swiss guard to stop firing on the people. The mob massacred some 600 guardsmen. The king was later arrested, put on trial for treason, and executed the following January. (PC, 1992, p.345)(AP, 8/10/07)(ON, 2/09, p.8) 1792 nend Aug 11, A revolutionary commune was formed in Paris, France. (HN, 8/10/98) 1792 nend Aug 13, Revolutionaries imprisoned the French royal family, including King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. [see Aug 10] (MC, 8/13/02) 1792 nend Aug 18, Lord John Russel, Prime Minister of England from 1846 to 1852 and 1865 to 1866, was born. (HN, 8/18/98) 1792 nend Aug 29, The English warship Royal George capsized in Spithead and 900 people were killed. (MC, 8/29/01) 1792 nend Sep 2, Verdun, France, surrendered to the Prussian Army. (HN, 9/2/98) 1792 nend Sep 2, In the "September Massacres"- French mobs removed nobles and clergymen from jails, and some 1,600. (Econ, 7/18/09, p.80) 1792 nend Sep 3, In France Princess de Lamballe (b.1749), the best friend of Marie Antoinette, was killed and her body mutilated by an angry mob. Her head was displayed under the window of Marie Antoinette, interned in Temple Prison. (SSFC, 4/23/06, p.G5)(www.batguano.com/vigeeart100.html) 1792 nend Sep 5, Maximilien Robespierre was elected to the National Convention in France. (HN, 9/5/98) 1892 nend Sep 18, At Spithaead, England, verdicts and sentences were announced for the 10 prisoners from the mutiny on the Bounty. 4 men were acquitted, and 6 were found guilty and condemned to death. 2 of the condemned were pardoned and another was freed on a technicality. 3 were later hanged. (ON, 3/04, p.9) 1792 nend Sep 21, Collot D'Herbois proposed to abolish the monarchy in France. The French National Convention voted to abolish the monarchy. 1st French Republic formed (AP, 9/21/97)(MC, 9/21/01) 1792 nend Sep 22, The first French Republic was proclaimed. (AP, 9/22/06) 1792 nend Sep 27, George Cruikshank, London, caricaturist (Oliver Twist), was born. (MC, 9/27/01) 1792 nend Oct 7, James Mason (b.1725), American Revolutionary statesman, died at Gunston Hall Plantation, situated on the Potomac River some 20 miles south of Washington D.C. Mason framed the Bill of Rights for the Virginia Convention in June 1776. This was the model for the first part of fellow Virginian Thomas Jefferson's Declaration of Independence and the basis of the first 10 Amendments to the federal Constitution. In 2006 Jeff Broadwater authored ?George Mason.? (HNQ, 2/18/99)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Mason)(WSJ,9/13/06, p.D10) 1792 nend Oct 12, Columbus Day was 1st celebrated in the US. (MC, 10/12/01) 1792 nend Oct 13, The "Old Farmer's Almanac" was 1st published. [see Nov 25] (MC, 10/13/01) 1792 nend Oct 13, The cornerstone of the executive mansion, later known as the White House, was laid during a ceremony in the District of Columbia. (AP, 10/13/97)(HN, 10/13/98) 1792 nend Nov 6, Battle at Jemappes: French army beat the Austrians. (MC, 11/6/01) 1792 nend Nov 13, Edward John Trelawney, traveler and author (Adventure of a Younger Son), friend of Byron and Shelley, was born in England. (MC, 11/13/01) 1792 nend Nov 25, The Farmer's Almanac was 1st published. [see Oct 13] (MC, 11/25/01) 1792 nend Dec 5, George Washington was re-elected president; John Adams was re-elected vice president. (AP, 12/5/97) 1792 nend Dec 8, The 1st cremation in US: Henry Laurens. (MC, 12/8/01) 1792 nend Dec 11, France's King Louis XVI went before the Convention to face charges of treason. Louis was convicted and executed the following month. (AP, 12/11/97) 1792 nend Dec 12, In Vienna Ludwig Van Beethoven (22) received 1st lesson in music composition from Franz Joseph Haydn. (MC, 12/12/01) 1792 nend Dec 15, Alexander Hamilton, US Sec. of the Treasury, was accused of teaming with Mr. James Reynolds to speculate illegally in government securities. Hamilton then acknowledged to three lawmakers, including James Monroe, that he had paid hush money to Mr. Reynolds to cover an affair with Reynolds? wife. (WSJ, 11/19/98, p.A12)(ON, 10/05, p.5) 1792 nend Dec 26, Charles Babbage (d.1871), English inventor of the calculating machine, was born. (HN, 12/26/98) 1792 nend John Trumbell painted his portrait of Alexander Hamilton. (WSJ, 10/20/04, p.D12) 1792 nend Captain Bligh published "A Voyage to the South Sea" after his return from the Mutiny on the Bounty. (WSJ, 7/7/98, p.A14) 1792 nend James Madison published an essay in a newspaper on property and slaves. In this essay Madison extended the idea of property from material possessions to the property in his opinions, especially his religious beliefs. (V.D.-H.K.p.227) 1792 nend Mary Wollstonecraft (Godwin) wrote her essay "Vindication of the Rights of Woman." She married Godwin in 1797 after learning that she was pregnant and died in childbirth. (SFEM, 6/28/98, p.28)(Econ, 2/26/05, p.84) 1792 nend Construction began on the Royal Chapel at Carmel, Ca. It was dedicated in 1795. (SSFC, 1/4/09, p.B3) 1792 nend An edition of the Bible was first printed in New York. (WSJ, 8/7/98, p.W13) 1792 nend A US Militia Act was created. (SFC, 3/2/02, p.A21) 1792 nend US veterans hired William Hull to petition congress for more compensation. (Econ, 10/4/08, p.32) 1792 nend The dime coin "dismes" were first produced. Then came "half-dismes," or what we call nickels. (SFEC, 1/12/97, zone 3 p.4) 1792 nend Explorer Jose Longinos Martinez wrote in his diary about grizzly maulings that killed 2 Indians in California. (SFC, 8/18/96, p.A6) 1792 nend Archibald Menzies, Scottish doctor/surgeon, was the naturalist aboard the Discovery under Captain George Vancouver. He collected his first California poppy and classified it incorrectly as Celandine, an old world member of the same family (Papaveracae). [see 1794,1816,1825-1833] (NBJ, 2/96, p.12) 1792 nend Three English sailors wandered from Vancouver?s supply ship Daedalus, anchored in Waimea Bay. They were captured and killed by native Hawaiians. (SFCM, 3/11/01, p.87) 1792 nend Pierre Ordinaire, French chemist, invented absinthe as a digestive or all-purpose tonic. It quickly caught on as an apéritif. Ordinaire invented absinthe in 1797. It was popularized by Henri-Louis Pernod, who opened his first distillery in Switzerland before moving to Pontarlier, France, in 1805. (WSJ, 12/24/96, p.A1)(WSJ, 1/22/99, p.W8)(SFC, 3/24/00, p.A3) 1792 nend Arthur Phillip, the 1st governor of New South Wales, Australia, returned to England accompanied by Bennelong, an Aboriginal who had earlier attacked and wounded him. Philip later gave Bennelong a house on a point in Sydney Cove. In 1973 it became the site of the Sydney Opera House. (Econ, 7/15/06, p.83) 1792 nend In England consumers began an organized boycott against West Indian sugar. The Anti-Saccharine Society displayed a cross-section of a slave ship with men shackled head-to-toe like sardines. (Econ, 12/23/06, p.94) 1792 nend William Wilberforce introduced a new motion in British Parliament for the gradual abolition of the slave trade. The ?gradual? wording, proposed by home office minister Henry Dundas, led to passage of the bill in the House of Commons 230 to 85. (ON, 4/05, p.2) 1792 nend James Penny, Liverpool slave trader, was presented with a magnificent silver epergne for speaking in favor of the slave trade to a parliamentary committee. Liverpool?s Penny Lane was named after him. (SSFC, 7/9/06,p.A2)(www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/maritime/slavery/liverpool.asp) 1792 nend The British St. George?s Bay Company transported a 2nd group of settlers to Freetown. This included 1,196 Blacks from Nova Scotia, 500 Jamaicans and dozens of rebellious slaves from other colonies. (MT, summer 2003, p.8) 1792 nend Niagara-on-the-Lake became the 1st capital of the Upper Canada (later Ontario). The Parliament met for 5 sessions before moving to York (Toronto). (WSJ, 7/25/02, p.D10) 1792 nend The Chinese poet Shih Tao-nan, shortly before succumbing to the plague noted: "Few days following the death of the rats, Men pass away like falling walls." (NG, 5/88, p.678) 1792 nend The crown jewels of France were stolen including the 67 carat Blue Diamond. (THC, 12/3/97)(EB, 1993, V6 p.51) 1792 nend The La Felecia opera house in Venice opened. (SFC, 6/27/96, p.D3) 1792 nend In Mexico Campeche?s northern fort, the Reducto de San Jose, was built. It later housed the Museo de Barcas y Armas. (SSFC, 1/25/09, p.E5) 1792 nend In Scotland gas lighting was developed. (SFC, 7/14/99, p.4) 1792 nend Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (b.1703), conservative Islamic theologian, died. He founded Wahhabism and set out his ideas in ?The Book of Unity? (1736). In 2004 Natana J. Delong-Bas authored ?Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad.? (www.concise.britannica.com)(WSJ, 7/20/04, p.D8) 1792 1793 Francisco Jose de Goya y Lucientes (1746-1828), Spanish painter, went deaf from an unexplained illness. (WSJ, 5/10/02, p.W8)(Econ, 10/18/03, p.81) 1792 1796 In St. Petersburg, Russia, Catherine the Great commissioned the building of the neoclassical rococo Alexander Palace for her eldest grandson, the future Alexander I. (WSJ, 9/9/97, p.A16) 1792 1867 Giovanni Pacing, Italian composer. His work included "Maria, Regina d?Inghilterra," based on Victor Hugo?s drama "Marie Tudor." (WSJ, 11/10/98, p.A20) 1792 1868 Gioacchino Antonio Rossini, Italian composer. His work included the opera "La Donna del Lago," based on the Walter Scott romance "The Lady of the Lake." (WUD, 1994, p.1246)(WSJ, 7/29/97, p.A12) 1793 nend Jan 3, Lucretia Coffin Mott women?s rights activist, was born. She was a teacher, minister, antislavery leader and founder of the 1st Women?s Rights Convention. (440 Int'l. 1/3/99)(HN, 1/3/02) 1793 nend Jan 9, The first US manned balloon flight occurred as Frenchman Jean Pierre Blanchard, using a hot-air balloon, flew between Philadelphia and Woodbury, N.J. He stayed airborne for 46 minutes, traveled close to 15 miles and set down at the "old Clement farm" in Deptford, New Jersey. [see Jun 23, 1784, Mar 9, 1793] (WSJ, 3/31/98, p.A1)(AP, 1/9/99)(ON, 6/09, p.2) 1793 nend Jan 19, French King Louis XVI was sentenced to death. [see Jan 21] (MC, 1/19/02) 1793 nend Jan 21, Louis XVI (38), last of the French Bourbon dynasty, was executed on the guillotine. The vote in the National Convention for execution for treason won by a margin of one vote. The Great Terror followed his execution. (WUD, 1994, p.1677)(V.D.-H.K.p.231)(NH, 6/97, p.23)(AP, 1/21/98) 1793 nend Jan 23, Prussia and Russia signed an accord on the 2nd partition of Lithuania and Poland. The 2nd partition of Poland. Polish patriots had attempted to devise a new constitution which was recognized by Austria and Prussia, but Russia did not recognize it and invaded. Prussia in turn invaded and the two agreed to a partition that left only the central portion of Poland independent. (WUD, 1994, p.1677)(LHC, 1/23/03) 1793 nend Feb 1, Ralph Hodgson of Lansingburg, NY, patented one of the world?s greatest inventions this day: Oiled silk. (440 Int'l, 2/1/1999) 1793 nend Feb 1, France declared war on Britain and the Netherlands. (HN, 2/1/99) 1793 nend Feb 12, The US federal government passed its first fugitive slave law. This gave slave holders the right to reclaim their human property in free states. (HN, 2/12/97)(WSJ, 1/30/03, p.D8) 1793 nend Feb 25, The department heads of the U.S. government met with President Washington at his Mt. Vernon home for the first Cabinet meeting on record. (AP, 2/25/98)(MC, 2/25/02) 1793 nend Mar 2, Sam Houston, the first president of the Republic of Texas (1836-38, 1841-44), was born near Lexington, Va. He fought for Texas' independence from Mexico; President of Republic of Texas; U.S. Senator; Texas governor (AP, 3/2/98)(HC, Internet, 2/3/98)(SC, 3/2/02) 1793 nend Mar 3, Charles Sealsfield, writer (The Making of America), was born. (SC, 3/3/02) 1793 nend Mar 4, George Washington was inaugurated as President for the second time. His 2nd inauguration was the shortest with just 133 words. Since George Washington?s second term, Inauguration Day had been March 4 of the year following the election. That custom meant that defeated presidents and congressmen served four months after the election. In 1933, the so-called Lame Duck Amendment to the U.S. Constitution moved the inauguration of newly elected presidents and congressmen closer to Election Day. The 20th Amendment required the terms of the president and vice-president to begin at noon on January 20, while congressional terms begin on January 3. (HN, 3/4/98)(HNPD, 3/4/99)(SC, 3/4/02) 1793 nend Mar 4, French troops conquered Geertruidenberg, Netherlands. (SC, 3/4/02) 1793 nend Mar 5, Austrian troops crush the French and recapture Liege. (HN, 3/5/99) 1793 nend Mar 10, In France, on a proposal by Georges-Jacques Danton (1759-1794), the National Convention decreed that there should be established in Paris an extraordinary criminal tribunal. The news of the failure of the French arms in Belgium had given rise in Paris to popular movements on March 9 and 10, 1793. On Oct 20 the extraordinary criminal tribunal received by decree the official name of the Revolutionary Tribunal. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionary_Tribunal) 1793 nend Mar 18, The 2nd Battle at Neerwinden: Austria army beat France. (MC, 3/18/02) 1793 nend Mar 26, Pro-royalist uprising took place in Vendée region of France. (SS, 3/26/02) 1793 nend Apr 1, The volcano Unsen on Japan erupted killing about 53,000. (OTD) 1793 nend Apr 6, In France all executive power was conferred upon a Committee of Public Safety. Georges-Jacques Danton was one of the nine original members. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Danton) 1793 nend Apr 14, A royalist rebellion in Santo Domingo was crushed by French republican troops. (HN, 4/14/99) 1793 nend Apr 17, The Battle of Warsaw was fought. (HN, 4/17/98) 1793 nend Apr 22, Pres. Washington attended the opening of Rickett's, the 1st circus in US. (MC, 4/22/02) 1793 nend May 7, Pietro Nardini (71), composer, died. (MC, 5/7/02) 1793 nend May 25, Father Stephen Theodore Badin became the 1st US Roman Catholic priest ordained. (SC, 5/25/02) 1793 nend Jun 2, Maximillian Robespierre, a member of France?s Committee on Public Safety, initiated the "Reign of Terror," a purge of those suspected of treason against the French Republic. Months of the Great Terror, followed the Revolution in France as thousands died beneath the guillotine. (V.D.-H.K.p.231)(HN, 6/2/98) 1793 nend Jun 20, Eli Whitney petitioned for a cotton gin patent in Philadelphia. (www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3h1517t.html) 1793 nend Jun 24, The first republican constitution in France was adopted. (AP, 6/24/97) 1793 nend Jul 13, John Clare, English poet, was born. (HN, 7/13/01) 1793 nend Jul 13, Pierre Dupont de Nemours was ordered arrested in Paris on charges of plotting with rebels against the French Revolutionary National Assembly. (MC, 7/13/02) 1793 nend Jul 13, French revolutionary writer Jean Paul Marat was stabbed to death in his bath by Charlotte Corday, who was executed four days later. In 1970 Marie Cher authored "Charlotte Corday, and Certain Men of the Revolutionary Torment." (AP, 7/13/97)(ON, SC, p.8) 1793 nend Jul 23, Roger Sherman (b.1721) of Connecticut, signer of the Declaration of Independence, died. He was only man to sign the four most important documents that were most significant in the formation of the United States. Sherman signed the Association (the 1774 compact to boycott British goods), the Declaration of Independence, Articles of Confederation and Constitution. Sherman was among the first to declare that Parliament had no right to legislate for the colonies. He was a delegate to the Continental Congress, served in the first U.S. House of Representatives and was a U.S. senator. (HN, 4/19/97)(HNQ, 7/10/99) 1793 nend Jul 23, The French garrison at Mainz, Germany, fell to the Prussians. (HN, 7/23/98) 1793 nend Jul 24, France passed the 1st copyright law. (MC, 7/24/02) 1793 nend Jul 27, In France, Robespierre became a member of the Committee of Public Safety. (HN, 7/27/98) 1793 nend Aug 14, Republican troops in France laid siege to the city of Lyons. (HN, 8/14/98) 1793 nend Aug 22, Louis Duke de Noailles (80), marshal of France, was guillotined. (MC, 8/22/02) 1793 nend Aug 27, Maximilien Robespierre was elected to the Committee of Public Safety in Paris, France. (HN, 8/27/98) 1793 nend Aug 28, Adam-Philippe Custine, Duke de Lauzun (French duke, general, fought in American Revolution, hero in both countries), was guillotined in Paris. (MC, 8/28/01) 1793 nend Aug 29, Slavery was abolished in the French colony of Santo Domingo (Haiti). (HN, 8/29/98)(MC, 8/29/01) 1793 nend Sep 5, The Reign of Terror began during the French Revolution as the National Convention instituted harsh measures to repress counter-revolutionary activities. One delegate, claiming that the middle class Girondist (moderates) leaders be sentenced to death cried, "It is time for equality to wield its scythe over all the heads. Very well, Legislator, place Terror on the agenda!" The delegates agreed to arrest all suspects and dissenters, try them swiftly in the kangaroo courts known as the Revolutionary Tribunals, and sentence them uniformly to death. (MC, 9/5/01)(AP, 9/4/07) 1793 nend Sep 6, French General Jean Houchard and his 40,000 men began a three-day battle against an Anglo-Hanoverian army at Hondschoote, southwest Belgium, in the wars of the French Revolution. (HN, 9/6/98) 1793 nend Sep 18, President George Washington laid the foundation stone for the U.S. Capitol on Jenkins Hill. (AP, 9/18/97)(SFC, 7/18/98, p.A15)(HN, 9/18/98) 1793 nend Oct 8, John Hancock, US merchant and signer (Declaration of Independence), died at 56. (MC, 10/8/01) 1793 nend Oct 10, The rebellious French city of Lyons surrendered to Revolutionary troops. (MC, 10/10/01) 1793 nend Oct 16, During the French Revolution, Marie Antoinette was beheaded. Prosecutors claimed she had sexually abused her son and financially abused the French Monarchy. In mourning for her husband, Louis XVI, who had been guillotined the previous January, clad in rags, her once-dazzling locks shorn by the executioner's assistant, she even suffered the indignity of a crude sketch by the great French painter, Jacques Louis David. Antoinette bore herself with a regal indifference to her martyrdom. Madame Tussaud used her severed head as a model for her wax bust death mask. In 2001 Antonia Fraser authored "Marie Antoinette: The Journey." (SFEC, 11/17/96, p.T5)(AP, 10/16/97)(WSJ, 10/5/01, p.W13) 1793 nend Oct 20, In France an extraordinary criminal tribunal received the official name of the Revolutionary Tribunal by a decree. The news of the failure of the French arms in Belgium gave rise in Paris to popular movements on March 9 and 10, 1793, and on March 10, on the proposal of Danton, the Convention decreed that there should be established in Paris an extraordinary criminal tribunal. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionary_Tribunal) 1793 nend Oct 28, Eliphalet Remington, US gun maker, was born. (MC, 10/28/01) 1793 nend Oct 28, Eli Whitney applied for a patent on the cotton gin, a machine which cleaned the tight-clinging seeds from short-staple cotton easily and effectively--a job which was previously done by hand. The patent was granted the following March. [see Mar 13, Jun 20, 1793, Mar 14, 1794] (AP, 10/28/97)(HN, 10/28/98) 1793 nend Oct 31, Execution of 21 Girondins (moderates) in Paris, stepping up the Reign of Terror. Pierre V. Vergniaud (40), French politician and elegant, impassioned orator of Girondins, was guillotined. (MC, 10/31/01) 1793 nend Nov 3, Stephen Fuller Austin was born. He colonized Texas. (MC, 11/3/01) 1793 nend Nov 8, The Louvre opened in Paris as a museum. It was originally constructed as a fortress in the early thirteenth century. (HN, 11/6/98)(MC, 11/8/01) 1793 nend Nov 10, France outlawed the forced worship of God. (MC, 11/10/01) 1793 nend Nov 12, Jean-Sylvain Bailley (53), French astronomer and mayor of Paris, was guillotined. (MC, 11/12/01) 1793 nend Nov 19, The Jacobin Club was formed in Paris. Robespierre (1758-1794), Jacobin leader: "Terror is nothing but justice, prompt, severe and inflexible." (SSFC, 10/28/01, p.C5)(MC, 11/19/01) 1793 nend Nov 26, Republican calendar replaced the Gregorian calendar in France. (MC, 11/26/01) 1793 nend Nov, In France Philippe Aspairt, a hospital porter, ventured alone into the limestones quarries south of Paris, site of the new cemetery, and got lost. Workmen found his bones 11 years later. (Hem., 3/97, p.119) 1793 nend Dec 6, Marie Jeanne Becu, Comtesse du Barry, flamboyant mistress of Louis XV, was guillotined in Paris. (MC, 12/6/01) 1793 nend Dec 9, Noah Webster established NY's 1st daily newspaper, American Minerva. (MC, 12/9/01) 1793 nend Dec 19, French troops recaptured Toulon from the British. (HN, 12/19/98) 1793 nend Dec 20, Joseph Legros (54), composer, died. (MC, 12/20/01) 1793 nend Dec 23, Thomas Jefferson warned of slave revolts in West Indies. (MC, 12/23/01) 1793 nend Antonio Canova created his clay model for the sculpture "Penitent Magdalen." The final marble version was completed in 1809. (WSJ, 1/29/02, p.A18) 1793 nend Jacques-Louis David painted "Death of Marat." (SFEC, 3/21/99, BR p.5) 1793 nend Pierre-Paul Prud?hon (1758-1823), French artist, painted "Cupid Laughs at the Tears He Causes." (WSJ, 4/8/98, p.A20) 1793 nend William Blake produced his "Labors of the Artist, the Poet, and the Musician." He painted "Aged Ignorance." (LSA, Spring 1995, p.17)(NH, 4/97, p.6) 1793 nend Augustin Ximenez (1726-1817), Marquis of Ximenez, a Frenchman of Spanish origin, wrote a poem with the line ?Attaquons dans ses eaux la perfide Albion,? which means "Let us attack perfidious Albion in her waters." The poet of perfidy later lectured French soldiers that ?Il est beau de perir,? which means ?it is beautiful to perish.? (SSFC, 1/14/07, p.M4)(http://tinyurl.com/ye6bd7) 1793 nend The German Reformed Church was established in the US by Calvinist Puritans. (SFC, 7/21/97, p.A11) 1793 nend Capt. George Vancouver introduced cattle to the islands of Hawaii and wrested from King Kamehameha the concession that women as well as men be allowed to eat the meat. The king agreed if separate animals were used. (SFEM, 2/8/98, p.10) 1793 nend The 1st US half-cent and one cent coins were minted. For almost 6 decades the obverse side carried an image of Lady Liberty. The first coins were related to the silver dollar. The half-dollar contained half as much silver, the quarter had one-fourth as much. The dime had a 10th and the half dime has a 20th as much silver as the dollar. Only the penny was made of copper. In 1866 the Mint decided to produce a larger five-cent coin. (SFC, 9/11/96, p.A4)(WSJ, 12/12/03, p.W15)(SSFC, 9/27/09, Par p.25) 1793 nend Cape Girardeau, Missouri, was first founded where the present day Cape Rock Park sits, when Don Louis Lorimier was given a land grant by the Spanish government. The City of Cape Girardeau celebrated its 200th year in 2006. (www.cityofcapegirardeau.org/) 1793 nend In Vermont Captain John Norton founded a stoneware pottery shop in Bennington. The wares were rarely marked until 1823. Various members of the family worked at the pottery until it closed shop in 1894. (SFC, 2/18/98, Z1 p.3) 1793 nend The Spanish Governor of Alta California made the first official notice of the fire problem in California. He warned military officers, missions and civil authorities of the problem. (SFC, 10/23/96, p.A8) 1793 nend There was a yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia. Stephen Girard risked his life and fortune in stopping the epidemic. (WSJ, 1/2/97, p.6) 1793 nend Alexander Mackenzie, Scottish-born fur trader, reached the Pacific coast completing his crossing of North America. He began the trip in 1789. He raised Britain's claims to the pacific Northwest. (SFEC, 5/25/97, Z1 p.7)(SFC, 1/31/04, p.D12) 1793 nend The British took over the island of St. Vincent and a series of wars ensued against the black Caribs. (SFC, 7/25/07, p.E2) 1793 nend China?s Emperor Qianlong turned away the British fleet under Lord George Macartney with the declaration that China had all things in abundance and had no interest in ?foreign manufactures.? (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R51)(Econ, 9/16/06, p.13) 1793 nend The courthouse at the St. Maarten Island Dutch capital of Philipsburg was built. (SFEC,2/16/97, p.T7) 1793 nend The Minton dishware company was established in Stoke, Staffordshire, England. (SFC,11/5/97, Z.1 p.3)(SFC, 3/19/08, p.G6) 1793 1795 The British engaged in the ill-fated Flanders Campaign. (SSFM, 4/1/01, p.42) 1793 1801 In Afghanistan Zaman Shah ruled. Constant internal revolts continued. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1793 1835 Felicia Dorothea Browne Hemans, English poet: "Though the past haunt me as a spirit, I do not ask to forget." (AP, 12/31/98) 1793 1860 Thomas Addison, English physician, discovered Addison?s disease, a usually fatal disease caused by the failure of the adrenal cortex to function and marked by a bronze-like skin pigmentation, anemia, and prostration. (AHD, 1971, p.15) 1793 1863 Sam Houston, US soldier and political leader. He was president of the Republic of Texas from 1836-1838. (WUD, 1994, p.689) 1794 nend Jan 13, President Washington approved a measure adding two stars and two stripes to the American flag, following the admission of Vermont and Kentucky to the union. The number of stripes was later reduced to the original 13. (AP, 1/13/01) 1794 nend Jan 14, Dr. Jessee Bennet of Edom, Va., performed the 1st successful Cesarean section operation on his wife. (MC, 1/14/02) 1794 nend Feb 4, France?s First Republic (Convention) voted for the abolition of slavery in all French colonies. The abolition decree stated that "the Convention declares the slavery of the Blacks abolished in all the colonies; consequently, all men, irrespective of color, living in the colonies are French citizens and will enjoy all the rights provided by the Constitution." Slavery was restored by the Consulate in 1802, and was definitively abolished in 1848 by the Second Republic, on Victor Schoelcher?s initiative. (www.ambafrance-uk.org/Slavery-Slavery-was-abolished-in.html) 1794 nend Feb 4, Slaves in Haiti won emancipation. (AP, 4/7/03)(WSJ, 3/1/04, p.A16) 1794 nend Feb 10, Joseph Haydn?s 99th Symphony in E, premiered. (MC, 2/10/02) 1794 nend Feb 11, A session of US Senate was 1st opened to the public. (MC, 2/11/02) 1794 nend Feb 14, 1st US textile machinery patent was granted, to James Davenport in Phila. (MC, 2/14/02) 1794 nend Feb 21, Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, Mexican Revolutionary, was born. (HN, 2/21/98) 1794 nend Mar 3, 1st performance of Joseph Haydn?s 101st Symphony in D. (SC, 3/3/02) 1794 nend Mar 3, Richard Allen founded AME Church. (SC, 3/3/02) 1794 nend Mar 14, Eli Whitney received a patent for his cotton gin, an invention that revolutionized America's cotton industry. He paid substantial royalties to Catherine T. Greene and this makes his claim to the invention suspect. (AP, 3/14/97)(SFC, 10/4/97, p.E3) 1794 nend Mar 22, Congress passed laws prohibiting slave trade with foreign countries, although slavery remained legal in the United States. Congress banned US vessels from supplying slaves to other countries. (HN, 3/22/01)(MC, 3/22/02) 1794 nend Mar 23, Josiah Pierson patented a "cold-header" (rivet) machine. (SS, 3/23/02) 1794 nend Mar 23, Lieutenant-General Tadeusz Kosciusko returned to Poland. (SS, 3/23/02) 1794 nend Mar 24, In Cracow a revolutionary manifesto was proclaimed. The Lithuanian and Polish nobility under the leadership of Tadas Kasciuska revolted against Russian control. (H of L, 1931, p. 81-82)(LHC, 3/23/03) 1794 nend Mar 27, The US Congress approved "An Act to provide a Naval Armament" of six armed ships. [see Oct 13, 1775] (AP, 3/27/07) 1794 nend Mar 28, Marie-Joseph de Condorcet (b.1743), mathematician (Theory of Comets) and philosopher, died as a fugitive from French Revolution Terrorists. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet) 1794 nend Apr 5, Georges-Jacques Danton (b.1759), French revolutionary leader, was guillotined along with Marie Jean Herault de Sechelles, French author, politician, and Camille Desmoullins, popular journalist. In 2009 Jonathan Cape authored ?Danton: The Gentle Giant of Terror.? (Econ, 7/18/09, p.80)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Danton) 1794 nend Apr 7, In Poland at the battle of Raclawice the revolutionary forces of Tadeusz Kosciusko defeated the imperial armies. (DrEE, 9/21/96, p.5) 1794 nend Apr 8, Marie-Jean-Antoine-Nicholas-Caritat, mathematician died. (MC, 4/8/02) 1794 nend Apr 19, Tadeusz Kosciusko forced Russians out of Warsaw. (HN, 4/19/97) 1794 nend Apr 10, Matthew Calbraith Perry, the American Navy Commodore who opened Japan, was born. (HN, 4/10/98) 1794 nend Apr 11, Edward Everett, governor of Massachusetts, statesman and orator, was born. (HN, 4/11/98) 1794 nend May 6, In Haiti Toussaint Louverture (L?Ouverture), Haitian rebel leader, ended his alliance with the Iberian monarchy and embraced the French Republicans. An order followed that led to the massacre of Spaniards. no_source 1 nend /19/07, p.W4) 1794 May 6, Jean-Jacques Beauvarget-Charpentier (59), composer, died. (MC, 5/6/02) 1794 nend May 8, Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier, the father of modern chemistry (identified oxygen), was executed on the guillotine during France's Reign of Terror. In 2005 Madison Smartt Bell authored ?Lavoisier in the Year One: The Birth of a New Science in the Age of Revolution.? (AP, 5/8/97)(SSFC, 7/3/05, p.E1) 1794 nend May 10, In France Elizabeth (30), the sister of King Louis XVI, was beheaded. (HN, 5/10/99)(MC, 5/10/02) 1794 nend May 18, The 2nd battle of Bouvines was between France and Austria. (SC, 5/18/02) 1794 nend May 27, Cornelius Vanderbilt (d.1877), owner of the B & O railroad, was born on Staten Island. He started running steamships in 1818 and shuttled passengers to the West coast across Nicaragua for the gold rush. At age 70 he entered the railroad business. He was never accepted into New York elite society and died with an estimated $105 million fortune. (HN, 5/27/98)(WSJ, 1/11/98, p.R18) 1794 nend May, Richard Allen purchased a blacksmith shop in Philadelphia and had it moved near St. Thomas. There he founded an African Methodist Episcopal (AME) church he called Bethel, "House of God." The Mother Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church in Philadelphia was founded by Richard Allen after he was pulled from his knees one Sunday by a white usher while praying at St. George Methodist Episcopal Church. It later stood as the oldest parcel of land continuously owned by African Americans. The Richard Allen Museum contains 19th century artifacts from the church. In 1997 it was the world?s oldest AME church. The church elected its first female bishop in 2000. (SFC, 6/24/96, p.A19)(SFC, 7/12/00, p.A3)(www.pbs.org) 1794 nend Jun 1, English fleet under Richard Earl Howe defeated the French. (MC, 6/1/02) no_source 1794 nend Jun 4, Congress passed a Neutrality Act that banned Americans from serving in armed forces of foreign powers. (MC, 6/4/02) 1794 nend Jun 4, British troops captured Port-au-Prince, Haiti. (HN, 6/4/98) 1794 nend Jun 4, Robespierre was unanimously elected president of the Convention in the French Revolution. (MC, 6/4/02) 1794 nend Jun 5, Congress passed the Neutrality Act, which prohibited Americans from enlisting in the service of a foreign power. (AP, 6/5/99)(HN, 6/5/98) 1794 nend Jun 8, Maximilian Robespierre, French Revolutionary leader, worried about the influence of French atheists and philosophers, staged the "Festival of the Supreme Being" in Paris. (MC, 6/8/02) 1794 nend Jun 15, The Guillotine was moved to outskirts of Paris. (MC, 6/15/02) 1794 nend Jun 18, George Grote, British historian, was born. (MC, 6/18/02) 1794 nend Jun 23, Empress Catherine II granted Jews permission to settle in Kiev. (MC, 6/23/02) 1794 nend Jun 26, French defeated an Austrian army at the Battle of Fleurus. (HN, 6/26/98) 1794 nend Jul 5, Sylvester Graham, developed graham cracker, was born. (MC, 7/5/02) 1794 nend Jul 8, French troops captured Brussels, Belgium. (HN, 7/8/98) 1794 nend Jul 12, British Admiral Lord Nelson lost his right eye at the siege of Calvi, in Corsica. (HN, 7/12/98) 1794 nend Jul 13, Robespierre boycotted the Committee of Public Safety and the National convention after being denounced as a dictator. (MC, 7/13/02) 1794 nend Jul 17, In Philadelphia the African Episcopal Church of St. Thomas, one of the first black churches in the country, opened its doors. (www.pbs.org) 1794 nend Jul 23, Chaos and anarchy were averted temporarily when Robespierre joined conciliation talks in Paris. (MC, 7/23/02) 1794 nend Jul 26, After remaining uncharacteristically silent for several weeks, Robespierre demanded that the National Convention punish "traitors" without naming them. (MC, 7/26/02) 1794 nend Jul 26, The French defeated an Austrian army at the Battle of Fleurus in France. (HN, 7/26/98) 1794 nend Jul 27, French revolutionary leader Maximilien Robespierre was overthrown and placed under arrest; he was executed the following day. (AP, 7/27/00) 1794 nend Jul 28, Maximilien Robespierre, a leading figure of the French Revolution, was sent to the guillotine. Robespierre had dominated the Committee of Public Safety during the "Reign of Terror." He asserted the collective dictatorship of the revolutionary National Convention and attacked factions led by men such as Jacques-René Hébert which he felt threatened the government?s power. Factions opposed to Robespierre gained momentum in the summer of 1794. Declared an outlaw of the National Convention, Robespierre and many of his followers were captured and he?along with 22 of his supporters?were guillotined before cheering crowds. (AP, 7/28/97)(HN, 7/28/98)(HNQ, 11//00) 1794 nend Jul 29, Seventy of Robespierre's followers were guillotined. (MC, 7/29/02) 1794 nend Aug 7, George Washington issued a proclamation telling a group of Western Pennsylvania farmers to stop their Whiskey Rebellion. In the US in western Pennsylvania, angry farmers protested a new federal tax on whiskey makers. The protest flared into the open warfare known as the Whiskey Rebellion between US marshals and whiskey farmers. (http://www.ttb.gov/public_info/whisky_rebellion.shtml)(A&IP, ESM,p.16)(HNQ, 10/14/99) 1794 nend Aug 20, American General "Mad Anthony" Wayne defeated the Ohio Indians at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in the Northwest territory, ending Indian resistance in the area. (HN, 8/20/98) 1794 nend Aug 21, France surrendered the island of Corsica to the British. (HN, 8/21/98) 1794 nend Sep 10, America's first non-denominational college, Blount College (later the University of Tennessee), was chartered. (AP, 9/10/97) 1794 nend Sep 28, The Anglo-Russian-Austrian Alliance of St. Petersburg, which was directed against France, was signed. (HN, 9/28/98) 1794 nend Oct 10, The Russian Army under Gen?l. Alexander Suvorov took Warsaw and captured Tadeus Kosciusko at Maciejowice. T. Vavzeckis was became the new commander of the revolutionary forces. (Voruta #27-28, 7/1996, p.5)(HN, 10/10/98) 1794 nend Oct 15, US moneymakers minted some 2,000 silver dollars of which 1,750 were deemed good enough to go into circulation. The press initially used was designed for a smaller coin and large scale production on a bigger press began a year later. (SFC, 7/27/05, p.C8) 1794 nend Nov 3, William Cullen Bryant, poet and journalist, was born. (HN, 11/3/00) 1794 nend Nov 3, Thomas Paine was released from a Parisian jail with help from the American ambassador James Monroe. He had been arrested in 1893 for not endorsing the execution of Louis XVI and thus offending the Robespierre faction. While in prison Paine began writing his "The Age of Reason" (1794-1796). (HN, 11/3/99)(www.ushistory.org/Paine/index.htm) 1794 nend Nov 11, The Treaty of Canandaigua was signed at Canandaigua, New York, by fifty sachems and war chiefs representing the Grand Council of the Six Nations of the Iroquois (Haudenosaunee) Confederacy (including the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca and Tuscarora tribes), and by Timothy Pickering, official agent of President George Washington. The Canandaigua Treaty, a Treaty Between the United States of America and the Tribes of Indians Called the Six Nations, was signed. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Canandaigua) 1794 nend Nov 16, Warsaw capitulated to the Russian Army and the revolution ended. (Voruta #27-28, 7/1996, p.5) 1794 nend Nov 19, The United States and Britain signed the Jay Treaty, which resolved some issues left over from the Revolutionary War. This was the 1st US extradition treaty. (AP, 11/19/97)(MC, 11/19/01) 1794 nend Nov 21, Honolulu Harbor was discovered. (MC, 11/21/01) 1794 nend Nov 22, Strasbourg, Alsace-Lorraine, prohibited circumcision and the wearing of beards. (MC, 11/22/01) 1794 nend Nov 28, Friedrich WLGA von Steuben (64), Prussian-US inspector-general of Washington?s army, died in Oneida, NY. Baron von Steuben, a former Prussian captain, had arrived in Portsmouth, New Hampshire in 1777, and despite false credentials, was hired to drill and train Washington?s Continental Army. His manual of arms, known as the ?Blue Book,? shaped basic training for American recruits for generations to come. In 2008 Paul Lockhart authored ?The Drillmaster of Valley Forge: The Baron de Steuben and the Making of the American Army.? (WSJ, 11/8/08, p.W9)(WSJ, 11/8/08, p.W9) 1794 nend William Blake painted "The Ancient of Days." "He formed golden com-passes / And began to explore the Abyss." From the epic "The First Book of Urizen." Urizen is a pun and stands for "Your Reason." On display at the Whitworth Art Gallery, Manchester, England. (T&L, 10/1980, p.42)(WSJ, 4/2397, p.A16) 1794 nend The Book of Thell was printed by Blake in 14+ sets of 8 different designs. (LSA, Spring 1995, p.18) 1794 nend Spanish painter Goya completed his painting ?Yard With Lunatics,? the last in a series of uncommissioned small paintings executed during his convalescence from an illness that left him deaf. (WSJ, 6/18/08, p.D7) 1794 nend French Azilum near Towanda, Pa., was planned as an asylum for Marie-Antoinette, her children and other loyalists of the monarchy seeking refuge from the French Revolution. Loyalists who kept their heads did come and settle. (HT, 5/97, p.18) 1794 nend In the US Richard Allen was pulled from his knees one Sunday by a white usher while praying at St. George Methodist Episcopal Church in Philadelphia. He founded the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church in 1787. (SFC, 6/24/96, p.A19)(SFC, 7/12/00, p.A3) 1794 nend The St. Louis Cathedral in New Orleans was rebuilt. Two previous structures had burned down. (Hem., 1/97, p.63) 1794 nend George Washington established the first national armory at Springfield, Mass. He also authorized the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Md., where the Shenandoah flows into the Potomac. (WSJ, 9/12/97, p.A20)(SFEC, 4/25/99, p.T7) 1794 nend The first American silver dollar was minted. Congress decided in 1785 that the country?s monetary system would be based on a silver coin called a dollar, similar to that of the Spanish dollar. (HNQ, 1/5/00) 1794 nend A French inventor mixed ground graphite with clay and water and fired it to make strong pencil leads. [see 1765] (WSJ, 11/24/00, p.A1) 1794 nend Gov. Diego Borica took command of Alta California and remarked on the general fecundity of the Bay Area. (Bay, 4/07, p.25) 1794 nend Archibald Menzies introduced the California poppy to England. The seed that he brought to Kew Gardens did not survive. [see 1792, 1816,1825-1833] (NBJ, 2/96, p.12) 1794 nend British Admiral Earl Howe defeated the French fleet. (SFEC,10/26/97, p.T4) 1794 nend Ernst Chladni, German scientist, proposed that meteorites were masses of iron-rich extraterrestrial rock, which occasionally penetrated the earth?s atmosphere to strike the surface. (ON, 7/02, p.5) 1794 nend The Royal Bayreuth porcelain factory was founded in Bavaria. The factory stamped this date on dishes made after 1900. (SFC,11/5/97, Z1 p.3) 1794 nend In Italy the Bourbon monarchy created the Banca Nazionale di Napoli bringing together eight public banks including the Banco dei Poveri, established in 1563. The Piedmontese monarchy settled on the name Banco di Napoli in 1861. (Econ, 12/18/10, p.165) 1794 nend Napoleon?s occupying army in Maastricht, Netherlands, took back to France a giant dinosaur head that was found in a dark recess of St. Peter?s mountain in 1780. It was named the Mosasaurus and roamed the seas some 70 million years ago. The head was lugged to the home of Theodorus Godding, a canon at the local church. The French say that he swapped it to Napoleon for 600 bottles of wine. Records however seem to indicate otherwise. (NYT, 6/7/96, p.A4) 1794 nend Scotland, parish of Kirkmichael, Banffshire, on the holy well of St. Michael. (Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. xii, p.464): Many a patient have its water restored to health and many more have attested the efficacies of their virtues. But as the presiding power is sometimes capricious and apt to desert his charge, it now lies neglected, choked with weeds, unhonored, and unfrequented. In better days it was not so; for the winged guardian, under the semblance of a fly, was never absent from his duty... Every movement of the sympathetic fly was regarded in silent awe... (R.M.-P.H.C.p.93) 1794 nend The Russian Orthodox mission was founded in Alaska. It led to the Orthodox Church in America with 600,000 members. (WP, 6/29/96, p.B7) 1794 nend Ukraine?s port city of Odessa was founded. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.86) 1794 1824 Matthias Schmutzer, artist, produced over 1000 large-format watercolors of specimens from the imperial gardens of Francis I. In 2006 H. Walter Lack authored ?Florilegium Imperiale: Botanical Illustrations for Francis I of Austria.? (WSJ, 5/27/06, p.P9) 1794 1815 An anthology of first hand reports on the naval war between France and Britain was edited by Dean King and John B. Hattendorf and published in 1997. (SFEC,11/2/97, Par p.10) 1794 1872 Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld, German artist. (WSJ, 7/16/98, p.A16) 1794 1925 The Kajar Dynasty ruled over Iran. The Gulistan Palace (constructed in this era), contains the much disputed Peacock Throne. (NG, Sept. 1939, Baroness Ravensdale, p.326) 1795 nend Jan 3, The 3rd division of the Lithuanian Polish Republic was made between Russia and Austria. (Voruta #27-28, Jul 1996, p.5) 1795 nend Jan 3, Josiah Wedgwood (b.1730), British ceramics manufacturer, died. His daughter, Susannah, was the mother of Charles Darwin. In 2004 Brian Dolan authored ?Wedgwood: The First Tycoon.? (SSFC, 12/5/04, p.E5)(www.wedgwoodmuseum.org.uk/wedgwood_chronology.htm) 1795 nend Jan 25, The Royal Chapel at Carmel, Ca., was dedicated with a Mass of Thanksgiving. A major renovation was undertaken in 1856. (SSFC, 1/4/09, p.B3) 1795 nend Jan 26, Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach (62), composer, died. (MC, 1/26/02) 1795 nend Feb 2, Joseph Haydn?s 102nd Symphony in B premiered. (MC, 2/2/02) 1795 nend Feb 4, France abolished slavery in her territories and conferred slaves to citizens. (HN, 2/4/99) 1795 nend Feb 7, The 11th Amendment to US Constitution was ratified. (MC, 2/7/02) 1795 nend Feb 8, China?s Emperor Qianlong (1711-1799) abdicated in favor of his son. Despite his voluntary abdication, from 1796 to 1799 Qianlong continued to hold on to power and the Jiaqing Emperor (d.1820) ruled only in name. (Econ, 2/5/11, p.95)(Econ, 2/5/11,p.95)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor) 1795 nend Feb 13, The University of North Carolina became the first US state university to admit students with the arrival of Hinton James, who was the only student on campus for two weeks. (AP, 2/13/04) 1795 nend Feb 18, George Peabody, U.S. merchant and philanthropist, was born in South Danvers, Mass. (HN, 2/18/98)(MC, 2/18/02) 1795 nend Feb 21, Francisco Manuel da Silva, composer, was born. (MC, 2/21/02) 1795 nend Feb 21, Freedom of worship was established in France under constitution. (MC, 2/21/02) 1795 nend Mar 11, Battle at Kurdla, India: Mahratten beat Moguls. (MC, 3/12/02) 1795 nend Mar 22, A Lithuanian delegation under L. Tiskevicius went to Jekaterina II in Petersburg and declared that Lithuania?s union with Poland was ended. (Voruta #27-28, Jul 1996, p.5) 1795 nend Mar 29, Beethoven (24) debuted as pianist in Vienna. (MC, 3/29/02) 1795 nend Apr 7, The National Convention of Revolutionary France put into effect a new calendar system, similar to that of ancient Egypt. The year began with the autumn equinox, and had 360 days divided into twelve months of thirty days. Five extra days were placed at the end of the year. The months were divided into three 10 day groups. The day was divided into 10 new hours, each hour into 100 minutes, and each minute into 100 seconds. (K.I.-365D, p.42) 1795 nend Apr 8, The Prince of Wales, later England?s King George IV, married his German cousin, Caroline, to produce an heir and increase his income. On their wedding night the drunken bridegroom spent the night "under the grate, where he fell, and where I left him." The story is told by Flora Fraser in her book: "The Unruly Queen: The Life of Queen Caroline." Masterpiece Theater made a TV presentation in 1997. (SFC, 7/14/96, DB p.3)(WSJ, 1/9/97,p.A8)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline_of_Brunswick) 1795 nend Apr 21, Vincenzo Pallotti, Italian saint, was born. (MC, 4/21/02) 1795 nend Apr 23, In Britain the trial to impeach Warren Hastings, governor-general of India (1773-1785), on 21 charges for high crimes and misdemeanors ended after 7 years. Hastings was acquitted on all charges. (SFEC, 11/1/98, BR p.11)(WSJ, 5/1/00, p.A24)(MC, 4/23/02) 1795 nend Apr 28, Charles Sturt (d.1869), explorer of Australia, was born in India. British explorer Charles Sturt is known as the "father of Australian exploration." He was the first to penetrate deep into Australia's interior from 1828 to 1845 during three hazardous expeditions. In 1828 he discovered the Darling River and in January 1830 the Murray River, which he followed until he reached present day Goolwa. His last expedition came to an end when his eyesight was impaired by exposure and illness. Scotsman John McDouall Stuart was part of Stuart's final expedition and went on to become a major explorer, crossing the continent from Adelaide to Port Darwin in 1862. (http://members.ozemail.com.au/~fliranre/home.htm) 1795 nend Spring, Some 300 Indians fled Mission Dolores in San Francisco following a year of food shortages and disease that killed over 200. They sought refuge in the East Bay hills and Napa. (SFC, 9/26/03, p.D15) 1795 nend May 4, Thousands of rioters entered jails in Lyons, France, and massacred 99 Jacobin prisoners. (HN, 5/4/99) 1795 nend May 6, Dr. Pierre-Joseph Dessault visited the incarcerated 10-year-old dauphin, the heir to the French throne. He found the dying child in abject misery. The boy died June 8. (WSJ, 10/18/02, p.W9) 1795 nend May 10, Jacques-Nicolas-Augustin Thierry, historian, was born. (MC, 5/10/02) 1795 nend May 13, Joshua Ratoon Sands (d.1883), Commander (Union Navy), was born. (MC, 5/13/02) 1795 nend May 15, Napoleon entered the Lombardian capital of Milan in triumph. After taking Milan he released his troops on the townspeople who became victims of an orgy of destroying, raping and killing. The events are described in the 1998 biography "Napoleon Bonaparte" by Alan Schom. (SFEC, 1/18/98, BR p.9)(HN, 5/15/98) 1795 nend May 19, Johns Hopkins, founder of Johns Hopkins University, was born. (HN, 5/19/98) 1795 nend May 20, Ignac Martinovics, Hungarian physicist, revolutionary, was beheaded. (MC, 5/20/02) 1795 nend May, Mungo Park, Scottish surgeon, sailed from England on behalf of the British African Association to search for the Niger River. (ON, 7/00, p.10) 1795 nend Jun 8, In France the Dauphin (Louis XVII), son and sole survivor of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, died at age 10 after succumbing to tuberculosis in the Temple prison. His heart was cut from his body when he died in prison, pickled, stolen, returned, and DNA-tested two centuries later. In 2002 Deborah Cadbury authored "The Lost King of France." (SFC, 4/20/00, p.A14)(WSJ, 10/18/02, p.W9)(AP, 6/3/04) 1795 nend Jul 7, Thomas Paine defended the principal of universal suffrage at the Constitutional Convention in Paris. (HN, 7/7/98) 1795 nend Jul 9, James Swan paid off the $2,024,899 US national debt. (MC, 7/9/02) 1795 nend Jul 14, "La Marseillais," written in 1792, became the French national anthem. (http://tinyurl.com/7a4p9) 1795 nend Jul 22, Spain signed the Peace of Basel, a treaty with France ending the War of the Pyrenees. The treaty ceded Santo Domingo to France. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_of_Basel) 1795 nend Aug 3, A defeated Indian coalition met with Gen. Anthony Wayne in a treaty council at Greenville, Ohio. The event is the subject of a painting by Howard Chandler Christy. From a review of 500 Nations by Alvin M. Josephy Jr., published by Knopf in 1995 to accompany an 8-hour television documentary. (SFE Mag., 2/12/95, p. 18) 1795 nend Aug 15, Franz Joseph Haydn left England for the last time. (MC, 8/15/02) 1795 nend Aug 20, Joseph Haydn returned to Vienna from England. (MC, 8/20/02) 1795 nend Aug 31, Franxois-Andre Danican Philidor, composer, died at 68. (MC, 8/31/01) 1795 nend Sep 1, James Gordon Bennet was born. He later served as the editor of the New York Sun, the first tabloid-sized daily newspaper. (HN, 9/1/00) 1795 nend Sep 16, The Capitulation of Rustenburg: A Dutch garrison at the Cape of Good Hope surrendered to a British fleet under Adm. George Elphinstone. (EWH, 4th ed, p.884) 1795 nend Sep 17, Giuseppi Saverio Rafaele Mercadante, composer, was born. (MC, 9/17/01) 1795 nend Sep 23, A national plebiscite approved the new French constitution, but so many voters sustained that the results were suspect. (HN, 9/23/99) 1795 nend Sep 23, Conseil of the Cinq-Cents (Council of 500), formed in Paris. (MC, 9/23/01) 1795 nend Oct 4, General Napoleon Bonaparte led the rout of counterrevolutionaries in the streets of Paris, beginning his rise to power. France was in the midst of economic disaster?a factor that aided royalist counterrevolutionaries in their attempts to incite rebellion against the young republican government. Bonaparte, looking for a new command while on half pay in Paris, joined the defense of the Convention against overwhelming odds. (HN, 10/4/99)(HNQ, 10/26/00) 1795 nend Oct 5, The day after he routed counterrevolutionaries in Paris, Napoleon Bonaparte accepted their formal surrender. Napoleon takes charge. (HN, 10/5/99) 1795 nend Oct 11, In gratitude for putting down a rebellion in the streets of Paris, France's National Convention appointed Napoleon Bonaparte second in command of the Army of the Interior. (HN, 10/11/99) 1795 nend Oct 13, William Prescott, American Revolutionary soldier, died. (MC, 10/13/01) 1795 nend Oct 24, Russia, Austria and Prussia held a convention in Petersburg to finalize the 3rd division of the Polish-Lithuanian Republic. Most of Lithuania with Vilnius went to Russia, Warsaw and the left bank of the Nemunas River went to Prussia and Cracow went to Austria. King Stanislovas Augustas of Poland was forced from his capital and moved to Grodno (Gardinas). (Voruta #27-28, 7/1996, p.5)(MC, 10/24/01) 1795 nend Oct 26, Napoleon Bonaparte, second-in-command, became the army's commander when General Paul Barras resigned his commission as head of France's Army of the Interior to become head of the Directory. (HN, 10/26/99) 1795 nend Oct 27, The United States and Spain signed the Treaty of San Lorenzo (also known as Pinckney's Treaty), which provided for free navigation of the Mississippi River. (AP, 10/27/97) 1795 nend Oct 31, John Keats (d.1821), English poet, was born in London. (WUD, 1994, p.781)(AP, 10/31/97)(HN, 10/31/98) 1795 nend Nov 2, James Knox Polk, the 11th president of the United States, was born in Mecklenburg County, N.C. (AP, 11/2/97)(HN, 11/2/98) 1795 nend Nov 28, US paid $800,000 and a frigate as tribute to Algiers and Tunis. (MC, 11/28/01) 1795 nend Dec 3, Rowland Hill, introduced 1st adhesive postage stamp (1840), was born. (MC, 12/3/01) 1795 nend Dec 4, Thomas Carlyle (d.1881), English (Scot) essayist, critic and historian, friend of Ralph Waldo Emerson, was born. His work included "The French Revolution" and "Sartor Resartus." "A man doesn?t know what he knows, until he knows what he doesn?t know." "No great man lives in vain. The history of the world is but the biography of great men." (V.D.-H.K.p.400)(SFEC, 6/28/98, Z1 p.8)(AP, 7/2/98)(HN, 12/4/00) 1795 nend Dec 14, John Bloomfield Jarvis, civil engineer, was born. (HN, 12/14/00) 1795 nend William Blake painted his "Elohim Creating Adam." (SFC,1/21/97, p.A20) c 1795 nend Wilhelm von Kobell, German artist, made his watercolor "Staff Officers Listening to the Reading of the Day?s Orders." (WSJ, 7/16/98, p.A16) 1795 nend Charles Wilson Peale painted "The Staircase Group: Raphaelle and Titian Ramsay Peale." He also did a portrait of Martha Washington. [see 1853] (SFC, 1/25/97, p.E1)(SFEC, 7/27/97, DB p.35) 1795 nend Kitagawa Utamoro, Japanese artist, made his woodblock print "Oiran" about this time. (WSJ, 4/24/96, A-12) 1795 nend Hutton?s "Theory of the Earth" appeared in book form, but did not impact the reading public due to his stiff style. (RFH-MDHP, p.70)(DD-EVTT, p.17) 1795 nend Beethoven had a terrible bout of "continual diarrhea" while finishing his B-flat piano concerto. (WSJ, 5/29/96, p.A1) 1795 nend Samuel Adams and Paul Revere laid the cornerstone for the Massachusetts State House in Boston. (AH, 10/07, p.73) 1795 nend The oldest tomato ketchup recipe, according to Andrew F. Smith author of "Pure Ketchup: A History of America?s National Condiment," was written in Worcester, Mass. (SFC, 7/3/96, zz-1,p.3) 1795 nend Jim Beam, US producer of fine Bourbon whiskey was founded. (Hem., Dec. '95, p.82) 1795 nend Franciscan priests first visited the site of San Ysabel in San Diego County. (SFE, 9/16/96, p.A15) 1795 nend Britain reinforced its forces in St. Domingue. It was the largest expedition that had ever left England. (SFCM, 5/30/04, p.12) 1795 nend Lime juice was issued to all British sailors to aid in prevention of scurvy. Captain James Cook (d.1779) had prepared a paper detailing his groundbreaking work against scurvy. He was awarded the gold Copley Medal-one of the highest honors of England's Royal Society. Scurvy epidemics were once common among sailors on long voyages. Cook was the first to beat the problem, recognizing the need for an appropriate diet for his sailors. (HNQ, 7/21/98) 1795 nend The British won a battle against the local Garifuna on St. Vincent?s Island. (SFEC, 5/4/97, p.T11) 1795 nend In England the Coalport Porcelain Works began operations about this time. (SFC, 5/28/08, p.G2)(www.thepotteries.org/allpotters/283.htm) 1795 nend In Nova Scotia, Canada, local youths on Oak Island stumbled on an unusual depression that appeared to lead to a shaft. For years treasure hunters dug down into what became known as the ?Money Pit.? (WSJ, 8/31/05, p.B1) 1795 nend A set of remains that the Spaniards believed to be of Christopher Columbus were dug up from behind the main altar in the newly built cathedral of Santo Domingo and shipped to a cathedral in Havana, where they remained until the Spanish-American War broke out in 1898, when Spain brought them to Seville. In 1877 workers digging inside the Santo Domingo cathedral unearthed a leaden box containing 13 large bone fragments and 28 small ones. It was inscribed "Illustrious and distinguished male, don Cristobal Colon." The Dominicans said these were the real remains of Columbus and that the Spaniards must have taken the wrong remains. (SFC, 1/18/05, p.A8) 1795 nend In Paris the Place de la Concorde, a public square designed by Ange-Jacques Gabriel in 1755, was renamed Place de la Revolution. (WSJ, 10/26/99,p.A24)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Place_de_la_Concorde) 1795 nend France adopted the metric system. France had begun moving to base ten in the 16th century after using a vigesimal, base 20, system. (Econ, 11/5/11, p.62) 1795 nend Maruyama Okyo (b.1733), Japanese painter based in Kyoto, died. His work included a 50 mile scene in "Both Banks of the Yodo River." (WSJ, 12/1/98, p.A20)(SFC, 12/8/05, p.E1) 1795 nend The Loyal Orange Institution was established in Portadown to proclaim Protestant ascendancy. (SFEC, 12/22/96, Z1 p.6)(SFC, 7/12/99, p.A19) 1795 nend The Persians invaded Khurasan (province) in Afghanistan. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1795 nend Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski, the last king of Poland, was forced to abdicate. (WSJ, 2/15/00, p.A24) 1795 nend Poland and Lithuania were partitioned for the last time by Russia, Prussia, and Austria. (Compuserve, Online Encyclopedia) 1795 nend The South African Cape was first occupied by the British. (NG, Oct. 1988, p. 563) 1795 nend In Tripoli Pasha Yusef Karamanli deposed his older brother Hamet in a bloodless coup. (ON, 10/06, p.8) 1795 1805 Elias Boudinot served as the director of the US mint. (WSJ, 8/7/98, p.W13) 1795 1818 The US flag had 15 stars and 15 stripes over this period. (SFC, 7/22/97, p.A11) 1795 1818 Carl Phillip Fohr, German artist. (WSJ, 7/16/98, p.A16) 1795 1825 Joshua Johnson, the first professional African-American portrait painter, plied his art in Baltimore. (SFC, 5/26/96, T-7) 1795 1840 New York state and local governments entered into 26 treaties and several purchase agreements with the Oneida Indians to acquire all but 32 of 270,000 acres. Almost none of the transactions were approved by Congress as required by a 1790 law. (SFC, 1/13/99, p.A9) 1795 1874 Peter Andreas Hansen, Danish astronomer. (WUD, 1994, p.644) 1795 1875 Christian Gottfried Ehlenberg, German naturalist, known especially for his studies of infusoria, i.e. microscopic organisms. (OAPOC-TH, p.71) 1795 1921 The state of Poland was gobbled up by Russia, the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Prussia. (SFC, 7/10/97, p.A7) 1796 nend Jan 5, Samuel Huntington (64), US judge (signed Declaration of Independence), died. (MC, 1/5/02) 1796 nend Jan 8, Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois (46), French Revolution leader, died in exile. He was a member of the Committee of Public Safety that ruled during The Terror. (MC, 1/8/02) 1796 nend Feb 17, Giovanni Pacini, composer, was born. (MC, 2/17/02) 1796 nend Feb 17, James Macpherson (b.1736), Scottish poet, died. In 1761 he had announced the discovery of an epic on the subject of Fingal written by Ossian (based on Fionn's son Oisín). He then published poems by Ossian, the alleged blind 3rd century poet, which became very popular and later exposed as a fraud. (WSJ, 7/26/08, p.W8)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Macpherson) 1796 nend Mar 1, The 1st National Meeting was held in the Hague. (SC, 3/1/02) 1796 nend Mar 9, Napoleon Bonaparte (26) married Josephine Tascher de Beauharnais (32) in Paris. (AP, 3/9/98)(HN, 3/9/98) 1796 nend Mar 19, Stephen Storace (33), composer, died. (MC, 3/19/02) 1796 nend Mar 31, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's "Egmont," premiered in Weimar. (MC, 3/31/02) 1796 nend Apr 2, Haitian revolt leader Toussaint L?Ouverture commanded French forces at Santo Domingo. (AP, 4/2/99) 1796 nend Apr 3, The 1st elephant was shipped to the US from Bengal, India, by Broadway showman Jacob Croninshield. (SFC, 11/18/00, p.B3) 1796 nend Apr 13, The 1st elephant arrived in US from India. (MC, 4/13/02) 1796 nend Apr 13, Battle at Millesimo, Italy: Napoleon beat the Austrians. (MC, 4/13/02) 1796 nend Apr 22, Napoleon defeated the Piedmontese at Battle of Mondovi. (MC, 4/22/02) 1796 nend May 4, Horace Mann, "the father of American Public Education" educator and author, was born. (HN, 5/4/99) 1796 nend May 10, Napoleon Bonaparte won a brilliant victory against the Austrians at Lodi bridge in Italy. (HN, 5/10/99) 1796 nend May 14, English physician Edward Jenner administered the first vaccination against smallpox to his gardener's son, James Phipps (8). A single blister rose up on the spot, but James later demonstrated immunity to smallpox. Jenner actually used vaccinia, a close viral relation to smallpox. [see July 21, 1721] (Econ, 11/22/03, p.77)(AP, 5/14/08) 1796 nend May 19, A game protection law was passed by Congress to restrict encroachment by whites on Indian hunting grounds. (DTnet 5/19/97) 1796 nend May 27, James S. McLean patented his piano. (MC, 5/27/02) 1796 nend Jun 1, Tennessee became the 16th state of the Union. (AP, 6/1/97) 1796 nend Jun 1, In accordance with the Jay Treaty, all British troops were withdrawn from U.S. soil. (DTnet 6/1/97) 1796 nend Jul 4, The 1st US Independence Day celebration was held. (Maggio) 1796 nend Jul 15, Thomas Bulfinch, historian and mythologist (The Age of Fable), was born. (HN, 7/15/01) 1796 nend Jul 16, Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot (d.1875), French painter, was born. His work included "Madame Corot" (1833-1835) and "Interrupted Reading" (1870-1873). He led the way toward new forms of perspective and composition that was later mined by impressionism and photography. (SFC, 6/4/96, p.E5)(WSJ, 10/25/96, p.A15)(WSJ, 3/25/97, p.A16)(MC,7/16/02) 1796 nend Jul 21, Robert Burns (b.1759), Scottish poet and a lyricist (Auld Lang Syne), died. In 2009 Robert Crawford authored ?The Bard: Robert Burns.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Burns)(SSFC, 1/25/09, Books p.3) 1796 nend Jul 22, Cleveland, Ohio, was founded by Gen. Moses Cleaveland. Moses Cleaveland came to where the city of Cleveland now sits and surveyed the land. After three months he returned to Connecticut. The city bears his name. (SFC, 6/2/96, T10)(AP, 7/22/97) 1796 nend Jul 23, Franz Adolf Berwald, Sweden, composer, was born. (MC, 7/23/02) 1796 nend Jul 26, George Catlin, American artist and author, was born. (HN, 7/26/01) 1796 nend Jul, Mungo Park, Scottish surgeon, reached the Niger River at Segou, (Mali). Mansong, the African chief at Segou, gave Park enough money to return to the coast. Park described his journey in his book: "Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa." (ON, 7/00, p.10) 1796 nend Sep 17, President George Washington delivered his "Farewell Address" to Congress before concluding his second term in office. Washington counseled the republic in his farewell address to avoid "entangling alliances" and involvement in the "ordinary vicissitudes, combinations, and collision of European politics." Also "we may safely trust to temporary alliances for extraordinary emergencies." (WSJ, 5/31/96, p.A10)(WSJ, 6/17/96, p.A15)(HN, 9/17/98) 1796 nend Sep 19, President Washington's farewell address was published. In it, America's first chief executive advised, "Observe good faith and justice toward all nations. Cultivate peace and harmony with all." (AP, 9/19/97) 1796 nend Nov 3, John Adams was elected president. [see Dec 7] (MC, 11/3/01) 1796 nend Nov 7, Catharina II (67), "the Great", tsarina of Russia (1762-96), died. [see Nov 17] (MC, 11/7/01) 1796 nend Nov 17, Napoleon Bonaparte defeated an Italian army near the Alpone River, Italy, in the Battle of Arcole. (HN, 11/17/98)(MC, 11/17/01) 1796 nend Nov 17, Catharine II (67), empress of Russia known as Catharine the Great (1762-96), died. Over her 69 years she had at least 12 lovers including Prince Potemkin. [see Nov 7] (MC, 11/17/01)(WSJ, 2/14/02, p.A18) 1796 nend Dec 7, Electors chose John Adams to be the second president of the United States. [see Nov 3] (AP, 12/7/97) 1796 nend Dec 18, The Baltimore Monitor appeared as the 1st US Sunday newspaper. (MC, 12/18/01) 1796 nend Dec 30, Jean-Baptiste Lamoyne (45), composer, died. (MC, 12/30/01) 1796 nend Pierre-Paul Prud?hon (1758-1823), French artist, painted "Marie-Anne-Celestine Pierre de Vellefrey," the portrait of a little girl. (WSJ, 4/8/98, p.A20) 1796 nend Jane Austen began her novel ?Pride and Prejudice.? Its initial title was ?first Impressions.? It was finally published in 1830. (Econ, 12/24/05, p.104)(ON, 12/09, p.8) 1796 nend George Owen?s "History of Pembrokeshire" was published. It was written in 1570 and sets forth the principle of geological stratigraphy. (RFH-MDHP, p.7) 1796 nend Immanuel Kant wrote his "Perpetual Peace," advocating a world government. (V.D.-H.K.p.317) 1796 nend The White House and Congress engaged in its 1st struggle over background documents. Pres. Washington denied a House request for documents on the Jay Treaty. The documents had already been shared with the Senate. (WSJ, 2/26/02, p.A24) 1796 nend Supporters of John Adams in his victorious campaign against Thomas Jefferson, called Jefferson "an atheist, anarchist, demagogue, coward, mountebank, trickster, and Francomaniac." (WSJ, 10/8/96, p.A22) 1796 nend Andrew Jackson was elected as Tennessee?s 1st congressman. (SSFC, 10/30/05, p.M3) 1796 nend In [France] Michael Thonet was born in the Rhenish village of Boppard. He invented the classic bent wood chair. (WSJ, 12/4/97, p.A20) c 1796 nend Austrian numbered bank accounts originated during the Hapsburg era. (SFC, 6/13/96, p.C2) 1796 nend The British seized the island of Sri Lanka, then under the name of Ceylon. (SFC, 6/20/96, p.A8) c 1796 nend The Orange Order was founded to commemorate the King William of Orange Protestant victory over Catholic King James II. (SFC, 6/26/96, p.A8) 1796 nend Mary Lamb (31) killed her mother with a carving knife. England deemed her a lunatic and released into the custody of her brother Charles. In 1806 they published ?Tales From Shakespeare.? In 2005 Susan Tyler Hitchcock authored ?Mad Mary Lamb.? (WSJ, 2/18/05, p.W6) 1796 nend Cuba exported Havana cigars to Britain. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) c 1796 nend In Lithuania Elijah ben Solomon Zalmen, the Gaon of Vilna, urged Jews to study grammar, astronomy and other disciplines as well as the Torah. His writings survived and in 1996 were being stored under controversy in a Roman Catholic Church in Vilnius as property of the Lithuanian National Library. (SFEC, 11/24/96, p.A15) 1796 nend Hacienda Santa Teresa began producing rum in Venezuela. In 1885 it was bought out by the Vollmer family. (WSJ, 11/10/04, p.A8) c 1796 nend The Tutsi Banyamulenge arrived into Zaire. (SFC, 10/10/96, p.A14) 1796 1797 Napoleon conquered northern Italy. (SFEC, 1/18/98, BR p.9) 1796 1799 Brazilian Baroque sculptor Aleijadinho (Antonio Francisco Lisboa), completed his greatest work: the sculptures of Congonhas do Campo, 66 wooden images that include the 12 prophets. (USA Today, OW, 4/22/96, p.10) 1796 1865 Thomas Chandler Haliburton, Canadian jurist and humorist: "When a man is wrong and won't admit it, he always gets angry." (AP, 6/14/99) 1797 nend Jan 1, Albany became the capital of New York state, replacing New York City. (AP, 1/1/98) 1797 nend Jan 11, Francis Lightfoot Lee (62), US farmer and signer Declaration of Independence, died. (MC, 1/11/02) 1797 nend Jan 14, Napoleon Bonaparte defeated Austrians at Rivoli in northern Italy. (HN, 1/14/99) 1797 nend Jan 31, Franz Schubert, Austrian composer, was born in Lichtenthal, Austria. His works included the C Major Symphony and The Unfinished Symphony. (SFEC, 1/5/97, p.B11)(AP, 1/31/98)(HN, 1/31/99)(MC, 1/31/02) no_source 1797 nend Feb 4, Earthquake in Quito, Ecuador, some killed 40,000 people. Riobamba was destroyed. (www.newadvent.org/cathen/13061c.htm)(http://tinyurl.com/btbdc) 1797 nend Feb 9, John Quincy Adams? (Sr.) emerged victorious from America's first contested presidential election. (HN, 2/9/97) 1797 nend Feb 12, Haydn?s song "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser," (popularized years later as "Deutschland Uber Alles," by Nazis), premiered in Vienna. (MC, 2/12/02) 1797 nend Feb 14, The Spanish fleet was destroyed by the British under Admiral Jervis (with Nelson in support) at the battle of Cape St. Vincent, off Portugal. (HN, 2/14/99) 1797 nend Feb 15, Henry Steinway (d.1871), German-American piano maker, was born in Germany as Heinrich Steinweg. He move to the US in 1851. The name was anglicized in 1864. (WSJ, 7/15/06, p.P8)(http://tinyurl.com/qn6dy) 1797 nend Feb 19, Pope Pius VI ceded papal territory to France in the Treaty of Tolentino. (PC, 1992 ed, p.353) 1797 nend Feb 21, Trinidad, West Indies surrendered to the British. (HN, 2/21/98) 1797 nend Feb 23, Antoine d'Auvergne (83), French opera composer (Coquette), died. (MC, 2/23/02) 1797 nend Feb 26, Bank of England issued 1st £1-note. (SC, 2/26/02) 1797 nend Mar 2, The Directory of Great Britain authorized vessels of war to board and seize neutral vessels, particularly if the ships were American. (HN, 3/2/99) 1797 nend Mar 2, Horace [Horatio] Walpole (79), British horror writer, died. (SC, 3/2/02) 1797 nend Mar 4, Vice-President John Adams, elected President on December 7, to replace George Washington, was sworn in. Adams soon selected Timothy Pickering as his secretary of state. Pickering extended aid to Haitian slaves in their ongoing revolt against French colonists. This policy was reversed under Jefferson. (HN, 3/4/99)(SSFC, 11/2/03, p.M6) 1797 nend Mar 13, Cherubini's opera "Medee," premiered in Paris. (MC, 3/13/02) 1797 nend Mar 22, Kaiser Wilhelm I, German Emperor (1871-88), was born. (HN, 3/22/97) 1797 nend Mar 25, John Winebrenner, U.S. clergyman who founded the Church of God, was born. (HN, 3/24/98) 1797 nend Mar 26, James Hutton, geologist, died. (SS, 3/26/02) 1797 nend Mar 28, Nathaniel Briggs of New Hampshire patented a washing machine. (AP, 3/28/97) 1797 nend Apr 14, Adolphe Thiers, 1st president of 3rd French Republic (1871-77), was born. [see Apr 18] (MC, 4/14/02) 1797 nend Apr 18, Louis-Adolphe Thiers, president of France, was born. [see Apr 14] (MC, 4/18/02) 1797 nend Apr 18, France and Austria signed a cease fire. (MC, 4/18/02) 1797 nend Apr, A British armada of 68 vessels and 7,000 men under Scotsman Sir Ralph Abercromby attacked San Juan, Puerto Rico. The Spanish defenses held. A procession of women made up to look like soldiers caused the siege to be called off. An annual parade later commemorated this event. (HT, 4/97, p.34)(SFEC, 2/13/00, p.T1) 1797 nend May 2, A mutiny in the British navy spread from Spithead to the rest of the fleet. (HN, 5/2/99) 1797 nend May 10, The 1st American Navy ship, the "United States," was launched. (MC, 5/10/02) 1797 nend May 12, Johann Hermann Kufferath, composer, was born. (MC, 5/12/02) 1797 nend May 12, George Washington addressed the Delaware chiefs and stated: "It is the duty of all nations to acknowledge the providence of almighty God, to obey his will, to be grateful for his benefits, and to humbly implore his protection and favor." (WSJ, 6/26/01, p.A23) 1797 nend May 18, Frederik Augustus II, King of Saxon (1836-54), was born. (SC, 5/18/02) 1797 nend Jun 2, 1st ascent of "Great Mountain" (4,622') in Adirondack, NY, was by C. Broadhead. (SC, 6/2/02) 1797 nend Jun 11, Padre Fermin Francisco de Lasuen and a few Spanish soldiers established Mission San Jose on a little creek and grove of trees that they called Alameda. It was the 14th of 21 California missions. It was the end of a way of life for the local Ohlone Indians. (SFC, 6/12/97, p.A17) 1797 nend Jun 17, Aga Mohammed Khan, cruel ruler of Persia, was castrated and killed. (MC, 6/17/02) 1797 nend Jun 24, Mission San Juan Bautista, the 15th in California, was founded in the lands of the Mutsun Indians. Father Fermin de Lasuen blessed the future site of Mission San Juan Bautista in California. (SFC, 6/21/97, p.A16)(SJSVB, 6/24/96, p.41)(SFC, 9/3/97, p.A17) 1797 nend Jun, In London, England, Hatchards bookstore on Piccadilly was founded. (Hem., 5/97, p.99) 1797 nend Jul 7, The US House of Representatives exercised its constitutional power of impeachment, and voted to charge Senator William Blount of Tennessee with "a high misdemeanor, entirely inconsistent with his public duty and trust as a Senator." Blount had financial problems which led him to enter into a conspiracy with British officers to enlist frontiersmen and Cherokee Indians to assist the British in conquering parts of Spanish Florida and Louisiana. (MC, 7/7/02) 1797 nend Jul 9, Edmund Burke (b.1729), Irish-born British statesman, parliament leader, died. His writing included ?Reflections on the Revolution in France,? 1790. (WUD, 1994 p.198)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Burke) 1797 nend Jul 10, 1st US frigate, the "United States," was launched in Philadelphia. (MC, 7/10/02) 1797 nend Jul 25, Presidente Fermin Francisco de Lasuen founded Mission San Miguel Archangel, the 16th California mission. He took possession of the land on behalf of Viceroy Branciforte. The mission facilitated travel between Mission San Luis Obispo and Mission San Antonio. (SB, 3/28/02) 1797 nend Aug 30, Mary Wollstonecraft (Godwin) Shelley (d.1851), the creator of "Frankenstein," or the Modern Prometheus, was born in London. Her mother died in childbirth. (AHD, p.1193)(AP, 8/30/97)(HN, 8/30/98)(Econ, 2/26/05, p.84) 1797 nend Sep 6, William "Extra Billy" Smith, Confederacy (Confederate Army), was born. (MC, 9/6/01) 1797 nend Sep 20, The US frigate Constitution (Old Ironsides) was launched in Boston. [see Oct 21] (MC, 9/20/01) 1797 nend Oct 9, In Lithuania Elijahu ben Solomon Zalman (b.1720), the Great Gaon of Vilnius, died. He was one of the most influential Rabbinic authorities since the Middle Ages. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilna_Gaon) 1797 nend Oct 16, Lord Cardigan, leader of the famed Light Brigade which was decimated in the Crimean War, who eventually had a jacket named after him, was born. (HN, 10/16/98) 1797 nend Oct 21, The 44-gun 204-foot U.S. Navy frigate USS Constitution, also known as Old Ironsides, was launched in Boston's harbor. It was never defeated in 42 battles. 216 crew members set sail again in 1997 for its 200th birthday. [see Sep 20] (AP, 10/21/97)(SFC, 7/22/97, p.A1)(SFC,10/22/97, p.A6) 1797 nend Oct 22, French balloonist Andre-Jacques Garnerin made the first parachute descent, landing safely from a height of about 3,000 feet; at some 2,200 feet over Paris. (AP, 10/22/97)(HN, 10/22/98) 1797 nend Nov 19, Sojourner Truth (d.1883), abolitionist and women's rights advocate, was born. "Religion without humanity is a poor human stuff." (HN, 11/19/98)(AP, 10/29/00) 1797 nend Nov 29, Domenico Gaetano Maria Donizetti, composer (Lucia di Lamermoor, l'Elisir d'Amore), was born. (MC, 11/29/01) 1797 nend Dec 13, Heinrich Heine (d.1856), German lyric poet, critic, satirist and journalist, was born. His works included "Trip to the Hartz Mountains" and "Germany, a Winter Tale." "In these times we fight for ideas, and newspapers are our fortresses." (AHD, p.611)(AP, 7/18/97)(HN, 12/13/99) 1797 nend Dec 17, Joseph Henry, US scientist, inventor, pioneer of electromagnetism, was born. [see Dec 18] (MC, 12/17/01) 1797 nend Dec 18, Joseph Henry, inventor, scientist and the first director of the Smithsonian Inst., was born. [see Dec 17] (WSJ, 12/17/97, p.A20) 1797 nend Dec 29, John Wilkes (b.1725), British journalist and politician, died. He opposed King George?s policies in Massachusetts. (WSJ, 8/31/05, p.B1)(www.eastlondonhistory.com/wilkes.htm) 1797 nend Franz Kruger (d.1857), German Biedermeier artist of cityscapes and rural genre scenes, was born. (SSFC, 1/27/02, p.C7) 1797 nend Samuel Taylor Coleridge authored his "Rime of the Ancient Mariner." (CW, Winter 04, p.17) 1797 nend John Frere published his paper "The Beginnings of Paleolithic Archaeology." It described his finding in 1790 Acheulean hand axes associated with the large bones of unknown animals (actually elephants). (RFH-MDHP, p.81) 1797 nend Mrs. Gannett of Mass. (1760-1827), born as Deborah Sampson, authored her memoir. She had fought in the American Revolution as a man under the alias Robert Shurtleff. In 2004 Alfred F. Young authored "Masquerade: The Life and Times of Deborah Sampson, Continental Soldier.? (www.distinguishedwomen.com/biographies/sampson.html)(SSFC, 4/11/04,p.M4) 1797 nend The first recorded performance of an English-language drama, the tragedy Douglas, west of the Alleghenies took place here at Washington, Kentucky. (HNQ, 8/8/99) 1797 nend In San Jose the first Juzgado (courthouse) was constructed. The Spanish Commandante Lt. Jose Moraga built a 1-story, 3-room adobe structure to house the jail, assembly hall and seat of government for the Pueblo de San Jose de Guadalupe that served until 1850. (SFC, 7/14/97, p.A15,16) 1797 nend Father Juan Norberto de Santiago arrived in the area of Temecula in Riverside County, Ca., to build a mission and convert the Pechanga Indians (renamed Luiseno Indians by the Spanish). (SSFC, 5/23/04, p.D5) 1797 nend James T. Callender, journalist, published charges concerning the alleged financial misdeeds of Alexander Hamilton. The information came from letters that Hamilton provided to interrogators around 1792 concerning funds paid to James Reynolds to keep quiet an affair with Reynold?s wife. The letters were passed from James Monroe to Thomas Jefferson, who passed them to Callender. Hamilton published a 28,000-word defense, Observations on Certain Documents, that revealed his relationship with Maria Reynolds and his payment of hush money. (WSJ, 11/19/98, p.A12)(ON, 10/05, p.6) 1797 nend Thomas Jefferson (53) began serving as US Vice President. He was also elected president of the American Philosophical Society and continued to 1815. (www.monticello.org/site/jefferson/private-banks-quotation) 1797 nend John Anderson, a Scottish farm manager, convinced George Washington that distilling whiskey would make money. In a six-week season each spring, Washington?s men netted about a million shad and herring from the Potomac River. The catch was then salted, packed in barrels, and exported. His diversified farming was less successful, largely because of his long absences from Mount Vernon. (AM, 9/01, p.80)(HNQ, 8/30/02) 1797 nend A major fire in Savannah, Georgia destroyed two-thirds of the wood buildings from the pioneer period. (SFC, 6/25/95, p.T-7) 1797 nend Australia?s first coal mining began at Newcastle. (Econ, 6/6/09, p.39) 1797 nend The Bank of England suspended the convertibility of its notes to gold in order to better finance Britain?s war with France. This continued to 1821. (Econ, 11/5/11, p.92) 1797 nend Some 5,000 black Carib Indians, also known as Garifuna or Garinagu, were exiled from St. Vincent Island to Roatan Island off of Honduras. The Garifuna defined themselves not by country or territory but by language and culture. (SFEC, 5/4/97, p.T11)(SFC, 4/27/98, p.A6) 1797 nend French forces attacked Britain at the port of Fishguard. The event was depicted in the tapestry "The Last Invasion of Brittain." (SFEC, 5/25/97, p.T5) 1797 nend In France Henry-Louis Pernod began to manufacture absinthe. The drink was made with fennel and aniseed and the oil of wormwood which contained thujone, a poisonous ketone. (WSJ, 1/22/99, p.W8) 1797 nend The wine bottles of Chateau Lafite that date back to this year are recorked every 25 years to safeguard the wine and prevent deterioration caused by oxidation through decayed corks. (WSJ, 11/26/97, p.A12) 1797 nend Gammarelli was founded under Pope Pius VI as tailors to the clergy. (SSFC, 12/28/03, p.I4) 1797 nend Venice, the city-state that liked to call itself La Serenissima, lost its independence and its empire. Ludovico Manin, the 120th doge of Venice, surrendered to Napoleon. A few months later Napoleon traded Venice to Austria which ruled it until 1866. (WSJ, 1/9/97, p.A8)(SFEC, 8/24/97, p.T1)(WSJ, 9/19/97, p.A13) 1797 nend The Jewish ghetto in Venice was destroyed following the Napoleon?s invasion of Italy. This began the gradual liberation of the country?s ghettos. (SFC, 12/2/08, p.E1) 1797 nend There was a naval battle at Cape St. Vincent off the SW tip of Portugal. (WUD, 1994, p.1412) 1797 1801 John Adams, 2nd president of the US was in office. It was during his term that France and Britain, engaged in war with each other, insisted on the right to seize American ships. When the US protested French diplomats demanded bribes and a loan of $10 mil to stop the acts of piracy. Adams published the letters of the diplomats with the letters X,Y,Z (hence the X,Y,Z Affair) for the names of the diplomats. This enraged the populace and the country braced for war and called Washington in from Mt. Vernon to lead the army against France. Captain Thomas Truxtom captured a French frigate and defeated another French frigate in a sea battle and the French backed down. It was under Adams that the Alien and Sedition Acts were passed. These acts allowed the President sole discretion to banish aliens from the country and jail editors for writing against the President or Congress. This was vehemently opposed by Jefferson who led the Southern Republicans to adopt a resolution declaring that a state had the right to nullify a law believed to be unconstitutional. (AHD, 1971, p.14)(A&IP, Miers, p.21) 1797 1815 Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United States, served as president of the American Philosophical Society. A philosopher-statesman of the Enlightenment, Jefferson drafted the Declaration of Independence, was George Washington?s first Secretary of State and vice-president under John Adams. He was born in Virginia on April 13, 1743, and died on July 4, 1826. (HNQ, 9/24/99) 1797 1849 Mary Lyon, American educator: "There is nothing in the universe that I fear but that I shall not know all my duty, or shall fail to do it." (AP, 4/27/98) 1797 1851 Mary Wollstonecraft (Godwin) Shelley (d.1851), English novelist, author of Frankenstein. Her mother, also Mary Wollstonecraft, died in childbirth of puerperal fever. Her death prompted Godwin to publish her memoirs. (AHD, p.1193)(SFEM, 6/28/98, p.29) 1797 1856 Nicholas Marcellus Hentz, a pioneer collector of North American spiders. He was a skilled painter and has left some 90 intricately executed watercolors of spiders. He published descriptions in the Journal of the Boston Society of Natural History from 1842-1850. (NH, 7/96, p.74,75) 1797 1858 Utagawa Hiroshige, Japanese artist, made numerous color woodblock prints. (SFC, 12/26/98, p.C1) 1797 1863 Theophile Bra, French academic sculptor. (SFC, 12/19/98, p.C18) 1797 1875 Sir Charles Lyell, British geologist. He wrote the "Principles of Geology" (1830-33) and had a profound influence upon the thinking of Charles Darwin. (OAPOC-TH, p.71) 1798 nend Jan 1, Joseph Lancaster (19) opened his 1st low cost school in London, England, aimed at educating the children of poor. In 1803 he published the booklet ?Improvements in Education, As It Respects The Industrious Classes Of the Community?? (ON, 3/06, p.9) 1798 nend Jan 8, The 11th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was declared in effect by President John Adams nearly three years after its ratification by the states; it prohibited a citizen of one state from suing another state in federal court. (AP, 1/8/08) 1798 nend Jan 22, Lewis Morris (71), US farmer (signed Declaration of Independence), died. (MC, 1/22/02) 1798 nend Jan 30, A brawl broke out in the House of Representatives in Philadelphia. Matthew Lyon of Vermont spat in the face of Roger Griswold of Connecticut, who responded by attacking him with a hickory walking stick. Lyon was re-elected congressman while serving a jail sentence for violating the Sedition Acts of 1798. (AP, 1/30/98)(SFC, 4/27/00, p.A5)(WSJ, 10/29/04, p.W10) 1798 nend Feb 15, The first serious fist fight occurred in Congress. (HN, 2/15/98) 1798 nend Feb 20, Pope Pius VI fled Rome to Siena. He was later arrested and deported 1st to Florence and then to France. (PTA, 1980,p.500)(www.zum.de/whkmla/region/italy/papalstate17891799.html) 1798 nend Mar 4, Catholic women were force to do penance for kindling a Sabbath fire for Jews. (SC, 3/4/02) 1798 nend Mar 9, Dr. George Balfour became 1st naval surgeon in the US Navy. (MC, 3/9/02) 1798 nend Mar 13, Abigail Powers Fillmore, First Lady, was born. (HN, 3/13/98) 1798 nend Mar 26, Tunis, under the rule of Bey Hamuda Pasha, signed a treaty of peace and friendship with the US following negotiations with William Eaton. The American Revolutionary War veteran had been recently appointed consul to the North African kingdom. (ON, 10/06, p.7) 1798 nend Mar 29, Republic of Switzerland formed. (MC, 3/29/02) 1798 nend Apr 3, Charles B. Wilkes (d.1877), American rear admiral and explorer, was born. In Jan, 1840, Wilkes coasted along part of the Antarctic barrier from about 150 degrees east to 108 degrees east, the areas that was subsequently named Wilkes Land. (WUD, 1994, p.1634)(HNQ, 1/12/99) 1798 nend Apr 7, Territory of Mississippi was organized. (HN, 4/7/97) 1798 nend Apr 19, Franz Joseph Glaser, composer, was born. (MC, 4/19/02) 1798 nend Apr 26, Ferdinand Eugene Delacroix, French painter, lithograph, etcher (Journal), was born. (MC, 4/26/02) 1798 nend Apr 28, Joseph Haydn's oratorio "The Creation" was rehearsed in Vienna, Austria, before an invited audience. (AP, 4/29/07) 1798 nend Apr 30, US Department of Navy formed. (MC, 4/30/02) 1798 nend May 2, The black General Toussaint L'ouverture forced British troops to agree to evacuate the port of Santo Domingo. After 5 years of fighting over 60% of 20,000 British troops were buried on St. Domingue. (HN, 5/2/99)(SFCM, 5/30/04, p.12)(AP, 5/30/04) 1798 nend May 10, George Vancouver (40), British explorer, (Voyage of Discovery), died. (MC, 5/10/02) 1798 nend May 19, A French armada of 335 ships carrying nearly 40,000 men set sail for Alexandria, Egypt, which Napoleon planned to conquer. In 2008 Paul Strathern authored ?Napoleon in Egypt.? (WSJ, 11/17/08, p.A17) 1798 nend May 24, Believing that a French invasion of Ireland was imminent, Irish nationalists rose up against the British occupation. It was put down by the Orange yeomanry who were enlisted by the government to restore peace. The slogan "Croppies lie down" originated here after some of the rebel Catholics had their hair cropped in the French revolutionary manner. (SFEC, 7/12/98, p.A15)(HN, 5/24/99) 1798 nend May 26, British killed about 500 Irish insurgents at the Battle of Tara. (MC, 5/26/02) 1798 nend Jun 4, Giovanni Jacopo Casanova (b.1725), fabled Italian seducer, adventurer, spy, librarian, died of prostate cancer in Dux, Bohemia. While at Dux he authored his memoirs: ?History of My Life.? The standard English edition runs over 3,600 pages. In 2008 Ian Kelly authored ?Casanova: Actor, Lover, Priest, Spy.? (www.1911encyclopedia.org/Giovanni_Jacopo_Casanova_de_Seingalt)(WSJ,10/24/08, p.W5) 1798 nend Jun 11, Napoleon Bonaparte took the island of Malta. (HN, 6/11/98) 1798 nend Jun 13, Mission San Luis Rey [in California] was founded. (HFA, '96, p.32) 1798 nend Jul 1, Napoleon Bonaparte took Alexandria, Egypt. In 1962 J.C. Herold authored "Bonaparte in Egypt." A corps of 150 civilian artists and scientists traveled with Napoleon?s troops to Egypt. In 2007 Nina Burleigh authored ?Mirage: Napoleon?s Scientists and the Unveiling of Egypt.? (SFC, 9/11/97, p.E3)(HN, 7/1/98)(ON, 12/99, p.4)(SFC, 12/14/07, p.E3) 1798 nend Jul 2, John Fitch, American inventor, clockmaker, died. (SC, 7/2/02) 1798 nend Jul 7, Napoleon Bonaparte's army began its march towards Cairo, Egypt, from Alexandria. (HN, 7/7/98) 1798 nend Jul 11, The US Marine Corps was formally re-established by a congressional act. US Pres. John Adams signed legislation that established the US Marine Band, composed of 32 drummers and fifers. Continental marines had existed during the Revolutionary War, but had since been discontinued. (SFC, 5/20/96, p.A-3)(HNQ, 8/1/99)(AP, 7/11/08) 1798 nend Jul 13, English poet William Wordsworth visited the ruins of Tintern Abbey. (HN, 7/13/01) 1798 nend Jul 14, The Sedition Act, the last of four pieces of legislation known as the Alien and Sedition Acts, was passed by Congress, making it unlawful to write, publish, or utter false or malicious statements about the U.S. president and the U.S. government, among other things. Violations were made punishable by up to 2 years in jail and a fine of $2,000. (AP, 7/14/97)(HN, 7/14/98)(WSJ, 10/29/04, p.W10) 1798 nend Jul 14, 1st direct federal tax in US states took effect on dwellings, land and slaves. (MC, 7/14/02) 1798 nend Jul 16, The Marine Hospital Service was established in the Department of the Treasury under provisions of an act (1 Stat. 605) authorizing marine hospitals for the care of American merchant seamen. In 1902 it was redesignated the Public Health and Marine Hospital Service by an act of July 1, 1902 (32 Stat. 712), (www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/090.html) 1798 nend Jul 16, US Public Health Service formed and a US Marine Hospital was authorized. (MC, 7/16/02) 1798 nend Jul 21, Napoleon Bonaparte defeated Murad Bey and his Arab Mameluke warriors on the outskirts of Cairo at the Battle of the Pyramids, thus becoming the master of Egypt. (WSJ, 11/17/08, p.A17) 1798 nend Jul 22, Napoleon captured Cairo, Egypt. (PC, 1992, p.354) 1798 nend Aug 1, Admiral Horatio Nelson routed the French fleet in the Battle of the Nile at Aboukir Bay, Egypt. Nelson's fleet of 14 ships led the attack on Napoleon's fleet in Abu Qir Bay, capturing six and destroying seven of the 17 French vessels. The flagship of Napoleon's fleet, L'Orient, sank in the battle. It was uncovered by a French team in 1998. More than 1,500 Frenchmen and 200 British soldiers reportedly died in the sea battle. (AP, 4/19/05) 1798 nend Aug 21, Jules Michelet, French historian who wrote the 24-volume "Historie de France," was born. (HN, 8/21/98) 1798 nend Sep 2, The Maltese people revolted against the French occupation, forcing the French troops to take refuge in the citadel of Valetta in Malta. (HN, 9/2/98) 1798 nend Sep 11, Franz E Neumann, German mineralogist, mathematician and physicist, was born. (MC, 9/11/01) 1798 nend Oct 12, The play "Wallenstein's Camp" by Friedrich von Schiller premiered in Weimar. It was set in 3 parts during the 30 Years War as Gen. Albrecht von Wallenstein fought for Catholic Emp. Ferdinand II. no_source 8 nend /25/07, p.78) no_source 1798 nend Nov 1, Benjamin Lee Guinness, Irish brewer and Dublin mayor, was born. (HN, 11/1/00)(MC, 11/1/01) 1798 nend Nov 4, Congress agreed to pay a yearly tribute to Tripoli, considering it the only way to protect U.S. shipping. (HN, 11/4/98) 1798 nend Nov 16, Kentucky became the 1st state to nullify an act of Congress. (MC, 11/16/01) 1798 nend Nov 16, The British boarded the U.S. frigate Baltimore and impressed a number of crewmen as alleged deserters, a practice which contributed to the War of 1812. (HN, 11/16/98) 1798 nend Nov 19, Theobald Wolfe Tone, Irish nationalist (United Irishmen), died. (MC, 11/19/01)(WSJ, 9/12/02, p.D8) 1798 nend Nov 30, Friedrich Fleischmann (32), composer, died. (MC, 11/30/01) 1798 nend Dec 4, Luigi Galvani (61), Italian anatomist and physicist, died. (MC, 12/4/01) 1798 nend Dec 14, David Wilkinson of Rhode Island patented a nut and bolt machine. (MC, 12/14/01) 1798 nend Dec 17, The 1st impeachment trial against a US senator, William Blount of Ten., began. (MC, 12/17/01) 1798 nend Dec 24, Russia and England signed a Second anti-French Coalition. (MC, 12/24/01) 1798 nend Eugene Delacroix (d.1863), French artist, was born. His work included the "Baron Schwiter." (WUD, 1994, p.381)(WSJ, 7/1/96, p.A11) 1798 nend Thomas Robert Malthus authored his ?An Essay on the Principle of Population As it affects the future improvement of society with remarks on the speculations of Mr. Godwin, M. Condorcet, and other writers.? His forecast for a population crash was based on the calculation that it was impossible to improve wheat yields as fast as people make babies. His 2nd edition in 1803 introduced the idea of moral restraint. (www.faculty.rsu.edu/~felwell/Theorists/Malthus/essay2.htm)(Econ,12/24/05, p.29)(Econ, 5/17/08, p.94) 1798 nend Samuel Solomon published ?Guide to Health or, advice to both sexes with an essay on a certain disease, seminal weakness, and a destructive habit of private nature. Also an address to parents, tutors, and guardians of youth. To which one added, observations on the use and abuse of cold bathing? gave advice on topics including abortion, onanism, asthma, barrenness and bleeding. The main remedy for all ailments was Dr Solomon?s "Cordial Balm of Gilead." no_source 1798 nend Judith Sargent Murray wrote "The Gleaner," a collection of essays pleading for changes in women?s education and alternatives to marriage. (SFEM, 6/28/98, p.29) 1798 nend Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William Wordsworth published "Lyrical Ballads." (WSJ, 4/15/99, p.A20) 1798 nend Beethoven completed his piano sonata, Op. 10, No 3, begun in 1796. (WSJ, 8/17/00, p.A20) 1798 nend Pres. John Adams stated: "Our constitution was made only for a moral and religious people. It is wholly inadequate to the government of any other. (WSJ, 6/26/01, p.A23) 1798 nend US Vice President Thomas Jefferson and Virginia Congressman James Madison secretly wrote the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. Jefferson became the active head of Republican Party. The Virginia Senate agreed to the Virginia Resolution on Dec 24. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentucky_and_Virginia_Resolutions) 1798 nend In the Kentucky Resolutions Thomas Jefferson protested the Alien and Sedition Acts and maintained that "free government is founded in jealousy, not in confidence; it is jealousy and not confidence which prescribes limited constitutions, to bind down those whom we are obliged to trust with power." (WSJ, 5/18/95, p.A-14) 1798 nend America?s first national survey of the housing stock was completed by the federal government in order to set property values for taxation. (AH, 4/07, p.48) 1798 nend The US Supreme Court ruled in the Calder vs. Bull case that Congress and the states could not pass any "ex post facto law." (SFC, 5/2/00, p.A3) 1798 nend Vermont Congressman Matthew Lyon (1749-1822), Irish-born former indentured servant, became the 1st person indicted under the Sedition Act of 1918. Lyon was convicted of sedition after he printed his honest opinion of Pres. John Adams. Vermont re-elected Lyon to Congress while he served his jail time. He later represented Kentucky (1803-1811) in the US House of Representatives. (SFC, 3/24/00, p.B3)(WSJ, 10/29/04, p.W10) 1798 nend American seamen began paying 20 cents a month for a pension and hospitalization fund. US Navy service records date back to this time. (AH, 2/06, p.12)(www.archives.gov/research/order/vets-records.html) 1798 nend The first big US bank robbery was at the Philadelphia Carpenter's Hall, which was leased to the Bank of Philadelphia. (SFEC, 2/20/00, Z1 p.2) c 1798 nend The Peabody Essex Museum was founded in Marblehead, Mass., by 22 sea captains to preserve the exotic treasures they brought back from their voyages. It is the oldest museum in the US. (SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T9) 1798 nend Henry Cavendish, English chemist, came up with a reliable measure of the gravitational constant, G. His value was 0.000000000067 cubic meters per kilogram per second squared. (NH, 11/1/04, p.20) 1798 nend Benjamin Thompson disproved the caloric theory of heat proposed by Antoine Lavoisier. Thompson went on to marry Lavoisier's widow. (WSJ, 12/10/99, p.W12) 1798 nend Edmund Fanning, an American explorer, 1st charted Tabuaeran coral atoll (part of the Gilbert Islands, Kiribati). Fanning Island Plantations Ltd. owned the island through the 1800s and exported coconuts. (SSFC, 4/21/02, p.C22) c 1798 nend In Germany Aloys Hirt, founder of the Berlin Academy of Art, laid plans for an art museum to present art in a systematic fashion. This led to the 1830 Altes Museum. (WSJ, 7/29/98, p.A13) 1798 nend Napoleon annexed Egypt. (SFC, 9/11/97, p.E3) 1798 nend Ferdinand IV, King of Naples, fled in front of advancing French troops. He took with him some 20 art works from the Farnese collection, which included ?Antea? by Parmigianino. (Econ, 1/26/08, p.82) 1798 nend Napoleon expelled the Knights of Malta from their base in Malta. The Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of St. John of Jerusalem (SMOM), without citizens or territory, became a permanent observer at the UN in 1994. (WSJ, 6/28/01, p.A1) 1798 nend Henri Jomini (d.1869), began his military career volunteering his services to the French Army. With the peace of Amiens, he left the army and wrote his "Treatise of Grand Military Operations." The book impressed Napoleon enough to have Jomini appointed a staff colonel in 1805, Jomini having volunteered again in 1804. Jomini rose to become chief of staff under Marshall Ney, but left the French army to fight for Russia in 1813 as a general and aide-de-camp of Alexander I. (HNQ, 9/1/00) 1798 nend Oct, In Saint-Domingue (later Haiti) Gen. Toussaint L?Ouverture negotiated a secret peace agreement in which the British renounced all claim to the colony?s lands in exchange for the right to trade freely on an equal basis with France. (ON, 2/10, p.7) 1798 nend Lord Edward Fitzgerald, an Irish rebel, was killed. He had fathered a daughter with Elizabeth Linley (d.1792), the wife of Richard Brinsley Sheridan. (WSJ, 11/20/98, p.W6) 1798 1857 Auguste Comte, the French founder of the philosophical system of Positivism. (WUD, 1994, p.303)(WSJ, 6/22/99, p.A22) 1798 1868 Jacques Boucher Crevecoeur de Perthes, French customs official, collected bones and chipped implements at Abbeville and Amiens that he recognized as the remains of man?s handiwork. (RFH-MDHP, p.95) 1798 1993 Instances of use of US forces abroad, a report of 234 instances over this period other than peace time use. http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/foabroad.htm no_source 1779 nend Jan 5, Stephen Decatur, U.S. naval hero during actions against the Barbary pirates and the War of 1812, was born. (HN, 1/5/99) 1799 nend Feb 9, The USS Constellation captured the French frigate Insurgente off the coast of Wisconsin. (HN, 2/9/97) 1799 nend Feb 10, Napoleon Bonaparte left Cairo, Egypt, for Syria, at the head of 13,000 men. (AP, 2/10/99) 1799 nend Jan 14, Eli Whitney received a government contract for 10,000 muskets. (MC, 1/14/02) 1799 nend Jan 25, Eliakim Spooner of Vermont received the 1st US patent for a seeding machine. (MC, 1/25/02) 1799 nend Feb 7, China?s Emperor Qianlong (b.1711) died. He was the sixth emperor of the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty, and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China (1735-1796). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor) 1799 nend Feb 15, The 1st US printed ballots were authorized in Pennsylvania. (440 Int?l., 2/15/99) 1799 nend Mar 2, Congress standardized US weights and measures. (SC, 3/2/02) 1799 nend Mar 6, Napoleon captured Jaffa, Palestine. (MC, 3/6/02) 1799 nend Mar 7, In Palestine, Napoleon captured the Turkish citadel at Jaffa and his men massacred more than 2,000 Albanian prisoners. [see Mar 26] The prisoners were massacred because Napoleon claimed that he could not feed them. About this time bubonic plague broke out among his troops. (HN, 3/7/99)(ON, 12/99, p.2) 1799 nend Mar 8, Simon Cameron, political boss, was born. (HN, 3/8/01) 1799 nend Mar 12, Austria declared war on France. (MC, 3/12/02) 1799 nend Mar 17, Napoleon Bonaparte and his army reached the Mediterranean seaport of St. Jean d'Acra, only to find British warships ready to break his siege of the town. (HN, 3/17/00) 1799 nend Mar 19, Joseph Haydn?s "Die Schopfung," premiered in Vienna. (MC, 3/19/02) 1799 nend Mar 19, Napoleon Bonaparte began the siege of Acre ( later Akko, Israel), which was defended by Turks. (AP, 3/19/03) 1799 nend Mar 26, Napoleon Bonaparte captured Jaffa, Palestine. [see Mar 7] (HN, 3/26/99) 1799 nend Mar 28, NY state abolished slavery. (MC, 3/28/02) 1799 nend Mar, Napoleon moved on to the Turkish fortress at Acre. His 2 month siege was unsuccessful. In 1999 N. Schur authored Napoleon in the Holy Land." (ON, 12/99, p.2,4) 1799 nend Apr 1, Narciso Casanovas (52), composer, died. (MC, 4/1/02) 1799 nend Apr 14, Napoleon called for establishing Jerusalem for Jews. (MC, 4/14/02) 1799 nend Apr 20, Friedrich von Schiller's "Wallensteins Tod," premiered in Weimar. (MC, 4/20/02) 1799 nend Apr 27, In Saint-Domingue (later Haiti) Gen. Toussaint L?Ouverture signed a treaty of friendship with the US under Pres. John Adams. (ON, 2/10, p.8) 1799 nend Apr 28, Francois Giroust (62), composer, died. (MC, 4/28/02) 1799 nend May 4, In India Tipu Sultan was killed in a battle against 5,000 British soldiers who stormed and razed his capital, Seringapatanam. British forces defeated the sultan of Mysore at the Battle of Seringapatam. (www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20080048779)(SSFM,4/1/01, p.42) 1799 nend May 17, Napoleon's army began its overland retreat from Acre. The march to Jaffa took one week. (ON, 12/99, p.4) 1799 nend May 18, Pierre de Beaumarchais (b.1732), French inventor and dramatist, died. In 2007 Hugh Thomas authored ?Beaumarchais in Seville.? In 2009 Susan Emanuel translated to English ?Beaumarchais: A Biography? by Maurice Lever (d.2006). (www.theatrehistory.com/french/beaumarchais001.html)(SFC, 5/30/09, p.E2) 1799 nend May 23, Thomas Hood (d.1845), English poet, composer (Song of the Shirt), was born. "I saw old Autumn in the misty morn Stand shadowless like silence, listening To silence." (AP, 9/23/98)(MC, 5/23/02) 1799 nend May 28, Napoleon ordered the retreat of all troops back to Egypt from Jaffa. The march lasted 17 days with one week to cross the Sinai. (ON, 12/99, p.4) 1799 nend May 20, Honore de Balzac, French novelist, was born in Tours, France. He is considered the founder of the realistic school and wrote "The Human Comedy" and "Lost Illusions." (AP, 5/20/99)(HN, 5/20/99) 1799 nend May 20, Napoleon Bonaparte ordered a withdrawal from his siege of St. Jean d'Acre in Egypt. Plague had run through his besieging French forces, forcing a retreat. Napoleon, in pursuance of his scheme for raising a Syrian rebellion against Turkish domination, appeared before Acre, but after a siege of two months (March?May) was repulsed by the Turks. (HN, 5/20/00)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acre,_Israel) 1799 nend May 26, Alexander Pushkin, Russian poet (d.1837), was born (OC). His bicentennial in Russia was celebrated Jun 6,1999. [see Jun 6] (HFA, '96, p.30)(AHD, p.1062)(SFC, 6/3/99, p.C2) 1799 nend May, In Saint-Domingue (later Haiti) Gen. Toussaint L?Ouverture signed a trade agreement with Britain. Certain elements were kept secret in order not to alienate France. (ON, 2/10, p.8) 1799 nend Jun 6, Patrick Henry, American orator, died at Red Hill Plantation, Va. Henry urged the restoration of the property and rights of Loyalists after the Revolutionary War. He believed that Loyalists would make good citizens of the new republic. Henry also bitterly opposed the Constitution as a threat to the liberties of the people and rights of the states. He believed that once the war had been won, a central authority was no longer needed. In 1998 Henry Mayer (d.2000) authored a biography of Patrick Henry. (SFC, 7/28/00, p.D5)(HN, 7/12/02)(AP, 6/6/08) 1799 nend Jun 6, Alexander Pushkin (d.1837), Russian poet and the founder of modern Russian literature, was born (NC). He was the descendant of an Abyssinian slave of royal blood who was given to Peter the Great as a gift. His works included "Boris Godunov," "Eugene Onegin," and "The Queen of Spades." [see May 26] (HFA, '96, p.30)(AHD, p.1062)(SFC, 6/3/99, p.C2)(HN, 6/6/99)(WSJ,7/15/99, p.A16) 1799 nend Jun 17, Napoleon Bonaparte incorporated Italy into his empire. (HN, 6/17/98) 1799 nend Jun 22, In France a scientific congress adopted the length of the meter as one ten-millionth of the distance along the surface of the Earth from its equator to its pole, in a curved line of latitude passing through the center of Paris. The congress used data gathered by astronomers, Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Delambre and Pierre-François-André Mechain. The established meter proved to be .2 millimeters too short, due to incorrect latitude data gathered by Mechain. no_source 2 nend /09, p.9) no_source 1799 nend Jul 3, In Saint-Domingue (later Haiti) Gen. Toussaint L?Ouverture formally declared Gen. Andre Rigaud, the leader of a revolutionary army in the south and west of Saint-Domingue, a rebel. (ON, 2/10, p.8) 1799 nend Jul 11, An Anglo-Turkish armada bombarded Napoleon Bonaparte?s troops in Alexandria Egypt. The attack was ineffective. (HN, 7/11/00) 1799 nend Jul 17, Ottoman forces, supported by the British, captured Aboukir, Egypt from the French. (HN, 7/17/99) 1799 nend Jul 25, On his way back from Syria, Napoleon Bonaparte defeated the Ottomans at Aboukir, Egypt. (HN, 7/25/98) 1800 nend Jul 29, In Saint-Domingue (later Haiti) Gen. Andre Rigaud, defeated by Gen. Dessalines, set sail for France. (ON, 2/10, p.9) 1799 nend Jul 30, The French garrison at Mantua, Italy surrendered to the Austrians. (HN, 7/30/98) 1799 nend Aug 2, Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier (54), balloonist, died. (MC, 8/2/02) 1779 nend Aug 10, Louis XVI of France freed the last remaining serfs on royal land. (HN, 8/10/98) 1799 nend Aug 16, Vincenzo Manfredini (b.1737), Italian composer, died. (MC, 8/16/02) 1799 nend Aug 22, Napoleon slipped through the British blockade of the Egyptian coast and returned to France. (ON, 12/99, p.4) 1799 nend Aug 29, Pope Pius VI (b.1717) died in Valence, France. (www.newadvent.org/cathen/12131a.htm) 1799 nend Sep 1, Bank of Manhattan Company opened in NYC. It was the forerunner to Chase Manhattan. (MC, 9/1/02) 1799 nend Oct 7, Napoleon landed at Saint Raphael, 50 miles east of Toulon. (ON, 1/02, p.11) 1799 nend Oct 16, Napoleon arrived in Paris and met with government leaders. (ON, 1/02, p.11) 1799 nend Oct 24, Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf (59), Austrian composer, died. (MC, 10/24/01) 1799 nend Nov 5, The Danish ship Oldenborg was wrecked on her outward passage by being beached in the roadstead at Cape Town, South Africa, during a north-westerly gale, thus becoming one of the 127 ships that have been lost on this minuscule portion of the South African coast. (www.milhist.dk/weapons/oldenbur/oldenbur.htm) 1799 nend Nov 9, Napoleon Bonaparte participated in a coup and declared himself dictator, 1st consul, of France. (HN, 11/9/98)(MC, 11/9/01) 1799 nend Nov 22, Baroness van Dorth, organist, was executed. (MC, 11/22/01) 1799 nend Nov 29, Amos Bronson Alcott, US educator and poet (Concord Days), was born. (MC, 11/29/01) 1799 nend Dec 10, The metric system was established in France. (MC, 12/10/01) 1799 nend Dec 12, Two days before his death, George Washington composed his last letter, to Alexander Hamilton, his aide-de-camp during the Revolution and later his Secretary of the Treasury. In the letter he urged Hamilton to work for the establishment of a nationally military academy. Washington wrote that letter at the end of a long, cold day of snow, sleet and rain that he had spent out-of-doors. He remained outside for more than five hours, according to his secretary Tobias Lear, did not change out of his wet clothes or dry his hair when he returned home. (HNQ, 10/25/02) 1799 nend Dec 13, Washington awoke the following morning with a sore throat. (HNQ, 10/25/02) 1799 nend Dec 14, George Washington (b.1732), the first president of the United States, died at his Mount Vernon, Va., home. Richard Brookhiser authored "Founding Father: Rediscovering George Washington." The Washingtons at this time had 317 slaves. His 5 stills in Virginia turned out some 12,000 gallons of corn whiskey a year. In 1993 Richard Norton Smith authored "George Washington and the New American Nation." In 2010 Ron Chernow authored ?Washington: A Life.? (A&IP, ESM, p.16)(AP, 12/14/97)(WSJ, 11/6/98, p.W15)(SFEC, 5/2/99,Z1 p.8)(SFC, 12/11/99, p.B6)(WSJ, 2/22/00, p.A40)(Econ, 10/23/10, p.102) 1799 nend Dec 18, George Washington's body was interred at Mount Vernon. (MC, 12/18/01) 1799 nend Dec, 21, William Wordsworth (29) and his sister, Dorothy, returned from a year in Germany to Grasmere in the Lake District. His Lyrical Ballads written jointly with Samuel Taylor Coleridge (27) had just been published. The ballads launched the Great Romantic Period in English literature. (Hem, Dec. 94, p.71) 1799 nend Dec 24, A Jacobin plot against Napoleon was uncovered. (MC, 12/24/01) 1799 nend Dec 25, Napoleon?s new constitution went into effect. It gave him, as First Consul, powers to promulgate laws, nominate senior officials, control finances and conduct negotiations with foreign powers. (ON, 1/02, p.12) 1799 nend Dec 25, Chevalier De Saint Georges (b.1739), violinist and composer, died in Paris, France. http://ChevalierDeSaintGeorges.Homestead.com/Page1.html no_source 1799 nend Dec 26, The late George Washington was eulogized by Col. Henry Lee as "first in war, first in peace and first in the hearts of his countrymen." (AP, 12/26/97) 1799 nend Honore de Balzac (d..1850), French novelist, was born. (WUD, 1994, p.115) 1799 nend Jacques-Louis David created his painting ?Rape of the Sabines.? (WSJ, 4/6/05, p.D11) 1799 nend Goya (1746-1828) made his famous etching "The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters," in which fluttering bats hover darkly above a man dozing at his desk. (WSJ, 11/3/95, p.A-12) 1799 nend In England Richard Sheridan wrote his play "Pizzaro." It implied an equivalence between persecuted Indians and the Irish. (WSJ, 11/20/98, p.W6) 1799 nend Antonio Salieri (1750-1825), Italian composer, wrote his opera "Falstaff." (WSJ, 1/14/04, p.D10) 1799 nend The Musun Indians built a chapel at the California Mission San Juan Bautista. (SFC, 9/3/97, p.A17) 1799 nend Sitka, Alaska, was founded by Alexander Baranof of the Russian American Company. (AH, 6/07, p.69)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitka,_Alaska) 1799 nend The first printed ballot in the US appeared in Pennsylvania. (BD emp. letter, 9/27/96) 1799 nend Lord Elgin was appointed British ambassador to Constantinople. He was responsible for taking down the Metopes, sculptured by Phidias, from the Parthenon, and transporting them to England. (RFH-MDHP, p.218) 1799 nend Pierre Bouchard [Boussart], an officer in Napoleon?s army, discovered the Rosetta Stone in the city of Rosetta [Rashid], Egypt. The Rosetta Stone is a tablet with hieroglyphic translations into Greek. The stone is black basalt... and bears three texts: the uppermost is in early Egyptian hieroglyphic; the middle one in the Neo-Egyptian demotic script often used in writing papyri; and the lowermost text is Greek. Deciphering the stone, the work of English physicist Thomas Young and then French archaeologist Jean-Francois Champollion, led to an understanding of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing. Champollion published memoirs on the decipherment in 1822. (NG, May 1985, R. Caputo, p.584)(RFH-MDHP, p.182)(HN, 7/19/98)(HNQ,7/7/00) 1799 nend A South African hunter shot the last blaauwboch, the blue antelope (Hippotragus leucophaeus). Its numbers had been severely reduced by the introduction of domestic sheep by native Africans as early as 400AD. (NH, 11/96, p.24) 1799 nend Jean Baptiste Simeon Chardin (b.1699), French painter, died. (WSJ, 7/6/00, p.A24) c 1799 nend In China at the close of the 18th century the White Lotus Movement led a violent uprising in northeastern China. (WSJ, 4/26/99, p.A6) 1799 nend In Jaipur, India, the Hawa Mahal (the palace of wind) a five-storied sandstone building, was built by a Hindu king for his queen. (Reuters, 5/14/08) 1799 nend The Dutch East India Company liquidated and the Dutch government took control over the islands of Indonesia. (SFC, 9/8/99, p.A17) 1799 nend In Naples, Italy, a massacre of innocents occurred that was blamed on British Admiral Horatio Nelson. (WSJ, 11/5/99, p.W12) 1799 nend Nagasawa Rosetsu (b.1754), Japanese painter based in Kyoto, died. His work included ?Monkey on a Rock.? (SFC, 12/8/05, p.E1)(SFC, 1/14/06, p.E10) 1799 nend The Russian-American Co. was chartered by Tsar Paul I. It expanded into Spanish California (see 1812) when sea otter populations declined in Alaska. (SFC, 6/15/01, WBb p.7) 1799 nend Some 70 ships were lost in the Scottish Firth of Tay. (SFEC, 10/3/99, BR p.3) 1799 nend Pope Pius VI died. (WSJ, 4/28/00, p.W8) 1799 1804 Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859), German explorer, and Aime Bonpland, botanist, led an expedition to South America. They collected over 60,000 plants. (CW, Spring ?99,p.49)(http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa020298.htm) 1799 1914 This period in France was covered by Robert Gildea in his 2008 book: Children of the Revolution: The French 1799-1914.? (Econ, 8/2/08, p.87) 1800 nend Jan 7, Millard Fillmore, 13th US president (1850-1853), was born in Summerhill (Locke), N.Y. (SFC, 2/21/97, p.A25)(AP, 1/7/98)(HN, 1/7/99) 1800 nend Jan 10, The US Senate ratified a peace treaty with Tunis. (ON, 10/06, p.7) 1800 nend Jan 20, Carolina, the sister of Napoleon I, married King Joachim Murat of Naples. (MC, 1/20/02) 1800 nend Jan 23, Edward Rutledge (50), US attorney (signed Declaration of Independence), died. (MC, 1/23/02) 1800 nend Jan 24, Edwin Chadwick, British social reformer, was born. (MC, 1/24/02) 1800 nend Jan 30, US population was reported at 5,308,483; Black population 1,002,037 (18.9%). (MC, 1/30/02) 1800 nend Jan, Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours, his two sons and their families, arrived in Newport, Rhode Island, from France. (SFC, 7/10/00, p.A32) 1800 nend Jan, Lord Elgin established his British embassy in Constantinople. His orders were to open the borders for trade, obtain entry for British ships to the Black Sea and to secure an alliance against French military expeditions in the eastern Mediterranean. (ON, 11/99, p.2) 1800 nend Feb 11, William Henry Fox Talbot (d.1877), British inventor and pioneer in instantaneous photography, was born. (AHD, 1971, p. 1312)(V.D.-H.K.p.273)(HN, 2/11/01) 1800 nend Mar 14, James Bogardus, US inventor, builder (made cast-iron buildings), was born. (MC, 3/14/02) 1800 nend Mar 17, English warship Queen Charlotte caught fire and 700 people died. (MC, 3/17/02) 1800 nend Mar 20, French army defeated Turks at Heliopolis, Turkey, and advanced to Cairo. (MC, 3/20/02) 1800 nend Apr 2, 1st performance of Ludwig van Beethoven's 1st Symphony in C. (MC, 4/2/02) 1800 nend Apr 15, Sir James Clark Ross, Scottish explorer, was born. He located the Magnetic North Pole. (HN, 4/15/99) 1800 nend Apr 16, George Charles Bingham, British soldier, was born. He commanded the Light Brigade during its famous charge. (HN, 4/16/01) 1800 nend Apr 24, US Congress approved a bill establishing the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. with a $5,000 allocation. (HFA, ?96, p.28)(AP, 4/24/97)(HN, 4/24/98) 1800 nend May 5, Louis Hachette, French publisher (Librairie Hachette), was born. (MC, 5/5/02) 1800 nend May 7, US Congress divided the Northwest Territory into two parts. The western part became the Indiana Territory and the eastern sections remained the Northwest Territory. (HN, 5/7/99) 1800 nend May 7, Niccolo Piccinni (72), Italian composer (Roland), died. (MC, 5/7/02) 1800 nend May 9, John Brown, American abolitionist, was born. His adventures came to an end at Harper's Ferry, where he tried to start a revolution against slavery. (HN, 5/9/99) 1800 nend May 14, Friedrich von Schiller's "Macbeth," premiered in Weimar (MC, 5/14/02) 1800 nend May 15, King George III survived a 2nd assassination attempt. (MC, 5/15/02) 1800 nend May 19, French Bosbeeck, veterinarian, robber, was hanged. (MC, 5/19/02) 1800 nend May-Dec, US presidential elections were held over this period. On Dec 3 state electors met and cast their ballots and a tie resulted between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr. no_source 1800 nend Jun 4, The US White House was completed and President & Mrs. John Adams moved in. [see Nov 1] (MC, 6/4/02) 1800 nend Jun 14, French General Napoleon Bonaparte pushed the forces of Austria out of Italy in the Battle of Marengo. In 2007 the sword he wore was auctioned off for over $6.4 million. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Marengo)(SFC, 6/11/07, p.A2) 1800 nend Jun 14, Jean-Baptiste Kleber (47), French general, architect, was murdered. (MC, 6/14/02) 1800 nend Jul 6, The Sultan of Constantinople at the behest of Lord Elgin issued written orders to his officers in Athens for cooperation with Giovanni Lusieri and the removal of sculptures from the Parthenon. (ON, 11/99, p.2) 1800 nend Jul 8, Dr. Benjamin Waterhouse gave the 1st cowpox vaccination to his son to prevent smallpox. [see May 14, 1796] (MC, 7/8/02) 1800 nend Aug 21, The US Marine Band gave its first concert near the future site of the Lincoln Memorial. (SFC, 5/20/96, p.A-3) 1800 nend Sep 6, Catherine Esther Beecher, educator who promoted higher education for women, was born in East Hampton, Long Island, NY. (HN, 9/6/98) 1800 nend Sep 7, The NYC Zion AME Church was dedicated. (MC, 9/7/01) 1800 nend Sep 23, William Holmes McGuffey, educator, was born. He is famous for his book "Eclectic Readers" (McGuffey Readers). (HN, 9/23/98) 1800 nend Oct 1, Spain ceded Louisiana to France in a secret treaty. (AP, 10/1/97) 1800 nend Oct 2, Nat Turner, slave and the property of Benjamin Turner, was born in Southampton county, Va. He was sold in 1831 to Joseph Travis from Jerusalem, Southampton county, Va. (www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3p1518.html) 1800 nend Oct 3, George Bancroft, historian, known as the "Father of American History" for his 10-volume A History of the United States, was born. (HN, 10/3/98) 1800 nend Oct 7, Gabriel, slave revolt leader in Virginia, was hanged. Gabriel Prosser had mounted a slave rebellion. (SFC, 6/24/96, p.A19)(MC, 10/7/01) 1800 nend Oct 25, Thomas Babington Macaulay (d.1859), England, poet and historian, was born. "No particular man is necessary to the state. We may depend on it that, if we provide the country with popular institutions, those institutions will provide it with great men." (AP, 11/30/97)(MC, 10/25/01) 1800 nend Oct 26, Helmuth Karl von Moltke, Prussian Field Marshal and Count, was born. His reorganization of the Prussian Army led to military victories that allowed the unification of Germany. His father was a German officer serving in the Danish army. His greatest innovation was the creation of a fighting force that could mobilize quickly and strike when and where it chose. He was one of the first generals to grasp the importance of railroads in moving troops. In 1995 Otto Friedrich authored a biography of the Moltke family line from Bismarck to Hitler: ?Blood and Iron: From Bismarck to Hitler the von Moltke Family?s Impact on German History.? (WSJ, 11/7/95, p.A-20)(HN, 10/26/98) 1800 nend Nov 1, John and Abigail Adams moved into "the President?s House" in Washington DC. It became known as the White House during the Roosevelt administration. (SFEC, 5/7/00, p.T8)(MC, 11/1/01) 1800 nend Nov 17, The Sixth Congress (2nd session) convened for the first time in Washington, DC, in the partially completed Capitol building. Previously, the federal capital had briefly been in other cities, including New York, Philadelphia, and Annapolis, Maryland. George Washington- a surveyor by profession- had been assigned to find a site for a capital city somewhere along the upper Potomac River, which flows between Maryland and Virginia. Apparently expecting to become president, Washington sited the capital at the southernmost possible point, the closest commute from Mount Vernon, despite the fact that this placed the city in a swamp called Foggy Bottom. (HN, 11/17/98)(AP, 11/17/07) 1800 nend Nov 24, Weber's opera "Das Waldmadchen," premiered in Freiburg. (MC, 11/24/01) 1800 nend Dec 2, John Brown (d.1859), US abolitionist, was born. He was hanged for murder in the Harper?s Ferry Incident in 1859. John Brown led the raid on the Federal Arsenal at Harper?s Ferry. The incident is the backdrop for George MacDonald Fraser?s novel "Flashman and the Angel of the Lord." (WUD, 1994, p. 190)(HFA, ?96, p.44)(WSJ, 4/10/95, p. A-16) 1800 nend Dec 3, Austrians were defeated by the French at the Battle of Hohenlinden, near Munich. (HN, 12/3/98) 1800 nend Dec 3, US state electors met and cast their ballots for the presidency. A tie resulted between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr. no_source 1800 nend In the US presidential elections Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied in electoral votes. The selection was then moved to the House of Representatives where on the 36th ballot Vermont and Maryland switch their votes to Jefferson. [see Feb 17, 1801] (A&IP, ESM, p.26)(WSJ, 10/27/99, p.A16) 1800 nend Dec 12, Washington DC was established as the capital of US. (MC, 12/12/01) 1800 nend Dec 29, Charles Goodyear (d.1860), inventor of vulcanized rubber for tires, was born. (HN, 12/29/98) 1800 nend Dec, In Virginia Martha Washington set all her slaves free. (SFEC, 5/2/99, Z1 p.8) 1800 nend France Presern (d.1849), author, painter, poet, musician, mathematician and architect, was born in Slovenia. His image was later featured on Slovenia?s 1,000-tolar bills. (SSFC, 8/18/02, p.C6) c 1800 nend Johann Christian Reinhart, German artist, created his work: "The History Painter, Caricature." (WSJ, 7/16/98, p.A16) 1800 nend Friedrich Schiller wrote his drama "Mary Stuart." The play is compressed into the last 3 days of Mary?s life. (SFC, 4/3/98, p.C1)(WSJ, 9/27/01, p.A16) 1800 nend Rev. Mason L. Weems (d.1825) authored the biography "Life of Washington." (ON, 12/00, p.9) c 1800 nend Father Demetrius Gallitzin (1770-1840), a Russian-born Catholic priest, was directed by bishop John Carroll to investigate spirits in the home (Wizard's Clip) of Adam Livingstone in the Shenandoah Valley. (WSJ, 10/30/03, p.W17) 1800 nend Congress allocated a room in the Capitol for the US Supreme Court. (www.supremecourthistory.org) 1800 nend The American political "revolution" brought the Republicans to office in the (sic) first peaceful transition of power between rival political parties in human history. (WSJ,2/11/97, p.A18) c 1800 nend Worcestershire sauce was a ketchup and came out about this time. (SFC, 7/3/96, zz-1,p.3) 1800 nend Jean Baptiste Pointe du Sable, a pioneer trader and founder of the village that became Chicago, sold his holdings and moved to a Missouri farm. (SFEC,10/19/97, Z1 p.2) 1800 nend The population of the world doubled from what it was in 1500 to more than 800 million. (V.D.-H.K.p.168) 1800 nend William Herschel (1738-1822), German-born English astronomer, detected what later became known as infra-red red light in experiments with glass prisms and thermometers. (NH, 11/1/04, p.54) 1800 nend Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), Italian physicist, first demonstrated the electric pile or battery. (V.D.-H.K.p.269)(Econ, 3/8/08, TQ p.22) 1800 nend Robert Fulton (35) tested a 20-foot model of his torpedo-armed submarine on the Seine. He made two 20-minute dives himself. (WSJ, 9/24/01, p.A22) 1800 nend John Chapman (1774-1845), Johnny Appleseed, a Swedenborgian missionary, a land speculator, a heavy drinker and an eccentric dresser, began planting orchards across western Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana from seed. (T&L, 10/1980, p.42) )(AHD, p.225)(HNQ, 1/2/01) no_source 1800 nend Lieven Bauwens stole a spinning "mule jenny" machine from Britain. He had it dismantled and smuggled out in a cargo of coffee. This enabled the textile industry in Ghent, Belgium, to greatly expand. Britain sentenced Bauwens to death in absentia and Ghent made him a hero. (SFEC, 11/21/99, p.T11) 1800 nend Mary Robinson (42/43), writer, actress, courtesan and fashion icon, died. In 2005 Sarah Gristwood authored ?Perdita: Royal Mistress, Writer and Romantic.? Paula Byrne authored Perdita: The Literary, Theatrical, Scandalous Life of Mary Robinson.? (SSFC, 3/27/05, p.E2) 1800 nend The Parliament in Westminster passed an Act of Union formally binding Ireland with England and abolished the Irish parliament. The Act of Union entailed the loss of legislative independence of the Irish Parliament. (SFEC, 12/22/96, Z1, p.6)(WSJ, 11/20/98, p.W6) 1800 nend The French regained the territory of Louisiana from Spain by the secret Treaty of Ildefenso. (CO, Grolier?s, 11/10/95) 1800 nend Dessalines, a lieutenant of Haitian rebel leader Toussaint L'Ouverture (Louverture), butchered many mulattoes (the estimates range from 200 to 10,000). (http://tinyurl.com/22xwby)(WSJ, 1/19/07, p.W4) 1800 nend The Althing of Iceland was abolished by the Danish king. (HNQ, 4/28/00) 1800 nend About this time an Arab nomadic tribe settled in the southern Israeli desert of Negev. The Al-Sayyid community that developed there grew with a high incidence of profound deafness due to a recessive gene. The village developed a sign language in response that came to be called the Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language (ABSL). In 2007 Margalit Fox authored ?Signs and Wonders,? which told the Al-Sayyid story as part of a history of linguistics and sign language in American and the world. (WSJ, 8/23/07, p.D7) 1800 nend Ito Jakuchu (b.1716), Japanese painter based in Kyoto, died. (SFC, 12/8/05, p.E12) 1800 nend In Sweden Count Balthazar Von Platen started the Gut Canal. (SFEC, 4/20/97, p.T8) c 1800 nend Many Bantu people from Malawi, Mozambique and Tanzania were taken from their homes and sold as slaves in Somalia. (NW, 9/2/02, p.35) 1800 1830 The Regency Period of England. It was named after George Augustus Frederick, Prince of Wales, who became prince regent in 1811. (WSJ, 3/26/99, p.W10) 1800 1861 This period was covered by Nicholas E. Tawa in his 2000 book: "High-Minded and Low-Down: Music in the Lives of Americans, 1800-1861." (WSJ, 5/31/00, p.A24) c 1800 1900 Charles M. Russell, 19th century American landscape painter. In 2001 his painting "A Disputed Trail" sold for $2.4 million. (WSJ, 9/7/01, p.W11) 1800 1900 In the 1990s Claude Rawson wrote Vol. 4 of "The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism: The Eighteenth Century." (WSJ, 1/15/98, p.A17) 1800 1900 In California floods turned the Central Valley into a lake 700 miles long. (SFC, 1/7/97, p.A10) c 1800 1900 Sir David Brewster, 19th cent. Scottish scientist, inventor of the kaleidoscope. (Hem., Nov.?95, p.126) c 1800 1900 J.H. Salisbury was a 19th century English dietician who recommended a diet of ground steak for a variety of ailments including pernicious anemia, tuberculosis and hardening of the arteries. His name gave rise to "Salisbury steak." (WUD, 1994, p.1262) 1800 1900 19th century Tokyo was called Edo and served as the shogun?s power seat. (SFEC, 8/9/98, p.T5) 1800 1900 In what later became Pakistan feudal families came to power when the British made weak vassals into a hereditary land-owning elite loyal to London. (WSJ, 8/7/98, p.A1) 1800 1900 In South Africa the Witwatersrand gold mines were discovered, the largest gold reserve find in the world. The gold came from a strip of land 62 miles long and 25 miles wide and produced three-fourths of all the gold ever mined. (SFEC, 4/21/97, p.A10)(SFEC, 8/8/99, Z1 p.8) 1800 1900 The main river channel at Hoi An, Vietnam, shifted toward Danang and made navigation by deep-draft ships difficult, and thus lost its commercial importance. A new port was built on the Han River at Da Nang. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.H)(SFEC, 4/26/98, p.T4) 1801 nend Jan 1, Giuseppi Piazzi (d.1826), Italian astronomer, discovered an asteroid orbiting between Mars and Jupiter. He believed it to be a planet and named it Ceres (goddess of the harvest). (NH, 7/02, p.36) 1801 nend Jan 11, Domenico Cimarosa (51), Italian composer (Matrimonio segreto), died. (MC, 1/11/02) 1801 nend Jan 20, US Secretary of State John Marshall was nominated by President Adams to be chief justice. He was sworn in on Feb. 4, 1801. Marshall effectively created the legal framework within which free markets in goods and services could establish themselves. (WSJ, 3/10/99, p.A22)(AP, 1/20/08) 1801 nend Jan 28, Francis Barber (ca. 1735 ? 1801), the Jamaican manservant of Samuel Johnson (1752-1784), died at the Staffordshire General Infirmary. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Barber)(http://tinyurl.com/2njdfy) 1801 nend Jan, Toussaint Louverture, ignoring the commands of Napoleon Bonaparte, overran Spanish Santo Domingo, where slavery persisted. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toussaint_L'Ouverture) 1801 nend Feb 4, John Marshall was sworn in as chief justice of the United States. (AP, 2/4/97) 1801 nend Feb 7, John Rylands, merchant, philanthropist, was born in England. (MC, 2/7/02) 1801 nend Feb 17, The House of Representatives broke an electoral tie between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, electing Jefferson president. Burr became vice president. When George Washington announced that he would retire from office, he set the stage for the nation?s first two-party presidential campaign. (AP, 2/17/98)(HN, 2/17/98) 1801 nend Feb 17, Thomas Jefferson won the White House vowing to get rid of all federal taxes. He was supported by a new coalition of anti-Federalists that was the ancestor of the Democratic Party. In 2003 Jules Witcover authored "Party of the People: A History of the Democrats." (WSJ, 10/10/97, p.A1)(WSJ, 6/10/98, p.A18)(SSFC, 11/23/03, p.M1) 1801 nend Feb 21, John Henry Newman, was born. He was the Protestant vicar who converted to Catholicism and became a Roman Catholic Cardinal. He authored "Dream of Gerontius." (HN, 2/21/99)(MC, 2/21/02) 1801 nend Feb 27, The District of Columbia was placed under the jurisdiction of Congress. (AP, 2/27/98) 1801 nend Feb 28, Motiejus Valancius, Lithuanian educator, historian, writer and bishop, was born in Nasrenai in the Kretinga region. He died May 29, 1875, in Kaunas. His portrait is on the 2-litas note. (LC, 1998, p.4,10)(LHC,2/28/03) 1801 nend Mar 3, 1st US Jewish Governor, David Emanuel, took office in Georgia. (SC, 3/3/02) 1801 nend Mar 4, Thomas Jefferson became the first President to be inaugurated in Washington, D.C. (1801-1809). James Madison became secretary of state. In his inaugural address Jefferson said: "Though the will of the majority is in all cases to prevail, that will, to be rightful, must be reasonable; the minority possesses their equal right, which equal laws must protect, and to violate would be oppression." (WSJ, 2/2/95, p.A-16)(SFC, 1/3/97, p.A26)(HN, 3/4/98) 1801 nend Mar 10, Britain conducted its first census in order to find out how many men were available for conscription. (Econ, 1/12/08, p.75)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Census) 1801 nend Mar 11, Paul I (46), Czar of Russia (1796-1801), was strangled in his bedroom in St. Petersburg ending 4 years of insane rule. His son Alexander I Pavlovich (23) succeeded him. (PCh, 1992, p.360)(SS, 3/23/02) 1801 nend Mar 14, Christian Friedrich Penzel (63), composer, died. (MC, 3/14/02) 1801 nend Mar 21, Andrea Lucchesi (59), composer, died. (MC, 3/21/02) 1801 nend Mar 24, Aleksandr P. Romanov became emperor of Russia. (MC, 3/24/02) 1801 nend Mar 25, Anthony Ziesenis (69), architect, sculptor (Camper), died. (MC, 3/25/02) 1801 nend Apr 2, The British navy defeated the Danish at the Battle of Copenhagen. (AP, 4/2/99) 1801 nend Apr 8, Soldiers rioted in Bucharest and killed 128 Jews. (MC, 4/8/02) 1801 nend Apr 11, Johann von Schiller's "Die Jungfrau von Orleans (The Maid of Orleans)," premieres in Leipzig. (MC, 4/11/02) 1801 nend Apr 12, Josef Franz Karl Lanner, Austrian composer, violist, was born. (MC, 4/12/02) 1801 nend May 14, The Pasha of Tripoli symbolically declared war on the US by cutting down the glagstaff in front of the US Consulate, after learning that Pres. Jefferson had refused to pay a renewed tribute of $225,000. (ON, 10/06, p.8) 1801 nend Apr 21, Saudi Arabs led Sunni raids into Karbala, Iraq, killing about 5,000 people. (Econ, 10/11/08, p.65)(http://tinyurl.com/5qdnf3) 1801 nend Apr 24, The 1st performance of Joseph Haydn's oratorio "Die Jahreszeiten (The Seasons)." (MC, 4/24/02) 1801 nend Apr 28, Anthony Ashley-Cooper, the seventh Earl of Shaftesbury and a leading social reformer of the Victorian Age, was born in England. Shaftesbury labored to establish schools, to abolish the use of small children as chimney sweeps, and to wipe out child prostitution. He was a vocal opponent of slavery but had little respect for the United States? President Abraham Lincoln and thought the South should be permitted to secede from the Union. (HNQ, 6/10/01) 1801 nend May 6, British Lt. Thomas Cochrane, commander of the 14-gun sloop HMS Speedy, engaged and captured the 32-gun Spanish frigate El Gamo. The climactic battle in Patrick O?Brian?s novel ?Master and Commander? is based on the Speedy?s fight with El Gamo. Cochrane was later elected to Parliament, pointed out corruption and was arrested on trumped up charges. After that he served as the first commander of Chile?s navy, then Brazil?s navy and the Greek navy before returning to England. In 2000 Robert Harvey authored ?Cochrane: The Life and Exploits of a Fighting Captain.? (ON, 11/04, p.1) 1801 nend May 16, William Henry Seward was born. He was later Gov. of New York and the American Sec. of State from 1861-1869. Under Pres. Lincoln he purchased Alaska for the United States at 2 cents per acre. (HFA, '96, p.30)(AHD, p.1187)(HN, 5/16/99)(WSJ, 11/20/01, p.A16)(MC,5/16/02) 1801 nend Jun 1, Mormon leader Brigham Young (d.1877), the second president of the Mormon Church, was born in Whitingham, Vt. (AP, 6/1/97) 1801 nend Jun 10, The North African state of Tripoli declared war on the United States in a dispute over safe passage of merchant vessels through the Mediterranean. Tripoli declared war on the U.S. for refusing to pay tribute. (AP, 6/10/97)(HN, 6/10/98) 1801 nend Jun 14, Former American Revolutionary War General Benedict Arnold died in London. (AP, 6/14/01)(ON, 11/01, p.5) 1801 nend Jun 29, Frederic Bastiat (d.1850), French free-market economist, was born in Bayonne. "The state is the great fictitious entity in which everyone seeks to live at the expense of everyone else." (WSJ, 7/5/01, p.A12) 1801 nend Jul 3, Johann Nepomuk Went (56), composer, died. (MC, 7/3/02) 1801 nend Jul 5, David G. Farragut (d.1870), American naval hero, was born in Knoxville, Tenn. (AP, 7/5/97) 1801 nend Jul 7, A new constitution, drafted by a committee appointed by Toussaint Louverture (L?Ouverture), went into effect and declared the independence of Hispaniola. The constitution made him governor general for life with near absolute powers. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toussaint_L'Ouverture)(WSJ, 3/1/04, p.A16) 1801 nend Jul 16, Pope Pius VII and 1st consul Napoleon signed a concord. (MC, 7/16/02) 1801 nend Jul 17, The U.S. fleet arrived in Tripoli after Pasha Yusuf Karamanli declared war for being refused tribute. (HN, 7/17/99) 1801 nend Aug 1, The American schooner Enterprise captured the Barbary cruiser Tripoli. (HN, 8/1/98) 1801 nend Aug 6, A 9-day revival began at the Cane Ridge Presbyterian Church in Bourbon County, Kentucky. Some 20,000 people showed up for the revival called by Rev. Barton W. Stone. 3 evangelistic Christian groups grew out of the meeting. (WSJ, 8/10/01, p.W15) 1801 nend Oct 6, Napoleon Bonaparte imposed a new constitution on Holland. (HN, 10/6/98) 1801 nend Oct 23, Gustav Albert Lortzing, composer, was born. (MC, 10/23/01) 1801 nend Oct 23, Johann Gottlieb Naumann (60), German composer, died. (MC, 10/23/01) 1801 nend Nov 3, Karl Baedeker (d.1859), German publisher, was born. He became well known for travel guides. His 1835 "Travel on the Rhine" is widely considered as the 1st modern guidebook. (HN, 11/3/00)(SSFC, 12/1/02, p.C3) 1801 nend Nov 3, Vincenzo Bellini, Italian opera composer (La Sonnambula, Norma), was born. (MC, 11/3/01) 1801 nend Nov 9, Carl Philipp Stamitz, composer, died. (MC, 11/9/01) 1801 nend Nov 10, Samuel Gridley Howe (d.1876), educator of the blind, was born. He was the husband of Julia Ward Howe, author of the "Battle Hymn of the Republic." (NH, 6/96, p.20)(HN, 11/10/00) 1801 nend Nov 10, Kentucky banned dueling. (MC, 11/10/01) 1801 nend Nov 16, The 1st edition of New York Evening Post was published. Alexander Hamilton helped found the paper and served as editor. (WSJ, 12/3/01, p.A17)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Post) 1801 nend Dec 24, Richard Trevithick, inventor of the steam locomotive, completed a road test of his 1st "traveling engine" in Camborne, England. (ON, 4/04, p.5) 1801 nend Nov 9, Gail Borden (d.1874), inventor of condensed milk, was born in New York. (ON, 5/04, p.4)(Internet) 1801 nend Rembrandt Peale painted his brother?s portrait: "Rubens Peale with Geranium." (SFEM, 2/2/97, p.6) 1801 nend Francois Rene de Chateaubriand (1768-1848), French writer, authored his novel ?Atala? following a trip to the US. (WSJ, 5/8/08, p.A13) 1801 nend Samuel Taylor Coleridge, English poet, wrote to Sir Humphrey Davy a letter in which he says: "I seem to sink in upon myself in a ruin, like a Column of Sand, informed and animated only by a Whirl-Blast of the Dessert." Coleridge had become addicted to opium in this year. (OAPOC-TH, p.71)(WSJ, 4/15/99, p.A20) 1801 nend Beethoven composed Op. 25 Serenade for flute, Violin and Viola. (WSJ, 8/17/00, p.A20) 1801 nend Thomas Bruce, the 7th Earl of Elgin, took the 2,500 year-old bas-reliefs from the Parthenon while he served as the British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire. 17 figures and 56 panels were put on display at the British Museum in 1816. Around 1939 the marbles were subjected to a botched scouring operation that damaged 40% of the collection. Elgin had hired Giovanni Lusieri, an Italian artist from the court of the King of Naples, to oversee the Parthenon project. (SFC, 12/2/99, p.D6)(ON, 11/99, p.2) 1801 nend Thomas Jefferson began a set of proper rules for the Senate when he wrote: " No one is to disturb another in his speech by hissing, coughing, spitting, speaking, or whispering to another." (SFC, 9/20/97, p.A9) 1801 nend Elder John Leland, a Baptist minister, helped commission a 1,235-pound wheel of Cheshire cheese as a gift of gratitude for Thomas Jefferson's steadfast support of religious liberties. (SSFC, 8/17/03, p.M1) 1801 nend The London Stock Exchange formed. British government debt was the only security traded and this remained so until 1822. (Econ, 4/2/05, p.70)(Econ, 12/24/05, p.104) 1801 nend French artist Girodet depicted Ossian, the mythical 3rd century blind Scottish poet, before the story was exposed as a fraud. (WSJ, 7/26/08, p.W8) 1801 nend In France Napoleon opened the Louvre to the public. (SFC, 2/11/97, p.E5) 1801 nend Napoleon's army in Egypt surrendered to Turkish and English forces. The French civilian toll topped 25 of 150, while the military toll topped 25,000 over the 3-year expedition. (ON, 12/99, p.4)(SFC, 12/14/07, p.E3) 1801 nend Friedrich von Hardenberg (b.1772), German poet (Novalis), died. He was later known as the father of German romantic nationalism. (WUD, 1994 p.645)(WSJ, 4/8/03, p.D4) 1801 nend In Mexico La Iglesia de Nuestra Senora del Refugio was a Franciscan-style mission church built in the border town of Guerrero Viejo. (SFC, 6/4/98, p.C2) 1801 nend South Ossetia was absorbed into the Russian Empire along with Georgia. (WSJ, 8/27/08, p.A12) 1801 1806 Alexandre Dumas (d.1870) covered these years of French history in an 1869 serialized novel printed in the journal, "The Universal Monitor." In the 1980s Claude Schopp, a retired French lecturer, discovered the epic novel on microfilm. He got it published under the title "Le Chevalier de Sainte-Hermine," and in 2005 it became a top ten seller. (Reuters, 7/20/05) 1801 1835 John Marshall (1755-1835) was chief justice of the US Supreme Court. In 1996 Charles F. Hobson wrote "The Great Chief Justice: John Marshall and the Law" and Jean Edward Smith wrote "John Marshall: Definer of a Nation." (WSJ, 12/10/96, p.A20) 1801 1848 Thomas Cole, English born US painter. He and Asher B. Durand became fathers of the Hudson River School of painting and founded the National Academy of Design. (WUD, 1994, p.288)(WSJ, 8/10/99, p.A22) 1801 1864 Caroline Matilda Stansbury Kirkland, American author: "Like other spurious things, fastidiousness is often inconsistent with itself, the coarsest things are done, and the cruelest things said by the most fastidious people." (AP, 5/28/00) 1801 1866 Jane Welsh Carlyle, English writer: "In spite of the honestest efforts to annihilate my ?I-ity,? or merge it in what the world doubtless considers my better half (historian Thomas Carlyle), I still find myself a self-subsisting and alas! self-seeking ME." (AP, 8/27/98) 1801 1921 A single Parliament legislated all the British Isles. A history of the archipelago was written in 2000 by Norman Davies: "The Isles." (WSJ, 3/9/00, p.A24) 1802 nend Jan 25, Napoleon was elected president of Italian (Cisalpine) Republic. (MC, 1/25/02) 1802 nend Jan 26, Congress passed an act calling for a library to be established within the U.S. Capitol. (AP, 1/26/98) 1802 nend Jan 29, John Beckley of Virginia was appointed 1st Librarian of Congress. (MC, 1/29/02) 1802 nend Jan, In London, England, William Cobbett (1763-1835) set up the Weekly Political Register. It spread dissent during the post-war recession. (Econ, 12/23/06, p.103)(www.nndb.com/people/245/000049098/) 1802 nend Feb 4, Mark Hopkins, US educator, philosopher (Williams College), was born. (MC, 2/4/02) 1802 nend Feb 8, Simon Willard patented a banjo clock. (MC, 2/8/02) 1802 nend Feb 26, Victor Hugo (d.1885), French novelist and poet, was born in Besancon. In 1998 Graham Robb published the biography: "Victor Hugo." "Initiative is doing the right thing without being told." (WSJ, 2/10/98, p.A16)(HN, 2/26/98)(AP, 6/13/99) 1802 nend Feb, Napoleon sent a large army under his brother-in-law, Charles Leclerc, to regain control of St. Domingue. Thousands of soldiers died mainly to yellow fever and French control was abandoned so as to support military ventures in Europe. Toussaint L'Ouverture (Louverture) turned to guerrilla warfare inspired by the ideals of the French Revolution and its motto of "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity." (CO, Grolier's, 11/10/95)(AP, 4/7/03) 1802 nend Mar 16, The US Congress authorized the establishment of the US Military Academy at West Point, N.Y. President Jefferson signed a measure authorizing the establishment of the US Military Academy at West Point, N.Y. (www.usma.edu/history.asp)(AP, 3/16/97) 1802 nend Mar 24, Richard Trevithick was granted a patent in London for his steam locomotive. (ON, 4/04, p.5) 1802 nend Mar 27, Treaty of Amiens was signed. The French Revolutionary War ended. (HN, 3/27/98) 1802 nend Apr 4, Dorothea Dix, American proponent of treatment of mental inmates, was born. (HN, 4/4/98) 1802 nend Apr 8, French Protestant church became state-supported and controlled. (MC, 4/8/02) 1802 nend Apr 19, Spain reopened the New Orleans port to American merchants. (HN, 4/19/97) 1802 nend Apr 27, Abraham Louis Niedermeyer, composer, was born. (MC, 4/27/02) 1802 nend May 3, Washington, D.C., was incorporated as a city, with the mayor appointed by the president and the council elected by property owners. (AP, 5/3/97) 1802 nend May 15, Isaac Ridgeway Trimble (d.1888), Major General (Confederate Army), was born. (MC, 5/15/02) 1802 nend May 18, Great Britain declared war on Napoleon's France. (HN, 5/18/99) 1802 nend May 19 Napoleon established the French Order of Legion d'Honneur award (Legion of Honor). It was a general military and civil order of merit conferred without regard to birth or religion, provided that anyone admitted swore to uphold liberty and equality. (DrEE, 9/28/96, p.5)(SFC, 10/19/96, A7) 1802 nend May, In Saint-Domingue (later Haiti) Gen. Toussaint L?Ouverture surrendered to French forces. Many of his generals continued to wage a guerilla campaign against the French. (ON, 2/10, p.9) 1802 nend Jul 4, The United State Military Academy opened its doors at West Point, New York, welcoming the first 10 cadets. (AP, 7/4/97)(IB, Internet, 12/7/98) 1802 nend Jul 7, The first comic book was published in Hudson, NY. "The Wasp" was created by Robert Rusticoat. (MC, 7/7/02) 1802 nend Jul 8, Gen. Toussaint L'Ouverture of Saint-Domingue (later Haiti) was sent to France in chains. (AP, 4/7/03)(ON, 2/10, p.9) 1802 nend Jul 9, Thomas Davenport, invented 1st commercial electric motor, was born. (MC, 7/9/02) 1802 nend Jul 24, Alexandre Dumas (d.1870), French novelist and dramatist who wrote "The Count of Monte Cristo" and "The Three Musketeers," was born. Alexandre Dumas, pere, French author of romantic plays and novels. He wrote "The Man in the Iron Mask." He was the father of Alexandre Dumas fils (1824-1895), French author of plays of social realism. (HFA, ?96, p.34)(AHD, 1971, p.403)(WUD, 1994, p.441)(HN, 7/24/98) 1802 nend Aug 2, Napoleon Bonaparte was proclaimed "Consul for Life" by the French Senate after a plebiscite from the French people. (HN, 8/2/98) 1802 nend Aug 5, Niels Henrik Abel (d.1829), mathematician, was born in Frindoe, Norway. (Internet)(SFC, 3/26/04, p.A15) 1802 nend Aug 7, Napoleon ordered the re-instatement of slavery on St. Domingue (Haiti). (MC, 8/7/02) 1802 nend Aug 25, Toussaint L'Ouverture (Louverture) was imprisoned in Fort de Joux, Jura, France. (MC, 8/25/02) 1802 nend Aug 31, Captain Meriwether Lewis left Pittsburgh to meet up with Captain William Clark and begin their trek to the Pacific Ocean. (HN, 8/31/98) 1802 nend Sep 4, A French aeronaut dropped eight-thousand feet equipped with a parachute. (MC, 9/4/01) 1802 nend Sep 11, Piedmont, Italy, was annexed by France. (HN, 9/11/98) 1802 nend Sep 19, Louis Kossuth (d.1894), later president of Hungary, was born. "The instinctive feeling of a great people is often wiser than its wisest men." (AP, 7/2/97)(MC, 9/19/01) 1802 nend Oct 10, The 1st non-Indian settlement in Oklahoma was made. (MC, 10/10/01) 1802 nend Oct 22, Samuel Arnold (62), English composer, died. (MC, 10/22/01) 1802 nend Oct 28, The 34-gun Spanish frigate Juno, enroute back to Spain from Mexico [Puerto Rico], ran into a storm off the coast of Virginia. Captain Don Juan Ignacio Bustillo perished along with 425 men, women and children and an estimated half-billion dollars in treasure. A boy from the wreck survived on Assateague Island and was named James Alone. He later changed his name to James Lunn. Many Chincoteague islanders later traced their descent to James. (USAT, 5/7/98, p.9A)(WSJ, 7/17/98, p.A1)(SFC, 8/14/00, p.A3) 1802 nend Oct 31, Benoit Fourneyron, inventor of the water turbine, was born. (HN, 10/31/00) 1802 nend Nov 9, Elijah P. Lovejoy, American newspaper publisher and abolitionist, was born. (MC, 11/9/01) 1802 nend Dec 20, The United States bought the Louisiana territory from France. [see Jan 11, 1803] (HN, 12/20/98) 1802 nend James Gillnay painted "Cow-Pock," a satirization of the new cowpox vaccination to prevent smallpox. (NH, 9/98, p.9) 1802 nend Nathaniel Bowditch (1773-1838) published "The New American Practical Navigator," later known as the "seaman?s bible." It was a revision of his 1799 and 1800 works, which in turn revised the 1722 work of John Hamilton Moore. (AH, 12/02, p.22) 1802 nend John Playfair published a more readable volume of Hutton?s Theory of the Earth as Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth. (DD-EVTT, p.21) no_source 1802 nend James Callender, an English-born journalist, published a report in the Richmond, Va., Recorder about Thomas Jefferson and his relationship with the slave Sally Hemmings [Hemings]. In 1997 Annette Gordon-Reed published: "Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemmings, an American Controversy." DNA tests of descendants in 1998 indicated that Jefferson fathered at least one child with Hemmings, her youngest son Eston Hemmings in 1808. Dr. Eugene Foster, author of the DNA report, later said the DNA tests showed that any one of 8 Jefferson males could have fathered Eston. In 2008 Annette Gordon-Reed authored ?The Hemmingses of Monticello: An American Family.? (WSJ, 9/23/97, p.A1)(SFC, 4/29/98, p.A6)(SFEC, 11/1/98, p.A1,7)(WSJ,11/2/98, p.B11)(WSJ, 2/26/99, p.W15)(SFC, 1/27/00, p.A3)(SSFC, 10/19/08,Books p.4) 1802 nend Beethoven composed the 6 Gellert songs of Op. 48. (WSJ, 8/17/00, p.A20) 1802 nend Congress repealed all taxes except for a tax on salt and left the government dependent on import tariffs. (WSJ, 10/10/97, p.A1) 1802 nend Andrew Jackson was elected to command the Tennessee militia. (SSFC, 10/30/05, p.M3) 1802 nend Eleuthere Irenee du Pont de Nemours (d.1834), a French immigrant, set up a saltpeter mill in Wilmington, Del., on the banks of the Brandywine River. In 8 years it grew to become America's largest black-powder plant as it supplied gunpowder to the US for the War of 1812. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R46)(SFC, 9/17/01, p.B2) 1802 nend Joseph Ellicott, New York Quaker surveyor, founded Genessee County and the town of Batavia: "God made Buffalo, I will try and make Batavia." (WSJ, 6/28/02, p.W13) 1802 nend Heinrich Olbers, German astronomer, discovered an asteroid orbiting between Mars and Jupiter, He believed it to be a planet and named it Pallas after Pallas Athena (goddess of wisdom and war). (NH, 7/02, p.36) 1802 nend Edward Howard, English chemist, determined that the iron in meteorites was a unique blend of iron and nickel that did not occur in known terrestrial rocks. (ON, 7/02, p.5) 1802 nend An American captain of the ship Palmyra blew ashore on a southern atoll 1,052 miles south of Hawaii and named it Palmyra after his ship. (SFC, 5/4/00, p.A9) 1802 nend Harriot Wilson was publicly executed by the state of Pennsylvania for the murder of her infant child. An account of the "exploits of the murderess" is published in 1822 by J. Wilkey. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.20) 1802 nend In Australia the Aboriginal warrior Pemulwuy (b.~1750) was shot dead. His head was cut off and believed to have been placed in a jar and sent to England. He opposed British settlement and was described by Sydney's then governor Philip King as "a terrible pest to the colony" but also "a brave and independent character." (AFP, 1/15/10) 1802 nend Britain levied the first English income tax to raise money to fight Napoleon. William Pit the Younger 1st introduced the income tax to finance the war against France. (SFEC, 4/5/98, Z1 p.8)(Econ, 9/10/05, p.53) 1802 nend England passed its first law regulating child labor. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R28) 1802 nend A British exploring party led by Matthew Flinders landed on a 96-mile-long island southwest of Adelaide and slaughtered 31 kangaroos for a feast. This 3rd largest island off Australia was thus named Kangaroo Island. Flinders named the Great Barrier Reef and found a passage to the Corral Sea. (SFEC,12/21/97, p.T6)(SSFC, 3/24/02, p.C22)(WSJ, 7/23/04, p.W12) 1802 nend The Rosetta Stone was seized by the British in Egypt after the defeat of Napoleon?s army and was sent to England. (RFH-MDHP, p.182) 1802 nend The Rome stock exchange was founded. The Borsa di Roma occupied the site of a temple completed in 145 AD as a tribute to Emperor Hadrian. (WSJ, 12/13/96, p.B11A) 1802 nend In Vietnam Hue was founded as the royal capital of the Nguyen dynasty that united Vietnam. Palaces, tombs and monuments were located along the banks of the Perfume River. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.H) 1802 1803 George Friedrich Grotefend published his account of translating cuneiform script. (RFH-MDHP, p.193) 1802 1828 Richard Parkes, English watercolorist. (Hem., 3/97, p.94) 1802 1838 Letitia Landon, English poet: "Few, save the poor, feel for the poor." (AP, 1/21/00) 1802 1876 Harriet Martineau, English writer and social critic: "Religion is a temper, not a pursuit." (AP, 6/7/99) 1802 1880 Lydia Maria Child, American author Thought for Today: "It is right noble to fight with wickedness and wrong; the mistake is in supposing that spiritual evil can be overcome by physical means." (AP, 12/3/97) 1802 1889 Juana Briones Y Tapia de Miranda was born in Santa Cruz, Ca. She was a battered wife and became the first California woman to get a divorce. She was the first to settle on Powell St. in what is now North Beach, SF. In 1989 the Women?s Heritage Museum persuaded the state to authorize a plaque in her honor to be set in Washington Square. (SFEC, 5/26/97, p.A11)(SFC,11/17/97, p.A1,21) 1803 nend Jan 11, Monroe and Livingston sailed for Paris to buy New Orleans; they ended up buying Louisiana. [see Dec 20, 1802] (MC, 1/11/02) 1803 nend Jan, Lord Elgin concluded his diplomatic mission to Constantinople. (ON, 11/99, p.2) 1803 nend Feb 2, Albert Sidney Johnston, Genl. (Confederate Army), was born. He died in 1862 at Shiloh. (MC, 2/2/02) 1803 nend Feb 14, An apple parer was patented by Moses Coats in Downington, Penn. (MC, 2/14/02) 1803 nend Feb 15, John Augustus Sutter (d.1880), Swiss-US colonist (New Helvetia, Ca., Sutter Mill), was born. (MC, 2/15/02) 1803 nend Feb 19, Congress voted to accept Ohio?s borders and constitution. However, Congress did not get around to formally ratifying Ohio statehood until 1953. (AP, 2/19/98) 1803 nend Feb 21, The British return the Cape of Good Hope to the Dutch (Batavian Republic) under the Treaty of Amiens. (EWH, 4th ed, p.884) 1803 nend Feb 21, Edward Despard became the last person drawn & quartered in England. (MC, 2/21/02) 1803 nend Feb 24, The Supreme Court ruled itself the final interpreter of constitutional issues. Chief Justice John Marshall, by refusing to rule on the case of Marbury vs. Madison, asserted the authority of the judicial branch. The US Supreme Court 1st ruled a law unconstitutional (Marbury v Madison). (AP, 2/24/98)(HN, 2/24/98)(MC, 2/24/02) 1803 nend Feb 25, The 1,800 sovereign German states united into 60 states. (MC, 2/25/02) 1803 nend Mar 1, Ohio became the 17th state. (HN, 3/1/98) 1803 nend Mar 3, The first impeachment trial of a U.S. Judge, John Pickering, began. (HN, 3/3/99) 1803 nend Mar 14, Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock (78), German poet, died. (MC, 3/14/02) 1803 nend Mar 19, Johann von Schiller's "Die Braut von Messina," premiered in Weimar. (MC, 3/19/02) 1803 nend Apr 5, 1st performance of Beethoven's 2nd Symphony in D. (MC, 4/5/02) 1803 nend Apr 7, Francois D. Toussaint L'Ouverture (Louverture), Haitian revolutionary, died in a dungeon at Fort Joux in the French Alps. In 2007 Madison Smartt Bell authored ?Toussaint Louverture: A Biography.? (AP,4/7/03)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toussaint_L'Ouverture)(SFC,1/15/07, p.D7) 1803 nend Apr 26, Villagers of L?Aigle, France, witnessed a meteor shower. The rocks helped to convince scientists that meteors were of extraterrestrial origin. (ON, 7/02, p.5) 1803 nend Apr 30, The US under Thomas Jefferson signed a treaty that accepted the purchase of the Louisiana Territory from Napoleon Bonaparte's government of France for 60 million francs or about $15 mil. The area included most of the thirteen states that lie between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. American envoys sent to France were originally instructed to buy only the port city of New Orleans and were astonished when Napoleon, abandoning plans for an American empire, offered them all of Louisiana. The United States doubled in size through the Louisiana Purchase. The federal government spent less than $8 million in operations and borrowed the money needed for the purchase. (CO, 11/10/95)(WSJ, 3/12/97, p.A18)(AP, 4/30/97)(HN, 4/30/98)(HNPD,5/1/99) 1803 nend May 7, Johan Peter Cronhamm, composer, was born. (MC, 5/7/02) 1803 nend May 16, Great Britain and France renewed their war. (PCh, 1992, p.362) 1803 nend May 17, John Hawkins and Richard French patented a reaping machine. (MC, 5/17/02) 1803 nend May 18, Great Britain declared war on France after General Napoleon Bonaparte continued interfering in Italy and Switzerland. (HN, 5/18/99)(ON, 11/99, p.4)(SC, 5/18/02) 1803 nend May 22, The 1st US public library opened in Connecticut. (MC, 5/22/02) 1803 nend May 23, Lord Elgin and his family were detained in Paris. Elgin's family was allowed to proceed but he was arrested and declared a prisoner of war. (ON, 11/99, p.4) 1803 nend May 24, Charles LJL Bonaparte, Corsican, French prince of Canino, Musignano, was born. (MC, 5/24/02) 1803 nend May 25, Ralph Waldo Emerson (d.1882), American essayist and philosopher, was born. A biography of Emerson that includes information about his friends was written in 1996 by Carlos Baker and titled: "Emerson Among the Eccentrics: A Group Portrait." It includes such people as: the transcendental visionary Bronson Alcott, essayist Henry David Thoreau, mad poet Jones Very, activist Margaret Fuller, poet Ellery Channing. Other people included are Hawthorne, Melville, Theodore Parker, and the family of Henry James. "Money often costs too much." "Nothing astonishes men so much as common sense and plain dealing." (AP, 10/22/97)(HN, 5/25/98)(AP, 7/8/98) 1803 nend Jul 8, Frederick Augustus Hervey (b.1730), the 4th Earl of Bristol and Bishop of Derry, died. He had toured Europe with his own cook and entourage and inspired a number of hotels to take on the Bristol name. (WSJ, 9/27/08,p.A1)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Hervey,_4th_Earl_of_Bristol) 1803 nend Jul 23, Irish patriots throughout the country rebelled against Union with Great Britain. Robert Emmett led the insurrection in Dublin. (HN, 7/23/98)(MC, 7/23/02) 1803 nend Jul 31, John Ericsson, inventor of the screw propeller, was born. (HN, 7/31/98) 1803 nend Aug 31, The government-sponsored transcontinental expedition under the leadership of Captain Meriwether Lewis and Lieutenant William Clark set off down the Ohio River. The 40-member expedition wintered and trained near St. Louis before starting up the Missouri River in three boats on May 14, 1804. Lewis and Clark?s three-year journey of exploration and discovery to the Pacific Coast and back stimulated western settlement and proved that an overland route to the West Coast was possible. (HNPD, 8/31/98) 1803 nend Sep 5, Francois Devienne, composer, died at 44. (MC, 9/5/01) 1803 nend Sep 8, A high pressure steam boiler, made by Richard Trevithick, exploded at a corn mill in Greenwich, England, and 3 men were killed. A worker had left a heavy wrench on the safety valve and gone fishing. (ON, 4/04, p.5) 1803 nend Sep 13, Commodore John Barry, considered by many the father of the American Navy, died in Philadelphia. (AP, 9/13/97) 1803 nend Sep 17, Franz Xaver Sussmayr, composer, died. (MC, 9/17/01) 1803 nend Sep 23, British Major General Sir Arthur Wellesley defeated the Marathas at Assaye, India. (HN, 9/23/98) 1803 nend Sep 20, Robert Emmet, Irish nationalist, was executed. (MC, 9/20/01) 1803 nend Sep 27, Samuel Francis DuPont (d.1865), Rear Admiral (Union Navy), was born. (MC, 9/27/01) 1803 nend Sep 28, Prosper Merimee, playwright (Carmen), was born in Paris, France. (MC, 9/28/01) 1803 nend Oct 2, Samuel Adams (b.1722), former Gov. of Mass. (1793-1797), died. He was a propagandist, political figure, revolutionary patriot and statesman who helped to organize the Boston Tea Party. In 2008 Ira Stoll authored ?Samuel Adams: A Life.? (AHD, 1971, p.14)(WSJ, 11/3/08,p.A17)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams) 1803 nend Oct 3, John Gorrie, inventor of the cold-air process of refrigeration, was born. (MC, 10/3/01) 1803 nend Oct 20, The US Senate voted to ratify Jefferson?s Louisiana Purchase. (CO, Grolier?s, 11/10/95)(AP, 10/20/97) 1803 nend Oct 31, Congress ratified the purchase of the entire Louisiana area in North America, which added territory to the United States for 13 subsequent states. (HN, 10/31/98) 1803 nend Oct, The USS Philadelphia was captured by the Tripolitans. 307 sailors were held for ransom by the Pasha of Tripoli. (www.history.navy.mil/photos/events/barb-war/burn-phl.htm)(ON,10/06, p.8) 1803 nend Nov 3, Henri Moreau, composer (75), died. (MC, 11/3/01) 1803 nend Nov 5, Chalderon de Laclos, writer, died. (MC, 11/5/01) 1803 nend Nov 18, The Battle of Vertieres was fought. Jean-Jacques Dessalines (b.1758), Haitian rebel leader, led his army to decisive victory over the French with his slogan "Cut off their heads and burn down their houses." (HFA, ?96, p.42)(AP, 4/7/03)(www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/43a/168.html) 1803 nend Nov 29, Christian Doppler (d.1853), Austrian physicist who discovered the Doppler effect, was born. Hubble used his name for the Doppler Effect, that describes the apparent change in the frequency of a wave depending on whether the wave is approaching or receding. (WUB, 1994, p.426)(HN, 11/29/98) 1803 nend Nov 30, Spain, in a ceremony at New Orleans, completed the process of ceding Louisiana to France, which had sold it to the United States. (CO, Grolier?s, 11/10/95)(AP, 11/30/04) 1803 nend Dec 3, Hector Berlioz, French composer (Symphony Fantastique), was born. [see Dec 11] (MC, 12/3/01) 1803 nend Dec 11, Hector Berlioz (d.1869), French composer and conductor, was born. He introduced arresting and gaudy instrumental colors in combinations that had not been dreamed of before him. He composed "Romeo and Juliet" in 1939 and conducted its first performance. He also composed the "Death of Cleopatra." He composed "Symphonie Fantastique" and "La Damnation de Faust." [see Dec 3] (T&L, 10/80, p. 58)(SFC, 10/5/96, p.E1)(HN, 12/11/99) 1803 nend Dec 20, The Louisiana Purchase was completed as the territory was formally transferred from France to the United States during ceremonies in New Orleans. French Prefect Pierre Clement Laussat, US Gov. William CC Claiborne and US Gen. James Wilkinson signed 4 copies the treaty. The Louisiana Purchase effectively doubled the size of the existing U.S. With 827,987 square miles in the deal, that price translates to roughly $18 per square mile- under 3 cents/acre. (AP, 12/20/97)(SFC, 12/21/03, p.A2) 1803 nend Dec 23, Lt. Stephen Decatur, commanding the schooner Enterprise, captured a Barbary ketch, which was entered into the US Navy as the Intrepid. (ON, 2/03, p.2) 1803 nend Jean Baptist Say penned "A Treatise on Political Economy," in which he said that management is a factor of production. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1803 nend Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834), English political economist, authored the 2nd edition of his 1798 ?An Essay on the Principle of Population.? This edition introduced the idea of moral restraint. (Econ, 5/17/08, p.94)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malthus) 1803 nend Beethoven composed his "Kreutzer Sonata" dedicated to the French violinist Rudolphe Kreutzer. (WUD, 1994, p.795)(SFC, 4/2/98, p.E4) 1803 nend One of the architects of the U.S. Capitol, Benjamin Henry Latrobe, who succeeded William Thornton and Stephen Hallet as Capitol architect in 1803, modified the original design of the Capitol and used Greek inspiration in the details. Latrobe was chiefly responsible for introducing the Greek Revival in the U.S. His Bank of Pennsylvania building in Philadelphia was the first Greek building in the country and was characteristic of his free adaptation of ancient precedent and vaulted construction. (HNQ, 3/11/99) 1803 nend The US Mint struck its last silver dollars until 1934, when special 1804 silver dollars were minted as gifts from left over dies. (SFEC, 8/8/99, p.A6) 1803 nend John Dalton, British chemist and physicist, pointed out that the fact that chemical compounds always combined in certain proportions could be explained by the grouping together of atoms to form units called molecules. (BHT, Hawking, p.63) 1803 nend The steel ink pen was developed in Birmingham, England. (SFC, 12/13/06, p.E3) 1803 nend The French Academy of Sciences insisted that meteorites could not exist because no specimens had been produced. (WSJ, 4/2/96, p.A-15) 1803 nend Alexander Von Humboldt, German explorer and scientist, spent some time in Taxco, Mexico. The house where he stayed later became the Museum of Colonial Religious Art. (SFEC, 11/10/96, p.T7) 1803 nend Denmark became the first country to ban slave trade. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1803 1812 Lord Elgin organized the removal of sculptures from the Parthenon. (AM, 5/01, p.14) 1803 1815 In 2007 Charles Esdaile covered this period in his book: ?Napoleon?s Wars: An International History, 1803-1815.? (Econ, 11/10/07, p.103) 1803 1862 Barend Cornelis Koekkoek of Holland came from a renowned family of artists. He considered the painting of nature the only true calling of an artist. (WSJ, 12/10/99, p.W16) 1803 1876 Orestes Augustus Brownson, American author and clergyman was born in Stockbridge, Vt. At first a Presbyterian, he later became a Universalist, a Unitarian minister, head of his own church, a transcendentalist, and finally (1844) a Roman Catholic. As a writer and magazine editor, Brownson dealt with religious questions and fought social injustice: "We have heard enough of the liberties and the rights of man, it is high time to hear something of the duties of men and the rights of authority." In 1992 Gregory Butler wrote the biography: "In Search of the American Spirit," and in 1999 R.A. Herrera published "Orestes Brownson: Sign of Contradiction." http://encyclopedia.com/articles/01924.html (WSJ, 5/28/99, p.W11) no_source 1804 nend Jan 1, Jean-Jacques Dessalines proclaimed the Republic of Haiti and declared independence from France. Documentation of his speech was then lost and only re-discovered in 2010 by a Canadian graduate student searching in the British National Archives. (WSJ, 3/1/04, p.A16)(SFCM, 5/30/04, p.19)(SFC, 4/2/10, p.A2) 1804 nend Jan 5, Ohio legislature passed the 1st laws restricting free blacks movement. [see Mar 28] (MC, 1/5/02) 1804 nend Jan 31, British vice-admiral William Bligh (of HMS Bounty infamy) fleet reached Curacao (Antilles). (MC, 1/31/02) 1804 nend Feb 6, Joseph Priestley (b.1733), English-born US writer, philosopher and chemist, died in Pennsylvania. He became best known for having discovered oxygen. Priestley also figured out how to manufacture carbonated water and is sometimes called ?the father of the soft-drink industry.? In 2008 Steven Johnson authored ?The Invention of Air: A Story of Science, faith, Revolution, and the Birth of America.? (www.britannica.com/eb/article-9061366)(ON, 10/05, p.1)(SFC, 1/9/09,p.E3) 1804 nend Feb 7, John Deere, farm equipment manufacturer, was born. (HN, 2/7/99) 1804 nend Feb 15, New Jersey became the last northern state to abolish slavery. (HN, 2/15/98) 1804 nend Feb 16, Lt. Stephen Decatur attacked Tripoli, where pirates held the USS Philadelphia. Decatur and 76 volunteers, aboard the captured Intrepid, attempted to recapture the Philadelphia, which caught fire, exploded and sank. Decatur and his crew escaped. (AP, 2/16/98)(HN, 2/16/98)(ON, 2/03, p.2) 1804 nend Feb 25, Thomas Jefferson was nominated for president at the Democratic-Republican caucus. (HN, 2/25/98) 1804 nend Feb 26, Vice-Admiral William Bligh ended the siege of Fort Amsterdam, Willemstad. (SC, 2/26/02) 1804 nend Mar 7, John Wedgwood, founder (Royal Horticulture Society), died. (MC, 3/7/02) 1804 nend Mar 8, Alvan Clark, telescope manufacturer, was born. (HN, 3/8/98) 1804 nend Mar 12, Judge John Pickering, a federal district judge in New Hampshire, was the first American official impeached and then found guilty by the Senate. Pickering, a Federalist, was impeached as unfit based on charges related to his habitual drunkenness and bizarre handling of cases. He was adjudged guilty and removed from office in spite of evidence establishing that he was insane and hence not culpable of high crimes or misdemeanors. Impeached during the same period, Chief Justice Samuel Chase was acquitted by the Senate on March 1, 1805, ending the Republican campaign against the Federalist bench and discouraging subsequent administrations from using impeachment to remove politically obnoxious judges. (HNQ, 1/21/99) 1804 nend Mar 14, Johann Strauss (d.1849), Austrian orchestra conductor and composer, was born. His son was also named Johann (1825-1899). (WUD, 1994, p.1405)(HN, 3/14/98) 1804 nend Mar 21, The French civil code, later called the "Code Napoleon," was adopted. (AP, 3/21/08) 1804 nend Mar 26, Congress ordered the removal of Indians east of the Mississippi to Louisiana. (HN, 3/25/98) 1804 nend Mar 26, The Louisiana Purchase was divided into the Territory of Orleans and the District of Louisiana. (AP, 3/26/97) 1804 nend Mar 28, Ohio passed law restricting movement of Blacks. [see Jan 5] (MC, 3/28/02) 1804 nend Apr 20, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Haitian rebel leader, commanded a massacre of the French at town of Cape Francois. It is generally thought that Dessalines had around 20,000 French slaughtered in early 1804. (http://tinyurl.com/yu94s8)(http://tinyurl.com/23fdxf) 1804 nend Apr 22, Gioacchino Rossini (12) performed in Imola. (MC, 4/22/02) 1804 nend May 14, The Lewis and Clark expedition to explore the Louisiana Territory left St. Louis. Explorer William Clark sets off from St. Louis, Missouri, to travel upriver to wait for Meriwether Lewis. The two will soon depart together on a journey to reach the Pacific. The trip was retold in a TV movie by Ken Burns in 1997. [see May 22] (AP, 5/14/97)(SFC,11/4/97, p.B1)(HN, 5/14/99) 1804 nend May 16, Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, founder of the first U.S. kindergarten, was born. (HN, 5/16/98) 1804 nend May 18, The French Senate proclaimed Napoleon Bonaparte emperor. (AP, 5/18/97)(HN, 5/18/98) 1804 nend May 22, The Lewis and Clark Expedition officially began as the Corps of Discovery departed from St. Charles, Missouri. [see May 14] (HN, 5/22/99) 1804 nend Jun 3, Richard Cobden, English economist and politician, was born. He became known as 'the Apostle of free trade.' He led the Anti-Corn League, which in 1839-1846 fought to remove price controls and import barriers for wheat. (HN, 6/3/99)(Econ, 6/5/04, p.10) 1804 nend Jun 26, The Lewis and Clark Expedition reached the mouth of the Kansas River after completing a westward trek of nearly 400 river miles. (HN, 6/26/98) 1804 nend Jun 29, Privates John Collins and Hugh Hall of the Lewis and Clark Expedition were found guilty by a court-martial consisting of members of the Corps of Discovery for getting drunk on duty. Collins receives 100 lashes on his back and Hall receives 50. (HN, 6/29/98) 1804 nend Jul 1, George Sand (Amandine-Aurore Lucille Dupin de Francueil, d.1876), French novelist, was born in Paris. She wrote some 80 novels that included ?Consuelo? (1842) and ?La Comtesse de Rudolstadt? (1843). In 1975 Curtis Cate published the biography: "George Sand." "I would rather believe that God did not exist than believe that He was indifferent." (WUD, 1994, p.1265)(HN, 7/1/01) (AP, 10/17/98)(HN, 7/1/01)(Econ,7/31/04, p.72) 1804 nend Jul 4, Nathaniel Hawthorne (d.1864) American novelist and short-story writer, was born in Marblehead, [Salem], Massachusetts. Hawthorne was born to a prominent but decaying family. One of his ancestors, a judge in the Salem witchcraft trials, became the model for the accursed founder of The House of the Seven Gables. Hawthorne would often wonder whether the decline of his family?s fortune was a punishment for the sins of his "sable-cloaked steeple-crowned progenitors." Marblehead is also the location of the house in his book "The House of Seven Gables." He also wrote "The Scarlet Letter." (WUD, 1994, p.651)(SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T9)(HN, 7/4/98)(IB, 12/7/98) 1804 nend Jul 11, Vice President Aaron Burr mortally wounded Alexander Hamilton (47), former first Treasury Secretary, in a pistol duel near Weehawken, N.J. A warrant for Burr?s arrest was soon issued in New Jersey and New York, where Hamilton died. In 1999 Richard Brookhiser wrote "Alexander Hamilton: American." In 2001 Joanne B. Freeman edited his writings and published: Alexander Hamilton: Writings." (AP, 7/11/97)(HN, 7/11/98)(WSJ, 2/25/99, p.A16)(WSJ, 12/3/01,p.A17)(ON, 12/08, p6) 1804 nend Jul 12, Alexander Hamilton (47), US Sec. of Treasury, died in New York of wounds from a pistol duel in New Jersey with VP Aaron Burr. In 1920 Frederick Scott Oliver authored a Hamilton biography. In 2002 Stephen Knott authored "Alexander Hamilton and the Persistence of Myth." In 2004 Ron Chernow authored the biography "Alexander Hamilton." Lawyer Ambrose Spencer (1765-1848) said Hamilton ?more than any man, did the thinking of his time.? (WSJ, 2/4/04, p.A1)(SSFC, 4/25/04, p.M3)(WSJ, 10/20/04, p.D12) 1804 nend Jul 21, Victor Schoelcher, abolished French slavery, was born in Guadeloupe. (MC, 7/21/02) 1804 nend Aug 3, US Commodore Edward Prebble?s squadron bombarded Tripoli inflicting heavy damages on the city. (ON, 2/03, p.4) 1804 nend Aug 20, Charles Floyd died, the only fatality of the Lewis & Clark Expedition. In 1901 a memorial was erected at his gravesite in Sioux City, Iowa. (MC, 8/20/02)(Internet) 1804 nend Aug 25, In England Alice Meynell became the 1st woman jockey. (chblue.com, 8/25/01) 1804 nend Sep 5, In a daring night raid, American sailors under Lieutenant Stephen Decatur, boarded the captured USS Philadelphia and burned the ship to keep it out of the hands of the Barbary pirates who captured her. (HN, 9/5/98) 1804 nend Sep 21, Another major hurricane hit Puerto Rico on the feast day of St. Matthew and became known as the San Mateo II hurricane [see 1575]. (SSFC, 8/6/06, Par p.24) 1804 nend Sep 25, The 12th Amendment was ratified. It required electors to vote separately for the president and vice-president. (HN, 9/25/98)(WSJ, 10/27/99, p.A16)(WSJ, 12/11/00, p.A18) 1804 nend Oct 2, England mobilized to protect against an expected French invasion by Napoleon. (MC, 10/2/01) 1804 nend Oct 5, Robert Parker Parrott (d.1877), Inventor (Parrot Gun- 1st machine gun), was born. (MC, 10/5/01) 1804 nend Oct 5, The Nuestra Senora de las Mercedes, a Spanish galleon, was sunk by the British navy southwest of Portugal with more than 200 people on board. In May 2007, Odyssey Marine Exploration announced that it had discovered a wreck in the Atlantic and its cargo of 500,000 silver coins and other artifacts worth an estimated $500 million. Spain claimed this was the Nuestra Senora de las Mercedes. In 2009 Peru pushed claims to the silver coins arguing that they were minted in Lima. (AP, 5/8/08)(www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/mar/24/usa.spain)(AP,1/29/09) 1804 nend Oct 6, Jean-Jacques Dessalines (b.1758) had himself crowned James I, Emperor of Haiti. He was murdered two years later in a conspiracy under Christophe and Pétion. (www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/43a/168.html) 1804 nend Oct 9, Hobart, Tasmania, was founded. (MC, 10/9/01) 1804 nend Nov 18, Palver Purim (Feast of Lots) was 1st celebrated to commemorate miraculous escape. The Jewish festival marked the deliverance of the Jews in Persia from Haman. (WUD, 1994 p.1167)(MC, 11/18/01) 1804 nend Nov 23, Franklin Pierce, 14th president of the United States, was born in Hillsboro, N.H. (HN, 11/23/98) 1804 nend Nov 27, Pres. Jefferson issued a nationwide proclamation to military and public officials warning of a conspiracy to attack Spanish territory in Texas. He had opened negotiations with Spain to purchase Texas territory west of New Orleans. Jefferson had heard rumors that Aaron Burr had begun plotting an invasion of Texas. Jefferson ordered Gen. James Wilkinson to move federal troops into defensive positions between the Sabine River and New Orleans. Wilkinson, unbeknownst to Jefferson, was a close confidant of Burr and also worked as a spy in the employ of Spanish officials in Mexico. (ON, 12/08, p6) 1804 nend Nov 30, Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase went on trial, accused of political bias. He was acquitted by the Senate in 1805. (AP, 11/30/97) 1804 nend Nov, Thomas Jefferson was re-elected US president. George Clinton, the seven-term governor of New York, was elected vice president under Jefferson and again under Madison in 1808. Clinton died in office on April 20, 1812. (HNQ, 8/19/99)(www.sparknotes.com/biography/jefferson/timeline.html) 1804 nend Dec 1, Emperor Napoleon married Josephine de Beauharnais, of Martinique. (MC, 12/1/01) 1804 nend Dec 2, Napoleon crowned himself emperor of France with Josephine as Empress as Pope Pius VII looked on. In 1807 Jacques-Louis David completed his painting of the event. (WSJ, 12/14/04, p.D10)(AP, 12/2/07) 1804 nend Dec 21, Benjamin Disraeli (d.1881), Prime Minister of Great Britain (1868, 1874-80), was born. He instituted reforms in housing, public health and factory regulations. "Youth is a blunder; manhood a struggle; old age a regret." In 1993 Stanley Weintraub published "Disraeli: A Biography." (AP, 10/21/97)(WSJ, 11/17/98, p.21)(HN, 12/21/98)(MC, 12/21/01) 1804 nend John Quincy Adams published his travel book: "Letters on Silesia." (WSJ, 10/22/97, p.A20) 1804 nend Fort Dearborn was erected on the Chicago River on the site of present-day downtown Chicago. With the outbreak of the War of 1812, the garrison of 67 soldiers, their dependents and settlers were ordered to evacuate to Fort Wayne. Most of them were massacred en route by Pottawatomie Indians, who then burned the fort. Fort Dearborn was rebuilt in 1816 and around it grew the settlement that would become Chicago. Abandoned in 1837, Fort Dearborn was demolished in 1856. (HNQ, 2/13/00) 1804 nend Meriwether Lewis and William Clark packed up 5,555 rations of flour, and 120 gallons of whiskey for their western journey of exploration that would last 2 œ years. In 1996 Stephen Ambrose published an account of their trip titled: "Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the opening of the American West." The cutthroat trout, Onchorhynchus clarki lewisi, was found to be highly abundant. In 1997 the fish was on the brink of extinction. (WSJ, 1/30/96, p.A-12)(SFC, 5/21/97, p.A2) 1804 nend The town of St. Michaels on the Chesapeake Bay was incorporated, resurveyed and laid out in three squares: Harrison?s square to the north, Thompson?s square to the west and Braddock?s square to the east. (SMBA, 1996) 1804 nend In Australia soldiers fired on an aboriginal hunting party on Tasmania and killed some 50 people. Some were salted down and sent to Sydney as anthropological curiosities. (WSJ, 8/2100, p.A1) 1804 nend The British Royal Horticultural Society was formed. (WSJ, 5/30/01, p.A1) 1804 nend The British Royal Watercolour Society was formed. (Hem., 3/97, p.94) 1804 nend Samuel Taylor Coleridge (32), English poet, fled to Malta and worked as an assistant to the civilian governor. He returned to England in 1806. (WSJ, 4/15/99, p.A20) 1804 nend A motion in British Parliament for abolition of the slave trade passed in the House of Commons 124 to 29, but was defeated in the House of Lords. (ON, 4/05, p.2) 1804 nend In England John Barrow (1764-1848) was appointed Second Secretary to the Admiralty by Viscount Melville, a post which he held for forty years (apart from a short period in 1806-07 when there was a Whig government in power). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_John_Barrow,_1st_Baronet) 1804 nend Sir George Cayley, England?s ?father of aeronautics,? built and flew the world?s first successful model glider. (NPub, 2002, p.4) 1804 nend The Botanical Gardens of Antwerp, Belgium, began as a large herb garden dedicated to medicinal plants. (Hem., 7/95, p.27) 1804 nend A stone signal tower was built on Clare Island as part of a series along the Irish west coast in fear of an invasion by Napoleon. (SFEC, 4/12/98, p.T8) 1804 nend The Pere Lachaise Cemetery of Paris was founded. (SFC, 6/16/96, T-6) 1804 nend Empress Josephine, wife of Napoleon I, began a rose collection at Malmaison, and sparked a wide interest in rose culture. (SFC, 7/14/99, p.4) 1804 nend The Wahabis captured Medina, Arabia. (NW, 9/30/02, p.33) 1804 nend Immanuel Kant (b. 1724), German philosopher, died. His "categorical imperative" helped to ascertain the proper course under any circumstances: "Act only on the maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law." Kant had described how the sun and planets might have condensed from a primordial cloud with no divine intervention. (V.D.-H.K.p.40)(HN, 4/22/98)(SFC, 4/25/01, p.E5)(SFC, 6/17/02, p.A6) 1804 1866 Eliphalet Nott, Presbyterian minister, president of Union College during this period. UC was the first non-denominational college in the US. It emphasized practical education as well as classical studies. (WSJ, 3/21/95, p.A-12) 1804 1999 In 2000 Misha Glenny authored "The Balkans, 1804-1899." (WSJ, 5/1/00, p.A32) 1805 nend Jan 11, The Michigan Territory was created. (AP, 1/11/98) 1805 nend Jan 31, Mungo Park set sail from Portsmouth to Africa where he planned to navigate the Niger River to its mouth. (ON, 7/00, p.10) 1805 nend Feb 11, At Fort Mandan ND Sacajawea (16), the Shoshoni guide for Lewis & Clark, gave birth to a son, with Meriwether Lewis serving as midwife. Sacagawea, the young Native American girl who aided the Lewis and Clark Expedition, was of the Lemhi Shoshones, who made their home in what is now southeastern Idaho and southwestern Montana. About 1800 Sacagawea was captured by a Hidatsa raiding party at the Three Forks of the Missouri River. Sometime in 1804, she and another woman were purchased by French-Canadian fur trapper Toussaint Charbonneau, who lived among the Hidatsa and Mandan Indians, to be his wives. (HN, 2/11/99)(HNQ, 12/1/99)(AH, 2/05, p.17) 1805 nend Feb 18, Louis Malesherbes Goldsborough, Rear Admiral (Union Navy), was born. (MC, 2/18/02) 1805 nend Feb 26, Alexander Stulginskis, the 2nd president of Lithuania, was born at Kutaliai in the Silale region. He died Sep 22, 1969 in Kaunas. (LHC, 2/26/03) 1805 nend Mar 1, Chief Justice Samuel Chase was acquitted by the Senate ending the Republican campaign against the Federalist bench and discouraging subsequent administrations from using impeachment to remove politically obnoxious judges. (HNQ, 1/21/99) 1805 nend Mar 3, Louisiana-Missouri Territory formed. (SC, 3/3/02) 1805 nend Mar 4, Pres. Thomas Jefferson delivered his 2nd inaugural address. (http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570282_10/thomas_jefferson.html) 1805 nend Apr 2, Hans Christian Andersen (d.1875), author of 150 fairy tales, was born in Odense, Denmark. (CFA, '96, p.44)(HN, 4/2/98)(AP, 4/2/99) 1805 nend Apr 7, Francis Wilkinson Pickens (d.1869), (Gov SC, Confederacy), was born. (MC, 4/7/02) 1805 nend Apr 7, Beethoven conducted the premiere of his "Eroica" symphony. It was 1st published in Vienna. (MC, 4/7/02)(WSJ, 5/20/03, p.A1) 1805 nend Apr 24, U.S. Marines attacked and captured the town of Derna in Tripoli from the Barbary pirates. [see Apr 27] (HN, 4/24/99) 1805 nend Apr 27, US navy ships began to bombard the Tripoli port of Derna. Mercenaries gathered in Egypt and a small contingent of US Marines under former Tunis consul William Eaton attacked Tripoli and captured the city of Derna [later part of Libya]. (AP, 4/27/97)(HN, 4/27/98)(ON, 10/06, p.9) 1805 nend May 1, The state of Virginia passed a law requiring all freed slaves to leave the state, or risk either imprisonment or deportation. (HN, 5/1/99) 1805 nend May 9, Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller (45), poet, playwright, died in Weimar. (MC, 5/9/02)(SSFC, 8/1/04, p.D10) 1805 nend May 14, Johann Peter Emilius Hartmann, composer, was born. (MC, 5/14/02) 1805 nend May 25, William Paley (b.1805), orthodox Anglican writer, died. He is remembered today primarily for classical formulation of the teleological argument for the existence of God. Arguing from the analogy of a watch and watchmaker, Paley suggested that the analogy offered evidence that the universe includes order and design, hence a Designer. no_source 1805 nend May 26, Lewis and Clark first saw the Rocky Mountains. (MC, 5/26/02) 1805 nend May 26, Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned king of Italy. [see May 28} (AP, 5/26/97) 1805 nend May 28, Napoleon was crowned in Milan, Italy. [see May 26] (HN, 5/28/98) 1805 nend May 28, Ridolfo Luigi Boccherini (62), Italian composer, cellist (Minuet), died. (MC, 5/28/02) 1805 nend Jun 4, The US signed a Treaty of Peace and Amity at Tripoli. The US agreed to pay Tripoli $60,000 in war reparations and was in turn absolved of tribute demands. The treaty was ratified by the US on Apr 17, 1806. (ON, 2/03,p.4)(www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/diplomacy/barbary/bar1805t.htm) 1805 nend Jun 14, Robert Anderson (d.1871), Bvt. Major General (Union Army), defender of Ft. Sumpter, was born. (MC, 6/14/02) 1805 nend Jul 19, Members of the Lewis & Clark expedition made their way up river through the limestone walled gorge they called the Gates of the Mountains on the Missouri River in Montana. (GOTM, brochure) 1805 nend Jul 25, Aaron Burr visited New Orleans with plans to establish a new country, with New Orleans as the capital city. (HN, 7/25/98) 1805 nend Jul 26, Constantine Brumidi, artist (Myrtle Murdock), was born. (MC, 7/26/02) 1805 nend Jul 26, Naples and Calabria were struck by an earthquake and some 26,000 died. (MC, 7/26/02) 1805 nend Jul 29, Alexis de Tocqueville (d.1859), French historian who wrote "Democracy in America, was born." "America is a land of wonders, in which everything is in constant motion and every change seems an improvement." (HN, 7/29/98)(AP, 1/20/01) 1805 nend Aug 3, Mohammed Ali became the new ruler of Egypt. (HN, 8/3/98) 1805 nend Aug 4, William Rowan Hamilton (d.1865), Irish scientist, was born. (HN, 8/4/00) 1805 nend Aug 9, Austria joined Britain, Russia, Sweden and the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia in the Third Coalition against Napoleonic France and Spain. (HN, 8/9/98)(HNQ, 10/19/98) 1805 nend Sep 23, Lieutenant Zebulon Pike paid $2,000 to buy from the Sioux a 9-square-mile tract at the mouth of the Minnesota River that would be used to establish a military post, Fort Snelling. (HN, 9/23/98) 1805 nend Sep 30, Napoleon's army entered the Rhine valley. (MC, 9/30/01) 1805 nend Oct 17, Vice Adm. Horatio Nelson wrote a letter to the governor, Rear Admiral John Knight just four days before the historic Battle of Trafalgar, in which Nelson was killed. In it Nelson declared he was "anxious for an Easterly wind," as that would encourage the enemy to leave port and finally face the British. (Reuters, 7/13/10) 1805 nend Oct 20, Austrian general Karl Mac surrendered to Napoleon?s army at the battle of Ulm. (HN, 10/20/98) 1805 nend Oct 21, A British fleet commanded by Vice Adm. Horatio Nelson defeated a French-Spanish fleet in the Battle of Trafalgar fought off Cape Trafalgar, Spain. Admiral Nelson won his greatest victory and though fatally wounded in the battle aboard his flagship, he lived long enough to see victory: "England expects every man to do his duty." The crew fittingly preserved his body in rum. Over 8,500 Englishmen, Frenchmen and Spaniards were lost in the battle or the hurricane that swept over the ships the next day. In 1807 Nelson?s surgeon William Beatty authored ?authentic narrative of the Death of Lord Nelson.? In 1999 Barry Unsworth authored the novel "Losing Nelson." In 2001 Joseph F. Callo edited "Nelson Speaks: Admiral Lord Nelson in His Own Words." In 2005 Adam Nicolson authored ?Men of Honour: Trafalgar and the Making of the English Hero;? Roy Adkins authored ?Nelson?s Trafalgar,? and Adam Nicolson authored ?Seize the Fire.? (WSJ, 5/24/01, p.A20)(Econ, 6/25/05, p.82)(WSJ, 8/19/05, p.W6)(ON,3/06, p.2)(Reuters, 7/13/10) 1805 nend Nov 7, Lewis and Clark reached the estuary of the Columbia River. (www.lewisandclarktrail.com/section4/wacities/chinook/1805history1.htm) 1805 nend Nov 14, Fanny Cecilia Mendelssohn Hensel, composer, was born. (MC, 11/14/01) 1805 nend Nov 18, The Lewis and Clark expedition reached the Pacific Ocean. (www.lewisandclarktrail.com/section4/wacities/chinook/1805history1.htm) 1805 nend Nov 19, Ferdinand de Lesseps, French diplomat and engineer (built Suez Canal), was born. (MC, 11/19/01) 1805 nend Nov 20, Beethoven's "Fidelio," premiered in Vienna. (MC, 11/20/01) 1805 nend Nov 28, John Stephens, US archaeologist, was born. He founded the study of Central America. (MC, 11/28/01) 1805 nend Dec 2, Napoleon Bonaparte celebrated the first anniversary of his coronation with a victory at Austerlitz over a Russian and Austrian army. (HN, 12/2/98) 1805 nend Dec 6, Nicholas-Jacques Conti (b.1755), French pencil maker, died in Paris. He created the number system used to rate pencil lead hardness: the higher the number, the harder the graphite. (SSFC, 1/23/05, p.C2) 1805 nend Dec 10, William Lloyd Garrison (d.1879), abolitionist publisher, was born in Newburyport, Mass. In 1831 he published "The Liberator." In 1998 Henry Mayer published "All On Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of American Slavery." (SFEC, 1/3/99, BR p.1)(MC, 12/10/01) 1805 nend Dec 12, Henry Wells, founder of American Express and Wells Fargo, was born. (MC, 12/12/01) 1805 nend Dec 23, Joseph Smith Junior (d.1844), principal founder of the Mormon religious movement, was born in Sharon, Vermont. (SFC, 4/9/96, A-7)(AP, 12/23/05) 1805 nend Dec 31, The French Revolutionary calendar law was abolished. France returned to the Gregorian calendar. (K.I.-365D, p.43)(MC, 12/31/01) 1805 nend Charles Willson Peale, American painter began his painting "The Exhumation of the Mastodon." It was based on an 1881 real exhumation in rural New York that helped topple biblically inspired beliefs of the history of the earth. (SFC, 1/25/97, p.E3) 1805 nend Pierre-Paul Prud?hon (1758-1823), French artist, painted "Empress Josephine at Malmaison." (WSJ, 4/8/98, p.A20) 1805 nend Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775-1851), English painter and printmaker, created his painting ?The Shipwreck.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._M._W._Turner) 1805 nend Leonore, the only opera by Beethoven, premiered. It later became known as "Fidelio" and was based on a play by Jean Nicolas Bouilly. (SFEC, 5/25/97, DB p.21) 1805 nend Louisiana passed legislation against sodomy. The law was upheld in 2002. (SFC, 11/23/02, p.A5) 1805 nend The Massachusetts state Legislature staged a mock impeachment trial of Pres. Jefferson. His affair with Sally Hemmings was one of the charges. (SFEC, 11/1/98, p.A1) 1805 nend The Philadelphia harbor was dredged with a high-pressure steam engine invented by Oliver Evans. He was unable to get a proper patent for it. (WSJ, 6/4/08, p.A19) 1805 nend As early as 1805, Bostonian Frederic Tudor (b.1783) considered ways to make money by exporting ice, a valueless commodity in New England, to the tropics. Tudor supported technical innovations, like the horse-drawn sleigh with saw-like runners, which improved the cutting, shipping and storage of large ice blocks. Recognizing that people living in warm climates were not familiar with cool food and drinks, Tudor traveled to prospective markets making ice cream and providing free ice for barkeepers. By 1856, Tudor's role as the "Ice King" was firmly established as 146,000 tons of ice shipped from Boston transformed the eating habits of people from the Philippines to the southern United States. (HNPD, 4/13/99) 1805 nend Napoleon defeated Austria and Prussia. In 1997 Alistair Horne wrote: "How Far from Austerlitz? Napoleon 1805-1815." (WSJ, 7/10/96, p.A16)(WSJ, 5/19/97, p.A16) 1805 nend Lord Charles Cornwallis, governor general of India, died in India. (HNQ, 9/9/02) 1805 nend Jean-Baptiste Greuze (b.1725), French artist, died. Diderot said: "This man draws like an angel." (WSJ, 5/14/02, p.D7) 1805 nend Prussia sent Baron Wilhelm von Humboldt as envoy to the Vatican, the first Protestant state to do so. (Econ, 7/21/07, p.59) 1805 nend Walter Scott (1771-1832) of Edinburgh, Scotland, published his first long poem: ?The Lay of the Last Minstrel.? (Econ, 7/31/10, p.67)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Scott) 1805 nend Spanish soldiers under Lt. Francisco Ruiz discovered badgers in a canyon during an expedition in southern California. The area was thus named El Tejon (the badger). (SFC, 5/9/08, p.A1) 1805 1815 The 1997 book by British historian Alistair Horne: "How Far From Austerlitz," covered this period Napoleon Bonaparte. (SFEC,11/2/97, Par p.10) 1805 1848 Khachatur Abovian, Armenian novelist, helped develop a nationalist literature. (Compuserve Online Enc. / Armenia) 1805 1848 Mehemet Ali (Muhammad Ali) served as the viceroy of Egypt. (WUD, 1994, p.892)(SSFC, 7/24/11, p.F7) 1805 1859 Alexis de Tocqueville, French writer and social observer. (V.D.-H.K.p.232) 1805 1882 Ralph Waldo Emerson, American essayist and poet, author of English Notes. [this date is incorrect, see 1803-1882] (V.D.-H.K.p.400) 1806 nend Jan 1, Bavaria was proclaimed as a kingdom. A crowning celebration for the crown prince Max Joseph, however, never took place. (http://spatenusa.com/timeline.html) 1806 nend Jan 8, Lewis & Clark found the skeleton of 105' blue whale in Oregon. (MC, 1/8/02) 1806 nend Jan 10, The Capitulation of Papendorp: The Dutch in Cape Town surrendered to a British fleet. (EWH, 4th ed, p.884) 1806 nend Jan 17, James Madison Randolph, Thomas Jefferson's grandson, was the 1st to be born in White House. His mother was Martha Randolph one of President Thomas Jefferson's two daughters, this was her 8th child. (AP, 1/17/06) 1806 nend Jan 23, William Pitt (46), the Younger, PM Great Britain (1783-1801 and 1804-1806), died. Pitt was the founder of the modern Conservative Party. In 2004 William Hague authored the biography ?William Pitt The Younger.? (http://dspace.dial.pipex.com/town/terrace/adw03/pms/pitt.htm)(WSJ,2/9/05, p.D10) 1806 nend Feb 11, Vicente Martin y Soler (51), composer, died. (MC, 2/11/02) 1806 nend Feb 22, James Barry (b.1741), Irish-born Neoclassical painter, died. (www.artnet.com/library/00/0065/T006539.asp)(Econ, 2/18/06, p.78) 1806 nend cFeb, Mungo Park drowned in the Niger River during an attack by armed men near Bussa. He had traveled some 1500 miles down the Niger River. (ON, 7/00, p.12) 1806 nend Mar 6, Elizabeth Barrett Browning (d.1861), English poet, was born in Durham, England. She wrote "Sonnets from the Portuguese." "Since when was genius found respectable?" (AP, 3/6/98)(HN, 3/6/99)(AP, 8/12/99) 1806 nend Mar 16, Norbert Rillieux, inventor (sugar refiner), was born. (MC, 3/16/02) 1806 nend Mar 21, Lewis and Clark began their trip home after an 8,000 mile trek of the Mississippi basin and the Pacific Coast. [see Mar 23] (HN, 3/21/01) 1806 nend Mar 21, Mexican statesman Benito Juarez, who was Mexico?s first president of Indian ancestry, was born in Oaxaca. (AP, 3/21/97) 1806 nend Mar 23, Explorers Lewis and Clark, having reached the Pacific coast, began their journey back East. Lewis and Clark reached the Pacific Coast. [see Mar 21] (AP, 3/23/97)(HN, 3/23/98) 1806 nend Mar 29, President Thomas Jefferson commissioned the National Road, the first federally financed interstate. Although it took decades to finish, the National Road helped open the land west of the Appalachians to settlers and commerce. It was later lengthened, paved and renamed U.S. 40, but was eclipsed in the 1960s by Interstate 70, a parallel superhighway. (AP, 6/3/06) 1806 nend Mar 30, In England Lady Georgiana Cavendish, an adept negotiator for the Whigs, died at age 49. In 1999 Amanda Foreman authored "Georgiana," a biography of Georgiana Spencer. (WSJ, 1/7/00, p.W4) 1806 nend Mar, Frederic Tudor arrived in the brigantine Favorite at a Martinique port with 130 toms of New England ice. An anticipated icehouse and his partners were nowhere to be found, so Tudor peddled the ice directly from the ship and convinced a local restaurateur to sell the previously unknown dessert, ice cream. Despite his efforts, Tudor lost $4,000 on the venture, the first of several setbacks throughout his rocky business career. (HNQ, 1/6/01) 1806 nend Apr 4, Friedrich Gottlob Fleischer (84), composer, died. (MC, 4/4/02) 1806 nend Apr 5, Isaac Quintard patented apple cider. (MC, 4/5/02) 1806 nend Apr 10, Leonidas Polk (d.1864), bishop, Lt Gen (Confederate Army), was born. (MC, 4/10/02) 1806 nend Apr 13, Jean-Jacques Bachelier (~82), French painter, died. (MC, 4/13/02) 1806 nend Apr, Nicolai Rezanov (42), a director of the Russian-American Co., arrived in SF aboard the Juno. He had proposed a California outpost to serve the Russian colonies in Alaska and sailed south to establish a settlement on the Columbia River but could not land there due to difficult seas. He sailed south to the Presidio at Monterey and negotiated a trade deal with Commander Jose Arguello. He also fell in love with Concepcion Arguello (d.1857), the daughter of Commander Arguello, and proposed marriage. He died that winter while crossing Siberia. (SFEC, 3/23/97, p.T5)(SFC, 2/18/06, p.A1) 1806 nend May 6, Chapin Aaron Harris, founder of the America Society of Dental Surgeons, was born. (MC, 5/6/02) 1806 nend May 12, J.V. Snellman, Finnish journalist, statesman and nationalist, was born. The day is remembered in Finland as Snellman day. (SC, Internet, 5/12/97) 1806 nend May 20, John Stuart Mill (d.1873), British philosopher and economist, was born. He promoted utilitarianism and is known as the last great economist of the classical school. He authored "Principles of Political Economy" wherein in theorized that production was the real basis for economic law. He felt that the market was capable of allocating resources but not of distributing income. "If all mankind minus one, were of one opinion, and only one person were of the contrary opinion, mankind would be no more justified in silencing that one person, than he, if he had the power, would be justified in silencing mankind." (V.D.-H.K.p.253)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R20)(AP, 1/13/00)(HN, 5/20/01) 1806 nend May 21, Nicolai Rezanov (1764-1806), a director of the Russian-American Co., departed SF for Sitka, Alaska. He died that winter while crossing Siberia. (SFEC, 3/23/97, p.T5)(SFC, 2/18/06, p.A1) 1806 nend Jun 12, John Roebling, civil engineer, pioneer in designing suspension bridges, was born. (HN, 6/12/01) 1806 nend Jun 27, Buenos Aires was captured by British. [see Jul 5] (SC, 6/27/02) 1806 nend Jun, Lord Elgin was paroled by the French government. (ON, 11/99, p.4) 1806 nend Jul 3, Michael Keens exhibited the 1st cultivated strawberry. (MC, 7/3/02) 1806 nend Jul 5, A Spanish army repelled the British during their attempt to retake Buenos Aires, Argentina. (HN, 7/5/98) 1806 nend Jul 10, George Stubbs (b.1724), British artist, died. His work included the publication ?Anatomy of the Horse? (1766). (WSJ, 4/28/05, p.D8)(www.abcgallery.com/S/stubbs/stubbsbio.html) 1806 nend Jul 12, The Confederation of the Rhine was established in Germany. (HN, 7/12/98) 1806 nend Jul 12, Napoleon granted Liechtenstein sovereignty. (AP, 7/12/06) 1806 nend Jul 15, Lieutenant Zebulon Pike began his famous western expedition from Fort Belle Fountaine, near St. Louis, Missouri. Pike was the US Army officer who in 1805 led an exploring party in search of the source of the Mississippi River. (HN, 7/15/99)(MC, 7/15/02) 1806 nend Aug 6, The Holy Roman Empire went out of existence as Emperor Francis I abdicated. (AP, 8/6/97) 1806 nend Aug 10, Johann Michael Haydn (68), composer, died. (MC, 8/10/02) 1806 nend Aug 22, Jean-Honore Fragonard (74), French painter, engraver, died. (MC, 8/22/02) 1806 nend Sep 20, Explorers Meriwether Lewis and William Clark passed the French village of La Charette, the first white settlement they had seen in more than two years. (HN, 9/20/98) 1806 nend Sep 23, The Lewis and Clark expedition returned to St. Louis from the Pacific Northwest over three years after its departure. In 2004 Larry E. Morris authored ?The Fate of the Corps,? a look at what happened to all the members of the expedition. (AP, 9/23/97)(HN, 9/23/98)(WSJ, 7/2/04, p.W10) 1806 nend Oct 7, Carbon paper was patented in London by inventor Ralph Wedgewood. (MC, 10/7/01) 1806 nend Oct 8, British forces laid siege to French port of Boulogne using Congreve rockets, invented by Sir William Congreve. (MC, 10/8/01) 1806 nend Oct 14, The forces of French Emperor Napoleon I defeated the Prussians in the twin battles of Jena and Auerstadt. (AP, 10/14/07) 1806 nend Oct 17, Jean-Jacques Dessalines (b.1758), Emp. Jacques I of Haiti, was assassinated. (www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/43a/168.html) 1806 nend Oct 27, Emperor Napoleon entered Berlin. (HN, 10/27/98) 1806 nend Nov 16, Moses Cleaveland (52), the land surveyor for whom the city of Cleveland is named, died in Canterbury, Conn. (AP, 11/16/06) 1806 nend Nov 13, The 14,110-foot Pike's Peak was discovered, but not climbed, by Lieutenant Zebulon Montgomery Pike during an expedition to locate the source of the Mississippi. Explorations by Lt. Zebulon Pike and Kit Carson mapped out much of the state. [see Nov 15] (HN, 11/13/98)(Time, 1990s Almanac CD) 1806 nend Nov 13, Emilija Pliateryt?, Lithuanian rebel leader, was born in Vilnius, Lithuania. In 1831 she organized a rebel detachment in Dusetos with her cousin Cesar Pliateris (1810-1869) and both took an active part in the uprising. [see Dec 23, 1831] (http://www.mmlab.ktu.lt/mmlab/ZarasaiE/zmo/za_pli.htm) 1806 nend Nov 15, 1st US college magazine, Yale Literary Government, published its 1st issue. (MC, 11/15/01) 1806 nend Nov 15, Explorer Zebulon Pike discovered the Colorado mountaintop, originally called "The Long One" by Ute Indians, and now known as Pikes Peak. Lt. Pike was leading a survey party into the newly acquired Louisiana Purchase when he spotted the snow capped peak in the distance. He didn?t climb it. [see Nov 13] (AP, 11/15/97)(HN, 11/15/98)(MC, 11/15/01) 1806 nend Nov 21, In the Decree of Berlin Emperor Napoleon banned all trade with England. (MC, 11/21/01) 1806 nend Nov 28, French forces led by Joachim Murat entered Warsaw. (AP, 11/28/06) 1806 nend Dec 3, Henry Alexander Wise (d.1876), Brig General (Confederate Army), was born. (MC, 12/3/01) 1806 nend Dec 26, Napoleon?s army was checked by the Russians at the Battle of Pultusk. (HN, 12/26/98) 1806 nend Jean-Gabriel Charvet painted his wallpaper panel "Savages of the Pacific Ocean." (SFEC, 6/7/98, Z1 p.2) 1806 nend Jean Ingres painted his magnificent: "Napoleon I on His Imperial Throne." (WSJ, 5/28/99, p.W12) 1806 nend In London James Beresford published his bestselling book ?The Miseries of Human Life, or the groans of Samuel Sensitive and Timothy Testy. With a few supplementary sighs from Mrs. Testy. In twelve dialogues.? (http://search.abaa.org/dbp2/book336754032.html) 1806 nend Charles and Mary Lamb authored ?Tales from Shakespeare.? [see 1796: Mad Mary Lamb] (WSJ, 2/18/05, p.W6) 1806 nend Noah Webster (1758-1843), a Connecticut schoolmaster, published a short dictionary. He then began work on a longer work: ?An American Dictionary of the English language,? which was completed in England 1825 and published as a 2-volume set in 1828. (ON, 12/09, p.9) 1806 nend Wordsworth (1770-1850) composed the lines: "The world is too much with us." (NOHY, 3/90, p.163) 1806 nend A catalog of the plants at Elgin Botanical Garden was published. This was the first botanical garden in NYC and was located at what later became Rockefeller Center. (WSJ, 7/7/98, p.A14) 1806 nend A printed reference to a mixed drink cocktail first appeared in the US. (SFC,12/24/97, Z1 p.6) 1806 nend William Strickland, architect of the first Town Hall in New York, introduced the technique of the suspension bridge in the United States, which he learned in France. (AP, 5/3/03) 1806 nend In Baltimore, Maryland, ground was broken for a cathedral designed by Benjamin Henry Latrobe. Bungles and war delayed dedication until 1821. In 1937 Pope Pius XI elevated the cathedral to a basilica. (WSJ, 11/2/06, p.D8) 1806 nend Jesse Wood of Poughkeepsie, N.Y. was tried for the murder of his son. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.20) 1806 nend Aaron Burr, Vice-President under Thomas Jefferson, was implicated in a reputed plot among northeastern Federalists to break up the Union rather than to submit to four more years of Republican rule. One of the goals of the Burr Conspiracy was to separate Louisiana and other Western states from the Union and establish an empire with Burr at the head. Aaron Burr, formerly vice president under Thomas Jefferson, had recently slain Alexander Hamilton in a duel in July 1804 when he began plotting a movement to separate the Western states from the Union. Burr was later tried for treason in federal court and acquitted. Burr was captured in 1806 on the Ohio River and charged with recruiting forces to further plot the disunion. (A&IP, ESM, p.28)(HNQ, 11/30/98) 1806 nend Shoemakers in Philadelphia formed a union. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R27) 1806 nend Ye Old Pepper Companie was founded in Salem, Mass., USA. It claims to be the country?s oldest candy company. (Hem., Dec. ?95, p.35) 1806 nend NYC Mayor DeWitt Clinton, having read the work of Englishman Joseph Lancaster, formed the New York Free School Society to found Lancastrian schools. (ON, 3/06, p.10) 1806 nend Andrew Jackson killed Charles Dickinson in a duel over a debt owed on a horse race bet. Jackson was struck in the chest by Dickinson?s shot but returned fire and killed his opponent. "I should have hit him," he reportedly said, "if he had shot me through the brain." His duel with Dickinson was one of several the often ill-tempered Jackson engaged in. Jackson, who became the seventh U.S. president in 1829, carried Dickinson?s bullet in his chest until he died in 1845. (HNQ, 3/22/00) 1806 nend Lord Grenville succeeded William Pitt as British prime minister. (ON, 4/05, p.3) 1806 nend The British wrested power over South Africa from the Dutch and prompt the Boer farmers to later move into the interior. (NG, Oct. 1988, p. 564) 1806 nend The British began the construction of Dartmoor Prisoner to house French soldiers captured in the Napoleonic Wars. It was capable of housing 10,500 prisoners and 2,000 guards. (AH, 10/02, p.33) 1806 nend In Paris the 3-mile Canal St. Marten waterway was built to connect the Seine to northeast France. (SFEC, 6/28/98, p.T7) 1806 nend Napoleon issued his Berlin Decrees. They established the Continental System to restrict European trade with Britain. (WSJ, 7/10/96, p.A16) 1806 nend Napoleon ordered that all French citizens be vaccinated against smallpox. (NW, 10/14/02, p.50) 1806 nend Apr 21, Saudi Arabs led Sunni raids into Najaf, Iraq, killing about 5,000 people. (Econ, 10/11/08, p.65)(http://tinyurl.com/5qdnf3) 1806 nend A ruling by the Spanish king set a boundary between Honduras and Nicaragua projecting eastward along the 15th parallel from the mouth of the Coco River. In 1999 Nicaragua filed a border case against Honduras with the UN. It was resolved in 2007. (AP, 10/8/07) 1806 1813 Trieste was held under French rule. (www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Rotunda/2209/Trieste.html) 1806 1914 In 1996 Public Broadcasting featured "The West," a historical documentary covering this period in the US. (SFC, 7/17/96, p.E5) 1807 nend Jan 2, Lord Grenville presented to British Parliament a ?Bill for the Abolition of the Slave Trade,? effective May 1. He introduced it directly to the House of Lords. It passed the House of Lords by 64 votes and cleared the House of Commons on March 25. (ON, 4/05, p.3) 1807 nend Jan 7, Responding to Napoleon's blockade of the British Isles, The British blockaded Continental Europe. (HN, 1/7/99) 1807 nend Jan 11, Ezra Cornell, founder of Western Union Telegraph and Cornell University (NY), was born in Westchester, NY. (AP, 1/11/07) 1807 nend Jan 19, Robert E. Lee, the commander-in-chief of the Civil War Confederate Armies, was born in Stratford, Va. (AP, 1/19/98)(HN, 1/19/99) 1807 nend Jan 20, Napoleon convened the great Sanhedrin in Paris. (MC, 1/20/02) 1807 nend Jan 22, President Thomas Jefferson exposed a plot by Aaron Burr to form a new republic in the Southwest. (HN, 1/22/99) 1807 nend Jan 28, London's Pall Mall was 1st street lit by gaslight. (MC, 1/28/02) 1807 nend Feb 5, Pasquale Paoli (80), Corsican freedom fighter, died. (MC, 2/5/02) 1807 nend Feb 8, At Eylau, Poland, Napoleon?s Marshal Pierre Agureau attacked Russian forces in a heavy snowstorm. Like Napoleon, to whom he is most often compared, Alexsandr Suvorov believed that opportunities in battle are created by fortune but exploited by intelligence, experience and an intuitive eye. To him, mastery of the art and science of war was not, therefore, purely instinctive. Napoleon?s forces ran low on supplies at Eylau and ate their horses. (HN, 2/7/97)(WSJ, 9/21/05, p.A8) 1807 nend Feb 9, French Sanhedrin was convened by Napoleon. (MC, 2/9/02) 1807 nend Feb 19, Former Vice President Aaron Burr was arrested in Alabama. He was subsequently tried for treason and acquitted. [see May 22, Sep 1] (HN, 2/19/98)(AP, 2/19/98) 1807 nend Feb 24, In a crush to witness the hanging of Holloway, Heggerty and Elizabeth Godfrey in England 17 died and 15 were wounded. (MC, 2/24/02) 1807 nend Feb 27, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (d.1882), was born in Portland, Maine. He was an American poet famous for "The Children's Hour," and "Evangeline." "What is time? The shadow on the dial, the striking of the clock, the running of the sand, day and night, summer and winter, months, years, centuries?these are but arbitrary and outward signs, the measure of Time, not Time itself. Time is the Life of the soul." (AP, 10/11/97)(AP, 2/27/98)(HN, 2/27/99) 1807 nend Mar 2, Congress banned slave trade effective January 1, 1808. The further importation of slaves was abolished but an inter-American slave trade continued. (V.D.-H.K.p.276)(WSJ, 12/16/97, p.A18)(WSJ, 10/19/98, p.A24)(SC, 3/2/02) 1807 nend Mar 5, 1st performance of Ludwig von Beethoven's 4th Symphony in B. (MC, 3/5/02) 1807 nend Mar 25, William Wilberforce (1759-1833), evangelical member of Parliament, piloted a slave-trade abolition bill through the British House of Commons. This led to a labor problem in South Africa. In 1833 Britain abolished slavery throughout the British Empire when the Slavery Abolition Bill was read a third time (HN, 3/24/98)(WSJ, 5/26/04,p.A8)(www.anti-slaverysociety.addr.com/huk-wilberforce.htm) 1807 nend Mar 25, 1st railway passenger service began in England. (MC, 3/25/02) 1807 nend Apr 4, Joseph Jerome Le Francaise de Lalande, French astronomer, died. (MC, 4/4/02) 1807 nend Apr 18, Erasmus Darwin, physician, writer (Influence), died. (MC, 4/18/02) 1807 nend Apr 20, Aloysius Bertrand ("Gaspard de la Nuit"), French poet, was born. (HN, 4/20/01) 1807 nend May 1, John Bankhead "Prince John" Magruder, Major General (Confederate Army), was born. (MC, 5/1/02) 1807 nend May 22, The treason trial of former VP Aaron Burr began in Richmond, Va. [see Sep 1] (PCh, 1992, p.367)(MC, 5/22/02) 1807 nend May 22, Townsend Speakman 1st sold fruit-flavored carbonated drinks in Phila. (MC, 5/22/02) 1807 nend May 28, Jean Louis Agassiz (d.1873), Swiss naturalist and educator, was born. He wrote a succession of papers [1840] outlining continental glaciation not only of Europe but of North America. (DD-EVTT, p.129)(AHD,1971, p.24)(HN, 5/28/01) 1807 nend Jun 25, Napoleon I of France and Russian Czar Alexander I met near Tilsit, in northern Prussia, to discuss terms for ending war between their empires. (AP, 6/25/07) 1807 nend Jun 22, British officers of the HMS Leopard boarded the USS Chesapeake after she had set sail for the Mediterranean, and demanded the right to search the ship for deserters. Commodore James Barron refused and the British opened fire with broadsides on the unprepared Chesapeake and forced her to surrender. The British provocation led to the War of 1812. (NG, Sept. 1939, p.363)(HN, 6/22/98) 1807 nend Jun 24, A grand jury in Richmond, Va., indicted former Vice President Aaron Burr on charges of treason and high misdemeanor. He was later acquitted. (AP, 6/24/07) 1807 nend Jun 25, Napoleon I of France and Russian Czar Alexander I met near Tilsit, in northern Prussia, to discuss terms for ending war between their empires. (AP, 6/25/07) 1807 nend Jul 2, In the wake of the Chesapeake incident, in which the crew of a British frigate boarded an American ship and forcibly removed four suspected deserters, President Thomas Jefferson ordered all British ships to vacate U.S. territorial waters. (AP, 7/2/07) 1807 nend Jul 4, Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) Italian military leader, was born in Nice, France. He led the movement to make Italy one nation. (HN, 7/4/98)(IB, Internet, 12/7/98) 1807 nend Jul 7, Napoleon I of France and Czar Alexander I of Russia signed a treaty at Tilsit ending war between their empires. It divided Europe among themselves and isolated Britain. (HN, 7/7/98)(AP, 7/7/07) 1807 nend Aug 3, Former Vice President Aaron Burr went on trial before a federal court in Richmond, Va., charged with treason. He was acquitted less than a month later. (AP, 8/3/07) 1807 nend Aug 11, David Atchison, legislator, was born. He was president pro tempore of the U.S. Senate, and president of U.S. for one day [March 4, 1849], the Sunday before Zachary Taylor was sworn in. (MC, 8/11/02) 1807 nend Aug 11, The Eclipse, a Yankee fur trading vessel, sank in the Shumagin Islands, south of the Alaska Peninsula. It is the oldest known American shipwreck in Alaska and as of 2007 had not been found. (AP, 10/8/07) 1807 nend Aug 17, Robert Fulton?s "North River Steam Boat" (popularly, if erroneously, known to this day as the Clermont) began heading up New York?s Hudson River on its successful round-trip to Albany. It was 125 feet (142-feet) long and 20 feet wide with side paddle wheels and a sheet iron boiler. He averaged 5 mph for the 300-mile round trip. (SFC, 6/20/98, p.F4)(WSJ, 9/21/01, p.A22)(AP, 8/17/07) 1807 nend Aug 18, Charles Francis Adams (d.1886), U.S. diplomat and public official whose father was John Quincy Adams, was born. (AHD, 1971, p.14)(HN, 8/18/98) 1807 nend Aug 18, Robert Stevenson (1772-1850) began work on the 117-foot Bell Rock lighthouse at the mouth of Scotland?s Firth of Forth based on a proposal he submitted in 1800. The lighthouse began operating on Feb 1, 1811. (ON, 5/06, p.6) 1807 nend Aug 19, Robert Fulton's North River Steamboat arrived in Albany, two days after leaving New York. (AP, 8/19/07) 1807 nend Aug 21, Robert Fulton's North River Steamboat set off from Albany on its return trip to New York, arriving some 30 hours later. (AP, 8/21/07) 1807 nend Sep 1, Former Vice President Aaron Burr was found innocent of treason. [see 1806] Burr had been arrested in Mississippi for complicity in a plot to establish a Southern empire in Louisiana and Mexico. Burr was then tried on a misdemeanor charge, but was again acquitted. no_source 9 nend /1/07) no_source 1807 nend Sep 2, British forces began bombarding Copenhagen for several days, until the Danes agreed to surrender their naval fleet. (AP, 9/2/07) 1807 nend Sep 4, Robert Fulton began operating his steamboat. [see Aug 17] (MC, 9/4/01) 1807 nend Sep 7, Denmark surrendered to British forces that had bombarded the city of Copenhagen for four days. (AP, 9/7/07) 1807 nend Sep 15, Former Vice President Aaron Burr was acquitted of a misdemeanor charge two weeks after he was found innocent of treason. (AP, 9/15/07) 1807 nend Oct 17, Britain declared it would continue to reclaim British-born sailors from American ships and ports regardless of whether they held US citizenship. (AP, 10/17/07) 1807 nend Dec 14, A number of meteorites fell onto Weston, Connecticut. (Econ, 12/23/06, p.122) 1807 nend Dec 17, John Greenleaf Whittier, American poet, was born in Haverhill, Mass. He was an abolitionist, reformer and founder of the Liberal Party. (HN, 12/17/99)(AP, 12/17/07) 1807 nend Dec 22, Congress passed the Embargo Act, designed to force peace between Britain and France by cutting off all trade with Europe. It was hoped that the act would keep the United States out the European Wars. (AP, 12/22/97)(HN, 12/22/98) 1807 nend The US Congressional Cemetery near Capital Hill was established. (WSJ, 10/16/98, p.A1) 1807 nend The US Survey of the Coast formed. It later developed into the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). (www.photolib.noaa.gov/) 1807 nend Lieutenant Zebulon Montgomery Pike strayed beyond the limits of the territory into the Spanish-held territory of New Mexico, and was accused of spying by Spanish authorities. The Spaniards released Pike and his men after they could find no evidence against him. Pike?s explorations the previous November had taken him to the Rockies, where he reached the base of a mountain that would later be named Pikes Peak in his honor. Pike?s mission was to explore the southwestern limits of the Louisiana Territory, the vast tract of land that the United States had purchased from France in 1803 in a deal known as the Louisiana Purchase. (HNQ, 7/15/02) 1807 nend The Geological Society of London was born. It was the first body of men devoted to the earth sciences. (DD-EVTT, p.16) c 1807 nend Englishmen William and John Cockerill brought the Industrial Revolution to continental Europe around 1807 by developing machine shops in Liege, Belgium, transforming the country?s coal, iron and textile industries much as it had done in Britain. From roughly 1760 to about 1830, the Industrial Revolution largely occurred in Britain. Realizing the economic advantages, Britain did not allow the export of any machinery, methods or skilled men that might blunt its technological edge. Eventually, the lure of new opportunities convinced continental entrepreneurs and British businessmen to evade England?s official edict. (HNQ, 5/16/01) 1807 nend After Britain outlawed the slave trade people called ?Recaptives,? those freed from slave ships, were sent to join the settlers in Sierra Leone. The settlers formed a new tribe called the Kri and created a language called Krio. (MT, summer 2003, p.8) 1807 nend Zheng Yi Sao took over a confederation of pirates in the South China Sea about this time following the death if her husband. At its peak the confederation numbered some 50-70 thousand mend and controlled 800 large vessels. The group disbanded in 1810 under an offer of amnesty. (WSJ, 11/22/08, p.W2) 1807 nend In France Napoleon allied with Russia. (WSJ, 7/10/96, p.A16) 1807 nend Napoleon gave Danzig (later Gdansk) 6 years of formal independence. (WSJ, 8/31/98, p.A4) 1807 nend Ignace Playel founded a piano company in Paris, France. (SFC, 10/30/96, z1 p.8) 1807 nend Saud al-Saud invaded Karbala, Iraq, for the second time in 1807, but he could not occupy it. (www.islamicsupremecouncil.org/CMS/Topics/Wahhabism/118121372002.htm) 1807 nend In Naples, Italy, Major Leopold Hugo, the father of Victor Hugo, was promoted after a successful campaign against the Calabrian banditti. (WSJ, 2/10/98, p.A16) 1807 nend Serfdom was abolished in the Lithuanian territories known as Suvalkija and Dzukija as far as the Nemunas river. This area had been given to Prussia in the 1795 division and then included into the Warsaw Principality. (DrEE, 10/12/96, p.2) 1807 1808 Mustafa IV succeeded Selim III in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii) 1807 1809 A Jefferson imposed embargo kept American ships at home. [see Dec 22 1807] (SFC, 3/31/98, p.F4) 1807 1815 Britain and the Defeat of Napoleon, 1807-1915 by Rory Muir was published in 1996. (WSJ, 7/10/96, p.A16) 1807 1859 Gamaliel Bailey, American abolitionist: "Who never doubted, never half believed. Where doubt is, there truth is?it is her shadow." (AP, 1/27/98) 1807 1877 US Sen. John Petit. He once called the Declaration of Independence a "self-evident-lie" in reference to the freedom of blacks. (WSJ,2/12/97, p.A16) 1807 1881 Giovanni Ruffini, Italian writer: "Curses are like processions. They return to the place from which they came." (AP, 1/8/00) 1808 nend Jan 1, A US law banning the import of slaves came into effect, but was widely ignored. (HN, 1/1/99)(AP, 1/1/08) 1808 nend Jan 13, Salmon P. Chase, US Treasury secretary during the American Civil War and 6th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, was born. His picture was later put on the $10,000 bill. (HN, 1/13/99) 1808 nend Feb 11, Anthracite coal was 1st burned as fuel, experimentally, in Wilkes-Barre, Pa. (MC, 2/11/02) 1808 nend Feb 16, The Peninsular War began when Napoleon ordered a large French force into Spain under the pretext of sending reinforcements to the French army occupying Portugal. (MC, 6/21/02) 1808 nend Feb 20, Honoré Daumier (d.1879), French painter, sculptor, caricaturist and lithographer, was born in Marseilles. He painted Crispin and Scapin. (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.369)(WSJ, 3/10/00, p.W16)(HN, 2/20/01) 1808 nend Mar 1, In France, Napoleon created an imperial nobility. (HN, 3/1/99) 1808 nend Mar 6, 1st college orchestra in US was founded at Harvard. (MC, 3/6/02) 1808 nend Mar 15, Gaetano Gaspari, composer, was born. (MC, 3/15/02) 1808 nend Mar 19, Spain's King Charles IV abdicated. (AP, 3/19/03) 1808 nend Mar 23, Napoleon's brother Joseph took the throne of Spain. (SS, 3/23/02) 1808 nend Mar 27, Joseph Haydn?s oratorio "The Seasons," premiered in Vienna. (MC, 3/27/02) 1808 nend Mar 31, French created the Kingdom of Westphalia and ordered Jews to adopt family names. (MC, 3/31/02) 1808 nend Apr 13, William Henry Lane ("Juda") perfected the tap dance. (MC, 4/13/02) 1808 nend Apr 17, The Bayonne Decree by Napoleon I of France ordered the seizure of U.S. ships. (HN, 4/17/98) 1808 nend Apr 20, Charles Louis Napoleon (d.1873), nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, was born. He later served as president (1848-1852) and as emperor of France (1852-1870). (WUD, 1994, p.950)(WSJ, 1/13/98, p.A20)(HN, 4/20/98) 1808 nend Apr 30, Italian Pellegrini Turri built the 1st practical typewriter for the blind Countess Carolina Fantoni da Fivizono, the world's first typist. (SFEC, 1/10/99, Z1 p.8)(SFC, 7/26/00, p.D3)(MC, 4/30/02) 1808 nend May 2, The citizens of Madrid rose up against Napoleon. It culminated in a fierce battle fought out in the Puerta del Sol, Madrid's central square. The Spanish were defeated, and during the night the French army lead by Grand Duke Joachim Murat slaughtered hundreds of citizens along the Prado promenade in reprisal. (HN, 5/2/98)(MC, 5/2/02) 1808 nend May 3, Spanish executions took place and were later commemorated in Goya?s painting "Executions of 3rd of May." (MC, 5/3/02) 1808 nend May 15, Michael William Balfe, composer ("The Bohemian Girl"), was born. (MC, 5/15/02) 1808 nend May 18, Jacob Albright [Albrecht] (49), German-US preacher, died. (SC, 5/18/02) 1808 nend May 21, Eston Hemmings was born to slave Sally Hemmings, who was owned by Thomas Jefferson. Genetic tests in 1998 showed that DNA from Jefferson's descendants was consistent with DNA from descendants of Hemmings. Some argued that Randolph Jefferson, brother of Thomas, was Eston's father. (USAT, 1/7/99, p.3A) 1808 nend May 30, Napoleon annexed Tuscany and gave it seats in French Senate. (MC, 5/30/02) 1808 nend Jun 1, The first US land-grant university was founded-Ohio Univ., Athens, Ohio. (DTnet, 6/1/97) 1808 nend Jun 3, Jefferson Davis -- the first and only president of the Confederacy -- was born in Christian County, Ky. He was imprisoned and indicted for treason, but the case was dropped. (AP, 6/3/97)(HN, 6/3/99) 1808 nend Jul 2, Simon Fraser completed his trip down Fraser River, BC. He landed at Musqueam. (SC, 7/2/02) 1808 nend Jul 9, A leather-splitting machine was patented by Samuel Parker of Billerica, MA. (MC, 7/9/02) 1808 nend Jul 20, Napoleon decreed that all French Jews adopt family names. (MC, 7/20/02) 1808 nend Jul 28, Sultan Mustapha IV of the Ottoman Empire was deposed and his cousin Mahmud II gained the throne and ruled to 1839. (HN, 7/28/98)(Ot, 1993, xvii) 1808 nend Aug 1, Joachim Murat (1767-1815), French marshal and Napoleon's brother in law, became king of Naples (1808-1815) and Sicily. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joachim_Murat) 1808 nend Aug 21, Napoleon Bonaparte's General Junot was defeated by Wellington at the first Battle of the Peninsular War at Vimiero, Portugal. (HN, 8/21/02) 1808 nend Sep 12, Jose Celestino Mutis (b.1732-1808), Spanish naturalist, died in Santa Fe de Bogote (Colombia). He spent 40 years on his unfinished work ?Flora de Nueva Granada.? (www.famousamericans.net/josecelestinomutis/) 1808 nend Oct 17, The political rights of Jews was suspended in Duchy of Warsaw. (MC, 10/17/01) 1808 nend Oct 24, Ernst Friedrich Richter, composer, was born. (MC, 10/24/01) 1808 nend Nov 22, Thomas Cook, founder (Cook travel bureau), was born. (MC, 11/22/01) 1808 nend Dec 1, Anton Fischer (30), composer, died. (MC, 12/1/01) 1808 nend Dec 7, Electors chose James Madison to be the fourth president of the United States in succession to Thomas Jefferson. (HN, 12/7/98)(AP, 12/7/08) 1808 nend Dec 21, Ludwig van Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 in C Minor and Symphony No. 6 in F Major had their world premieres in Vienna, Austria. (AP, 12/22/06) 1808 nend Dec 29, Andrew Johnson, the 17th president of the United States who succeeded Lincoln, was born in a 2-room shack in Raleigh, N.C. [Waxhaw, South Carolina] (AP, 12/29/97)(SFC, 12/21/98, p.A3)(HN, 12/29/98)(HNPD, 3/15/99) 1808 nend Yi Eung-nok, Korean court painter, was born. (SFC, 3/11/03, p.D1) 1808 nend Charles Willson Peale painted the only known portrait of his friend William Bartram, the naturalist. [see Bartram 1739-1823] (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.10) 1808 nend Pierre-Paul Prud?hon (1758-1823), French artist, painted "Justice and Divine Vengeance Pursuing Crime." (WSJ, 4/8/98, p.A20) 1808 nend Goethe completed the first part of Faust at the insistence of his friend, the poet Friedrich Schiller. Part two was not finished until a few months before Goethe's death. (V.D.-H.K.p.239) 1808 nend Heinrich von Kleist wrote his novella "Michael Kohlhaas." It later inspired the screenplay for a 1999 HBO movie "The Jack Bull," written by Dick Cusack. (WSJ, 4/15/99, p.A20) 1808 nend The libretto for Rossini?s "L?Italiana in Algeri" was written by Anelli. (WSJ, 8/12/97, p.A12) 1808 nend The first US newspaper west of the Mississippi was founded in St. Louis by Joseph Charles, an Irish refugee. He was financed by Meriwether Lewis, the local territorial governor, who needed someone to print the local laws. In 1998 David Dary published: "Red Blood and Black Ink: Journalism in the Old West." (SFEC, 3/8/98, BR p.6) 1808 nend In the 1st test of the US Constitution Chief Justice Marshall ruled in favor of Gideon Olmstead and against the state of Pennsylvania to enforce a 1779 decree that only the federal government, and not individual states, had the power to determine the legality of captures on the high seas. (ON, 12/01, p.9) 1808 nend John Dalton, chemist, argued that for each chemical element there is a corresponding atom, and that all else is made from a combination of those atoms. (NG, May 1985, , p. 642) 1808 nend Sir Humphrey Davy showed that electricity could produce heat or light between two electrodes separated in space and connected by an arc. (V.D.-H.K.p.269) 1808 nend The American whaling ship Topaz found one of the bounty mutineers living on Pitcairn Island among many women and children. The other men had all died mostly in conflict over the Tahitian women. (ON, 3/04, p.11) 1808 nend Napoleon chased Portugal?s royal family to Brazil. King Joao VI of Portugal and his court were installed in Rio de Janeiro by a British fleet. (Econ, 4/14/07, SR p.5)(Econ, 9/11/10, SR p.3) 1808 nend Napoleon codified the French educational curriculum. (Econ, 12/19/09, p.91) 1808 nend Emperor Alexander I of Russia met with Napoleon I at Erfurt, Thuringia, Ger. (Hem., Nov.?95, p.114) 1808 nend A 56-foot oarfish washed ashore in Scotland. This was the first documented sighting of the rare fish. (SFC, 12/4/10, p.A7) 1808 1814 The Duke of Wellington led the Peninsular Campaign wherein the British send troops to Spain to assist the Spanish revolt against Joseph Bonaparte. (WSJ, 1/6/95, A-10) 1808 1821 Rio de Janeiro was made the capital of the Portuguese empire. (USA Today, OW, 4/22/96, p.3) 1808 1830 In 2005 William Anthony Hay authored ?The Whig Revival, 1808-1830,? a picture of the British Whigs in the early 19th century. (WSJ, 4/6/05, p.D11) 1809 nend Jan 4, Louis Braille (d.1852), inventor of a universal reading system for the blind, was born in Coupvray, France. (AP, 1/4/98)(HN, 1/4/99) 1809 nend Jan 19, Edgar Allan Poe (d.1949), American writer, was born in Boston. His father, David Poe, was an Irish-American actor and abandoned his family shortly after Edgar?s birth. His mother, Elizabeth Arnold Hopkins, died in 1811 and he grew up with a foster family. Poe studied briefly at the University of Virginia, but then he quarreled with his foster father and went to Boston in 1827, where he published his first volume of poetry anonymously. In the early 1840s Poe became known for his lyrical, brooding poems and detective stories, such as "The Gold Bug" and "Murders at the Rue Morgue." In fact, he is recognized as the father of the modern detective story. Poe was unafraid to criticize literary practices of the time, stressing the importance of artistic value more than moral value. After battles with alcoholism and his wife Virginia's illness and death, Poe became depressed but continued to write. He became engaged again in 1849 but soon died at the age of 40. His best known stories include: "Fall of the House of Usher " and "The Tell-Tale Heart." His most famous poems are "The Raven" and Annabel Lee." "I hold that a long poem does not exist. I maintain that the phrase, 'a long poem,' is simply a flat contradiction in terms." (CFA, '96,Vol 179, p.38)(SFEC, 1/12/97, p.T5)(AP, 1/19/98)(HNPD,1/19/99)(AP, 1/29/99) 1809 nend Jan 20, The 1st US geology book was published by William Maclure. (MC, 1/20/02) 1809 nend Feb 3, US Congress passed an act establishing the Illinois Territory. (AP, 2/3/97) 1809 nend Feb 4, Louis Braille was born. He was blinded at age four as the result of an accident in his father's shop. Nevertheless, he became an accomplished organist and cellist and won a scholarship in 1819 to attend the National Institute for Blind Youth in Paris. At age 15, Louis witnessed a demonstration there by Charles Barbier, a soldier who had invented "night writing," a system of letters embossed on cardboard for silent communication along trenches. While Barbier's system was too complex to be practical, Braille simplified and adapted it to a six-dot code representing letters that enabled people with impaired vision to not only read but also write for themselves. In 1827, the first Braille book was published, but Braille himself died of tuberculosis at age 43--before his system gained widespread acceptance. (HNPD, 2/4/99) 1809 nend Feb 11, Robert Fulton patented the steamboat. (HN, 2/11/97) 1809 nend Feb 12, Charles Robert Darwin (d.1882) was born. He proposed that evolution was the principle that underlay the development of all species and that man, an animal, had evolved from nonhuman ancestors. Shortly after his graduation from Cambridge, Darwin sailed as a naturalist with the surveying ship HMS Beagle. All life, he said, is a struggle for existence and some species are better able to adapt to the environment and survive to pass along their characteristics. During the five-year voyage, Darwin's observations of wildlife led to the writing of his 1859 book "The Origin of the Species," in which he proposed the theory of natural selection. Besides the "Origin of the Species," he wrote three books on geology and devoted 8 years to his monograph on barnacles. His last book was "The Formation of Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms." In 1871 Darwin wrote "Descent of Man," which demonstrated that man and ape could have had a common ancestor. Darwin's theories were highly controversial and unsettling to those who believed in creationism. Many Victorians condemned Darwin as blasphemous, but many important scientists of the day agreed with his theories. "How can anyone not see that all observation must be for or against some view if it is to be of any service." (V.D.-H.K.p.281)(PacDis., Spg. 96, p.52)(NH, 2/97, p.69)(NH, 5/97,p.11)(HNPD, 2/13/99) 1809 nend Feb 12, Abraham Lincoln, 16th president of the US, was born in Hardin County (present-day Larue County), Kentucky. His father owned two 600-acre farms [time not given]. Lincoln was president of the United States during one of the most turbulent times in American history. Although roundly criticized during his own time, he is recognized as one of history's greatest figures who preserved the Union during the Civil War and proved that democracy could be a lasting form of government. Lincoln entered national politics as a Whig congressman from Illinois, but he lost his seat after one term due to his unpopular position on the Mexican War and the extension of slavery into the territories. The 1858 Lincoln-Douglas debates for the Senate gave him a national reputation. In 1860, Lincoln became the first president elected from the new Republican Party. Abraham Lincoln was fatally shot by John Wilkes Booth at Ford's Theater in Washington, D.C., on April 14, 1865. In 1996 a new biography of Abraham Lincoln by David Donald was published. (HN, 2/12/98)(AP, 2/12/98)(AHD, 1971, p.759)(WSJ, 2/10/95,p.A-8)(SFC, 9/1/96, Par. p.12)(HNPD, 2/12/99)(SFC, 4/30/99, p.E9) 1809 nend Feb 15, Cyrus Hall McCormick (d.1884), inventor of the mechanical reaper, was born. (MC, 2/15/02)(WUD, 1994 p.887) 1809 nend Feb 20, The Supreme Court ruled that the power of the federal government is greater than that of any individual state. (AP, 2/20/98) 1809 nend Mar 1, Embargo Act of 1807 was repealed and the Non-Intercourse Act signed. (SC, 3/1/02) 1809 nend Mar 4, Madison became 1st President inaugurated in American-made clothes. (SC, 3/4/02) 1809 nend Mar 12, Great Britain signed a treaty with Persia forcing the French out of the country. (HN, 3/12/99) 1809 nend Mar 15, Joseph Jenkins Roberts, first president of Liberia, was born. (HN, 3/15/98) 1809 nend Mar 27, Georges-Eugene Haussmann (d.1891), French town planner, was born. He designed modern-day Paris. (HN, 3/27/01)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baron_Haussmann) 1809 nend Mar 31, Edward Fitzgerald, American writer, was born. He is famous for writing "Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam." (HN, 3/31/99) 1809 nend Mar 31, Nikolai V. Gogol (d.1852), Ukrainian-born Russian writer, was born (NS) in Sorochyntsi, Poltava Governorate (later Ukraine). Some sources give April 1 as his birthday. His work included the play ?The Inspector General? (1836) and the novels ?Taras Bulba? (1835) and ?Dead Souls? (1842). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolai_Gogol)(WSJ, 4/14/09, p.D7) 1809 nend Mar 31, Otto Jonas Lindblad, composer, was born. (MC, 3/31/02) 1809 nend Apr 10, Austria declared war on France and her forces entered Bavaria. (HN, 4/10/99) 1809 nend Apr 20, Napoleon defeated Austria at Battle of Abensberg, Bavaria. (HN, 4/20/98) 1809 nend Apr 22, At the Battle at Eckmahl Napoleon beat Austrian archduke Karl. (MC, 4/22/02) 1809 nend Apr 23, Eugene-Prosper Prevost, composer, was born. (MC, 4/23/02) 1809 nend May 5, Mary Kies was 1st woman issued a US patent (weaving straw). (MC, 5/5/02) 1809 nend May 5, Citizenship was denied to Jews of Canton of Aargau, Switzerland. (MC, 5/5/02) 1809 nend May 17, The Papal States were annexed by France. Pope Pius VII responded by excommunicating Napoleon. (MC, 5/17/02)(PTA, 1980, p.502) 1809 nend May 24, Dartmoor Prison opened to house French prisoners of war. (MC, 5/24/02) 1809 nend May 31, Composer Franz Joseph Haydn died in Vienna, Austria on his 77th birthday. When Napoleon?s armies marched into Vienna, the commanding general posted guards in front of Haydn?s house to protect Haydn from trouble, and a young officer was sent to sing for the old man. (AP, 5/31/97)(WSJ, 1/8/98, p.A7) 1809 nend Jun 3, John "Christmas" Beckwith (58), composer, died. (MC, 6/3/02) 1809 nend Jun 6, Sweden declared independence and a constitutional monarchy was established. (MC, 6/6/02) 1809 nend Jun 8, Thomas Paine (b.1737), British born political essayist, died in poverty and obscurity in NYC at age 72. His revolutionary essays included ?Common Sense? (1776) and "The Rights of Man" (1991) and "The Age of Reason." His body was exhumed in 1819 by William Cobbett, shipped to England, and kept in an attic trunk till Cobbett died in 1835. Parts of his skeleton were later said to be sold at auction. In 2006 Craig Nelson authored ?Thomas Paine? and Harvey J. Kaye authored ?Thomas Paine and the Promise of America.? (HN, 1/29/99)(HNQ, 9/21/99)(SSFC, 4/1/01, p.A7)(WSJ, 9/22/06, p.W4) 1809 nend Jul 3, Joseph Quesne (62), composer, died. (MC, 7/3/02) 1809 nend Jul 5, Pope Pius VII was taken prisoner to France and held there until 1814. (PC, 1992 ed, p.371) 1809 nend Jul 5-1809 Jul 6, Napoleon beat Austria?s archduke Charles at the Battle of Wagram. He annexed the Illyrian Provinces (now part of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, and Montenegro), and abolished the Papal States. no_source 1809 nend Jul 16, A well-prepared revolutionary insurrection burst out in La Paz, Bolivia. (http://flagspot.net/flags/bo-l.html) 1809 nend Jul 27, In Bolivia a proclamation of independence of the La Paz colony, said to have been written by Priest Medina and the first proclamation of that kind, was released and sent to the other main cities of the colony, hoping they would support the uprising. (http://flagspot.net/flags/bo-l.html) 1809 nend Jul 27-1809 Jul 28, Arthur Wellesley led the British army to triumph against the Spanish King Joseph Bonaparte at Talavera de la Reina against a French army twice his size. For this he was made Lord (the Duke of) Wellington. (WSJ, 6/6/96, p.A15)(PC, 1992 ed, p.371) 1809 nend Aug 4, Hapsburg Emp. Francis I appointed Count Clemens von Metternich (36) minister of state. (PC, 1992 ed, p.371) 1809 nend Aug 6, Alfred Lord Tennyson (d.1892), English poet laureate (1850), was born. His work included: "The Charge of the Light Brigade." "Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers." (HN, 8/6/98)(AP, 10/6/00) 1809 nend Aug 10, Ecuador struck its first blow for independence from Spain. (AP, 8/10/97) 1809 nend Aug 29, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., poet, essayist and father of Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., was born. (HN, 8/29/98) 1809 nend Sep 27, Raphael Semmes (d.1877), Rear Admiral (Confederate Navy), was born. (MC, 9/27/01) 1809 nend Sep, The Old Price Riots broke out in England when Covent Garden manager John Philip Kemble raised ticket prices. The riots continued to December. (SFC, 12/31/08, p.E2) 1809 nend Oct 8, Hapsburg Emp. Francis I appointed Count Clemens von Metternich (36) foreign minister of Austria. (PC, 1992 ed, p.371)(ON, 5/04, p.1) 1809 nend Oct 11, Meriwether Lewis committed suicide at 35. [see Oct 12] (MC, 10/11/01) 1809 nend Oct 12, Meriwether Lewis, of the Lewis and Clark expedition, died under mysterious circumstances in St. Louis. [see Oct 11] (HN, 10/12/98) 1809 nend Oct 14, The Treaty of Schönbrunn ended hostilities between France and Austria. (PC, 1992 ed, p.371) 1809 nend Oct 22, Federico Ricci, composer, was born. (MC, 10/22/01) 1809 nend Oct 27, President James Madison ordered the annexation of the western part of West Florida. Settlers there had rebelled against Spanish authority. (HN, 10/27/98) 1809 nend Nov 13, John A.B. Dahlgren, US Union Lt Adm and inventor (Civil war Dahlgren cannon), was born. (MC, 11/13/01) 1809 nend Nov 22, Peregrine Williamson of Baltimore patented a steel pen. (MC, 11/22/01) 1809 nend Nov 27, Frances Anne "Fanny" Kemble (d.1893), Shakespearian actress, writer and anti-slavery activist, was born in London, England. Her work included "Journal of a Residence on a Georgia Plantation. She died in London. (WSJ, 9/21/00, p.A24)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanny_Kemble) 1809 nend Dec 9, William Barret Travis, Commander of the Texas troops at the battle of the Alamo, was born. (HN, 12/9/98) 1809 nend Dec 16, Napoleon Bonaparte was divorced from the Empress Josephine by an act of the French Senate. Metternich had convinced Francis I of Austria to offer his daughter Marie Louise as a bride to Napoleon. (AP, 12/16/97)(ON, 5/04, p.2) 1809 nend Dec 24, Kit Carson, one of the most famous mountain men and scouts in the West, was born in Kentucky. (HN, 12/24/98)(MC, 12/24/01) 1809 nend Dec 29, William Gladstone (1809-1898), British statesman and four times Prime Minister from 1868-1894, was born. He was called the Grand Old Man of Victorian England. He began as a devout Tory but moved over to the liberal camp. A biography by Roy Jenkins, "Gladstone," was published in 1995. (CFA, '96, p.60)(AHD, p.559)(WSJ, 1/14/03, p.D6) 1809 nend Dec 30, Wearing masks at balls was forbidden in Boston. (MC, 12/30/01) 1809 nend Dec, In Danville, Kentucky, Dr. Ephraim McDowell (1771-1830) performed a successfully surgery on Jane Crawford (45) in which he removed an ovary and a large tumor with no anesthesia. Crawford lived to age 78 and was the world?s first known survivor of an elective exploration of the abdomen and removal of an ovary. The story was later told by David Dary in ?Frontier Medicine: From the Atlantic to the Pacific 1492-1941? (2008). (ON, 12/99, p.11)(WSJ, 11/28/08, p.A13) 1809 nend William Cave created his painting "The Trusty Servant," a uniformed pig with a padlocked mouth. (WSJ, 11/26/03, p.D10) 1809 nend Lamarck wrote his classic "Philosophie zoologique." In 1997 this edition was valued at $3,500-$5,000. (NH, 5/96, p.22)(HT, 3/97, p.74) 1809 nend Boston?s Exchange Coffee House, which also contained a hotel and offices, opened and was said to be the largest building in the country. It burned down in 1818. (Econ, 11/24/07, p.91)(www.nmrls.org/news/nov07/mhl.shtml) 1809 nend Elizabeth Bayley Seton founded the Roman Catholic Sisters of Charity. She was later made a Catholic saint. (SFC, 3/30/97, Z1. p.6)(SFEC, 9/14/97, p.A18) 1809 nend Thomas Leiper laid the first railroad track in the US at Crum Creek, Pa. They were wooden. (SFC, 8/17/96, p.E5) 1809 nend Connecticut Sen. James Hillhouse proposed a constitutional amendment under which the president would be elected by lot from among the senators. (WSJ, 1/28/03, p.D6) 1809 nend Meriwether Lewis died of gunshot wounds near present-day Hohenwald, Tenn. It was uncertain whether he was killed or committed suicide. (SFC,12/17/97, p.A7) 1809 nend Bourne?s Pottery in Denby, Derbyshire, England, dates to this time. In 1850 it began using the J. Bourne & Son mark. (SFC, 4/12/06, p.G4) 1809 nend Nicholas Appert won a French prize of 12,000 francs for his method of keeping food in glass bottles. Napoleon had offered the prize with military needs in mind. (SFC, 9/19/07, p.G6) 1809 nend Lord Byron (1788-1824) traveled to Spain, Albania and Greece with John Cam Hobhouse and soon met with Ali Pasha. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Byron) 1809 nend King Kamehameha conquered and unified all the Hawaiian islands. (SSFC, 8/26/01, p.T9)(SSFC, 8/25/02, p.C5) 1809 nend Sibbet House at 26 Northumberland St. was constructed in a Georgian design in Edinburgh, Scotland. (SFC, 7/7/96, T8) 1809 nend Russia took the Aland island group from the Swedes and held it until the Russian Revolution. (WSJ, 12/5/97, p.A1) 1809 1817 James Madison served as President of the US. (A&IP, ESM, p.96b) 1809 1826 Civilians and soldiers who returned home from Napoleon?s expedition to Egypt (1798-1801) published during this period in serial form ?Description de l?Egypte? (The Description of Egypt), the most comprehensive view of Egypt to date. (SFC, 12/14/07, p.E3)(WSJ, 11/17/08, p.A17) 1809 1891 Alexander William Kinglake, English historian. (WUD, 1994, p.788) 1809 1894 Tryon Edwards, American clergyman: "One of the great lessons the fall of the leaf teaches, is this: Do your work well and then be ready to depart when God shall call." (AP, 9/22/97) 1809 1894 Oliver Wendell Holmes, American author: "A man may fulfill the object of his existence by asking a question he cannot answer, and attempting a task he cannot achieve." (AP, 8/10/98) 1809 1917 Finland was an autonomous grand duchy under the Czar of Russia. (WSJ, 12/17/98, p.A1) 1810 nend Jan 10, French church annulled the marriage of Napoleon I & Josephine. (MC, 1/10/02) 1810 nend Feb 20, Andreas Hofer (42), military leader (fought Napoleon's France), was executed. (MC, 2/20/02) 1810 nend Feb 28, The 1st US fire insurance joint-stock company was organized in Philadelphia. (MC, 2/28/02) 1810 nend Mar 1, Frederic Chopin (d.1849), Polish composer and pianist, was born. He studied in Poland but spent most of his adult life in Paris. He met George Sand in Paris in 1838 and they were together until 1847. His works include the Waltz #2 in C# Minor (1835). (BAAC PN, Chambers, 1/8/96)(HN, 3/1/98) 1810 nend Mar 2, Leo XIII (Vincenzo G Pecci), 256th Catholic Pope (1878-1903), was born. (HN, 3/2/99)(SC, 3/2/02) 1810 nend Mar 6, Illinois passed the 1st state vaccination legislation in US. (MC, 3/6/02) 1810 nend Mar 10, John McCloskey, president of St. Johns College, was born. (HN, 3/10/98) 1810 nend Mar 11, Emperor Napoleon of France was married by proxy to Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria. (AP, 3/11/98)(HN, 3/11/98) 1810 nend Apr 17, Lewis Norton of Troy, PA., introduced his pineapple cheese. (440 Int'l, 4/17/03) 1810 nend May 3, Lord Byron swam the Hellespont. (MC, 5/3/02) 1810 nend May 9, Louis Gallait, historical painter, was born. (MC, 5/9/02) 1810 nend May 21, Charles Chevalier d'Eon de Beaumont (81), French spy, cross dresser, died. (MC, 5/21/02) 1810 nend May 23, Margaret Fuller (d.1850), American social reformer, writer and critic, was born. She was the first female journalist for the New York Tribune. "Man is not made for society, but society is made for man. No institution can be good which does not tend to improve the individual." (AP, 7/12/97)(HN, 5/23/99) 1810 nend May 25, Argentina declared independence and began its revolt from Napoleonic Spain. (AP, 5/25/97)(HN, 5/25/98) 1810 nend May 29, Erasmus Darwin Keyes (d.1895), Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1810 nend May 29, Solomon Meredith (d,1875), Bvt Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1810 nend Jun 8, Robert Schumann (d.1856), German composer, was born in Zwickau, Germany. (BLW, Geiringer, 1963 ed. p.49)(HN, 6/8/01) 1810 nend Jun 9, Carl Otto Ehrenfried Nicolai, composer (Merry Wives of Windsor), was born. (MC, 6/9/02) 1810 nend Jun 23, John Jacob Astor (1763-1848) organized the Pacific Fur Co. in Astoria, Oregon. (MC, 6/23/02) 1810 nend Jul 5, P.T. Barnum (d.1891), American showman who formed the Barnum and Bailey Circus, was born. Years before founding the famous circus that bears his name, Barnum was recognized as the greatest showman and museum-owner of his time. Barnum?s goal was to attract attention, and it never bothered him if the wonders he exhibited in his New York American Museum were genuine or fake. Barnum opened the American Museum on Broadway in 1842, luring in customers by installing festive flags and New York?s first revolving spotlight on the roof of the building, both visible in this contemporary engraving. Abandoning the high-minded tone of most other museums, Barnum attracted huge audiences with marvels like the Feejee Mermaid, a grotesque composite of the top half of a monkey and the bottom half of a fish, and General Tom Thumb, a 25-inch-tall dwarf. (HN, 7/5/98)(HNPD, 3/18/99) 1810 nend Jul 20, Colombia declared independence from Spain. (AP, 7/20/97) 1810 nend Aug 10, Camillo di Cavour, helped bring about the unification of Italy under the House of Saxony. (HN, 8/10/99) 1810 nend Aug 14, Samuel Sebastian Wesley (d.1876), English composer, was born in London. (MC, 8/14/02) 1810 nend Aug 21, Sweden?s Riksdag elected Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, Marshal of France under Napoleon, as heir apparent to the Swedish throne. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernadotte)(Econ, 10/14/06, p.73) 1810 nend Aug 24, Theodore Parker, anti-slavery movement leader, was born. (HN, 8/24/98) 1810 nend Aug 29, Juan Bautista Alberdi (d,1884), Argentine politician, writer, was born. (www.taringa.net/posts/21963/Juan-B.-Alberdi---El-Gran-Pensador.html) 1810 nend Sep 4, Donald McKay, US naval architect, built fastest clipper ships, was born. (MC, 9/4/01) 1810 nend Sep 16, In Mexico Father Miguel Hidalgo-Costilla delivered the cry for freedom in front of a small crowd of his parishioners (The Grito de Dolores). This action stemmed from meetings of the literary and social club of Queretaro (now a central state of Mexico), which included the priest, the mayor of the town, and a local military captain named Ignacio Allende. They believed that New Spain should be governed by the Creoles (criollos) rather than the Gachupines (peninsulares). Rev. Hidalgo was joined by Rev. Jose Maria Morelos. Both priests were later executed by firing squads. When Mexico revolted the Spanish settlements began to fall apart. Under Mexican rule the missions were secularized and the huge land holdings were broken up. (SFC, 5/19/96,City Guide, p.16)(SCal, Sept. 1995)(WSJ, 8/13/97,p.A12)(AP, 9/16/97) 1810 nend Sep 18, Chile declared its independence from Spain (National Day). Bernardo O?Higgins helped lead Chile to independence. (AP, 9/18/97)(SFEC, 10/27/96, p.T9) 1810 nend Oct 4, Alexander Walewski, French earl, foreign minister, son of Napoleon I, was born. (MC, 10/4/01) 1810 nend Oct 8, James Wilson Marshall, discoverer of gold in California, was born. (HN, 10/8/99) 1810 nend Oct 12, Bavarian Crown Prince Ludwig, later to become King Ludwig I, was married to Princess Therese of Saxony-Hildburghausen. In honor of the wedding a horse race took place at the Theresienwiese (the Theresien meadow). The decision to repeat the horse races in subsequent years gave rise to the tradition of the Oktoberfest. (www.ofest.com/history.html) 1810 nend Oct 16, Rabbi Nachman (b.1772) of Bratslav died and was buried in Uman, Ukraine. Nachman was renowned for his mystical interpretations of Jewish texts and his belief that higher spirituality could be achieved through a combination of prayer, meditation and good deeds. On his deathbed, he is said to have promised to be an advocate for anyone who would come and pray beside his tomb. (AP, 9/9/10)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nachman_of_Breslov) 1810 nend Oct 19, Cassius Marcellus Clay (d.1903), Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 10/19/01) 1810 nend Oct 27, US annexes West Florida from Spain. (MC, 10/27/01) 1810 nend Nov 2, Andrew Atkinson Humphreys (d.1883), Mjr. Gen. (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 11/2/01) 1810 nend Nov 18, Asa Gray (d.1888), American botanist, was born. He wrote "Gray's Manual." (HN, 11/18/00) 1810 nend Nov 30, Oliver Fisher Winchester, rifle maker, was born. (MC, 11/30/01) 1810 nend Dec 7, Theodor Schwann, German physiologist, was born. (HN, 12/7/00) 1810 nend Dec 22, British frigate Minotaur sank killing 480. (MC, 12/22/01) 1810 nend Dec, Gen. Andre Rigaud (1761-1811) returned to Haiti yet a third time, establishing himself as President of the Department of the South, in opposition to both Alexandre Petion and Henri Christophe. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Rigaud) 1810 nend The Maryland legislature authorizes a lottery for the erection of a memorial to George Washington, a 188 foot Doric column in Baltimore?s Mt Vernon Place. (NG, Sept. 1939, J. Maloney p.390) 1810 nend Ephraim Basher (b.1744), NYC silversmith, died. He marked his pieces ?EB? inside a square or an oval. (SFC, 1/30/08, p.G4) 1810 nend Salzburg, Austria was annexed by Bavaria during the Napoleonic Wars and the Univ. of Salzburg was suspended. (StuAus, April ?95, p.87) 1810 nend In Bristol, England, the Commercial Rooms were constructed under architect C.A. Busby. (SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T3) 1810 nend The British Bullion Committee pronounced that it was folly to let governments print as much money as they wanted and not expect inflation. (WSJ, 11/9/00, p.A24) 1810 nend Peter Durand, a British merchant, was granted a patent by King George III for his idea of preserving food in "vessels of glass, pottery, tin (tin can), or other metals or fit materials." (www.cancentral.com/history.htm) 1810 nend Sake Dean Mahomed founded the Hindoostane Coffee House, London's first known curry establishment. Born in Patna, India in 1759, Mahomed was also the first known Indian to write a book in English. Published in 1786, it describes his adventures as a soldier with the East India Company's army, his journey to Europe, his marriage to an Irish woman and their move to London. (AP, 9/29/05) 1810 nend The British wrestled Mauritius from France. Indians were brought in as indentured laborers and later waves of Chinese immigrants arrived. (SFC, 6/24/96, p.A8) 1810 nend A typhoon devastated the Caroline Islands, 500 miles south of the Marianas. The survivors sailed to Guam but only half survived. Spanish authorities sent the Carolinians to Saipan and Tinian to manage the Spanish cattle herds. (SFEC, 3/7/99,Z1 p.4) 1810 nend A German folk tale appeared in ?Gespensterbuch? (The Book of Ghosts), which formed the basis for the 1821 opera ?Der Freishutz? (The Free-Shooter) by Carl Maria von Weber. In 1991 American writer William Burroughs wrote ?The Black Rider,? an English version of the story with music by Tom Waits. (SFC, 8/31/04, p.E7) 1810 nend In Germany Friedrich Wilhelm III began the construction of Museum Island in Berlin. (WSJ, 2/1/96, p.A-16) 1810 nend In Germany construction of the first brew kettle at the Hallerbräustadel, the "factory," as it is called in the books, that Gabriel Sedlmayr leased in 1808 at the west end of the Neuhauserstraße. The kettle is only used to refine vinegar. Today at this site stands the Hertie department store. (http://spatenusa.com/timeline.html) 1810 nend Wilhelm von Humboldt founded Humboldt University in Berlin to give students a broad humanist education. (WSJ, 2/26/00, p.A8) 1810 nend Juan Jose de los Reyes Martinez, miner and revolutionary hero (El Pipila), joined some 20,000 rebels who stormed Guanajuato, Mexico, and cornered Spanish colonists inside a granary. Martinez set fire to the granary and died in the flames. (SSFC, 5/4/03, p.D6) 1810 nend Saartjie Baartman (~21) left South Africa with 2 white men who promised to make her rich. [see 1816] (SFC, 5/4/02, p.A8) 1810 nend In Spain General Count Hugo, the father of Victor Hugo, governed Central Spain during the Peninsula War. He exterminated guerrillas and nailed up their severed heads. (WSJ, 2/10/98, p.A16) 1810 1811 The Duke of Wellington has the Lines of Torres Vedras heavily fortified and blocks all French movement forcing them to slow starvation during this winter. The resulting French retreat is considered the turning point of the Peninsular Campaign. (WSJ, 1/6/95, A-10) 1810 1813 Boston-based whalers slaughtered an estimated 150,000 fur seals on the Farallon Islands, 28 miles west of San Francisco. Russian hunters followed and occupied the islands for the next 25 years during which they wiped out the remaining fur seals. Fur seals began to return around 1977, but their first pup wasn?t born until 1996. (Bay, 4/07, p.33) 1810 1832 The 54-mile Göta Canal was built to connect Sweden's east and west coasts to circumvent Danish shipping controls between the Baltic and North Seas. The project was conceived and led by Count Baltzar von Platen (d.1830). (SSFC, 4/18/04, p.D12) 1810 1857 Alfred de Musset, French author: "How glorious it is -- and also how painful -- to be an exception." (AP, 5/6/00) 1810 1860 Theodore Parker, American religious leader: "Religion without joy?it is no religion." (AP, 10/26/97) 1810 1862 The Regency Period in English architecture. Oriental curves and cupolas influenced English architecture. (SFC, 9/30/98, Z1 p.3) 1810 1891 PT Barnum (Phineas Taylor Barnum), US showman and founder of "The Greatest Show On Earth." He established his circus in 1871. He served in the Connecticut State House of Representatives for 2 terms, was mayor of Bridgeport, and was the first president of Bridgeport Hospital. "More persons, on the whole, are humbugged by believing nothing, than by believing too much." (WUD, 1994, p.121)(WSJ, 1/7/97, p.A19)(AP, 6/28/98) 1810 1893 Ferenc Erkel, Hungarian composer, founder of the Nationalist school. His works include The Festive Overture. (WSJ, 8/24/95, p.A-14) 1811 nend Jan 2, US Sen Timothy Pickering (1745-1829) of Massachusetts became the 1st US senator to be censured. He had revealed confidential documents communicated by the president of the US. (http://tinyurl.com/8yj6dmb) 1811 nend Jan 6, Charles Sumner (d.1874), leading anti-slavery senator and author, was born in Boston. He was active in the movement to outlaw war, opposed the Mexican War and was a founder in 1848 of the Free-Soil party. A senator from Massachusetts, Sumner was an ardent abolitionist and helped organize the Republican party. In c1867 Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner popularized the name Alaska for the territory that had been known as Russian America in a famous Senate speech supporting the treaty to purchase Russian America: "There is the National flag. He must be cold, indeed, who can look upon its folds rippling in the breeze without pride of country. If in a foreign land, the flag is companionship, and country itself, with all its endearments." (HNQ, 9/28/98)(AP, 6/14/97)(HNQ, 11/17/98) 1811 nend Jan 8, Charles Deslondes led several hundred poorly armed slaves towards New Orleans in the largest slave rebellion in US history. (AH, 2/06, p.14) 1811 nend Jan 9, The USS Revenge, a ship commanded by US Navy hero Oliver Hazard Perry ran aground on a reef off of Watch Hill, Rhode Island. Divers discovered the wreck in August 2005, but only made the news public in 2011. (AP, 1/8/11)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Revenge_%281806%29) 1811 nend Jan 10, An uprising of over 400 slaves was put down in New Orleans. Sixty-six blacks were killed and their heads were strung up along the roads of the city. (HN, 1/10/99) 1811 nend Jan 15, In a secret session, Congress planned to annex Spanish East Florida. (HN, 1/15/99) 1811 nend Feb 1, Scotland?s Bell Rock lighthouse, at the mouth of Scotland?s Firth of Forth, began operations. Robert Stevenson (1772-1850) had begun work on the lighthouse in 1807. (ON, 5/06, p.8) 1811 nend Feb 2, Russian settlers established Ft. Ross trading post in northern California. Fort Ross was settled by peg-legged Ivan Kuzkov (Kuskov) in Sonoma County (1912). It was designed as a base for fur hunters and a warm weather supplier for the Russian colonies in Alaska. The colonists included 25 Russians and over 80 Aleut Indians from the islands of western Alaska. Kuskov managed the settlement until 1821. (SFEC, 3/23/97, p.T5)(SFEC, 9/20/98, Z1 p.4)(SFC, 6/15/01, WBbp.7)(MC, 2/2/02) 1811 nend Feb 3, Horace Greeley (d.1872), abolitionist newspaper editor, was born in Amherst, New Hampshire. He popularized the phrase "Go west, young man." Greeley, who began his journalism career at The New Yorker, founded The New York Tribune in 1841 with support from powerful political friends. Under Greeley's direction, The Tribune took a strong stand against slavery, the South and slave owners in the years leading up to the Civil War. The Tribune and Greeley also crusaded against liquor, gambling, prostitution and capital punishment. One of the founders of the Republican Party, Greeley was also an eccentric who dabbled in many of the fads of his day. The phrase was spoken to Josiah Grinell, who went west to Iowa, became a Congregational minister and founded Grinell College from which Robert Noyce, developer of the microchip and founder of Intel, graduated. "There is no bigotry like that of ?free thought? run to seed." (HNPD, 2/3/99)(WSJ, 10/26/00, p.W12)(AP, 7/21/98) 1811 nend Feb 5, George, Prince of Wales, was named the Prince Regent due to the insanity of his father, Britain's King George III. George Augustus Frederick became prince regent after his father, George III, slipped permanently into dementia. In 1999 Saul David published "The Prince of Pleasure: The Prince of Wales and the Making of the Regency." (WSJ, 3/26/99, p.W10)(AP, 2/5/08) 1811 nend Feb 11, Pres. Madison prohibited trade with Britain for 3rd time in 4 years. (MC, 2/11/02) 1811 nend Mar 1, In Egypt the Ottoman viceroy Muhammad Ali Pasha massacred the Mameluke leaders of Egypt for plotting against him. He had invited them to a banquet at the citadel of Cairo. (PCh, 1992, p.373)(SC, 3/1/02) 1811 nend Mar 11, Urbain Jean Joseph le Verrier, co-discoverer (Neptune), was born. (MC, 3/12/02) 1811 nend Mar 11, Ned Ludd led a group of workers in a wild protest against mechanization. Members of the organized bands of craftsmen who rioted against automation in 19th century England were known as Luddites and also "Ludds." The movement, reputedly named after Ned Ludd, began near Nottingham as craftsman destroyed textile machinery that was eliminating their jobs. By the following year, Luddites were active in Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Lancashire and Leicestershire. Although the Luddites opposed violence towards people (a position which allowed for a modicum of public support), government crackdowns included mass shootings, hangings and deportation to the colonies. It took 14,000 British soldiers to quell the rebellion. The movement effectively died in 1813 apart from a brief resurgence of Luddite sentiment in 1816 following the end of the Napoleonic Wars. (HN, 3/11/01)(HNQ, 5/14/01)(WSJ, 3/29/04, p.A1) 1811 nend Mar 20, George Caleb Bingham (d.1879), Missouri painter, was born in Virginia. He paintings included "Fur Traders on the Missouri." (WUD, 1994, p.149)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Caleb_Bingham) 1811 nend Mar 20, Napoleon II, the Duke of Reichstadt, was born. He was the son of Napoleon Bonaparte. (HN, 3/20/99) 1811 nend Mar 25, A comet, dubbed the Great Comet of 1911, was discovered by Honoré Flaugergues at 2.7 AU from the sun in the now-defunct constellation of Argo Navis. In October 1811, at its brightest, it displayed an apparent magnitude of 0, with an easily visible coma. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Comet_of_1811) 1811 nend Mar 31, Robert Wilhelm Eberhard von Bunsen, German inventor of the Bunsen burner, was born. (HN, 3/31/99) 1811 nend Apr 5, Robert Raikes, founder of Sunday Schools, died. (MC, 4/5/02) 1811 nend Apr 12, First U.S. colonists on Pacific coast arrived at Cape Disappointment, Washington. (HN, 4/12/98)(MC, 4/12/02) 1811 nend May 11, Chang and Eng Bunker, Chinese Siamese twins, were born. (MC, 5/11/02) 1811 nend Jun 14, Harriet Beecher Stowe (d.1896), American writer and author of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," was born in Litchfield, Conn. The book showed the horrors of slavery and President Abraham Lincoln joked she had started the American Civil War. (AHD, p.1272)(HN, 6/14/99) 1811 nend Jun 19, Samuel P. Chase (b.Apr 17, 1741), Supreme Court Justice (1798-1811), revolutionary, attorney, Declaration of Independence signer; died. Chase was served with 6 articles of impeachment by the House of Representatives in late 1804. Two more articles would later be added. The Jeffersonian Republican-controlled United States Senate began an impeachment trial against Justice Chase in early 1805. He was charged with political bias, but was acquitted by the Senate of all charges on March 1, 1805. To this day, he remains the only Supreme Court justice to be impeached. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Chase) 1811 nend Jul 5, Venezuela became the first South American country to declare independence from Spain. (HFA, ?96, p.34)(AP, 7/5/97) 1811 nend Jul 18, William Makepeace Thackeray (d.1863), English novelist and satirist, was born. His books were published as monthly serials. "Next to excellence is the appreciation of it." (HN, 7/18/98)(AP, 10/28/00) 1811 nend Jul 31, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, Mexican hero priest, was executed by Spanish. (MC, 7/31/02) 1811 nend Aug 3, Elisha Graves Otis (d.1861), inventor (safe elevator), was born. The Vermont native, was a master mechanic working at a bedstead factory in Yonkers, N.Y., when he built a hoisting machine with two sets of metal teeth at the car?s sides. If the lifting rope broke, the teeth would lock into place, preventing the car from falling. Otis ever realized the potential of his invention. His sons built the Otis Elevator Company, enabling the skylines of cities throughout the world to be transformed with skyscrapers. (www.famousamericans.net/elishagravesotis/)(ON, 5/05, p.12) 1811 nend Aug 5, C.L. Ambroise Thomas, French composer (Mignon, Francoise de Rimini), was born. (MC, 8/5/02) 1811 nend Aug 6, Judah Philip Benjamin (d.1884), Sec. War and Sec. State for the Confederacy, was born a British subject in the Virgin Islands. He went on to become the first professed Jew elected to U.S. Senate, from the state of Louisiana in 1852. He was brought to South Carolina as a child. After attending Yale (1825--7) he settled in New Orleans. He served Louisiana in the US Senate (Whig, 1853--9; Democrat, 1859--61). He was noted for his pro-slavery speeches in the Senate. Favoring secession, he served the Confederacy as attorney general (1861) and then as secretary of war (1861--2). He was blamed for the Confederate army's lack of equipment, but Jefferson Davis promoted him to secretary of state (1862--5). Late in the war he urged the recruitment of slaves into the Confederate Army. With the collapse of the Confederacy he fled to the West Indies and then to England (1866), where he made a brilliant new career as a British barrister, especially in appeal cases. He wrote the Treatise on the Law of Sale of Personal Property (1868), which at once became the standard in the field. In 1872, he became a counsel to the queen. Benjamin died in Paris. (HNQ, 12/8/98)(MC, 8/6/02) 1811 nend Aug 12, John FE Acton (77), cruel premier of Naples, died. (MC, 8/12/02) 1811 nend Aug 14, Paraguay declared independence from Spain. (PC, 1992, p.373) 1811 nend Aug 31, Théophile Gautier, French poet, novelist and author of "Art for Art?s Sake," was born. (HN, 8/31/98) 1811 nend Sep 3, John Humphrey Noyes was born in Vermont. He founded the Oneida Community (Perfectionists) in 1848. (MC, 9/3/01)(SSFC, 12/29/02, p.A6) 1811 nend Oct 11, The first steam-powered ferryboat, the Juliana, was put into operation between New York City and Hoboken, N.J. (AP, 10/11/97) 1811 nend Oct 22, Franz Liszt, piano virtuoso, was born near Sopron, Hungary. He was the son of a steward of the Esterhazy family. (Hem., 6/98, p.128)(HN, 10/22/00) 1811 nend Oct 27, Isaac Merrit Singer, inventor of a practical home sewing machine, was born. (HN, 10/27/98)(MC, 10/27/01) 1811 nend Oct 29, The 1st Ohio River steamboat left Pittsburgh for New Orleans. (MC, 10/29/01) 1811 nend Nov 5, El Salvador fought its 1st battle against Spain for independence. (MC, 11/5/01) 1811 nend Nov 7, Gen. William Henry Harrison won a battle against the Shawnee Indians at the Battle of Tippecanoe in the Indiana territory. Tenskwatawa, the brother of Shawnee leader Tecumseh, was engaged in the Battle of the Wabash, aka Battle of Tippecanoe, in spite of his brother?s strict admonition to avoid it. The battle near the Tippecanoe River with the regular and militia forces of Indiana Territory Governor William Henry Harrison, took place while Tecumseh was out of the area seeking support for a united Indian movement. The battle, which was a nominal victory for Harrison?s forces, effectively put an end to Tecumseh?s dream of a pan-Indian confederation. Harrison?s leadership in the battle also provided a useful campaign slogan for his presidential bid in 1840. (HFA, ?96, p.46)(HNQ, 5/28/98)(HN, 11/7/98) 1811 nend Nov 16, John Bright, British Victorian radical, was born. He founded the Anti-Corn Law League. (HN, 11/16/99) 1811 nend Nov 16, An earthquake in Missouri caused the Mississippi River to flow backwards. [see Dec 15-16] (MC, 11/16/01) 1811 nend Nov 21, Heinrich W. von Kleist (34), German playwright, died. (MC, 11/21/01) 1811 nend Nov 29, Wendell Phillips, women's suffrage, antislavery, prison reformer, was born. (MC, 11/29/01) 1811 nend Dec 15-1811 Dec 16, A 7.3 earthquake struck the central US on the Mississippi River. It was centered at New Madrid, Missouri. Aftershocks continued into 1812. In 1976 James Penick Jr. authored "The New Madrid Earthquakes of 1811-1812." [see Jan 23, Feb 7, 1812] (HC, 6/7/98)(ON, 10/99, p.5,6)(SFC, 2/24/01, p.A10)(NH, 3/1/04, p.66) 1811 nend The book "Sense and Sensibility," by Jane Austen (1774-1817), was published. It appeared anonymously as ?written by a lady.? (SFEC,11/9/97, BR p.4)(ON, 12/09, p.8) 1811 nend The Bowdoin College Museum of Art in Brunswick was begun as a bequest from James Bowdoin III, son of a college benefactor. (WSJ, 7/21/00, p.W2) 1811 nend A group of amateur naturalists formed the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia. (AH, 10/04, p.20) 1811 nend The 1st rubber factory was established. (SFC, 3/21/07, p.G2) 1811 nend In the US politics killed the Bank of the United States established by Hamilton as a central bank and a mechanism for government borrowing. (WSJ, 3/12/97, p.A18) 1811 nend Francis Cabot Lowell, an American industrialist, moved to England and gathered information on mill details. He returned to the US and started the textile industry in New England and the Massachusetts mill town of his name. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R50) 1811 nend Fanny Burney (1752-1840), English writer, underwent a mastectomy without anesthesia. In 2001 Claire Harman authored the biography: "Fanny Burney." (SSFC, 12/23/01, p.M5) 1811 nend Avogadro proposed that the ultimate particles of even elemental gases may not be atoms but instead molecules made up of combinations of atoms. He also proposed that equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of molecules. (V.D.-H.K.p.324) 1811 nend Gas hydrates were first discovered but their molecular structure was not understood until the late 20th century. They are crystals of water that look like ice but contain a molecule of free-floating gas in a pentagonally-linked cage. (NH, 5/97, p.28) 1811 nend William Burchell, botanist for the East India Company, set off into the bush for Hottentot country after his girlfriend abandoned him just before marriage. He stayed 4 years and is listed as the man who invented the working safari. (SFC, 8/5/00, p.B4) 1811 nend In Britain the Dulwich Picture Gallery opened at Dulwich College. It contained an art collection gathered by Noel Desenfans and Francis Bourgeois, who had put it together for the Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski, king of Poland, before he was forced to abdicate. (WSJ, 2/15/00, p.A24) 1811 nend British Foreign Secretary Lord Wellesley, older brother of the Duke of Wellington, wrote that the Peninsula War diverted French resources and that the time was ripe to strike against Napoleon. (WSJ, 7/10/96, p.A16) 1811 nend In England John Williams, the Highway Hacker, murdered 2 whole families in the Docklands section of London. He committed suicide while awaiting trial. A crowd stole his body and drove a stake through his heart and buried him in a lime pit off Cannon St. The murder later inspired Thomas De Quincey?s essay ?On Murder Considered as One of the Fine Arts.? (SFEC, 10/17/98, p.T9)(WSJ, 6/9/07, p.P8) 1811 nend The British began a period of sovereignty in Java (Indonesia). (WSJ, 9/13/08, p.W18) 1811 nend The Mamelukes remained a powerful influence in Egypt until they were massacred or dispersed by Mehemet Ali. (WUD, 1994, p.869) 1811 nend The Turks dispatched Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali to overthrow the Wahabis and reinstate Ottoman sovereignty in Arabia. (NW, 9/30/02, p.33) 1811 nend Napoleon Bonaparte gave to his wife, Empress Marie Louise, a tiara with 950 diamonds (700 carats). The original emeralds were later replaced with Persian turquoise. Now part of the Smithsonian Inst. and bequeathed by Marjorie Merriweather Post. (Postcard , Nat?l Mus. Nat. Hist.,1995) 1811 nend Matsumura Gekkei (b.1752) also known as Goshun, Japanese painter based in Kyoto, died. (SFC, 12/8/05, p.E1) 1811 nend Scotsman Gregor MacGregor (1786-1845), later known as His Serene Highness Gregor I, Prince of Poyais, received a commission from Simon Bolivar in Venezuela to serve in the Army of Liberation. After he returned to London in 1820, he began selling land in the fictional kingdom of Poyais. He served 8 months in jail after English and French expeditions revealed the hoax. In 1839 he returned to Venezuela. In 2004 David Sinclair authored "The Land That Never Was: Sir Gregor MacGregor and the Most Audacious Land Fraud in History." (SSFC, 1/18/04, p.M2)(WSJ, 1/30/04, p.W9) 1811 1812 Marie Dorion, a 21-year-old Iowa Indian, was the only woman to accompany the 1811-12 overland expedition to the Pacific Northwest led by Wilson Price Hunt. Her husband, Pierre Dorion was hired as an interpreter. Marie would endure many hardships on the expedition to establish a fur trading post at the mouth of the Columbia River. (HNQ, 12/9/00) 1811 1812 The Scott expedition to the South Pole culminated in tragedy. (WSJ, 2/10/95), p.A-7)1811-1812 In Mexico during the war for independence the crime raterose to double digits for two years in a row. (SFEC, 1/26/97, p.A14) 1811 1816 The Luddite bands of workman destroyed manufacturing machinery in England under the belief that their use diminished employment. They were named after Ned Ludd, the 18th cent. Leicestershire worker who originated the idea. Opponents of technology harken back to the English weavers who broke textile machinery, apparently at the urging of their leader, Ned Ludd. [see May 3, 1811] (WUD, 1994, p.852)(WSJ, 4/12/96, p.B-1) 1811 1857 Jacob Whitman Bailey, teacher of chemistry, mineralogy and geology at West Point. He was a pioneer of American science and is noted for his microscopical studies. (OAPOC-TH, p.71) 1811 1882 Louis Blanc, French utopian socialist, proposed the social ideal of "from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs." The nineteenth-century writer and thinker had a profound influence on radical thought. (HNQ, 4/12/99) 1811 1881 Prof. Ferdinand Neselman of Koenigsburg Univ. first referred to the Aistians as the Balts in his book "The Language of the Prussians According to its Surviving Fragments." (DrEE, 10/12/96, p.2) 1811 1882 Henry James, US philosopher and author. He was the father of William and Henry. (WUD, 1994, p.762) 1811 1884 Wendell Phillips, American abolitionist: "Responsibility educates." (AP, 5/29/00) 1812 nend Jan 23, A 2nd major earthquake shook New Madrid, Missouri. (NH, 3/1/04, p.67) 1812 nend Feb 5, Franz Schneider (74), composer, died. (MC, 2/5/02) 1812 nend Feb 7, A 3rd major earthquake shook New Madrid, Missouri, and for a few hours reversed the course of the Mississippi River. [see Dec 15-16, 1811, Jan 23, 1912] (NH, 3/1/04, p.67) 1812 nend Feb 7, Charles Dickens, English novelist, was born in Portsmouth, England. His stories reflected life in Victorian England. In his novel "Dombey & Son," Dickens confronted the subject of money, and its use as a measure of success. His work also included "Master Humphrey?s Clock," published in installments like most of his novels. The closing line of A Christmas Carol: "And so, as Tiny Tim observed, God Bless Us, Every One!" Some of his more famous novels include "Oliver Twist" and "A Tale of Two Cities." (SFC, 6/17/97, p.E3)(AP, 2/7/97)(HN, 2/7/99) 1812 nend Feb 7, Lord Byron made his maiden speech in House of Lords. (MC, 2/7/02) 1812 nend Feb 9, Franz Anton Hoffmeister (57), composer, died. (MC, 2/9/02) 1812 nend Feb 11, Alexander Hamilton Stephens (d.1883), Vice Pres (Confederacy), was born near Crawfordville, Georgia. Stephens, who served in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1843 to 1859, was a delegate at the Montgomery meeting that formed a new union of the seceded states. He was elected vice president to Jefferson Davis on February 9, 1861. Stephens was later elected governor of Georgia in 1882 but died after serving just a few months. (HNQ, 5/24/98)(MC, 2/11/02) 1812 nend Feb 11, Massachusetts Gov. Elbridge Gerry signed a re-districting law that favored his party, giving rise to the term "gerrymandering." His district was shaped like a salamander. (AP, 2/11/97)(Econ, 10/9/10, p.20) 1812 nend Feb 16, Henry Wilson, 18th U.S. Vice President (Grant 1873-1875), was born. (HN, 2/16/98) 1812 nend Mar 6, Aaron Lufkin Dennison, father of American watch making, was born. (MC, 3/6/02) 1812 nend Mar 9, Swedish Pomerania was seized by Napoleon. (HN, 3/9/98) 1812 nend Mar 11, Citizenship was granted to Prussian Jews. (MC, 3/12/02) 1812 nend Mar 14, The US Congress authorized war bonds to finance War of 1812. (MC, 3/14/02) 1812 nend Mar 19, Spanish Cortes passed a liberal constitution under a hereditary monarch. (AP, 3/19/03) 1812 nend Mar 25, (OS) Alexander Herzen (d.1870), Russian author, was born. "Life has taught me to think, but thinking has not taught me how to live." (AP, 8/15/99)(www.bookrags.com/biography/aleksandr-ivanovich-herzen/) 1812 nend Mar 26, Earthquake destroyed 90% of Caracas; about 20,000 died. (SS, 3/26/02)(PCh, 1992, p.376) 1812 nend Apr 4, The territory of Orleans became the 18th state and later became known as Louisiana. (HN, 4/4/99) 1812 nend Apr 15, Pierre-Etienne-Theodore Rousseau, painter, was born. (MC, 4/15/02) 1812 nend Apr 20, George Clinton (73), the 4th vice president of the United States, died in Washington, becoming the first vice president to die while in office. (AP, 4/20/97) 1812 nend Apr 26, Alfred Krupp, German arms merchant, was born. (HN, 4/26/98) 1812 nend Apr 27, Friedrich von Flotow, composer (Martha), was born. (MC, 4/27/02) 1812 nend Apr 30, Louisiana became the 18th state. (AP, 4/30/97)(HN, 4/30/98) 1812 nend May 7, Poet Robert Browning was born in London. His works include "The Piper of Hamelin" and "The Ring and the Book." (AP, 5/7/97)(HN, 5/7/99) 1812 nend May 11, The Waltz was introduced into English ballrooms. Most observers considered it disgusting and immoral. (MC, 5/11/02) 1812 nend May 11, British PM Spencer Perceval was shot by a bankrupt banker in the lobby of the House of Commons. Lord Liverpool (1770-1828) was asked to serve as PM of Britain and he served until 1827. (HN, 5/11/99)(WSJ, 2/9/05,p.D10)(www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/PRliverpool.htm) 1812 nend May 13, Johann Matthias Sperger (62), composer, died. (MC, 5/13/02) 1812 nend May 25, A series of coal mine explosions took place around the Felling Colliery in Durhamshire, England. 92 miners were killed. This prompted local clergymen to organize the Society for Preventing Accidents in Coal Mines. (ON, 12/01, p.6) 1812 nend May, William Moorcroft, East India Co. head of 5,000 acre horse farm at Pusa, India, departed for Tibet in search of horses to improve his stock. (ON, 1/02, p.3) 1812 nend Jun 4, The Louisiana Territory was renamed the Missouri Territory. (AP, 6/4/97) 1812 nend Jun 18, The War of 1812 began as the United States declared war against Great Britain and Ireland. The term "war hawk" was first used by John Randolph in reference to those Republicans who were pro-war in the years leading up to the War of 1812. These new types of Republicans, who espoused nationalism and expansionism, included Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. Most of them came from the agrarian areas of the South and West. In 2004 Walter R. Borneman authored ?1812: The War That Forged a Nation.? (AP, 6/18/97)(HN, 6/18/98)(HNQ, 5/13/99)(WSJ, 12/16/04, p.D8) 1812 nend Jun 18, Ivan Goncharov, Russian novelist of the Russian realism school of thought, was born. He is best known for his book "Oblomov." (HN, 6/18/99) 1812 nend Jun 22, A pro-war mob destroyed Hanson's newspaper office, four days after America?s declaration of war against Great Britain. Revered American Revolutionary cavalry hero Henry "Light-Horse Harry" Lee was nearly beaten to death by a mob in Baltimore. Lee came to the aide of an anti-war newspaper publisher in Baltimore, Alexander Contee Hanson, defending his right to freedom of speech. When Hanson returned to Baltimore five weeks later to resume publication, his office was again besieged by vigilantes. After a tense standoff through the night of July 27, Hanson and his supporters, including Lee, were taken to a local jail. Later the mob stormed the jail, severely beating those being held. Lee, father of Robert E. Lee, never fully recovered from injuries sustained in the beating and died in 1818. (HNQ, 9/17/99) 1812 nend Jun 23, The church at Mission San Juan Bautista in California was dedicated. (SJSVB, 6/24/96, p.41) 1812 nend Jun 24, Napoleon crossed the Nieman River [in Lithuania] and invaded Russia. The French army under Napoleon crossed the Nemunas River near Kaunas. Prior to his march into Russia, Napoleon had taken land from Russia and returned it to Polish control in Warsaw. This assured him safe passage through Poland and Lithuania on his way to Russia. In 1824 the book ?History of the Expedition to Russia, Undertaken by the Emperor Napoleon in the Year 1812? by Count de Segur, a general in Napoleon?s army, was first published. An English translation edited by Gerard Shelley was published in 1928. (HN, 6/24/98)(WSJ, 8/25/07, p.P9)(H of L, 1931, p.83-84) 1812 nend Jun 30, William Moorcroft, East India Co. head of 5,000 acre horse farm at Pusa, India, arrived in Tibet. He found no horses to improve his stock but learned of Russian presence. (ON, 1/02, p.3) 1812 nend Jul 12, United States forces led by General William Hull entered Canada during the War of 1812 against Britain. However, Hull retreated shortly thereafter to Detroit. Madison had called for 50,000 volunteers to invade Canada but only 5,000 signed up. (AP, 7/12/99)(ON, 9/02, p.2) 1812 nend Jul 18, Great Britain signed the Treaty of Orebro, making peace with Russia and Sweden. (HN, 7/18/98) 1812 nend Jul 22, English troops under the Duke of Wellington defeated the French at the Battle of Salamanca in Spain. (AP, 7/22/97)(HN, 7/22/98) 1812 nend Jul, British troops under the Duke of Wellington pillaged the Spanish town of Badajos. This prompted Wellington to call his troops "the scum of the earth." (WSJ, 1/6/95, A-10) 1812 nend Aug 12, British commander the Duke of Wellington occupied Madrid, Spain, forcing out Joseph Bonaparte. (HN, 8/12/98) 1812 nend Aug 16, American General William Hull surrendered Detroit without resistance to a smaller British and Indian forces under General Isaac Brock. (AP, 8/16/97)(HN, 8/16/98) 1812 nend Aug 17, Napoleon Bonaparte?s army defeated the Russians at the Battle of Smolensk during the Russian retreat to Moscow. (HN, 8/17/98) 1812 nend Aug 18, Returning from a cruise into Canadian waters Captain Isaac Hull's USS Constitution of the fledgling U.S. Navy encountered British Captain Richard Dacre's HMS Guerriere about 750 miles out of Boston. After a frenzied 55-minute battle that left 101 dead, Guerriere rolled helplessly in the water, smashed beyond salvage. Dacre struck his colors and surrendered to Hull's boarding party. In contrast, Constitution suffered little damage and only 14 casualties. The fight's outcome shocked the British Admiralty while it heartened America through the dark days of the War of 1812. [see Aug 19] (HNPD, 8/18/98) 1812 nend Aug 19, The USS Constitution, also known as Old Ironsides, got its name when it defeated the British warship Guerriere off Nova Scotia in a slugfest of broadsides, when cannonballs were said to have bounced off her sides. The USS Constitution won more than 30 battles against the Barbary pirates off Africa?s coast in the War of 1812. [see Aug 18] (SFEC, 7/13/97, Par p.14)(AP, 8/19/97) 1812 nend Aug 20, Czar Alexander gave Gen. Mikhail Ilarionovich Kutuzov (1745-1813) command of the Russian army. (www.climate4you.com/Text/Climate4you%20August%202009.pdf) 1812 nend Sep 7, On the road to Moscow, Napoleon won a costly victory over the Russians under Kutuzov at Borodino. This was the greatest mass slaughter in the history of warfare until the Battle of the Somme in 1916. In 2004 Adam Zamoyski authored ?Napoleon?s Fatal March on Moscow.? (HN, 9/7/98)(Econ, 4/17/04, p.81) 1812 nend Sep 12, Richard March Hoe was born in NYC. He built the first successful rotary printing press. (HN, 9/12/00) 1812 nend Sep 14, The Russian army left Moscow. Napoleon's invasion of Russia reached its climax as his Grande Armee entered Moscow, only to find the enemy capital deserted and burning, set afire by the few Russians who remained. The fires were extinguished by Sep 19. (ON, 10/2010,p.11)(http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/B/Borodino.html) 1812 nend Sep 18, A fire in Moscow (set by Napoleon's troops) destroyed 90% of houses and 1,000 churches. [see Sep 14] (MC, 9/18/01) no_source 1812 nend Sep, In France as Napoleon?s army proceeded to invade Russia it numbered 442,000 troops. In Sept. it reached Moscow with 100,000 men. The remains of the Grandee Armee struggled out of Russia in 1813 with 10,000 men. A map drawn by Charles Joseph Minard plots six variables to depict the march over time: the size of the army, its location on a 2-dimensional surface, the direction of the army?s movement, and temperatures on various days during the retreat from Moscow. In 1970 Curtis Cate published the book: "The War of the Two Emperors." (Adv. E. Tufte, 5/18/96, p.4)(SFEC, 6/15/97, Z1 p.3) 1812 nend Sep, William Moorcroft, East India Co. head of 5,000 acre horse farm at Pusa, India, was arrested in Nepal while returning from Tibet to India. They were released after 17 days in captivity. (ON, 1/02, p.3) 1812 nend Sep-Oct, Moscow was burned under the brief occupation by Napoleon. After the burning the Neglinnaya River was confined to an underground pipe. (AM, Jul/Aug ?97 p.28) 1812 nend Oct 9, American Lieutenant Jesse Duncan Elliot captured two British brigs, the Detroit and Caledonia on Lake Erie in the War of 1812. Elliot set the brig Detroit ablaze the next day in retaliation for the British capture seven weeks earlier of the city of Detroit. (MC, 10/9/01) 1812 nend Oct 13, At the Battle of Queenston Heights, a Canadian and British army defeated the Americans who had tried to invade Canada. This was the 1st major land battle in the War of 1812. (HN, 10/13/98)(HNQ, 1/31/02) 1812 nend Oct 13, Isaac Brock, English general (conquered Detroit), died in battle. (MC, 10/13/01) 1812 nend Oct 18, The Russian army attacked French forces on the outskirts of Moscow. Some 2,500-3,000 French soldiers were killed. (ON, 10/2010, p.11) 1812 nend Oct 19, French forces under Napoleon Bonaparte began their retreat from Moscow. (AP, 10/19/97)(HN, 10/19/98) 1812 nend Oct 22, The Duke of Wellington abandoned his 1st siege of Burgos, Spain. (http://www.napoleonguide.com/battle_burgos.htm) 1812 nend Oct 23, There was a failed coup against emperor Napoleon. (MC, 10/23/01) 1812 nend Oct 25, The U.S. frigate United States captured the British vessel Macedonian during the War of 1812. (AP, 10/25/98) 1812 nend Nov 9, Paul Abadie, French master builder (renovated Notre Dame), was born. (MC, 11/9/01) 1812 nend Nov 14, As Napoleon Bonaparte's army retreated form Moscow, temperatures dropped to 20 degrees below zero. Michel Ney defended the Napoleon?s rear during the retreat from Moscow and was called by Napoleon "The bravest of the brave." He rejoined Napoleon during the Hundred Days and the Waterloo campaign. After Napoleon?s defeat, he was found guilty of treason and shot. It was later suggested that many soldiers died because their tin coat buttons deteriorated in the extreme cold. (HN, 11/14/99)(HNQ, 9/21/00)(SSFC, 6/8/03, p.M2) 1812 nend Nov 26, Napoleon Bonaparte's army began crossing the Beresina River over two hastily constructed bridges. (HN, 11/26/99) 1812 nend Nov 27, One of the two bridges being used by Napoleon Bonaparte's army across the Beresina River in Russia collapsed during a Russian artillery barrage. (HN, 11/27/99) 1812 nend Nov 29, The last elements of Napoleon Bonaparte's Grand Armee retreated across the Beresina River in Russia. Tens of thousands of French troops and civilians perished when the Russians attacked Napoleon's army as it crossed the Berezina River in Belarus on the punishing retreat from Moscow. The following Spring it was recorded that 32,000 bodies were rounded up and burned on the river banks near Studianka. (HN, 11/29/99)(AP, 11/26/07)(www.wtj.com/articles/berezina/) 1812 nend Dec 2, James Madison was re-elected president of US; Elbridge Gerry was vice-pres. (MC, 12/2/01)(www.ushistory.org/declaration/signers/gerry.htm) 1812 nend Dec 4, Peter Gaillard of Lancaster, Pa., patented a horse-drawn mower. (MC, 12/4/01) 1812 nend Dec 6, The majority of Napoleon Bonaparte's Grand Armeé staggered into Vilnius, Lithuania, ending the failed Russian campaign. An estimated 50,000 soldiers reached Lithuania and as many as 20,000 died there. As many as 450,000 soldiers from France, Italy, Spain, Croatia, Germany and at least 15 other countries died in the Russian campaign. (HN, 12/6/99)(Arch, 9/02, p.41) 1812 nend Dec 8, In California the Great Stone Church at Mission San Juan Capistrano crashed down after an earthquake just 6 years after being completed. Forty worshippers were killed. Half of the church under the work of architect Isidro Aguilar (d.1803) remained standing. (HT, 3/97, p.60) 1812 nend Dec 13, The last remnants of Napoleon Bonaparte's Grand Armeé reached the safety of Kovno, Poland, after the failed Russian campaign. (HN, 12/13/99) 1812 nend Dec, 14, The last French units of Napoleon?s Grand Armeé crossed the Nieman River of Lithuania, leaving Russia. (ON, 10/2010,p.11)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia) 1812 nend Dec 18, Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in Paris after his disastrous campaign in Russia. (HN, 12/18/99) 1812 nend Dec 20, Achille Peri, composer, was born. (MC, 12/20/01) 1812 nend Dec 20, Sacagawea, Shoshone interpreter for Lewis & Clark, died. (MC, 12/20/01) 1812 nend Dec 23, Samuel Smiles (d.1904), doctor and writer, was born in Scotland. He later authored ?Self-Help? 1859), a classic work on self-improvement. (Econ, 4/24/04, p.86) 1812 nend Dec 24, Joel Barlow, aged 58, American poet and lawyer, died from exposure near Vilna, Poland [Lithuania], during Napoleon's retreat from Moscow. Barlow was on a diplomatic mission to the emperor for President Madison. (HN, 12/24/98) 1812 nend Dec, Michael Faraday began working for Sir Humphrey Davy at the British Royal Society. (ON, 10/03, p.11) 1812 nend Jacques-Louis David, French artist, painted a portrait of Napoleon as a working ruler. (Econ, 12/23/06, p.126) 1812 nend Louis-Vincent-Leon Palliere, French painter, created his work ?Ulysses and Telemachus Massacre Penelope?s Suitors.? (WSJ, 12/28/05, p.D8) 1812 nend Pierre-Paul Prud?hon (1758-1823), French artist, painted "Venus and Adonis." (WSJ, 4/8/98, p.A20) 1812 nend Georges Cuvier, French anatomist, published his 4 volume work "Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles" (Research on Fossil Bones). (NH, 8/96, p.18) 1812 nend Nicodemus Havens authored his ?Wonderful Vision of the City of New York,? wherein he was presented with a view of the Situation of the World, after the dreadful Fourth of June, 1812, and showing what part of New York is to be destroyed. (http://tinyurl.com/4n6ycb)(WSJ, 10/3/08, p.A19) 1912 nend Louisa d?Andelot du Pont Copeland spearheaded the founding of the Delaware Art Museum. (WSJ, 7/10/00, p.A32) 1812 nend Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm published their first collection of "Folk Tales for Children and the Home." It included "The Frog King, or Iron Henry." (SFEC, 1/2/00, BR p.10) 1812 nend The 1st American recipe for tomato ketchup was published. (SFC, 8/27/03, p.E4) 1812 nend Madison proposed to France and England that if one would stop attacking American commerce at sea, then the US would break off commercial relations with the other. Napoleon quickly accepted Madison?s terms and under congressional pressure Madison declared war on England. He did not know that 24 hours prior to the declaration, England had voted to stop its abuses on American shipping. (A&IP, ESM, p.33) 1812 nend Mackinaw Island, Michigan, was recaptured by the British. (SSFC, 7/27/03, p.C5) 1812 nend The Cherokee Indians sided with the United States in the War of 1812. (NG, 5/95, p.78) 1812 nend Gen. "Mad" Anthony Wayne established Fort Wayne, Indiana. He got his nickname because he was crazy enough to join his troops on the front lines. (WSJ, 2/6/04, p.A10) 1812 nend Maine separated from the state of Massachusetts. (WSJ, 8/6/99, p.W12) 1812 nend The 1st New England cotton mill was erected in Fall River, Mass. (Panic, p.8) 1912 nend Du Pont was forced to give up a big piece of its explosives business due to government trust busting but kept its military line and became the chief supplier to the Allies in WW I. The Hagley Museum and Library in Wilmington tracked the business history of the du Ponts. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R46)(WSJ, 2/25/99, p.A1) 1812 nend The small Bank of America was founded in NYC. (SFC, 4/14/98, p.B1) 1812 nend Aaron Benedict started a button-making business in Waterbury, Conn. The name was changed to Benedict & Burnham in 1834, and to Benedict & Burnham Manufacturing in 1843. (SFC, 3/19/97, z1 p.3) 1812 nend The steamboat New Orleans was built in Pittsburgh and steamed to New Orleans but lacked sufficient power to return upstream. (ON, 7/02, p.9) 1812 nend Mason Weems made his sermon concerning gambling: "O gamblers!... You are engaged in the most horrible warfare that rational beings can ever undertake. A warfare most unnatural; even against the best and noblest part of your nature?your social affections and sympathies with your kind. (WSJ, 8/14/98, p.W11) 1812 nend Mary Anning of Lyme Regis in Dorcetshire, England, excavated a 17-foot-long skeleton and sold it to Henry Hoste Henley, Lord of the Manor of Colway for £23. The fossil was later named Icthyosaurus. (ON, 3/01, p.5) 1812 nend Russia acquired Bessarabia, the north eastern part of the original principality of Moldavia, in the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish War (1806-1812). (Econ, 1/6/07, p.43)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessarabia) 1812 nend Dec, Vilnius, Lithuania, was recaptured by Russian forces. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duke_of_Lithuania) 1812 nend Swiss explorer Jean Louis Burckhardt rediscovered the ancient city of Petra in present-day Jordan. (HNQ, 5/26/01) 1812 1840 Carl Ludvig Engel, a Prussian architect, redesigned and rebuilt Helsinki as the capital of the Grand Duchy of Finland-Russia. (SFEM, 8/8/99, p.44) 1812 1841 Russian fur traders established the settlement of Fort Ross in northern California. (WCG, p.74) 1812 1888 May 12, Edward Lear, English author of nonsense verse is born. (HFA, ?96, p.30)(AHD, p.744) 1813 nend Jan 2, In Vilnius, Lithuania, Russian Army head M. Kutuzov announced the end of war in Russia. (LHC, 1/3/03) 1813 nend Jan 4, Isaac Pitman (d.1897), inventor (stenographic shorthand), was born in Britain. (MC, 1/4/02)(WSJ, 8/20/04, p.A1) 1813 nend Jan 11, The 1st pineapples were planted in Hawaii (or 1/21). (MC, 1/11/02) 1813 nend Jan 18, Joseph Farwell Glidden, inventor of barbed wire, was born. (HN, 1/18/99)(MC, 1/18/02) 1813 nend Jan 22, During the War of 1812, British forces under Henry Proctor along with Indian allies under Tecumseh defeated a U.S. contingent planning an attack on Fort Detroit. (HN, 1/22/99)(AM, 7/00, p.19) 1813 nend Jan 22, A combined British and Indian force attacked an American militia retreating from Detroit near Frenchtown, later known as Monroe, Mich. Only 33 men of some 700 men escaped the battle of the River Raisin. Over 400 Kentucky frontiersmen were killed. (Arch, 9/00, p.22)(www.kdla.ky.gov/resources/KY_BRR.htm) 1813 nend Jan 24, Theodore Sedgwick (b.1746), arch-Federalist and former Massachusetts Senator (1796-1799), died. In 2007 John Sedgwick authored ?In My Blood: Six Generations of Madness and Desire in an American Family.? no_source 1 nend /6/07, p.P13) no_source 1813 nend Jan 29, Jane Austin published "Pride and Prejudice," a blend of instruction and moral entertainment. (HN, 1/29/99) 1813 nend Feb 18, Czar Alexander entered Warsaw at the head of his Army. (HN, 2/18/99) 1813 nend Feb 24, Off Guiana, the American sloop Hornet under Master Commandant James Lawrence sank the British sloop Peacock. (HN, 2/24/98)(ON, 10/99, p.12) 1813 nend Feb 26, Robert R. Livingston (66), US diplomat (Declaration of Independence), died. (SC, 2/26/02) 1813 nend Feb 27, The 1st federal vaccination legislation was enacted. (MC, 2/27/02) 1813 nend Feb 28, Russia and Prussia formed the Kalisz union against Napoleon. (LHC,2/28/03) 1813 nend Mar 3, Office of Surgeon General of the US army was established. (SC, 3/3/02) 1813 nend Mar 4, The Russians fighting against Napoleon reached Berlin. The French garrison evacuated the city without a fight. (HN, 3/4/99) 1813 nend Mar 8, The 1st concert of Royal Philharmonic. (MC, 3/8/02) 1813 nend Mar 15, John Snow (d.1858), obstetrician, was born in York, England. He worked on the epidemiology of cholera. (ON, 5/05, p.8)(www.johnsnowsociety.org/johnsnow/facts.html) 1813 nend Mar 19, David Livingston, explorer found by Stanley in Africa, was born in Scotland. (HN, 3/19/98) 1813 nend Mar 21, James Jesse Strang, King of Mormons on Beaver Is, MI. (1850-56), was born. (MC, 3/21/02) 1813 nend Mar 25, The first U.S. flag flown in battle was on the frigate Essex in the Pacific. (HN, 3/24/98) 1813 nend Mar 27, Nathaniel Currier, lithographer for Currier and Ives, was born. (HN, 3/27/98) 1813 nend Apr 10, Joseph-Louis Lagrange (b.1736), Italian-born mathematician, died in Paris. He is considered to be the greatest mathematician of the eighteenth century. no_source 1813 nend Apr 14, Junius S. Morgan, US merchant, philanthropist (Metro Museum of Art), was born. (MC, 4/14/02) 1813 nend Apr 14, Joachim Nicolas Eggert (34), composer, died. (MC, 4/14/02) 1813 nend Apr 15, U.S. troops under James Wilkinson sieged the Spanish-held city of Mobile in future state of Alabama. (HN, 4/15/99) 1813 nend Apr 19, Benjamin Rush (67), physician, revolutionary (signed Declaration of Independence), died. (MC, 4/19/02) 1813 nend Apr 23, Stephen Douglas (d.1861), the "Little Giant," was born. He debated Abraham Lincoln for a seat on the U.S. Senate and later lost to Lincoln for the presidency of the United States. He argued that the Declaration of Independence did not mean to include blacks. (WSJ,2/12/97, p.A16)(HN, 4/23/99) 1813 nend Apr 27, Americans forces under Gen. Zebulon M. Pike (34) captured York (present day Toronto), the seat of government in Ontario; Pike was killed. (HN, 4/27/99)(MC, 4/27/02) 1813 nend Apr 28, Russian Gen. Mikhail Ilarionovich Kutuzov (b.1745) died. (April 16 Old Style) Kutuzov forced the French army to leave Russia along the path it had devastated when it entered the country. no_source 1813 nend Apr 29, Rubber was patented. (HN, 4/29/98) 1813 nend Apr, Captain David Porter of the U.S. Navy sailed the USS Essex into the Galapagos Archipelago after a six month journey around Cape Horn, eager to find a way to help his country in their powder-keg relations with Great Britain. Capt. Porter made his first landfall at a place called Post Office Bay, on Charles Island, and raided the barrel there that served as the informal but effective communications link between whaling ships and the outside world. The primitive post box, a barrel system of drop-off and pick-up, had been established some 20 years earlier, but its efficiency had become well-known. Inside of half a year, Capt. Porter and the Essex had captured 12 British whalers and devastated the whale British industry in the Pacific, forcing a reallocation of Royal Navy ships to a distant region far from the "home front" in North America. (www.terraquest.com/assignment/assignment.html) 1813 nend May 2, Napoleon defeated a Russian and Prussian army at Grossgorschen. During the Napoleonic Wars a British naval officer proposed the use of saturation bombing and chemical warfare. (HN, 5/2/98) 1813 nend May 5, Soren Kierkegaard (d.1855), Danish philosopher and theologian, was born. He founded Existentialism and believed that man's relation to God must be an agonizing experience. "Truth is not introduced into the individual from without, but was within him all the time." His books included the philosophical novel "Diary of a Seducer." (WUD, 1994, p.786)(AP, 10/23/97)(SFC, 9/4/98, p.C5)(HN, 5/5/99) 1813 nend May 9, U.S. troops under William Henry Harrison rescued Fort Meigs from British and Canadian troops. (HN, 5/9/99) 1813 nend May 10, Montgomery Blair, lawyer in the Dred Scot case, was born in Franklin County, Ky. The case decided the limits of slavery. (HN, 5/10/99)(MC, 5/10/02) 1813 nend May 22, Richard Wagner, German composer, conductor and writer, was born in Leipzig, Germany. He composed "The Flying Dutchman." (AP, 5/22/97)(HN, 5/22/99) 1813 nend May 27, Americans captured Fort George, Canada. (HN, 5/27/98) 1813 nend Jun 1, The U.S. Navy gained its motto as the mortally wounded commander of the U.S. frigate "Chesapeake", Captain James Lawrence (b.1871) was heard to say, "Don?t give up the ship!", during a losing battle with a British frigate "Shannon"; his ship was captured by the British frigate. (DTnet, 6/1/97)(AP, 6/1/98)(ON, 10/99, p.12) 1813 nend Jun 5, Captain James Lawrence died from his wounds as the Shannon towed the Chesapeake to Halifax. Lawrence was buried with honors on Jun 8 and his remains were later sent to NYC for burial in Trinity churchyard. (ON, 10/99, p.12) 1813 nend Jun 6, The U.S. invasion of Canada was halted at Stoney Creek, Ontario. (HN, 6/6/98) 1813 nend Jun 8, David D. Porter, Union Admiral, was born. (HN, 6/8/98) 1813 nend Jun 21, The Peninsular War ended. It began on February 16, 1808, when Napoleon ordered a large French force into Spain under the pretext of sending reinforcements to the French army occupying Portugal. (MC, 6/21/02) 1813 nend Jun 24, Henry Ward Beecher (d.1887), American clergyman and brother of Harriet Beecher Stowe, was born. "Even a liar tells a hundred truths to one lie; he has to, to make the lie good for anything." (AP, 5/2/97)(HN, 6/24/01) 1813 nend Jun 26, Metternich met with Napoleon at Dresden and informed him that he must sue for peace if he wanted continued Austrian support. (ON, 5/04, p.3) 1813 nend Jul 15, Napoleon Bonaparte?s representatives met with the Allies in Prague to discuss peace terms. (HN, 7/15/98) 1813 nend Jul 31, British invaded Plattsburgh, NY. (MC, 7/31/02) 1813 nend Aug 9, After reports that British naval vessels were nearing St. Michaels, Md., to attack the shipbuilding town that night, the county militia placed lanterns on the tops of the tallest trees and on the masts of vessels in the harbor; and had all other lights extinguished. When the British attacked, they directed their fire too high and overshot the town. (HNQ, 11/25/02) 1813 nend Aug 10, A number of British barges manned by marines shelled the town of St. Michaels, Md., on the Chesapeake Bay. Residents had hoisted lanterns to treetops and masts and caused the British canons to overshoot their mark. One house was hit by a cannonball on the roof and the ball rolled across the attic and down the staircase frightening Mrs. Merchant as she carried her infant daughter downstairs. (SMBA, 1996) 1813 nend Aug 14, British warship Pelican attacked and captured US war brigantine Argus. (MC, 8/14/02) 1813 nend Aug 23, At the Battle of Grossbeeren Prussians under Von Bulow repulsed the French. (MC, 8/23/02) 1813 nend Aug 23, Alexander Wilson (b.1766), Scottish-born poet and naturalist, died in Philadelphia. He had completed 7 volumes of ?American Ornithology? and was working on a 8th volume when he died. (AH, 10/04,p.23)(www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/PA_Env-Her/alexandar_wilson.htm) 1813 nend Aug 27, The Allies defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Dresden. (HN, 8/27/98) 1813 nend Aug 30, Creek Indians massacred over 500 whites at Fort Mims Alabama. (HN, 8/30/98) 1813 nend Sep 7, The earliest known printed reference to the United States by the nickname "Uncle Sam" occurred in the Troy Post. [see Oct, 1814] (HN, 9/7/98) 1813 nend Sep 10, The nine-ship American flotilla under Oliver Hazard Perry wrested naval supremacy from the British on Lake Erie by capturing or destroying a force of six English vessels in the War of 1812. With Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry?s flagship unable to fight, an outmatched British flotilla faced the prospect of a remarkable victory. But Perry only transferred his pennant to another ship and fought on. American Captain Oliver Hazard Perry led his home-built 10-vessel fleet to victory against a six-vessel British squadron commanded by Captain Robert H. Barclay in the Battle of Lake Erie. Perry?s triumph, marked by his legendary message to General William Henry Harrison, "We have met the enemy and they are ours," was of great strategic value for the United States because it ensured American control of the Northwest Territory. During the battle, Perry left his badly damaged Lawrence and transferred his motto flag, reading, "Don?t Give Up the Ship," to Niagara. From there he continued the fight. (AP, 9/10/97)(HN, 9/10/98)(HNPD, 9/10/98) 1813 nend Sep 13, John Sedgwick (d.1864), Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 9/13/01) 1813 nend Sep 24, Andre-Ernest-Modeste Gretry, composer, died at 72. (MC, 9/24/01) 1813 nend Oct 5, The Battle of Moraviantown was decisive in the War of 1812. Known as the Battle of the Thames in the United States, the U.S. victory over British and Indian forces near Ontario at the village of Moraviantown on the Thames River is know in Canada as the Battle of Moraviantown. Some 600 British regulars and 1,000 Indian allies under English General and Shawnee leader Tecumseh were greatly outnumbered and quickly defeated by U.S. forces under the command of Maj. Gen. William Henry Harrison. Tecumseh (45) was killed in this battle. (HN, 10/5/98)(PC, 1992 ed, p.378) 1813 nend Oct 9, Giuseppe Verdi, Italian composer (Traviata, Rigoletto, Aida), was born. [see Oct 10] (MC, 10/9/01) 1813 nend Oct 10, Composer Giuseppe Verdi was born in Le Roncole, Italy. [see Oct 9] (HFA, ?96, p.40)(AP, 10/10/97)(HN, 10/10/98) 1813 nend Oct 16-1813, Oct 19, In the Battle at Leipzig (aka Battle of the Nations) Napoleon faced Prussia, Austria and Russia and suffered one of his worst defeats. (DoW, 1999, p.325) 1813 nend Oct 17, Georg Buchner, German playwright (Danton's Death, Woyzeck), was born. (MC, 10/17/01) 1813 nend Oct 18, The Allies defeated Napoleon Bonaparte at Leipzig. (HN, 10/18/98) 1813 nend Oct 26, Canadian militia defeated American forces at the Battle of Chateauguay. (www3.sympatico.ca/dis.general/chatgy.htm) 1813 nend Oct 29, The Demologos, the first steam-powered warship, was launched in New York City. (HN, 10/29/98) 1813 nend Nov 2, Treaty of Fulda. After the Battle of Leipzig (Oct 16-19) King Frederick I of Württemberg (1754-1816) deserted Napoleon?s waning fortunes. By a treaty made with Klemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar von Metternich (1773-1858) at Fulda, Hessen, Germany he secured the confirmation of his royal title and of his recent acquisitions of territory, while his troops marched with those of the allies into France. (DoW, 1999, p.325) 1813 nend Nov 3, American troops destroy the Indian village of Tallushatchee in the Mississippi Valley. US troops under Gen Coffee destroyed an Indian village at Talladega, Ala. (HN, 11/3/99)(MC, 11/3/01) 1813 nend Nov 6, Chilpancingo congress declared Mexico independent of Spain. (MC, 11/6/01) 1813 nend Nov 12, J. H. St. John de Crevecouer, French explorer and writer, died. He had spent more than half of his life in the New World and contributed two important concepts to the American consciousness. The first is the idea of the "American Adam," that there is something different, unique, special, or new about these people called "Americans." The second idea is that of the "melting pot," that people's "American-ness" transcends their ethnic, cultural, or religious backgrounds. (http://cs1.mcm.edu/~cetheridge/crevec.htm)(http://tinyurl.com/3cbq3j) 1813 nend Nov 16, The British announced a blockade of Long Island Sound, leaving only the New England coast open to shipping. (HN, 11/16/98) 1813 nend Nov 29, Giambattista Bodoni (73), Italian stamp cutter, publisher, and type font designer (bodoni), died. (MC, 11/29/01) 1813 nend Dec 8, Ludwig van Beethoven's 7th Symphony in A, premiered. (MC, 12/8/01) 1813 nend Dec 10, Zachariah Chandler, US merchant and politician, was born. He founded the Republican Party. (MC, 12/10/01) 1813 nend Dec 19, British forces captured Fort Niagara during the War of 1812. (AP, 12/20/06) 1813 nend Dec 20, Dr. Samuel Mudd, doctor who helped Lincoln assassin John Wilkes Booth, was born. [2nd ref. says 1833] (HN, 12/20/98)(MC, 12/20/01) 1813 nend Dec 30, The British burned Buffalo, N.Y., during the War of 1812. (AP, 12/30/06) 1813 nend Dec 31, Some 83,000 Prussian and Russian soldiers pursued Napoleon across the Rhine at Pfalzgrafenstein Castle. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.T5) 1813 nend Raphaelle Peale, son of Charles Willson, painted his still life "Black-berries." (SFC, 1/25/97, p.E1) 1813 nend The Rossini opera "L?Italiana in Algeri" had its premier in Venice. [see 1808] (SFC, 7/12/97, p.E1) 1813 nend In New Mexico El Santuario del Senor de Esquipulas was built. It is a tiny chapel near the village of Chimayo, and one of the 6 adobe missions scattered along the western shoulder of the Sangre de Cristo mountains between Taos and Santa Fe. Rumor has it that Don Bernardo Abeyta, a Catholic penitent from Santa Cruz, found a buried crucifix here in 1810 while on a pilgrimage. Native Americans called this valley Tsimayo-pokwi and believed it to be holy ground. (SFC, 5/12/96, p.T-5) 1813 nend The US federal government was almost broke from the war with Britain but was able to get Stephen Girard, wealthy ship owner and banker, to help finance the war effort. Congress quickly moved to charter the Second Bank of the US. (WSJ, 3/12/97, p.A18) 1813 nend Immigrants John Jacob Astor, David Parish, Alexander Dallas and Stephen Girard stepped in to provide over $9 million to finance the US War of 1812. (WSJ, 1/2/97, p.6)(www.fee.org/~web/0203iolpdf/col4.pdf) 1813 nend A new 45 carat blue diamond emerged in France. It was guessed to have been cut from the 112 carat Blue Diamond of the crown jewels. The 112 carot stone was recut in 1673 to 67 carats. (THC, 12/3/97)(EB, 1993, V6 p.51) 1813 nend John (Cameron) Gilroy of Scotland sailed from England on the Isaac Todd to Monterey, Ca., where he was dropped off to recover from scurvy. (SFC, 11/29/97, p.A14) 1813 nend A troop ship returning from the War of 1812 was blown ashore at Cape Pine on Newfoundland?s Avalon Peninsula. All 350 passengers died. (SFEC, 9/29/96, p.T-6) 1813 nend Andrew Jackson received a bullet wound that shattered his left shoulder. The bullet was not removed until 1832 and was later suspected of causing lead poisoning. (SFC, 8/11/99, p.A2) 1813 nend Zebulon Montgomery Pike, the American explorer who has a Colorado mountain named for him, died leading an attack that captured York, now known as Toronto, in the War of 1812. Pike, born in New Jersey in 1779, sighted in 1806 but did not climb the mountain that would later be named Pikes Peak in the Colorado Rockies. Pike led two expeditions from 1805 to 1807, one in the upper Mississippi region of the Louisiana Purchase and the second in what is now New Mexico and Colorado. As a brigadier general, Pike was killed, when a powder magazine exploded as he led the assault on York, then capital of upper Canada. Some 320 Americans were killed or wounded in the explosion. (HNQ, 5/7/98) 1813 nend In Australia explorers Gregory Blaxland, William Wentworth and William Lawson blazed the first trail from Sidney across the Blue Mountains to the fertile western plains. (Hem., 1/97, p.53) 1813 nend Bennelong (49), an Australian Aborigine, died. He was one of the first Aborigines to live among white settlers after the landing of the First Fleet in 1788, when he was kidnapped and employed as a cultural interlocutor by the British. Bennelong had adapted to the European way of life, teaching the colonizers about Aboriginal customs and language and learning to speak English, but ultimately became an alcoholic. (AFP, 3/19/11) 1813 nend William Charles Wells presented a paper to the Royal Society in which he introduced the idea of natural selection to explain why people might vary in skin color in different climates. (Econ, 2/7/09, p.73) 1813 nend In Canada American militiamen burned down the town of Niagara-on-the Lake. (WSJ, 8/29/97, p.A9) 1813 nend The Tokujo-maru, a Japanese ship with a cargo of rice for Edo, was blown off course. Three surviving crew members were picked up 18 months later by a British ship off the coast of California. (Econ, 12/22/07, p.64) 1813 nend Prussia took over Danzig. (WSJ, 8/31/98, p.A4) 1813 nend The Prussians introduced the Iron Cross during the Napoleonic wars. (WSJ, 4/23/99, A1) 1813 nend The Clark family of Paisley, Scotland, began manufacturing cotton thread. By the 1840s members of the family moved to the US and in 1866 developed a twisted cotton thread for sewing machines, which they named O.N.T. (Our New Thread). (SFC, 10/5/05, p.G3) 1813 nend A Swiss traveler discovered the Great and Small Temples of Ramses II at Abu Simbel in Egypt. (NG, May 1985, R. Caputo, p.591) 1813 1820 The classic Vietnamese love poem "The Tale of Kieu" was written by Nguyen Du (1766-1820). It was based on an earlier Chinese novel entitled "The story of Kim-Van-Kieu ", written by an author under the pen-name of "Thanh-Tam Tai-Nhan" in the 16th or the early 17th century. (SFC, 9/25/96,p.E7)(www.geocities.com/SoHo/Den/5908/literature/kieu.html) 1813 1828 Russia gains control of northern Azerbaijan due to the weak local power of the khanates. Industrialization and oil extraction are expanded. (Compuserve Online, Grolier?s Amer. Acad. Enc./ Azerbaijan) 1813 1843 Robert Southey was the poet laureate of England over this period. He was the author of "The Three Bears." (SFEC, 2/15/98, Z1 p.8) 1813 1855 Soren Kierkegaard, Danish philosopher: "Truth is not introduced into the individual from without, but was within him all the time." "Don?t forget to love yourself." (AP, 10/23/97)(AP, 3/5/98) 1813 1887 Ellen Wood, English playwright and journalist: "It is not so much what we have done amiss, as what we have left undone, that will trouble us, looking back." (AP, 2/13/01) 1813 1891 Prince Louis-Lucien Bonaparte, linguist, amassed a collection of some 14,000 books on linguistics. Because his special interest was the Finnish and Estonian languages, he gathered extensively from the whole Baltic region. The collection was sold in 1894 to the Newberry Library in Chicago from a London bookseller. (DrEE, 9/28/96, p.4) 1813 1901 Oct 10, Giuseppe Verdi, Italian composer was born. Best know for his operas. (AHD, 1971, p.1422)(HFA, ?96, p.40) 1813 1908 Thomas Mellon, American empire builder and judge, made his fortune in real-estate speculation and founded the Mellon Bank. (WSJ, 2/27/95, p.A-10) 1814 nend Jan 2, Lord Byron completed "The Corsair." (MC, 1/2/02) 1814 nend Jan 27, Johann Gottlieb Fichte (b.1762), German philosopher, died. (MC, 1/27/02) 1814 nend Feb 9, Samuel Jones Tilden, philanthropist, was born. (HN, 2/9/97)(MC, 2/9/02) 1814 nend Feb 10, Napoleon personally directed lightning strikes against enemy columns advancing toward Paris, beginning with a victory over the Russians at Champaubert. During the Napoleonic Wars a British naval officer proposed the use of saturation bombing and chemical warfare to undermine the strength of Emperor Napoleon. (HN, 2/10/97) 1814 nend Feb 21, Nicolo Gabrielli, composer, was born. (MC, 2/21/02) 1814 nend Feb 27, Ludwig von Beethoven's 8th Symphony in F, premiered. (MC, 2/27/02) 1814 nend Feb 27, Napoleon?s Marshal Nicholas Oudinot was pushed back at Barsur-Aube by the Emperor?s allied enemies shortly before his abdication. (HN, 2/27/98) 1814 nend Feb, A man claiming to be an aide-de-camp to the armies fighting Napoleon landed in Dover and claimed that Cossacks had butchered Napoleon and that Paris had fallen. Stock prices soared and conspirators sold shares at a 15% profit before the fraud was unmasked. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1849 nend Mar 3, Gold Coinage Act authorized the $20 Double Eagle gold coin. (SC, 3/3/02) 1849 nend Mar 4, The US had no President. Polk's term ended on a Sunday and Taylor couldn't be sworn-in; Senator David Atchison (pres pro tem) term had ended March 3rd. (SC, 3/4/02) 1814 nend Mar 10, Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated by a combined Allied Army at the battle of Laon, in France. (HN, 3/10/99) 1814 nend Mar 27, General Jackson led U.S. soldiers who killed 700 Creek Indians at Horseshoe Bend, La. [in Northern Alabama] Jackson lost 49 men. In 2001 John Buchanon authored "Jackson?s Way" and Robert V. Remini authored "Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars." (SFEC, 2/16/97, BR p.4)(HN, 3/27/99)(WSJ, 7/26/01, p.A12) 1814 nend Mar 29, In the Battle at Horseshoe Bend, Alabama, Andrew Jackson beat the Creek Indians. [see Mar 27] (MC, 3/29/02) 1814 nend Mar 30, Britain and allies marched into Paris after defeating Napoleon. (MC, 3/30/02) 1814 nend Mar 31, Forces allied against Napoleon captured Paris. (MC, 3/31/02) 1814 nend Apr 2, Henry Lewis "Old Rock" Benning, Brig General in Confederate Army, was born. (MC, 4/2/02) 1814 nend Apr 4, Napoleon Bonaparte first abdicated at Fontainebleau. He was allowed to keep the title of emperor. [see Apr 11] (www.napoleonseries.org/reference/political/legislation/restoration.cfm) 1814 nend Apr 11, Napoleon Bonaparte (45) abdicated at Fontainebleau a 2nd time and was banished to the island of Elba, a small island in the Mediterranean, retaining the title of emperor and 400 volunteers to act as his guard. He was granted sovereignty over Elba and a pension from the French government. [see Apr 6] (www.napoleonseries.org/reference/political/legislation/restoration.cfm) 1814 nend Apr 15, John Lothrop Motley, US historian, author (Rise of Dutch Rep), was born. (MC, 4/15/02) 1814 nend Apr 20, Napoleon departed for exile in Elba. (Econ, 4/14/07, p.94) 1814 nend Apr 26, King Louis XVIII landed on Calais from England. (MC, 4/26/02) 1814 nend Apr, The Duke of Wellington led 60,000 troops against 325,000 French troops at Toulouse and defeated them just days after Napoleon abdicated the throne. (WSJ, 1/6/95, A-10) 1814 nend May 4, Napoleon Bonaparte disembarked at Portoferraio on the island of Elba in the Mediterranean. (HN, 5/4/99) 1814 nend May 4, Bourbon reign was restored in France. Louis XVIII was crowned as successor to his guillotined brother. (MC, 5/4/02) 1814 nend May 5, The British attacked Ft. Ontario, Oswego, New York. (HN, 5/5/98) 1814 nend May 6, Wilhelm Ernst, violinist, composer, was born. (MC, 5/6/02) 1814 nend May 6, George Joseph Vogler (64), composer, died. (MC, 5/6/02) 1814 nend May 11, Americans defeated the British at Battle of Plattsburgh. (MC, 5/11/02) 1814 nend May 12, Robert Treat Paine (83), US judge (signed Declaration of Ind), died. (MC, 5/12/02) 1814 nend May 17, Norway?s constitution was signed, providing for a limited monarchy. Denmark ceded Norway to Sweden. (AP, 5/17/97)(HN, 5/17/98) 1814 nend May 29, Empress Josephine (1804-14), first wife of Napoleon Bonaparte, died. She maintained grand roses at Malmaison, where there were an estimated 250 varieties. (TGR, 1995, p.2)(SC, 5/29/02) 1814 nend May 30, The First Treaty of Paris was declared, after Napoleon's first abdication. It returned France to its 1792 borders and secured for the British definite possession of the Cape of Good Hope. (HN, 5/30/98)(HN, 5/30/99)(EWH, 4th ed, p.884) 1814 nend Jun 1, Philip Kearney, Union Civil War general, was born. He was killed at the Battle of Chantilly, Virginia. (HN, 6/1/99) 1814 nend Jun 3, Nicolas Appert (b.1749), French cook, died. He was the winner of a 12,000 franc prize offered by Napoleon for developing a method to preserve food. His original canning method took 14 years to develop and used glass jars sealed with wax reinforced with wire. (WSJ, 1/21/03, p.A1)(www.foodreference.com) 1814 nend Jul 5, US troops under Gen. Jacob Brown and Gen. Winfield Scott defeated a superior British force under Maj. Gen. Phineas Riall near the Niagara River at Chippewa, Canada. British casualties exceeded 500 compared to some 300 Americans. (AH, 10/07, p.53) 1814 nend Jul 7, Sir Walter Scott's (1771-1832) novel "Waverly" was published anonymously so as not to damage his reputation as a poet. (HN, 7/7/01)(WUD, 1994 p.1281) 1814 nend Jul 18, The British captured Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin. (MC, 7/18/02) 1814 nend Jul 19, Samuel Colt, inventor of the first practical revolver, was born. (HN, 7/19/98) 1814 nend Jul 22, Five Indian tribes in Ohio made peace with the United States and declared war on Britain. (HN, 7/22/98) 1814 nend Jul 25, British and American forces fought each other to a stand off at Lundy's Lane (Niagara Falls), Canada, in some of the fiercest fighting in the War of 1812. (HN, 7/25/98) 1814 nend Aug 7, Pope Pius VII reinstated the Jesuits. (MC, 8/7/02) 1814 nend Aug 9, Andrew Jackson and the Creek Indians signed the Treaty of Fort Jackson, giving the whites 23 million acres of Mississippi Creek territory. This ended Indian resistance in the region and opened the doors to pioneers after the conclusion of the War of 1812. (HN, 8/9/98)(HNQ, 8/13/99) 1814 nend Aug 10, John Clifford Pemberton (d.1881), Lt Gen (Confederate Army), was born. (MC, 8/10/02) 1814 nend Aug 13, Treaty of London-Netherland was signed to stop the transport of slaves. By agreement Britain paid the Dutch £6 million in compensation for the Cape of Good Hope. [see May 30] (EWH, 4th ed, p.884)(MC, 8/13/02) 1814 nend Aug 14, British marines landed near the mouth of the Patuxent River in Maryland and began marching overland to attack Washington, DC. (ON, 6/08, p.1) 1814 nend Aug 24, 5,000 British troops under the command of General Robert Ross marched into Washington, D.C., after defeating an American force at Bladensburg, Maryland. It was in retaliation for the American burning of the parliament building in York (Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada. Meeting no resistance from the disorganized American forces, the British burned the White House, the Capitol and almost every public building in the city before a downpour extinguished the fires. President James Madison and his wife fled from the advancing enemy, but not before Dolly Madison saved the famous Gilbert Stuart portrait of George Washington. This wood engraving of Washington in flames was printed in London weeks after the event to celebrate the British victory. (AP, 8/24/97)(HNPD,8/24/98)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Bladensburg) 1814 nend Aug 24, The US Capitol and White House in Washington D.C. were burned and sacked by British General Robert Ross and Rear Admiral Sir George Cockburn. This made Congress realize the need for quick transportation and sparked the digging of the Chesapeake-Delaware Canal. (NG, Sept. 1939, J. Maloney p.379) 1814 nend Aug 25, British forces destroyed the Library of Congress, containing some 3,000 books. (MC, 8/25/02) 1814 nend Aug, After the British burned the White House in 1814, President James Madison lived in the nearby Octagon?so named because of its unique eight-sided shape?until the end of his term. (HNQ, 10/28/00) 1814 nend Sep 11, An American fleet led by Thomas Macdonough scored a decisive victory over the British in the Battle of Lake Champlain in the War of 1812. (AP, 9/11/97)(HN, 9/11/98) 1814 nend Sep 12, A British fleet under Sir Alexander Cochrane began the bombardment of Fort McHenry, the last American defense before Baltimore. Lawyer Francis Scott Key had approached the British attackers seeking the release of a friend who was being held for unfriendly acts toward the British. Key himself was detained overnight on September 13 and witnessed the bombardment of Fort McHenry from a guarded American boat. (www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/hh/5/hh5h.htm) 1814 nend Sep 12, The Battle of North Point was fought near Baltimore during War of 1812. British General Ross was killed by a sniper?s bullet in a skirmish just prior to the main battle. The battle proved to be strategic American victory, but since they left the field in the hands of the British, tactically it was a defeat for the Americans. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_North_Point) 1814 nend Sep 13, British ships bombarded Ft. McHenry under the command of General Armistead. Francis Scott Key watched the bombing from a detained American boat. The British used red glaring Congreve rockets and air bursting bombs during the war. (NG, Sept. 1939, p.392)(SFC, 6/22/96, p.E4) 1814 nend Sep 14, In the dawn light Francis Scott Key saw that the American flag still waved over Fort McHenry in Maryland during the War of 1812. He looked on from the deck of a boat on the Patasco River nine miles away and wrote ?The Star Spangled Banner.? The lyrics were alter adopted to the British tune "To Anacreon in Heaven,? which had also served as Irish drinking song and a number of other songs. "The Star-Spangled Banner" was officially recognized as the national anthem in 1931. The 40 feet long flag had been made by Baltimore widow Mary Young Pickersgill and her 13-year-old daughter just a month before the attack. In 1907 the flag was donated to the Smithsonian. (SFC, 7/4/97, p.A2)(AP, 9/14/97)(HN, 9/14/98)(WSJ, 7/3/02, p.B1) 1814 nend Sep 15, The words of the "Star-Spangled Banner," written by Francis Scott Key following the Sep 13 attack on Fort Henry, was printed on a handbill without the name of Francis Scott Key and originally known as "The Defense of Fort McHenry." (HNQ, 2/16/02) 1814 nend Sep 21, "Star Spangled Banner" was published as a poem. (MC, 9/21/01) 1814 nend Sep, Alexander I of Russia entered Paris at the head of an anti-Napoleon coalition. (WSJ, 6/26/96, p.A16) 1814 nend Sep, The Congress of Vienna convened in late September and continued to June 8, 1815. Friedrich von Gentz of Austria served as secretary to the Congress. It was held after the banishment of Napoleon to Elba. The congress aimed at territorial resettlement and restoration to power of the crowned heads of Europe with Prince Metternich of Austria as the dominant figure. Viscount Castlereagh and the Duke of Wellington represented Britain. Alexander I stood for Russia. Talleyrand stood for France. Prince von Hardenberg stood for Prussia. In 2007 Adam Zamoyski authored ?Rites of Peace: The Fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna.? In 2008 David King authored ?Vienna 1814: How the Conquerors of Napoleon Made Love, War and Peace at the Congress of Vienna. (Econ, 4/14/07, p.94)(www.bartleby.com/65/vi/Vienna-C.html)(SSFC,4/6/08, Books p.4) 1814 nend Oct 3, Mikhail Yurevich Lermontov (d.1841), Russian poet and writer (Demon), was born. (WUD, 1994 p.822)(MC, 10/3/01) 1814 nend Oct 4, Jean Francois Millet (d.1875), French painter, was born. (www.artrenewal.org/asp/database/art.asp?aid=745) 1814 nend Oct 17, Two giant porter vats at the Horse Shoe Brewery on London?s Tottenham Court Road burst when the securing hoops failed. The 25-foot-high vats were owned by Sir Henry Meux and. Several lives were lost along with an estimated 8,000-9,000 barrels of porter. no_source 1814 nend Oct 19, Mercy Otis Warren (b.1728), Massachusetts playwright, died. (WSJ, 2/5/08, p.A16)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercy_Otis_Warren) 1814 nend Oct, The name Uncle Sam, a nickname for the United States, was coined during the War of 1812. Workers at Samuel Wilson?s meat-packing plant in Troy, N.Y., which supplied provisions to the U.S. Army, joked that the U.S. stamped on the barrels bound for the troops actually stood for their boss Uncle Sam Wilson. Army contractor Elbert Anderson, Jr. sought bids to provide food for the 5,000 soldiers at the Greenbush Cantonment near Troy, NY. The firm of E. & S. Wilson (Ebenezar and Samuel, d.1854 at 87) provided many of the rations in oak casks labeled "E.A.-U.S.," as required by the contract. A quip attributed the casks to Elbert Anderson and his Uncle Sam. Later government property in general became referred to as "Uncle Sam?s." [see Sep 7, 1813] (Hem., 7/95, p.89)(WC, Summer ?97, p.3) 1814 nend Nov 5, Having decided to abandon the Niagara frontier, the American army blew up Fort Erie. (HN, 11/5/98) 1814 nend Nov 6, Adolphe Sax (d.1894), instrument maker and inventor of the saxophone, was born. (WUD, 1994, p.1272)(HN, 11/6/98) 1814 nend Nov 7, Andrew Jackson attacked and captured Pensacola, Florida, defeating the Spanish and driving out a British force. (HN, 11/7/98) 1814 nend Nov 13, Joseph Hooker (d.1879), Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 11/13/01) 1814 nend Nov 23, Elbridge Gerry (b.1744), former Massachusetts governor (1810-1811), died in office as vice-president of the US under Madison (1812-1814). (WSJ, 10/22/04, p.W5)(www.ushistory.org/declaration/signers/gerry.htm) 1814 nend Nov, Unable to pay in specie [i.e. gold] as required by law, the US government offered to pay its debt in paper. Most banks refused to accept the Treasury notes as security and war bonds fell to 60 cents on the dollar. (WSJ, 12/12/95, p.A-19) 1814 nend Dec 1, The shallow-draft steamboat Enterprise, completed in Pittsburgh under the direction of keelboat captain Henry Miller Shreve, left for New Orleans to deliver guns and ammunition to Gen. Jackson. (ON, 7/02, p.9) 1814 nend Dec 2, Marquis de Sade (74), writer, died. (MC, 12/2/01) 1814 nend Dec 13, General Andrew Jackson announced martial law in New Orleans, Louisiana, as British troops disembarked at Lake Borne, 40 miles east of the city. (HN, 12/13/98) 1814 nend Dec 14, The steamboat Enterprise, designed by keelboat captain Henry Miller Shreve, arrived in New Orleans with guns and ammunition for Gen. Jackson. It was immediately commandeered for military service. (ON, 7/02, p.9) 1814 nend Dec 19, Edwin McMasters Stanton, US Secretary of War (1861-65), was born in Ohio. (MC, 12/19/01) 1814 nend Dec 24, The Treaty of Ghent between the United States and Great Britain, terminating the War of 1812, was signed at Ghent, Belgium. The news did not reach the United States until two weeks later (after the decisive American victory at New Orleans). The treaty, signed by John Quincy Adams for the US, committed the US and Britain "to use their best endeavors" to end the Atlantic slave trade. (AP, 12/24/97)(WSJ, 12/31/97, p.A11)(HN, 12/24/98)(SFEC, 11/21/99,p.T10) 1814 nend Dec 24, Austrian Emperor Francis I appointed Joseph Ritter von Prechtl as the first director of the Polytechnical Institute of Vienna. (StuAus, April ?95, p.18) 1814 nend Mir Ali created a full-length portrait of Persia?s Fath-Ali Shah (1771) shortly after Shah?s loss of a major battle against the Russians. (WSJ, 8/1/06, p.D6)(www.jsenterprises.com/john/thesis/chapter2.htm) 1814 nend Jacques-Louis David created his painting ?Leonidas at Thermopylae.? (WSJ, 4/6/05, p.D11) c 1814 nend Pierre-Paul Prud?hon (1758-1823), French artist, drew his "Bust of a Female Figure." (WSJ, 12/5/96, p.A16) 1814 nend ETA Hoffman?s "Best Tales of Hoffman" was published. no_source 1814 nend Rossini composed his opera "Il Turco in Italia." (WSJ, 11/10/98, p.A20) 1814 nend The Avila House, a thick-walled adobe building at 14 Olvera in Los Angeles, was built. (SFEC,12/797, p.T3) 1814 nend The Monterey Custom?s House was built by the Mexican government on the Monterey Peninsula in California. (Hem., 1/96, p.26) 1814 nend The 1st Odd Fellows arrived in the US from Europe. The fraternal organization was founded in Europe in the 18th century. [see 1819] (SFC, 11/28/00, p.A25) 1814 nend Andrew Jackson called the followers of French freebooter Jean Lafitte "hellish banditti." Jackson later revised his opinion and asked Lafitte to aid him against the British in the defense of New Orleans. Many of the 4,500 men behind Jackson?s entrenchments at New Orleans on January 8, 1815, were followers of Lafitte. (HN, 1/17/00) 1814 nend David Farragut, a ship's boy on the frigate Essex, was captured by the British when the Essex was defeated by the British. (WSJ, 1/26/00, p.A20) 1814 nend Jose Dario Arguello, Spanish-born commander of the Presidio, served as the governor of Alta California. He was later buried at Mission Dolores. (SFEC, 9/21/97, p.C7) 1814 nend The Marquis de Sade died. His writings included "Justine," "Juliette," and "120 Days of Sodom." In 1999 Neal Schaeffer published "The Marquis De Sade: A Life," and Francine du Plessix Gray published "At Home With the Marquis De Sade: A Life." (SFEC, 7/25/99, BR p.3) 1814 nend Jose Francisco de San Martin (1778-1850) became general in chief of Argentina?s Army of the North. His primary mission was to protect Argentina against Spanish royalists in Peru. (ON, 10/09, p.8) 1814 nend In Austria rebuilding began of the 14th century Arenberg Castle following a major fire. (SFC, 4/20/09, p.A2) 1814 nend In Legazpi, Philippines, the Mayon volcano erupted and 1,200 people were killed. (SFC, 6/25/01, p.A9) 1814 nend The Kingdom of Sardinia was united with the Kingdom of Liguria. (WUD, 1994, p.830) 1814 1815 Sep-Jun, The Congress of Vienna was held after the banishment of Napoleon to Elba. Prince Metternich of Austria was the dominant figure and it aimed at territorial resettlement and restoration to power of the crowned heads of Europe. Viscount Castlereagh and the Duke of Wellington represented Britain. Alexander I stood for Russia. Talleyrand stood for France. Prince von Hardenberg stood for Prussia. In 2007 Adam Zamoyski authored ?Rites of Peace: The Fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna.? (WUD, 1994, p.310, 1677)(Econ, 4/14/07, p.94) 1814 1864 Hong Xiuquan, believed himself to be the second son of God. In 1851 he declared himself king of China and the world. In 1853 his Taiping army took the city of Nanjing as its heavenly capital. He ruled there until 1864. When the Qing (Manchu) government troops tightened their siege he died from eating what he said was manna sent by God to alleviate his believer?s starvation. His story is told by Jonathan D. Spence in God?s Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan. (WSJ, 1/5/96, p.A-8) 1814 1876 Mikhail Bakunin was an authoritarian anarchist. (WSJ, 8/24/98, p.A10) 1814 1903 Nicolaas Beets, born Sept. 13, died Mar. 13. Dutch poet and prose writer. He was a professor of theology at Utrecht after 1874. In 1839, while a student in Leiden, he published under the pseudonym of Hildebrand the first version of his Camera Obscura (completed 1854), a remarkable collection of stories and essays filled with keen observations, insight into character, and humorous episodes. (CO, Amer. Her. Dic., 6/25/95) 1814 1969 In Hohenberg, Bavaria, C.M. Hutschreuther operated a porcelain factory and inscribed his ware with various marks. e.g. A crown over the initials CM in a shield with 18 on one side and 14 on the other was used from 1950-1963. (SFC, 8/14/96, z-1 p.5) 1815 nend Jan 5, Federalists from all over New England, angered over the War of 1812, drew up the Hartford Convention, demanding several important changes in the U.S. Constitution. (HN, 1/5/99) 1815 nend Jan 8, US forces led by Gen. Andrew Jackson and French pirate Jean Lafitte led some 3,100 backwoodsmen to victory against 7,500 British veterans at Chalmette in the Battle of New Orleans in the closing engagement of the War of 1812. A British army marched on New Orleans without knowing that the War of 1812 had ended on Christmas Eve of 1814. A massacre ensued, as 2,044 British troops, including three generals, fell dead, wounded or missing before General Andrew Jackson's well-prepared earthworks, compared with only 71 American casualties. Among the British victims were Gen. Sir Edward Pakenham and the Highlanders of the 93rd Regiment of Foot. In 2000 Robert V. Remini published "The Battle of New Orleans." (AP, 1/8/98)(HN, 1/8/99)(WSJ, 1/26/00, p.A20)(AH, 2/05, p.16) 1815 nend Jan 11, Sir John A. Macdonald, the first prime minister of Canada, was born in Glasgow, Scotland. (AP, 1/11/98) 1815 nend Jan 21, Horace Wells (d.1845), dentist, was born. He pioneered the use of medical anesthesia and was the 1st to use nitrous oxide as a pain killer. (Dr, 7/17/01, p.2)(MC, 1/21/02) 1815 nend Jan 30, The burned Library of Congress was reestablished with Jefferson's 6,500 volumes. (MC, 1/30/02) 1815 nend Feb 3, World's 1st commercial cheese factory was established, in Switzerland. (MC, 2/3/02) 1815 nend Feb 6, The state of New Jersey issued the first American railroad charter to John Stevens, who proposed a rail link between Trenton and New Brunswick. The line, however, was never built. (AP, 2/6/97) 1815 nend Feb 11, News of the Treaty of Ghent, ending the War of 1812, finally reached the United States. (HN, 2/11/99) 1815 nend Feb 24, Robert Fulton (b.1765), steamboat pioneer, died at age 49. In 2001 Kirkpatrick Sale authored the biography: "The Fire of His Genius." (WSJ, 9/24/01, p.A22)(MC, 2/24/02) 1815 nend Feb 25, Napoleon left his exile on the Island of Elba, intending to return to France. (HN, 2/25/98) 1815 nend Feb 26, Napoleon, escaped from the Island of Elba, and 1,200 of his men started the 100-day re-conquest of France. (HN, 2/26/98)(AP, 2/26/98) 1815 nend Feb, Congress appropriated funds for the restoration of the White House and hired James Hoban, the original designer and builder, to do the work. (SFEC, 7/4/99, Par p.5) 1815 nend Mar 1, In France, returning from Elba, Napoleon landed at Cannes with a force of 1, 500 men and marched on Paris. (HN, 3/1/99) 1815 nend Mar 1, Sunday observance in Netherlands was regulated by law. (SC, 3/1/02) 1815 nend Mar 2, To put an end to robberies by the Barbary pirates, the United States declared war on Algiers. (HN, 3/2/99) 1815 nend Mar 5, Friedrich (Franz) Anton Mesmer (b.1734), German physician who pioneered the medical field of hypnotic therapy, died in obscurity in Meersburg, Swabia (now Germany). He was suspected of having seduced a pretty pianist while attempting to cure her blindness through hypnosis. (HN, 5/23/98)(WSJ, 5/30/00, p.A24)(MC, 3/5/02) 1815 nend Mar 20, Napoleon Bonaparte entered Paris, beginning his "Hundred Days" rule. He had escaped from his imprisonment on the island of Elba off the coast of Tuscany. He gathered his veterans and marched on Paris. At Waterloo, Belgium, he met the Duke of Wellington, commander of the allied anti-French forces and was resoundingly defeated. Napoleon was then imprisoned on the island of St. Helena in the south Atlantic. In 1997 Gregor Dallas published: The Final Act: The Roads to Waterloo." the book includes a good account of the Congress of Vienna. (AP, 3/20/97)(V.D.-H.K.p.232)(SFEC,11/2/97, Par p.10)(HN, 3/20/98) 1815 nend Apr 1, Otto von Bismarck (d.1898), German statesman, was born. He founded the German Empire and was the chancellor of Germany, the Second Reich, from 1866-90 [1971-1990]. The Iron Chancellor created the modern social insurance state when he introduced transfer payments to appease worker insecurities. "History is simply a piece of paper covered with print; the main thing is still to make history, not to write it." "Every man had his basic worth - from which must be subtracted his vanity. (WUD, 1994, p.151)(AP, 11/6/97)(WSJ, 4/24/98, p.A14)(SFEC, 3/7/99,Z1 p.8)(HN, 4/1/99) 1815 nend Apr 5, Mount Tambora on Sumbawa Island, Indonesia, in the Java Sea began erupting. [see Apr 10] (NOHY, 3/90, p.41)(www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9071099) 1815 nend Apr 6, At Dartmoor Prison in southwest England 7 American prisoners were killed by British soldiers under the command of Captain Thomas G. Shortland. Some 6,000 prisoners were awaiting return to the US. A farmer?s jury with no victims or witnesses issued a verdict on April 8 of "justifiable homicide." (AH, 10/02, p.36) 1815 nend Apr 10, A third of the 13,000 foot Mount Tambora on Sumbawa Island, Indonesia, was blasted into the air. Some 50,000 islanders were killed and the whole planet was shrouded in a debris of sulfuric droplets. In 2006 scientist reported finding traces of Tambora society. (www.sullivan-county.com/immigration/e3.htm)(AP, 2/28/06) 1815 nend Apr 28, Andrew Jackson Smith (d.1897), Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 4/28/02) 1815 nend Apr 24, Anthony Trollope (d.1882), British novelist, was born. His 47 novels included "The American Senator." His 33rd novel was "The Way We Live Now." "Nobody holds a good opinion of a man who has a low opinion of himself." An essay by Cynthia Ozick on the novel is in her 1996 book "Fame and Folly." (WUD, 1994, p.1517)(WSJ, 5/22/96, p.A-18)(AP, 10/13/97)(WSJ, 6/9/00,p.W17)(HN, 4/24/01) 1915 nend Apr, Arthur R. Smith (20) auditioned to fly for the Panama-Pacific Expo in SF and performed 14 consecutive loop-the-loops. He painted each loop with a stream of gray smoke. He died in 1926 while testing a new airplane on a night flight from Chicago to Bryan. (Ind, 9/5/98, p.5A) 1815 nend Apr, British General Arthur Wellesley, duke of Wellington, began assembling troops at Brussels, Belgium. 73,000 British troops were joined by 33,000 German, Dutch and Belgian troops preparing to face Napoleon. Prussian Gen. Gebhard Leberecht von Blucher gathered an army of 120,000 southeast of Brussels. (ON, 4/06, p.1) 1815 nend May 5, Eugene-Marin Labiche, French playwright, was born. (MC, 5/5/02) 1815 nend May 29, Cornelis de Gijselaar (64), politician, patriot, died. (SC, 5/29/02) 1815 nend Jun 1, James Gillray (b.1757), British caricaturist and printmaker, died. He is famous for his etched political and social satires, mainly published between 1792 and 1810. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Gillray)(Econ, 12/19/09, p.99) 1815 nend Jun 8, The Congress of Vienna ended. Negotiations had begun in 1812 to rearrange Europe following the defeat of Napoleon. The final conclave began Nov 1, 1814. In 2007 Adam Zamoyski authored ?Rites of Peace: The Fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna.? (www.victorianweb.org/history/forpol/vienna.html)(WSJ, 8/1/07, p.D7) 1815 nend Jun 16, Napoleon defeated the Prussians at the Battle of Ligny, Belgium. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ligny) 1815 nend Jun 16, A French attack at the crossroads called Quatre Bras badly mauled the British army, but failed to rout it or to take the crossroads. Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte had marched into Belgium to find himself confronted by two allied armies, which he tried to split apart. Although similarly battered at Ligny that day, the Prussian army also retired intact. Both armies would face Napoleon again two days later at Waterloo. (HNPD, 6/16/99) 1815 nend Jun 17, A heavy rainstorm prevented French forces from catching up with Wellington?s army as they retreated to Waterloo. (Econ, 7/16/05, p.15)(ON, 4/06, p.3) 1815 nend Jun 18, British and Prussian troops under the Duke of Wellington defeated Napoleon Bonaparte and his forces at the Battle of Waterloo in Belgium. The French elite troops of the Imperial Guard wore bearskins to appear more intimidating. Afterwards Britain established towering bear skin hats for soldiers in ceremonial duties and to guard royal residencies and the Tower of London. Field Marshal Gebhard Leberecht von Blucher made a short speech to his troops saying that he was pregnant and about to give birth to an elephant. He was taken from the front in protective custody and missed the battle. Napoleon lost over 40,000 men at Waterloo; the British and Belgians lost 15,000; the Prussians lost 7,000. The total losses in 3 days of fighting was later estimated at 91,800. In 2002 Andrew Roberts authored "Napoleon and Wellington." In 2005 Andrew Roberts authored ?Waterloo: Napoleon?s Last Gamble.? (SFEC, 2/28/99, Z1p.10)(WSJ, 9/13/02, p.W10)(Econ, 2/12/05,p.81)(ON, 4/06, p.5) 1815 nend Jun 22, Napoleon Bonaparte abdicated a second time. (AP, 6/22/97) 1815 nend Jun 30, US naval hero Stephen Decatur signed a treaty ending attacks by Algerian pirates. Commodores Stephen Decatur and William Bainbridge had conducted successful operations against the Barbary States of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli [See Aug 5]. (WSJ, 10/9/01, p.A22)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Barbary_War) 1815 nend Jul 7, After defeating Napoleon at Waterloo, the victorious Allies marched into Paris. (HN, 7/7/98) 1815 nend Jul 8, With Napoleon defeated, Louis XVIII returned to Paris. (HN, 7/8/98) 1815 nend Jul 9, The 1st US natural gas well was discovered. (MC, 7/9/02) 1815 nend Jul 9, King Louis XVIII left Ghent for France. (MC, 7/9/02) 1815 nend Jul 15, Napoleon Bonaparte was captured and exiled to St Helena. [see Jul 17] (MC, 7/15/02) 1815 nend Jul 17, Napoleon Bonaparte surrendered to the British at Rochefort, France. (HN, 7/17/98) 1815 nend Aug 1, Richard Henry Dana (d.1882), US jurist, novelist, lawyer and sailor, was born. He wrote "Two Years Before the Mast." (WUD, 1994, p.366)(SFEC, 2/9/97, p.W5)(MC, 8/1/02) 1815 nend Aug 5, A peace treaty with Tripoli, which followed treaties with Algeria (Jun 30) and Tunis (Aug 28), brought an end to the Barbary Wars. Commodores Stephen Decatur and William Bainbridge had conducted successful operations against the Barbary States of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli. (HN, 8/5/98)(WSJ, 10/9/01, p.A22)(ON, 10/06, p.10) 1815 nend Aug 8, Napoleon Bonaparte set sail for St. Helena, in the South Atlantic, to spend the remainder of his days in exile. (AP, 8/8/97) 1815 nend Sep 8, Alexander Ramsey (d.1903), territorial governor of Minnesota (1849-1853), was born near Harrisburg, Pa. (www.bioguide.congress.gov) 1815 nend Sep 9, John Singleton Copley (b.1737), American artist, died in London. (www.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia) 1815 nend Aug, The merchant ship Commerce, under Capt. James Riley (1877-1939) of Connecticut, wrecked off the northwest coast of Africa. He survived captivity under Muslim slave traders and endured a lengthy trek across the Sahara. He later authored ?Sufferings in Africa? (1817) and "An authentic Narrative of the Loss of the American Brig Commerce" (1818). In 2004 Dean King authored "Skeletons on the Zahara: A True Story of Survival." (SSFC, 2/22/04, p.M1)(WSJ, 6/2/07, p.P8) 1815 nend Sep 26, Russia, Prussia and Austria signed a Holy Alliance. "Justice, charity and peace" were to be the precepts that guided the Holy Alliance as envisioned by Czar Alexander I of Russia. The alliance of Russia, Austria and Prussia was formed after the downfall of Napoleon and later all European rulers signed the agreement except the prince regent of Great Britain, the pope and the sultan of Turkey. With no specific aims beyond mutual assistance, the provisions of the Holy Alliance were so vague that it had little effect on European diplomacy. Metternich quietly replaced the entire alliance by the purely political alliance of 20 November, 1815, between Austria, Prussia, Russia and England. (www.newadvent.org/cathen/07398a.htm)(HNQ, 7/7/98) 1815 nend Sep 28, Joachim Murat's fleet sailed from Corsica to Naples. (MC, 9/28/01) 1815 nend Oct 7, Marshal Ney, one of Napoleon?s most trusted field commanders, was condemned to death and shot for having left the services of the King. (HN, 10/7/98) 1815 nend Oct 8, General Joachim Murat's forces landed at Pizzo, Italy. (MC, 10/8/01) 1815 nend Oct 13, Joachim Murat, marshal of France and King of Naples (1808-15), was executed. (MC, 10/13/01) 1815 nend Oct 17, Napoleon (d.1821) arrived in St. Helena. (MC, 10/17/01) 1815 nend Oct 22, Ascension Island was garrisoned by the British Admiralty. For administrative purposes it was treated as a ship, the HMS Ascension. (Econ, 12/18/10, p.160)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascension_Island) 1815 nend Oct 29, Daniel Decatur Emmett, the composer of "Dixie," which became the unofficial national anthem of the Confederacy during the American Civil War, was born in Mount Vernon, Ohio. Organizer of one of the first minstrel shows, "Dixie" was written in 1859 as a concluding number, or "walk-around," for a minstrel show. Emmett died on June 28, 1904. (HNQ, 3/21/99) 1815 nend Oct 31, Sir Humphrey Davy of London patented miner's safety lamp after being hired by the Society for Preventing Accidents in Coal Mines. (MC, 10/31/01)(ON, 12/01, p.7) 1815 nend Nov 1, Crawford Williamson Long, surgeon and pioneer (use of ether), was born. (MC, 11/1/01) 1815 nend Nov 2, George Boole (d.1864), English-Irish mathematician and logician (Boolean algebra), was born. (WUD, 1994, p.170)(SFC, 12/2/97, p.C3)(MC, 11/2/01) 1815 nend Nov 3, Adrien Louis Victor Boieldieu, composer, was born. (MC, 11/3/01) 1815 nend Nov 12, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, a social reformer and militant feminist, was born in Johnstown, New York, and graduated from the Troy Female Seminary in 1832. She worked closely with Susan B. Anthony and served as president of the National Woman Suffrage Association. She died on October 26, 1902. She said, "The male element is a destructive force" in an address to the Women?s Suffrage Convention in Washington, D.C. in 1868. (AP, 11/12/97)(HNQ, 5/17/98) 1815 nend Nov 15, John Banvard, painter of the world?s largest painting (3 mile canvas), was born in NYC. (MC, 11/15/01) 1815 nend Nov 20, The treaties known collectively as the 2nd Peace of Paris were concluded. Austria?s chancellor Klemens von Metternich helped create a ?Concert of Europe,? a system by which 4-5 big powers kept miscreants in check and managed the affairs of smaller states for over a decade. (http://tinyurl.com/2sqgp9)(Econ, 6/9/07,p.68)(www.newadvent.org/cathen/07398a.htm) 1815 nend Nov 25, Johann Peter Saloman (70), composer, died. (MC, 11/25/01) 1815 nend Nov 27, Cracow, Poland, declared itself a free republic. (MC, 11/27/01) 1815 nend Nov 28, Johann Peter Salomon (70), composer, died. (MC, 11/28/01) 1815 nend Dec 10, Ada Lovelace (d. Nov 27, 1852), Lord Byron?s daughter and the inventor of computer language, was born. In 1998 the sci-fi film, "Conceiving Ada," was directed by Lynn Hershman-Leeson. (SFC, 1/22/98, p.D7)(SFC, 4/30/98, p.E1) 1815 nend Dec 22, Spaniards executed Mexican revolutionary priest Jose Maria Morelos. (MC, 12/22/01) 1815 nend Dec 31, George Gordon Meade (d.1872), Union general, was born. He defeated Robert E. Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg. (HN, 12/31/99)(MC, 12/31/01) 1815 nend Adolph Menzel (d.1905), German painter, was born. He combined elements of many styles and was considered the greatest artist in Germany at the time and was Prussia?s foremost historical artist. He was considered Germany?s French Impressionist. (WSJ, 10/8/96, p.A20)(WSJ, 7/16/98, p.A16) 1815 nend J.M.W. Turner made paintings in this summer renowned for their red skies. The coloration was due to the April 5 eruption of Mt. Tambora in Indonesia. (SFEC, 7/9/00, Z1 p.2) 1815 nend The novel "Emma," by English writer Jane Austen (1774-1817), was published. (ON, 12/09, p.8) 1815 nend Nathaniel Coverly Jr. and ghostwriter Nathaniel Hill Wright published a fictitious narrative of the adventures of Lucy Brewer, a "Female Marine" who disguised herself as a sailor and served as a marine in the War of 1812. (WSJ, 2/22/00, p.A20) 1815 nend John Roulstone of Sterling, Mass., penned the first 3 stanzas of the poem "Mary Had a Little Lamb" after his classmate Mary Sawyer came to school followed by her pet lamb. (SFC, 8/24/98, p.B6) 1815 nend William Smith (d.1839), British geologist, made the 1st geological map of England and became impoverished in the process. In 2001 Simon Winchester authored "The Map That Changed the World." (RTH, 8/28/99)(WSJ, 8/17/01, p.W6)(SSFC, 8/26/01, DB p.86) 1815 nend The San Francisco de Asis church de Taos, New Mexico, was completed and still operates today as a parish church. It is one of the 6 adobe missions scattered along the western shoulder of the Sangre de Cristo mountains between Taos and Santa Fe, New Mexico. (AWAM, Dec. 94, p.68)(SFC, 5/12/96, p.T-5) 1815 nend Mackinaw Island, Michigan, was permanently signed over to the US. (SSFC, 7/27/03, p.C5) 1815 nend Jose Francisco de San Martin, governor of Cuyo, Argentina, founded a militia and prepared for an attack on Spanish royalists in Chile. (ON, 10/09, p.8) 1815 nend Austria?s chancellor Klemens von Metternich helped create a ?Concert of Europe,? a system by which 4-5 big powers kept miscreants in check and managed the affairs of smaller states for over a decade. (Econ, 6/9/07, p.68) 1815 nend The city-state of Geneva, briefly the capital of the Kingdom of Burgundy, and then a republic, became part of the Confederation of Switzerland. (Hem., 1/96, p.81) 1815 nend The British Foreign Secretary, Lord Castlereagh, warned the Prime Minister, Lord Liverpool, that Czar Alexander must be watched and resisted just like Napoleon. (WSJ, 7/10/96, p.A16) 1815 nend Britain passed a law severely restricting grain imports from European neighbors. Austria retaliated with tariffs on wool and cotton. Sicily raised tariffs on textiles, Sweden raised tariffs on silk, wool, cotton, iron steel and copper. English manufacturers formed the anti-Corn-Law League to lobby against the measure. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R50) 1815 nend Britain took action against pirate sheikhs protected by the Wahabis, later rulers of Saudi Arabia, because ships of the East India Company were attacked in int?l. waters. Britain allied with the ruler of Muscat and Oman and Mohamed Ali of Egypt. (WSJ, 10/9/01, p.A22) 1815 nend The British took over Ceylon (Sri Lanka). (Arch, 7/02, p.34) 1815 nend British debt reached 745 million pounds. (Econ, 12/24/05, p.105) 1815 nend Following the wars with Napoleon John Barrow, 2nd secretary to the admiralty, directed the British Navy to a campaign of exploration. In 2000 Fergus Fleming authored "Barrow?s Boys," an account of the expeditions he generated. (WSJ, 4/18/00, p.A16) 1815 nend Nepalese soldiers, later known as Gurkhas, began serving in the British military. (Econ, 5/2/09, p.58) 1815 nend The first German Burschenschaft (fraternity) was founded in Jena, Germany. (Econ, 2/11/06, Survey p.15) 1815 nend Authorities in Milan issued an edict that forbade gambling in the back rooms of the opera houses including La Scala. (Civil., Jul-Aug., ?95, p.88) 1815 nend Giovanni Battista Belzoni, Italian hydraulic engineer and vaudeville entertainer, arrived in Egypt and began to search for tombs of pharaohs. (NG, 9/98, p.19) 1815 nend As part of the post-Napoleonic settlement at the Congress of Vienna, most of Lithuania was absorbed by Russia. (Compuserve, Online Encyclopedia) 1815 nend Switzerland became officially neutral. (SFC, 6/7/96, p.A12) 1815 1820 The current Mission Santa Barbara in Santa Barbara, Ca. was built around an earlier structure damaged by earthquake. It is the 10th of California?s 21 missions and is the only one with twin towers. (AWAM, Dec. 94, p.66) 1815 1848 This period in US history was later covered in the book ?Waking Giant: American in the Age of Jackson? (2008), by David S. Reynolds. (WSJ, 9/27/08, p.W10) 1815 1862 Edwin P. Christy, originator of the popular Negro minstrel shows. (BAAC PN, Chambers, 1/8/96) 1815 1864 Eliza Farnham, American reformer: "The ultimate aim of the human mind, in all its efforts, is to become acquainted with Truth." (AP, 11/23/98) 1816 nend Jan 12, France decreed the Bonaparte family to be excluded from the country forever. (MC, 1/12/02) 1816 nend Feb 5, Gioachino Rossini's Opera "Barber of Seville" premiered in Rome. (MC, 2/5/02) 1816 nend Feb 13-14, Teatro San Carlo in Naples was destroyed by fire. (MC, 2/13/02) 1816 nend Mar 6, Jews were expelled from Free city of Lubeck, Germany. (MC, 3/6/02) 1816 nend Mar 20, the U.S. Supreme Court, in Martin vs. Hunter?s Lessee, affirmed its right to review state court decisions. (AP, 3/20/97) 1816 nend Mar 31, Francis Asbury (b.1745), English-born US itinerant Methodist minister, died in Virginia. (http://77.1911encyclopedia.org/A/AS/ASBURY_FRANCIS.htm) 1816 nend Apr 21, Charlotte Bronte (d.1855), English novelist, writer of "Vilette" and "Jane Eyre," was born in Thornton, England. "Better to be without logic than without feeling." In 1999 Brian Wilks published "Charlotte in Love: The Courtship and Marriage of Charlotte Bronte." (WP, 1952, p.37)(AP, 9/13/99)(HN, 4/21/98)(WSJ, 7/28/99, p.A21) 1816 nend May 12, Lord Grimthorpe was born. He was the designer of "Big Ben," the most recognized structure in London. (HN, 5/12/99) 1816 nend May 24, Emanuel Leutze, US painter, was born. His work included "Washington Crossing the Delaware" (1851). (MC, 5/24/02) 1816 nend Jun 6, There was a 10" snowfall in New England in this "year without a summer". The oceanographer Henry Stommel and his wife Elizabeth described this year in their (1983) book ?Volcano Weather: The Story of 1816, The year Without a Summer.? The 1815 eruption of Mt. Tambora lofted a cloud of ash that turned this summer into a virtual winter with snow in Europe and New England. (NOHY, 3/90, p.130)(SFC, 5/19/97, p.D1) 1816 nend Jul 3, Dorothea Jordan (65), French actress, mistress (William IV), died. (MC, 7/3/02) 1816 nend Jul 6, Philipp Meissner (67), composer, died. (MC, 7/6/02) 1816 nend Jul 9, Argentina declared independence from Spain. Argentina assumed that the Malvina Islands were included. (AP, 7/9/97)(SFC, 6/19/98, p.A12) 1816 nend Jul 11(Jun 11), Gas Light Co. of Baltimore was founded. (MC, 7/11/02) 1816 nend Jul 21, Paul Julius Baron von Reuter (d.1899), founder of the British news agency bearing his name, was born in Hesse, Germany, as Israel Beer Josaphat. (AP, 7/21/99)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Julius_Reuter) 1816 nend Jul 27, US troops destroyed the Seminole Fort Apalachicola, to punish the Indians for harboring runaway slaves. (MC, 7/27/02) 1816 nend Jul 31, George Henry Thomas (d.1870), Union general in the Civil War whose bravery at the battle of Chickamauga earned him the nickname "the Rock of Chickamauga," was born. (HN, 7/31/98)(MC, 7/31/02) 1816 nend Aug 14, Great Britain annexed Tristan da Cunha. (MC, 8/14/02) 1816 nend Aug 24, Daniel Gooch, laid 1st successful transatlantic cables, was born. (MC, 8/24/02) 1816 nend Aug 27, Admiral Sir Edward Pellew, a noble from Devon, England, bombed Algiers, a refuge for Barbary pirates. He flew the green, white and black flag of St. Petroc. In 1836 the battle was pictured in a painting by George Chambers, Senior. Pellew was subsequently named Lord Exmouth. (http://tinyurl.com/gjooc)(Econ, 9/30/06, p.66) 1816 nend Sep 5, Louis XVIII of France dissolved the chamber of deputies, which had been challenging his authority. (HN, 9/5/98) 1816 nend Sep 12, Russian agents commenced construction of a Western-style fortress commanding Waimea Bay on the island of Kauai, named Fort Elizabeth after the Russian czarina. Before the fort was completed, Hawaiian King Kamehameha acted to force the Russians out. The Hawaiians finished construction of the fort and renamed it Fort Hipo. (HNQ, 6/5/99) 1816 nend Oct 7, The 1st double decked steamboat, Washington, arrived in New Orleans. (MC, 10/7/01) 1816 nend Nov 3, Jubal Anderson Early (d.1891), Lt. General (Confederate Army), was born. (MC, 11/3/01) 1816 nend Dec 2, The first savings bank in the United States, the Philadelphia Savings Fund Society, opened for business. (AP, 12/2/99) 1816 nend Dec 4, James Monroe of Virginia was elected the fifth president of the United States. He defeated Federalist Rufus King. (AP, 12/4/97)(MC, 12/4/01) 1816 nend Dec 10, The estranged wife of poet Percy Shelley committed suicide by drowning in London?s Hyde Park. 20 days later Percy married Mary Godwin, author of ?Frankenstein? (1818). (ON, 11/07, p.8) 1816 nend Dec 11, Indiana became the 19th state. (AP, 12/11/97) 1816 nend Dec 13, E. Werner von Siemens, German artillery officer and inventor, was born. (MC, 12/13/01) 1816 nend Dec 13, Patent for a dry dock was issued to John Adamson in Boston. (MC, 12/13/01) 1816 nend Dec, Henry ?Orator? Hunt made a speech in Spa fields in East London which was disrupted by a group of revolutionaries who murdered a gunsmith plundered his shop. They then set off for London, but the insurrection was quickly put down. (Econ, 12/23/06, p.104) 1816 nend Jacques Louis David (1748-1825) painted the portrait: "Comte Henri-Amedee de Turenne". (WUD, 1994 p.369) 1816 nend Caspar David Friedrich, German romantic artist, painted "View of a Harbor." It was soon purchased by Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia as a birthday present for the crown prince. (WSJ, 1/3/97, p.A7) 1816 nend William Smith published his "Strata identified by Organized Fossils." (RFH-MDHP, p.70) 1816 nend William Cullen Bryant, James Fennimore Cooper, and Washington Irving were popular writers of this period. (A&IP, ESM, p.34) 1816 nend Robert Adams, the 1st Westerner to reach Timbuktu, transcribed an account of his experiences there as an enslaved American sailor. (Econ, 12/20/03, p.126) 1816 nend Jane Austin completed her last novel, "Persuasion." In 1995 it was made into a film by a British company. (WSJ, 10/6/95, p.A-8) 1816 nend Gioachino Rossini composed his opera "Otello." (SI-WPC, 1997)(SFC, 1/29/00, p.E3)(WSJ, 8/1/01, p.A12) 1816 nend The American Bible Society was founded. The first president was Elias Boudinot. He was succeeded by his vice president John Jay. In 1998 its library had 53,000 copies of the Bible in over 2,000 languages and dialects. (WSJ, 8/7/98, p.W13) 1816 nend Elijah Goodridge of Newbury, Massachusetts, was tried for committing robbery on his own person and then having Ebenezer Pearson arrested for the crime. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.22) 1816 nend The US passed the first tariff to protect its industries. (A&IP, ESM, p.34) 1816 nend The Second Bank of the US was chartered. It over-lent wildly and then called in its money sparking financial panic. Pres. Jackson ended its special status in 1836. (WSJ, 11/19/04, p.A8)(Econ, 12/24/05, p.91) 1816 nend Indiana was admitted to the Union. (A&IP, ESM, p.34) 1816 nend Pittsburgh was incorporated on the site of old Fort Pitt. (SFC, 1/29/00, p.E3) 1816 nend Medical records from upstate NY showed that a patient paid 25 cents to have a tooth pulled and $1.25 to have a baby. (SFEC, 6/27/99, Z1 p.8) 1816 nend Henry Hall, a Cape Cod farmer, discovered that sand spread over wild cranberry plants induced good growth. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.123) 1816 nend The California poppy was correctly described and named by Adelbert von Chamisso, a native Frenchmen driven to Germany by the revolution. He was appointed naturalist with the Russian scientific and trapping voyage of Kotzebue and developed an intimate relationship with the ship?s surgeon, Dr. Johann Frederich Eschscholtz, for whom he named the San Francisco poppy, Eschscholzia californica. [see 1792,1794, 1825-1833] (NBJ, 2/96, p.12) 1816 nend Gouverneur Morris (b.1752), chief writer of the US Constitution (1787), died at Morrisania, NY. In 2003 Richard Brookhiser authored "Gentleman Revolutionary," a biography of Morris. (WSJ, 5/28/03, p.D8) 1816 nend In London, England, William Cobbett brought out twopenny version of his Weekly Political Register on a single sheet of paper to avoid the stamp duty. (Econ, 12/23/06, p.103)(www.nndb.com/people/245/000049098/) 1816 nend Robert Stirling, British clergyman, proposed a sealed heated air engine to compete with the ubiquitous steam engine. His Stirling engine converted heat into mechanical energy by compressing and expanding a fixed quantity of gas. (Econ, 8/14/04, p.72)(Econ, 6/6/09, p.24) 1816 nend Beau Brummell, English dandy, first sought obscurity to escape his creditors. (SFC, 1/29/00, p.E3) 1816 nend Lord Byron (George Gordon), English romantic poet, separated from his wife Annabella (d.1860) following an incestuous relationship with his half-sister Augusta Leigh (d.1851). In 2002 David Crane authored "The Kindness of Sisters: Annabella Milbanke and the Destruction of the Byrons." (SSFC, 10/27/02, p.M2) 1816 nend Lord Byron and guests gathered at the Villa Diodati on Lake Geneva, Switz. It was here that Byron challenged his guests to write a ghost story. This led Mary Shelley to produce Frankenstein in 1818 and John Polidori to create his short story ?The Vampyre? (1819). (Econ, 1/13/07, p.75) 1816 nend Lord Elgin sold his Parthenon sculptures to the British government for 35,000 pounds. A request in 1811 for 62,400 pounds had been rejected. Elgin later fled to France to avoid his creditors. (ON, 11/99, p.4) 1816 nend Two British naval ships under Captain Basil Hall landed at Okinawa, in the Ryukyu archipelago, which was then known as Loo-Choo. In 1818 Hall published an account of his voyage: ?Account of a Voyage of Discovery to the West Coast of Corea, and the Great Loo-Choo Island.? (Econ, 10/29/05, p.44)(www.polybiblio.com/bibliotrek/BT000004..html) 1816 nend General A.P.Yermolov served as Commander of the Russian army in the Caucasus. Military pressure intensifies as Russian troops continue to advance deep into Chechnya. Chechnya responded by stepping up its resistance movement, which, for more than 30 years, was headed by Beibulat Teimiev. (www.chechnyafree.ru) 1816 nend In France Dr. Rene Theophile Hyacinthe Laennec invented the stethoscope. (ON, 9/00, p.11) 1816 nend In France Joseph N. Niepce developed the first photographic negative. His earliest recorded image, an 1825 print of a man leading a horse, sold for $443,220 in 2002. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14)(SFC, 7/14/99, p.4)(SFC, 3/22/02, p.A2) 1816 nend In Germany Johann Maelzel patented the metronome a couple of years after it was drawn up by Dutch inventor Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel. (SFC, 1/29/00, p.E3) 1816 nend Saartjie Baartman (26), taken from S. Africa in 1810, fell sick and died penniless and friendless in France after being exhibited as the "Hottentot Venus." Her body was dissected, her brain and genitals were bottled, and her skeleton was wired and exhibited in the Musee de l?Homme in Paris. In 2002 her remains were returned to S. Africa. In 2003 Barbara Chase-Ribaud authored the novel "Hottentot Venus" based on the Baartman story. In 2007 Rachel Holmes authored ?African Queen: The Real Life of the Hottentot Venus.? (SFC, 5/4/02, p.A8)(SSFC, 11/9/03, p.M6)(SFC, 1/1/07, p.D2) 1816 nend Mohammed Ali Pasha, Ottoman ruler over Egypt, sent Fredric Cailliaud, a French goldsmith and mineralogist, to find the Roman emerald mines of southeastern Egypt. (AM, 5/01, p.A38) 1816 1841 Ellen Sturgis Hooper, American poet: "I slept, and dreamed that life was Beauty; I woke, and found that life was Duty." (AP, 8/5/00) 1816 1865 C.J. Thomsen, curator during these years of the Museum of Northern Antiquities (later the Danish National Museum), formulates the three age system, from stone to bronze to iron. He was probably helped in his ideas by the work of Goguet. (RFH-MDHP,1969, p.13) 1816 1876 Charlotte Saunders Cushman, American actress: "To me it seems as if when God conceived the world, that was Poetry; He formed it, and that was Sculpture; He colored it, and that was Painting; He peopled it with living beings, and that was the grand, divine, eternal Drama." (AP, 11/7/98) 1817 nend Jan 17, Jose Francisco de San Martin led a revolutionary army from Argentina over Andes into Chile. (ON, 10/09, p.10) 1817 nend Jan 25, Giocchino Rossini's opera "La Cenerentola" premiered in Rome. It was based on the Cinderella story. (WSJ, 11/2/95, p.A-12)(MC, 1/25/02) 1817 nend Feb 2, John Glover, English chemist (sulphuric acid), was born. (MC, 2/2/02) 1817 nend Feb 8, Richard Stoddert Ewell (d.1872(), Lt Gen (Confederate Army), was born. (MC, 2/8/02) 1817 nend Feb 12, Argentina?s Jose de San Martin, having led a revolutionary army over the Andes into Chile, helped defeat the Spanish forces at Chacabuco. The royalists lost 500 men in the battle and another 600 were taken prisoner. (www.gdws.co.uk/chacabuco.htm)(Econ, 4/25/09, p.87)(ON, 10/09, p.10) 1817 nend Feb 12, Under the leadership of Bernardo O?Higgins, Chile gained its independence from Spain, when a combined Argentine and Chilean army defeated the Spaniards. O?Higgins went on to become head of state on February 17, supported by the army but not favored by the oligarchy because he sought abolition of their privileges. Once the threat from Spain was eliminated from the region, opposition to O?Higgins mounted. General unrest and a poor harvest combined to force O?Higgins to abdicate his position in 1823. The official proclamation was made on Feb 12, 1818. (HNQ, 9/1/99)(AP, 2/12/07) 1817 nend Feb 14, Frederick Douglass (d.1895), "The Great Emancipator," was born in Maryland as Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey. He was the son of a slave and a white father who bought his own freedom and published ?The Narrative Life of Frederick Douglass? (1845) a memoir of his life as a slave. "The life of the nation is secure only while the nation is honest, truthful, and virtuous." (AHD, 1971, p.394)(HN, 2/14/99)(AP, 2/20/99)(ON, 12/09, p.12) 1817 nend Feb 17, A street in Baltimore became the first to be lighted with gas from America?s first gas company. (AP, 2/17/98) 1817 nend Feb 18, Lewis Addison Armistead (d.1863), Brig General (Confederate Army), was born. He died leading "Pickett's Charge" on the final day of the Gettysburg battle. (MC, 2/18/02) 1817 nend Feb 18, Walter Paye Lane (d.1892), Brig General (Confederate Army), was born. (MC, 2/18/02) 1817 nend Feb 19, William III, King of the Netherlands, was born. (HN, 2/20/98) 1817 nend Mar 2, The 1st US Evangelical church building was dedicated in New Berlin, PA. (SC, 3/2/02) 1817 nend Mar 3, Mississippi Territory was divided into Alabama Territory and Mississippi. (SC, 3/3/02) 1817 nend Mar 3, The first commercial steamboat route from Louisville to New Orleans was opened. (HN, 3/3/99) 1817 nend Mar 22, Braxton Bragg (d.1876), Gen (Confederate Army), was born. (MC, 3/22/02) 1817 nend Mar 25, Tsar Alexander I recommended the formation of Society of Israeli Christians. (MC, 3/25/02) 1817 nend Apr 15, The first American school for the deaf opened in Hartford, Conn. (AP, 4/15/97) 1817 nend Apr 17, 1st US school for deaf was founded in Hartford, Conn. (MC, 4/17/02) 1817 nend Apr 18, George Henry Lewes, philosophical writer, was born. (HN, 4/18/98) 1817 nend Jul 12, Henry David Thoreau (d.1862), essayist, naturalist and poet, was born in Concord, Mass. His work included "On Walden Pond." He referred to the three Greek goddesses of fate: Clotho (spinner of the thread of destiny), Lachesis (disposer of lots) and especially Atropos (who holds the scissors that will cut endeavor short). "We have constructed a fate, an Atropos, that never turns aside." He was also the author of the essays "Civil Disobedience and Slavery in Massachusetts." (AHD, p.1339)(Civil., Jul-Aug., '95, p.66)(HFA, '96, p.34)(HN, 7/12/98) 1817 nend Jul 14, Madame de Stael (51), writer and daughter of former French finance minister Jacques Necker, died. She was intimate with Benjamin Constant and their intellectual collaboration made them one of the most important intellectual pairs of their time. In 2005 Maria Fairweather authored ?Madame de Stael.? In 2008 Renee Winegarten authored the dual biography ?Germaine de Stael & Benjamin Constant.? (Econ, 3/19/05, p.88)(www.kirjasto.sci.fi/stael.htm)(WSJ, 6/23/08,p.A15) 1817 nend Jul 18, Jane Austen (b.1775), English writer, died at age 41. In 1869 her nephew James Edward Austen-Leigh published ?A Memoir of Jane Austen.? (SFEC,11/9/97, BR p.3)(www.pemberley.com/janeinfo/janelife.html)(ON,12/09, p.8) 1817 nend Aug 18, Gloucester, Mass., newspapers told of a wild sea serpent seen offshore. (MC, 8/18/02) 1817 nend Aug 24, Aleksei K. Tolstoy, [Kozjma Prutkov], Russian poet, writer, was born. (www.absoluteastronomy.com/reference/aleksey_konstantinovich_tolstoy) 1817 nend Sep 21, Carter Littlepage Stevenson, Major General (Confederate Army), was born. (MC, 9/21/01) 1817 nend Sep 23, Leon Charles Francois Kreutzer, composer, was born. (MC, 9/23/01) 1817 nend Oct 13, William Kirby, Canadian writer, was born. (HN, 10/13/00) 1817 nend Oct 15, Tadeusz AB Kosciusko (b.1746), Polish Lt-Gen. and American Revolution freedom fighter, died. (MC, 10/15/01) 1817 nend Oct 19, Tom Taylor, British playwright, was born. His play "Our American Cousin" was being performed at Ford?s Theater when President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Boothe. (HN, 10/19/98) 1817 nend Oct 20, The 1st Mississippi "Showboat," left Nashville on maiden voyage. (MC, 10/20/01) 1817 nend Oct, Pres. and Mrs. James Monroe moved back into the restored White House. (SFEC, 7/4/99, Par p.5) 1817 nend Nov 8, Andrea Appiana (63), Italian royal painter of Napoleon, died. (MC, 11/8/01) 1817 nend Nov 9, Edward Richard Sprigg Canby, Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 11/9/01) 1817 nend Nov 10, The Tennessee legislature enacted laws that defined the common boundary with Georgia and created a boundary commission to jointly survey and mark the state border. (www.profsurv.com/archive.php?article=1215&issue=86) 1817 nend Nov 12, Mirza Hoseyn 'Ali Nuri (Baha' Ullah), founder of the Baha'i faith, was born. (HN, 11/12/00) 1817 nend Nov 20, 1st Seminole War began in Florida. [see Nov 27] (MC, 11/20/01) 1817 nend Nov 21, Richard Brooke Garnett (d1863), Brig General (Confederate Army), was born. He died at Gettysburg. (MC, 11/21/01) 1817 nend Nov 22, Fredric Cailliaud discovered the old Roman emerald mines at Sikait, Egypt. (AM, 5/01, p.39) 1817 nend Nov 27, US soldiers attacked a Florida Indian village and began the Seminole War. [see Nov 20] (MC, 11/27/01) 1817 nend Nov, William Wirt was selected as the attorney general. He served for 11 years and 3 months. (SFC, 1/11/99, p.A5) 1817 nend Dec 7, William Bligh (63), British naval officer of "Bounty" infamy, died. (MC, 12/7/01) 1817 nend Dec 10, Mississippi was admitted as the 20th state of the Union. (HFA, ?96, p.44)(AP, 12/10/97) 1817 nend Dec 16, The Georgia legislature enacted laws that defined the common boundary with Tennessee and created a boundary commission to jointly survey and mark the state border. (www.profsurv.com/archive.php?article=1215&issue=86) 1817 nend Dec 28, Benjamin Robert Haydon (d.1846), British painter, threw a dinner party in London to show his nearly completed painting "Christ?s Entry Into Jerusalem" and to introduce poet John Keats to William Wordsworth. Other guests included essayist Charles Lamb. In 2002 Penelope Hughes-Hallett authored "The Immortal Dinner." (WSJ, 9/13/02, p.W10) 1817 nend Dec, The book ?Northanger Abbey,? by English novelist Jane Austen (1775-1817), was published following her death in July. It was written around 1798-1799 and revised in 1803. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northanger_Abbey) 1817 nend Francis Beaufort (1774-1857), Irish-born hydrogapher, authored a best-selling travel book about the southern coast of Turkey. (NH, 11/1/04, p.51) 1817 nend John Bradbury, Scottish naturalist, authored "Travels in the Interior of America in the Years 1809, 1810 and 1811." (ON, 10/99, p.6) 1817 nend William Hazlitt, the finest of the romantic critics, published "Characters of Shakespeare?s Plays." (WSJ, 10/23/98, p.W8) 1817 nend Dr. William Kitchiner authored his cookbook "Apicius Redivivus, or the Cook's Oracle." It included 11 ketchup recipes, including 2 each for mushroom, walnut and tomato ketchups, and one each for cucumber, oyster and cockles and mussels ketchups. (SFC, 8/27/03, p.E4) 1817 nend Thomas Love Peacock, a friend and neighbor of poet Percy Bysshe Shelley, authored his comic novel ?Melincourt.? A character in the novel was based on Shelley. (Econ, 12/23/06, p.94) 1817 nend David Ricardo published "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation." In this he argued for the labor theory of value. Ricardo here explained why the best farmland often makes money for the landlord, not the farmer. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R20)(Econ, 11/5/05, p.91) 1817 nend The multi-volume "Flora Brasiliensis" was commissioned by Maximilian I of Austria. The definitive volume on Brazilian botany was completed in 1906. (WSJ, 7/7/98, p.A14) 1817 nend Work began on the Erie Canal, more properly named the New York State Barge Canal. The canal connected Lake Erie with the Hudson and opened on October 26, 1825. The canal was proposed by NY Gov. Dewitt Clinton and detractors called it "Clinton's Folly." Workers were paid a quart of whiskey a day plus $1. [see 1826] (WSJ, 7/3/96, p.A8)(HN, 7/4/98)(IB, Internet, 12/7/98)(SFEC,12/27/98, Z1 p.8)(SFEC, 1/31/99, Z1 p.8) 1817 nend The Univ. of Michigan was founded by a Presbyterian minister, John Monteith, and a Catholic priest, Gabriel Richard and Judge Gus Woodward. The Univ. of Michigan was established by a Michigan Public Act under a Board of Regents. (MT, 12/94, p.2-3)(LSA., Fall 1995, p.10)(MT, Fall ?96, p.10) 1817 nend Tuscumbia, Alabama was founded by the US government. (Postcard, Polychrome Picture Products) 1817 nend The New York Stock and Exchange Board (NYSE) was formalized and established its first quarters in a rented room at 40 Wall St. (SFC, 4/23/98, p.D2)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R43) 1817 nend Frederick Eberle was tried for illegally conspiring to prevent the introduction of the English language into German Lutheran church services in Philadelphia. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.22) 1817 nend Britain banned private coins. They had been issued to address a major shortage of government coinage. From 1787 to 1797 and again from 1811 to 1818, the greater part of Great Britain's stock of coins came not from the Royal Mint in London but from a score of private mints in Birmingham. (WSJ, 1/5/09, p.A11)(http://mises.org/story/3168) 1817 nend The Metropolitan Cathedral in Mexico City was completed. (Hem., 1/96, p.49) 1817 nend In Egypt Giovanni Battista Belzoni discovered the tomb of Seti I. (NG, 9/98, p.19) 1817 nend Baron Karl de Drais de Sauerbrun of Germany invented the draisienne, the first 2-wheeled, rider-propelled machine and exhibited it in Paris in 1818. The vehicle came to be known as the ?velocipede,? a 2-wheeled running machine without pedals. (www.cycle-info.bpaj.or.jp/english/learn/bcc02.html)(Wired, 2/98,p.172)(Econ, 2/5/05, p.77) 1817 nend Pedro Moreno and Victor Rosales died fighting Spain in western Mexico. Their bodies were among 14 later placed in urns as hero?s of Mexico?s 1810-1821 independence movement. In 1925 urns holding the remains were sealed in crypts at the Independence monument. Others in the urns included Miguel Hidalgo and Ignacio Allende. (AP, 8/14/10) 1817 nend The Dutch and French agreed on a final pact to divide the control of St. Martin Island. The southern Dutch half comprises the Eilandgebied Sint Maarten (Island Territory of St. Maarten) and is part of the Netherlands Antilles. The northern French half comprises the Collectivité de Saint-Martin (Collectivity of St. Martin) and is an overseas collectivity of France. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Martin) 1817 nend Spain formally accepted the principle to abolish slavery. (WSJ, 12/16/97, p.A18) 1817 1819 Titian Ramsey Peale was curator at the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia; and again from 1825-1931. He helped amass one of the largest and earliest systematic collections of insects in the US. He invented special book boxes for mounting moths and butterflies between sheets of glass. (NH, 7/96, p.4) c 1817 1924 Pierre Joseph Redoute printed "Les Roses." (SFEM, 4/6/97, p.16) 1817 1825 James Monroe became the 5th President of the US. [see 1758-1831, Monroe] (A&IP, ESM, p.96b, photo)(WUD, 1994, p.927) 1818 nend Jan 1, An official reopening of the White House took place after being repaired from burning by British during War of 1812. (MC, 1/1/02) 1818 nend Jan 1, The novel "Frankenstein" by Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley (1797-1851) was published anonymously. It was an attack on industrialization. The work stemmed from a contest in 1816 at Byron?s Villa Diodati in Geneva, between Byron, Shelley and Mary to produce a ghost story. In 1998 Joan Kane Nichols published "Mary Shelley: Frankenstein?s Creator." In 2006 Dorothy and Thomas Hoobler authored ?The Monsters: Mary Shelley and the Curse of Frankenstein.? In 2007 Susan Tyler Hitchcock authored ?Frankenstein: A Cultural History.? (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14)(SSFC, 5/21/06, p.M6)(WSJ, 10/30/07, p.D6)(ON,11/07, p.8) 1818 nend Jan 2, Lord Byron completed "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage" (4th canto). (MC, 1/2/02) 1818 nend Feb 7, The first successful U.S. educational magazine, Academician, began publication in New York City. (HN, 2/7/99) 1818 nend Feb 11, In Louisiana sugar plantation owner Levi Foster sold to his in-laws the slaves named Kit (28) for $975 and Alick (9) for $400. In 2000 Gwendolyn Midlo Hall and LSU Press published a CD-ROM database on Louisiana slave transactions: "Databases for the Study of Afro-Louisiana History and Genealogy, 1699-1860: Computerized Information from Original Manuscript Sources." (SFEC, 7/30/00, p.)(www.afrigeneas.com) 1818 nend Feb 12, Chile officially proclaimed its independence, more than seven years after initially renouncing Spanish rule [see Feb 12, 1817]. (AP, 2/12/07) 1818 nend Mar 28, Wade Hampton (d.1902), Confederate general, was born. (HN, 3/28/98)(MC, 3/28/02) 1818 nend Mar 28, Giuseppe Antonio Capuzzi (62), composer, died. (MC, 3/28/02) 1818 nend Apr 4, Congress decided the flag of the United States would consist of 13 red and white stripes and 20 stars, with a new star to be added for every new state of the Union. (AP, 4/4/97)(HN, 4/4/98) 1818 nend Apr 7, Gen. Andrew Jackson captured St. Marks, Fla., from the Seminole Indians. (MC, 4/7/02) 1818 nend Apr 14, The US Medical Corp. formed. (MC, 4/14/02) 1818 nend Apr 16, U.S. Senate ratified the Rush-Bagot amendment to form an unarmed U.S.-Canada border. The Rush-Bagot Agreement between Great Britain and the U.S. had to do with mutual disarmament on the Great Lakes. In the exchange of notes between British minister to the U.S. Charles Bagot and Richard Rush, Acting Secretary of State, the countries agreed to limits on their inland naval forces. A sequel to the Treaty of Ghent, the agreement was approved by the U.S. Senate on April 16, 1818. (HN, 4/16/98)(HNQ, 6/7/00) 1818 nend Apr 18, A regiment of Indians and blacks was defeated at the Battle of Suwanna, in Florida, ending the first Seminole War. (HN, 4/18/99) 1818 nend Apr 28, President Monroe proclaimed naval disarmament on the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain. (HN, 4/28/98) 1818 nend Apr 29, Alexander II, Tsar of Russia (1855-1881), was born. (HN, 4/29/98)(MC, 4/29/02) 1818 nend Apr, Dr. John William Polidori published ?The Vampyre,? a novel based on an unpublished story fragment by Lord Byron. Polidori was Byron?s personal physician. (ON, 11/07, p.8) 1818 nend May 5, Karl Marx, German philosopher, was born in Prussia. He argued that history was marked by various stages of class struggle and capitalism which had overcome feudalism would in turn be overcome by socialism and the elimination of private property. He and Friedrich Engels founded Communism (1847). Together they wrote "The Communist Manifesto" and "Das Capital." (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R20)(AP, 5/5/97)(HN, 5/5/99) 1818 nend May 10, Paul Revere (b.1735) American patriot, died in Boston. Revere, best known for his midnight ride, fathered 16 children-eight by his first wife Sarah Orne and eight by his second wife, Rachel Walker. Born to Apollos Rivoire and Deborah Hitchbourne, Paul Revere was one of 13 children. (AP, 5/10/97)(HNQ, 7/26/99) 1818 nend May 20, William George Fargo, one of the founders of Wells, Fargo & Co., actor, was born. (HN, 5/20/98) 1818 nend May 24, Gen. Andrew Jackson captured Pensacola, Florida. (MC, 5/24/02) 1818 nend May 25, Jacob Christoph Burckhardt (d.1897), Swiss cultural historian, was born. "The people no longer believe in principles, but will probably periodically believe in saviors." "Neither in the life of the individual nor in that of mankind is it desirable to know the future." (AP, 5/6/98)(AP, 6/11/98)(SC, 5/25/02) 1818 nend May 27, Amelia Jenks Bloomer (d.1894), American reformer who popularized the "bloomers" garment that bears her name, was born in Homer, N.Y. Amelia Jenks Bloomer, Seneca Falls, N.Y., was the editor of The Lily, a periodical "devoted to the interests of women. "Along with her support of woman suffrage and temperance, Bloomer was an advocate of dress reform. Believing that restrictive corsets and cumbersome skirts were injurious to the health of women, in the 1850s Bloomer designed and often wore a comfortable costume of a short skirt worn over baggy trousers drawn tight at the ankle. Bloomer?s costume, portrayed in this Currier and Ives print, became so controversial that any reasonable talk of dress reform was drowned out by the jeers. Finally, Elizabeth Cady Stanton advised bloomer advocates to abandon the costume. It was not until the 1930s and 40s that women began wearing pants, although bloomers were the inspiration for early bicycling and beach apparel. (AP, 5/27/99)(HNPD, 9/9/98) 1818 nend May 28, P.G.T. Beauregard, Confederate general, was born. He first fired on Fort Sumpter and fought at First Manassas, and Shiloh. (HN, 5/28/99) 1818 nend Jun 1, Mathematician James Camak demarcated the border between Georgia and Tennessee. Due to a faulty sextant and bad astronomical charts he drew the line a mile south of the intended boundary, the 35th parallel. (Econ, 3/15/08,p.42)(www.profsurv.com/archive.php?article=1215&issue=86) 1818 nend Jun 2, The British army defeated the Maratha alliance in Bombay, India. (HN, 6/2/98) 1818 nend Jun 10, Pesaro opera theater opened with Rossini's "La Gaza Ladra." (MC, 6/10/02) 1818 nend Jun 16, An ice-dammed lake in the Val de Bagnes above Martigny broke through its barrier causing many deaths. This event led Jean de Charpentier to focus on Swiss glaciers and then influence Louis Agassiz with his ideas regarding glacier development. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignaz_Venetz) 1818 nend Jun 17, Charles Francois Gounod, opera composer of "Faust" and "Romeo et Juliette," was born in Paris, France. (MC, 6/17/02) 1818 nend Jul 1, Ignaz Semmelweis (d.1865), Hungarian gynecologist, was born. He later connected childbed fever to doctors who spread of germs due to their failure to wash their hands. In 2003 Sherwin B. Nuland authored "The Doctors' Plague: Germs, Childbed Fever and the Strange Story of Ignac Semmelweis." (MC, 7/1/02)(SSFC, 11/23/03, p.M3) 1818 nend Jul 30, Emily Bronte (d.1848), English author of "Wuthering Heights," was born. She was the younger sister of Charlotte Bronte and died of tuberculosis. (WP, 1952, p.38)(HN, 7/30/98)(WSJ, 7/28/99, p.A21) 1818 nend Aug 1, Maria Mitchell (d.1889), the first female astronomer in the U.S., was born. She discovered a comet in 1847 and was the first prof. of astronomy at Vassar College. In 1869 she was the first woman elected to the American Philosophical Society. (Alg, 1990, p.30)(HN, 8/1/00) 1818 nend Aug 7, Henri Charles Litolff, French composer, pianist, was born. (MC, 8/7/02) 1818 nend Aug 13, Suffragist Lucy Stone, women?s rights activist, founder of Woman?s Journal, was born in West Brookfield, Mass. (AP, 8/13/97)(HN, 8/13/98) 1818 nend Aug 22, Warren Hastings (85), 1st governor-general of India (1773-84), died. (MC, 8/22/02) 1818 nend Aug 28, Jean Baptiste Pointe du Sable, trader, founder of Chicago, died. (MC, 8/28/01) 1818 nend Sep 12, Richard Gatling (d.1903), American inventor, was born. The Gatling gun, an early type of machine gun, was named after him. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Jordan_Gatling) 1818 nend Oct 8, 2 English boxers were 1st to use padded gloves. (MC, 10/8/01) 1818 nend Oct 15, Irvin McDowell (d.1985), Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 10/15/01) 1818 nend Oct 19, US and Chickasaw Indians signed a treaty. (MC, 10/19/01) 1818 nend Oct 20, The United States and Britain established the 49th Parallel as the boundary between Canada and the United States. (HN, 10/20/98) 1818 nend Oct 22, Leconte de Lisle, writer, was born. (MC, 10/22/01) 1818 nend Oct 24, Felix Mendelssohn (9) performed his 1st public concert in Berlin. (MC, 10/24/01) 1818 nend Oct 28, Abigail Adams, wife of former Pres. John Adams, died. In 1975 some 200 letters of Abigail Adams were published as ?The Book of Abigail and John.? (WSJ, 2/10/07, p.P8)(www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=4) 1818 nend Oct 28, Ivan Turgenev (d.1883), Russian novelist, poet, playwright (Fathers & Sons), was born. [see Nov 9] (MC, 10/28/01) 1818 nend Nov 1, James Renwick, architect, was born. His work included St. Patrick?s Cathedral in NYC. (HN, 11/1/00) 1818 nend Nov 5, Benjamin Butler (d.1893), later Union Civil War general, was born in New Hampshire. (http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Butler_Benjamin_F_1818-1893) 1818 nend Nov 9, Ivan Turgenev, Russian author, was born. His work includes "Fathers and Sons" and "A Month in the Country." [see Oct 28] (HN, 11/9/00) 1818 nend Nov 21, Frenchman Hipolito Bouchard and Englishman Peter Corney led a 2-ship attack against the presidio at Monterey, Ca. Gov. Pablo de Sola and his soldiers and families fled as some 400 rebels pulled to shore. The presidio was ransacked and burned. Bouchard and Corney days later plundered Mission San Juan Capistrano and the rancho at El Refugio. (SFC, 10/10/03, p.B3) 1818 nend Nov 21, Russia's Czar Alexander I petitioned for a Jewish state in Palestine. (MC, 11/21/01) 1818 nend Dec 3, Illinois was admitted as the 21st state. (AP, 12/3/97)(HN, 12/3/98) 1818 nend Dec 13, Mary Todd Lincoln, wife of President Abraham Lincoln, was born. (HN, 12/13/98) 1818 nend Dec 14, The pirate Hippolyte Bouchard demanded gunpowder and other supplies from the padres at Mission San Juan Capistrano, Ca. The padres refused and the pirate sent 140 men to destroy the mission and the town was stripped of its provisions. (HT, 3/97, p.61) 1818 nend Dec 21, Lewis H. Morgan, US ethnologist (Systems of Consanguinity), was born. (MC, 12/21/01) 1818 nend Dec 24, James Prescott Joule, physicist , was born. He discovered the principal of the conservation of energy. (MC, 12/24/01) 1818 nend Dec 24, "Silent Night" was composed by Franz Joseph Gruber. (HFA, ?96, p.44)(SI-WPC, 12/6/96)(MC, 12/24/01) 1818 nend Dec 25, "Silent Night" by Franz Gruber was performed for the first time, at the Church of St. Nikolaus in Oberndorff, Austria. (HFA, ?96, p.44)(AP, 12/25/97) 1818 nend Theophile Bra, French academic sculptor, won the Prix de Rome. (SFEM, 11/1/98, p.4) 1818 nend Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840), German Romantic landscape artist, creating his painting ?Wanderer Above a Sea of Clouds.? (Econ, 10/29/11, ILp.25)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspar_David_Friedrich) 1818 nend The ?Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin? (1706-1790), an unfinished record of his life, was published posthumously in London. An earlier French edition had appeared in 1791. (AH, 10/07,p.26)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Autobiography_of_Benjamin_Franklin) 1818 nend John Keats published his poem "Endymion." (WSJ, 1/15/98, p.A17) 1818 nend David Young, poet, teacher and astronomer, began publishing a Farmer?s Almanac. (CFA, ?96,Vol 179, p.98) 1818 nend The Epistles of John were published by the American Bible Society in the language of the Delaware Indians. (WSJ, 8/7/98, p.W13) 1818 nend People began wearing left and right shoes. Shoes were made identical for either foot prior to this. (SFEC, 2/22/98, Z1 p.8) 1818 nend Henry Sands Brooks began H. & D.H. Brooks & Co. in mostly rural Manhattan. It became a key military supplier during the Civil War. A 2nd store opened in 1928 and operations grew to the well known chain known as Brooks Brothers. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R40)(SFC, 6/29/01, p.A8)(NW, 9/1/03, p.64) 1818 nend A handful of Cherokee emigrated to Oklahoma 20 years before the Trail of Tears. They are known as the Old Settlers. (NG, 5/95, p.91) 1818 nend Franciscan priests established the Santa Ysabel Mission to convert the Kumeyaay Indians in San Diego County. (SFC, 9/16/96, p.A15) 1818 nend Illinois became the 21st state of the US. (HFA, ?96, p.20) 1818 nend The Libbey Glass Co. of Toledo, Ohio, was founded as the New England Glass Company by Edward Drummond Libbey. Libbey collected glass "through the ages" in a museum for the inspiration his workers. In 1999 it was a division of Owens-Illinois. (SFC, 3/31/99, Z1 p.6)(WSJ, 10/19/01, p.W15) 1818 nend Brown Brothers Harriman (BBH) was founded in Philadelphia as John A. Brown and Company, an importer of linen. On January 1, 1931, Brown Brothers And Company merged with Harriman Brothers & Company, an investment company started in 1912 with railway money. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_Brothers_Harriman_%26_Co.) 1818 nend Abigail Adams, wife of former Pres. John Adams, died. (WSJ, 5/30/01, p.A20) 1818 nend Dr. James Blundell (1791-1878), a British obstetrician, performed the first successful transfusion of human blood, for the treatment of postpartum hemorrhage. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_transfusion) 1818 nend Grozny was established in the northern Caucasus as a Russian fortress. (SFEC, 4/30/00, p.C14) 1818 nend In Russia the Smirnoff family went into the vodka business. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1818 nend In Spain the last prosecution of the Spanish Inquisition was held. (WSJ, 4/16/98, p.A20) 1818 nend In Spain an annual national Christmas lottery was begun. (SFC,12/23/97, p.D3) 1818 1820 John Keats (d.1821), English poet, lived in Hampstead and wrote "The Eve of St. Agnes," "Ode on a Grecian Urn," and "Ode to a Nightingale." (SFC, 12/24/96, p.E4)(WSJ, 1/15/98, p.A17) 1818 1883 Karl Marx, German writer and theorist for socialism. Marx called his own philosophy dialectical materialism, and claims to start philosophically from a point of view opposite to Hegel. Marx asserts that he starts from concrete reality and not from an idea, as does Hegel. Knowing history as well as he hid, he claimed to be able not only to explain why things happened as they had, but also to predict what was going to happen in the future. (V.D.-H.K.p.258) 1818 1885 Henry Wheeler Shaw, "Josh Billings," American author: "As scarce as truth is, the supply is always greater than the demand." (AP, 8/1/99) 1818 1889 James Prescott Joule, English experimental physicist, measured the mechanical, or energy, equivalent of heat itself. (TNG, Klein, p.55) 1819 nend Jan 17, Simon Bolivar the "liberator" proclaimed Colombia a republic. (HN, 1/17/99) 1819 nend Feb 8, John Ruskin (d.1900), writer, critic, artist, Gothic Revivalist (Pre-Raphaelite), was born. His work included "Modern Painter" and "The Stones of Venice." (WSJ, 3/6/00, p.A28)(MC, 2/8/02) 1819 nend Feb 9, Lydia E. Pinkham, patent-medicine maker and entrepreneur, was born. (HN, 2/9/01) 1819 nend Feb 14, Christopher Latham Sholes, inventor of the first practical typewriter, was born. (HN, 2/14/01) 1819 nend Feb 22, James Russell Lowell (d.1891), American essayist, poet, critic, diplomat, abolitionist, was born: "He who is firmly seated in authority soon learns to think security, and not progress, the highest lesson of statecraft." (AP, 6/29/99)(MC, 2/22/02) 1819 nend Feb 22, Spain signed the Adams-Onis Treaty with the United States ceding eastern Florida. Spanish minister Do Luis de Onis and U.S. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams signed the Florida Purchase Treaty, in which Spain agrees to cede the remainder of its old province of Florida. Spain renounced claims to Oregon Country. [see 1821] (AP, 2/22/99)(HN, 2/22/99) 1819 nend Mar 2, Territory of Arkansas was organized. [see Jul 4] (SC, 3/2/02) 1819 nend Mar 2, US passed its 1st immigration law. (SC, 3/2/02) 1819 nend Mar 3, An Act to protect the commerce of the United States and punish the crime of piracy became a federal statute. It was amended in 1820 to declare the slave trade and robbing a ship to be piracy as well. The last execution for piracy in the United States was of slave trader Nathaniel Gordon in 1862 under the amended act. (http://tinyurl.com/2euzy9p) 1819 nend Mar 3, The Civilization Fund Act was created by the United States legislature to encourage activities of benevolent societies in providing education for Native Americans and also authorized an annuity to stimulate the "civilization process." (http://wapedia.mobi/en/The_Civilization_Fund_Act_of_1819) 1819 nend Mar 6, The US Supreme Court ruled in McCulloch v. Maryland that the state could not impose a tax on the notes of banks not chartered in the state. Luther Martin represented Maryland in the landmark case. (WSJ, 9/20/08,p.A21)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McCulloch_v._Maryland) 1819 nend Mar 26, Louise Otto, German feminist author, was born. (HN, 3/25/98) 1819 nend Mar 29, Edwin Drake (d.1890), the man who drilled the first productive oil well (1859), was born. (HN, 3/29/98) 1819 nend Mar 29, Isaac Mayer Wise, rabbi, founder (American Hebrew Congregations), was born. (MC, 3/29/02) 1819 nend Apr 14, Charles Halle, pianist, conductor, founder (Halle Orch), was born. (MC, 4/14/02) 1819 nend Apr 18, Franz von Suppa, composer (Light Cavalry Overture), was born in Spalato, Dalmatia. (MC, 4/18/02) 1819 nend Apr 19, The USS Alabama and Louisiana destroyed a pirate base at the Patterson's Town Raid on Breton Island, Louisiana. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_of_31_August_1819) 1819 nend Apr 26, The first Odd Fellow lodge (Independent Order of Odd Fellows or IOOF) was established in the U.S. in Baltimore, Md. They started in Great Britain with the purpose: "to relieve the brethren, bury the dead, and care for the widow and orphan." (440 Int?l. Internet, 4/26/97, p.1) 1819 nend Mar 29, Edwin Drake, the man who drilled the first productive oil well, was born. (HN, 3/29/98) 1819 nend May 15, Thomas Leonidas Crittenden, Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 5/15/02) 1819 nend May 21, The 1st bicycles (swift walkers) in US were introduced in NYC. (MC, 5/21/02) 1819 nend May 23, Bolivar?s revolutionary commanders met in the deserted village of Setenta, Venezuela, and planned a march across the Andes to attack Spanish forces in New Granada (Colombia). (ON, 3/05, p.1) 1819 nend May 24, Queen Victoria (d.1901) was born in London. Her reign (1836-1901) restored dignity to the British crown. She had nine children. "Great events make me quiet and calm; it is only trifles that irritate my nerves." (AP, 5/24/97)(HN, 5/24/99)(AP, 2/24/99) 1819 nend May 26, The first steam-propelled vessel to attempt a trans-Atlantic crossing, the 350-ton Savannah, departed from Savannah, Ga., May 26 and arrived in Liverpool, England, Jun 20. [HNQ set May 24 for the departure] (AP, 5/22/97)(HNQ, 3/18/02) 1819 nend May 27, Julia Ward Howe, writer of the "Battle Hymn of the Republic," was born. (HN, 5/27/99) 1819 nend May 31, Poet Walt Whitman (d.1892) was born in West Hill, N.Y. He became America?s national poet with vibrant works such as 1855?s Leaves of Grass. He poems included: "When Lilacs Last in the Doorway Bloomed." Some of Whitman?s poems were inspired by his Civil War experience as a hospital volunteer in Washington. Although a staunch supporter of the Union cause, Whitman comforted dying soldiers of both sides, as described in one of the poet's wartime newspaper dispatches: "I stayed a long time by the bedside of a new patient.... In an adjoining ward I found his brother...It was in the same battle both were hit. One was a strong Unionist, the other Secesh; both fought for their respective sides, both badly wounded, and both brought together after a separation of four years. Each died for his cause." (AP, 5/31/97)(HN, 5/31/98)(HNQ, 6/1/98)(V.D.-H.K.p.278)(HNPD,5/25/99)(HN, 5/31/99) 1819 nend Jun 10, J.D. Gustave Courbet (d.1877), French realist painter (Demoiselles the la Seine), was born. His realistic landscapes were marked by bold shadows and compositions fragmented by the play of natural light. This technique was pursued more fully by the impressionists. His work included "Rock at HautePierre." (DPCP, 1984)(WSJ, 3/10/00, p.W16)(MC, 6/10/02) 1819 nend Jun 20, Jacques Offenbach (d.1880), French composer (Tales of Hoffmann), was born in Cologne. His work included the comedy opera "Barbe-Bleue" (Blue Beard). (MC, 6/20/02)(WSJ, 2/20/98, p.A16) 1819 nend Jun 20, The paddle-wheel steamship Savannah arrives in Liverpool, England, after a voyage of 27 days and 11 hours--the first steamship to successfully cross the Atlantic. (HN, 6/20/01) 1819 nend Jun 26, Abner Doubleday (d.1893), Civil War General, was born. He was incorrectly credited with inventing American baseball. (HN, 6/26/99)(WSJ, 7/19/01, p.A20) 1819 nend Jun 26, The bicycle was patented by W.K. Clarkson, Jr. of New York City. [see May 21] (MC, 6/26/02) 1819 nend Jul 4, The Territory of Arkansas was created. (IB, Internet, 12/7/98) 1819 nend Jul 4, William Herschel (1738-1822), German-born English astronomer, made his last telescopic observation of an 1819 comet. His son, Sir John Frederick William Herschel (1792-1871), was also an astronomer. (WUD, 1994, p.666)(Maggio, 98) 1819 nend Jul 9, Elias Howe (d.1867), inventor of the sewing machine, was born in Spencer, Mass. Howe, a machinist, developed his sewing machine in 1843-45 and patented it in 1846. Although Howe's machine sewed only short, straight lines, tailors and seamstresses saw it as a threat to their jobs. Unable to market his machine in America, Howe took it to Britain where he sold the rights to an English manufacturer in 1847. Upon his return to the United States, Howe discovered that his patent had been infringed upon by other sewing machine manufacturers, such as Isaac Singer. After a lengthy court battle, Howe's patent was upheld and royalties from sewing machine sales made him a wealthy man. (WUD, 1994, p.689)(HN, 7/9/99)(MC, 7/9/02) 1819 nend Jul, Stephen Long joined Gen. Henry Atkinson's Yellowstone Expedition bound from St. Louis to the Rockies on the steamboat Western Engineer. This was the first steamboat to travel up the Missouri River into the Louisiana Purchase territory. Edwin James, a medical doctor, botanist and ethnologist, also served on the expedition. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Harriman_Long) 1819 nend Aug 1, Herman Melville (d.1891), American novelist, author of Moby Dick, was born. In 1996 part one of a 2-part biography was published by Hershel Parker: Herman Melville: 1819-1851. In 1951 Leon Howard wrote a biography. Melville wrote 5 books between 1845-1850. They included "Typee," "Omoo," and "White-Jacket." (AHD, p.818)(WSJ, 11/22/96, p.A14)(HN, 8/1/98)(SFEC, 2/13/00, BR p.6) 1819 nend Aug 2, The first parachute jump from a balloon was made by Charles Guille in New York City. (HN, 8/2/01) 1819 nend Aug 7, South American liberator Simon Bolivar defeated Spanish forces under Gen. Jose Barreiro in New Granada (Colombia) at the Battle of Boyaca. The revolutionary army entered Bogota Aug 10. (HNQ, 9/12/99)(ON, 3/05, p.2) 1819 nend Aug 9, William Thomas Green Morton (d.1868), American dentist who 1st used ether on a patient (1846), was born. (WUD, 1994, p.932)(MC, 8/9/02) 1819 nend Aug 16, English police charged unemployed demonstrators at St. Peter's Field in the Manchester Massacre. 11 people were killed in the Peterloo massacre. The press responded with a volley of attacks that included ?The Political House that Jack Built? by William Hone and illustrator George Cruikshank. (www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1819peterloo.html)(Econ, 12/23/06, p.104) 1819 nend Aug 23, Oliver Hazard Perry, naval hero, died on his 34th birthday. (MC, 8/23/02) 1819 nend Aug 25, Allan Pinkerton (d.1884) was born in Glasgow, Scotland. He fled Scotland in 1842 to avoid capture for his involvement with the revolutionary group called the Chartists. He later founded a Chicago detective agency and worked as Abe Lincoln's bodyguard. (www.crimelibrary.com/gangsters2/pinkerton/) 1819 nend Aug 25, Scotsman James Watt (b.1736), Scottish inventor, died. His 1775 improved steam engine advanced coal mining and made the Industrial Revolution possible. (ON, 6/10, p.5)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watt) 1819 nend Aug 26, Albert "Bertie" von Saxon-Coburg-Gotha (d.1861), husband of queen Victoria, was born at Schloss Rosenau, near Coburg, Bavaria. (WUD, 1994, p.34)(http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com) 1819 nend Aug 31, A naval battle took place between United States Revenue Cutter Service cutters and one of Jean Lafitte's pirate ships off southern Florida. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_of_31_August_1819) 1819 nend Sep 6, William Starke Rosecrans, Maj. General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 9/6/01) 1819 nend Sep 6, Thomas Blanchard (b.1788) patented the lathe. (MC, 9/6/01) 1819 nend Sep 13, Clara Josephine Schumann, [nee Wieck], pianist and composer, was born in Leipzig, Germ. (MC, 9/13/01) 1819 nend Sep 16, Dr. John Jeffries, who crossed the English Channel (1785) with Frenchman Jean-Pierre Blanchard for the first time in a hydrogen balloon, died in Boston. (HN, 5/15/98)(HN, 1/7/99) 1819 nend Sep 17, Jean-Bernard-Leon Foucault, physicist (pendulum proved Earth rotates), was born. [see Sep 18] (MC, 9/17/01) 1819 nend Sep 18, Leon Foucault, French physicist, was born. [see Sep 17] (HN, 9/18/00) 1819 nend Oct 6, Willem A. Scholten, Dutch potato flour manufacturer, was born. (MC, 10/6/01) 1819 nend Oct 20, Daniel Edgar Sickles (d.1914), Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 10/20/01) 1819 nend Oct 22, The 1st ship passed through Erie Canal (Rome-Utica). (MC, 10/22/01) 1819 nend Nov 22, George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans), novelist who wrote "Adam Bede," was born. (HN, 11/22/98) 1819 nend Nov, Nantucket whalers lost their ship to an 80-ton bull sperm whale and attempted to make landfall in 3 boats on the coast of South America. 8 crewmen survived after they consumed 7 of their mates. [see Owen Chase in 1821] 5 men in 2 boats were picked up after 90 days. In 1960 cabin boy Thomas Nickerson wrote an account of the tragedy. In 2000 Nathaniel Philbrick authored "In the Heart of the Sea, The Tragedy of the Whale Ship Essex." (WSJ, 4/28/00, p.W6)(SFEC, 7/23/00, BR p.12) 1819 nend Dec 14, Alabama was admitted as the 22nd state, making 11 slave states and 11 free states. (AP, 12/14/97)(HN, 12/14/98) 1819 nend Theodore Chasseriau (d.1856), artist, was born in Semana, Dominican Republic. He was the son of a French diplomat and French-Creole mother. (WSJ, 11/26/02, p.D8) 1819 nend Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840), German Romantic painter, created his "Two Men Contemplating the Moon." He painted it as part of a series of 3 (1824,1830). The 3rd had the same title, the 2nd was titled "Man and Woman Contemplating the Moon." (WSJ, 9/21/01, p.W2)(WSJ, 10/17/01, p.A24) 1819 nend J.M.W. Turner (44), English artist (1775-1851), visited Venice for the 1st time. He returned in 1833 and 1840. His 1st oil painting with a Venetian setting was done in 1833. (WSJ, 3/17/04, p.D4) 1819 nend Spain?s Prado opened as the Real Mueso de Pintura y Escultura. (WSJ, 4/16/03, p.D10) 1819 nend John Vanderlyn depicted the Versailles gardens in a panorama later transferred to the Metropolitan Museum of Art. (WSJ, 9/3/98, p.A20) 1819 nend Washington Irving published "The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon," which included "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" and "Rip Van Winkle." (USAT, 11/12/99, p.2D) 1819 nend Johann Wilhelm Klein of Vienna, Austria, published a book on training dogs for the blind. (ON, 12/03, p.5) 1819 nend The opera "La Donna del Lago," by Gioacchino Antonio Rossini premiered in Naples. It was based on the Walter Scott romance "The lady of the Lake." (WSJ, 7/29/97, p.A12) 1819 nend William Jay age 22, English architect, built several fine homes in Savannah, Georgia. These included the Scarbrough House and the Owens-Thomas House. (Hem. 1/95, p. 70) 1819 nend The American Geological Society was founded at Yale College. The membership included the illustrious Benjamin Silliman (1779?1864). The Society was short-lived, going out of existence in 1828. (www.lib.uwaterloo.ca/society/history/1840aagn.html) 1819 nend Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) almost single-handedly created the University of Virginia and served as its first president. The university opened for classes in 1825. (http://www.virginia.edu/uvatours/shorthistory/)(SSFC, 2/11/07, p.F2) 1819 nend Hannibal, Missouri, the small Midwestern city and boyhood home of Mark Twain (Samuel Clemens), was settled by Moses Bates on land belonging to Abraham Bird. (HNQ, 2/6/01) 1819 nend In Savannah Chatham Artillery Punch was served to Pres. James Monroe. It was a concoction of Catawba, rum, gin, brandy, rye whiskey, strong tea, brown sugar, Benedictine, juices of oranges and lemons, Maraschino cherries and champagne. (SFEC,11/30/97, p.T4) 1819 nend Chief Justice John Marshall in Dartmouth College v. Woodward described the corporation as "an artificial being, invisible, intangible." Among its properties "are immortality; and if the expression be allowed, individuality." (WSJ, 4/11/01, p.A16) 1819 nend In Philadelphia Dr. Thomas W. Dyott, (druggist, patent-medicine vendor, and physician) purchased the Kensington Glass Works. He expanded the business and changed the name to the Dyottville Glass Works. He was forced out of the firm in 1838, but the glassworks continued operating until about 1923. (SFC, 1/14/98, Z1 p.2) 1819 nend Caffeine was isolated by this year. Its pure form turned out to be a bitter powder readily soluble in boiling water. (WSJ, 1/30/00, p.A20) 1819 nend Hans Christian Oersted discovered that an electric current will deflect the needle of a compass pointing to the unity of the electromagnetic force. (JST-TMC,1983, p.72) 1819 nend In Sidney, Australia, convict labor built the Hyde Park Barracks and the state Parliament. (SFEC, 1/4/98, p.T4) 1819 nend Johann Baptist von Spix discovered the Spix macaw of Brazil (Cyanopsitta spixii). The last wild Spix macaw disappeared in 2000. (SFC, 10/7/99, p.A15,18)(SFC, 12/27/00, p.C2) 1819 nend The British burned the Arab port of Ras al Khaymah in response to attacks by Arab "pirate" ships. Sheikh Sultan bin Muhammad of the emirate of Sharjah publishes a book in 1987, The Myth of Arab Piracy in the Gulf, claiming the Arabs were defending their native waters. (NG, 5/88, p.662, 670) 1819 nend Bogota became the capital of Colombia. (TL-MB, 1988, p.15) 1819 nend In Hawaii monarchists defeated traditionalists at the battlefield of Kuamoo. 300 warriors perished along with the old Hawaiian religion. (SSFC, 8/26/01, p.T9) 1819 nend William Moorcroft, East India Co. head of 5,000 acre horse farm at Pusa, India, set out for Bukhara, Uzbekistan, to trade for horses. (ON, 1/02, p.3) 1819 nend In India a British hunting party discovered the painted caves at Ajanta that dated from c200BC-650AD. (WSJ, 11/12/98, p.A28) c 1819 nend In France a silver soup tureen was manufactured by Jean-Baptiste Claude Odiot. It fetched over a million dollars in a 1997 auction. (WSJ, 10/24/97, p.B18) 1819 nend Hawaii?s King Kamehameha II abolished the brutal kapu system of laws. Temples and sacred sites associated with the system began to fall into disrepair. Queen Kaahumanu, helped overturn the kapu belief system by sharing a meal with Kamehameha II following the death of King Kamehameha. (SFEC, 9/7/97, p.T8)(SSFC, 8/30/09, p.M5) 1819 nend Russia declared Odessa to be a free port. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.86) 1819 nend Singapore was declared a free port after it was taken over by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, an officer of the British East India Co. Sultan Hussein was enthroned by the British but he never ruled. Raffles laid out the city into ethnic zones. (WSJ, 11/12/96, p.A18)(WSJ, 7/22/99, p.A23)(SFCM, 3/11/01, p.70)(SSFC, 2/07/04, p.C9) no_source 1819 1820 The James Long Expedition was an attempt to take control of Spanish Texas. Long successfully established a small independent government, known as the Republic of Texas (distinct from the later Republic of Texas created by the Texas Revolution). The expedition crumbled later in the year, as Spanish troops drove the invaders out. Long returned to Texas in 1820 and attempted to reestablish his control. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Expedition) 1819 1861 Prince Albert of Britain, consort to Queen Victoria. (WUD, 1994, p.34) 1819 1880 George Eliot, English writer, was driven out of England with her companion, G.H. Lewes, for a while for not being married. Her books tore away the curtain of Victorian life and revealed its bitter small-mindedness for anyone to see. "The happiest women, like the happiest nations, have no history." (V.D.-H.K.p.279)(AP, 11/14/98) 1819 1891 Donn Piatt, American journalist: "There is no tyranny so despotic as that of public opinion among a free people." (AP, 3/10/01) 1819 1898 Theodor Fontane, German author: "Happiness, it seems to me, consists of two things: first, in being where you belong, and second -- and best -- in comfortably going through everyday life, that is, having had a good night's sleep and not being hurt by new shoes." His work included practical hiking guides to Brandenburg, poetry theater criticism, foreign correspondence and novels. His novels included "Effi Briest" and "L?Adultera." In 1998 a biography by Gordon Craig was scheduled to be published. (AP, 8/7/97)(WSJ, 12/2/98, p.A20) 1819 1910 Julia Ward Howe, US writer and reformer. She wrote "The Battle Hymn of the Republic." (WUD, 1994, p.689) 1820 nend Jan 12, Royal Astronomical Society was founded in England. (MC, 1/12/02) 1820 nend Jan 20, Anne Clough, promoter of higher education, was born. (HN, 1/20/99) 1820 nend Jan 20-1820 Jan 29, As George IV was about to become King of England, his wife Caroline (the German princess of Brunswick) returned to claim her rights. She had been living on the continent and was rumored to have had as lovers such men as: the politician George Canning, the admiral Sir Sydney Smith, the painter Sir Thomas Lawrence. The House of Lords introduced a Bill of Pains and Penalties, which sought to strip Caroline of her title of Queen on the grounds of her scandalous conduct. George had previously married Maria Anne Fitzherbert in secret. A trial ensued, but witnesses refused to speak against the queen and the bill had to be amended. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline_of_Brunswick)(WSJ, 5/23/96,p.A-10)(WSJ, 3/26/99, p.W10) 1820 nend Jan 29, Britain's King George III (b.1760) died insane at Windsor Castle at age 81, ending a reign that saw both the American and French revolutions. He was succeeded by his son George IV (1762-1830), who as Prince of Wales had been regent for 9 years during his father?s insanity. In 2005 scientists reported high levels of arsenic in the hair of King George III and said the deadly poison may be to blame for the bouts of apparent madness he suffered. In 2006 Stella Tillyard authored ?A Royal Affair: George III and His Troublesome Siblings? and Jeremy Black authored ?George III: America?s Last King.? (http://tinyurl.com/gsbuj)(AP, 1/29/98)(WSJ, 12/26/06, p.D8)(Econ,1/28/06, p.80) 1820 nend Jan 30, Edward Bransfield discovered Antarctica and claimed it for the UK. (MC, 1/30/02) 1820 nend Jan, A large fire in Savannah, Georgia wiped out 463 buildings. (SFC, 6/25/95, p.T-7) 1820 nend Feb 6, The American Colonization Society sent its 1st organized emigration of blacks back to Africa from NY to Sierra Leone. (AH, 2/05, p.17) 1820 nend Feb 6, US population announced at 9,638,453 including 1,771,656 blacks (18.4%). (MC, 2/6/02) 1820 nend Feb 7, Samuel Adams Holyoke (57/58), composer, died. (MC, 2/7/02) 1820 nend Feb 8, General William T. Sherman (d.1891), Union general in America's Civil War, was born. His famous "March to the Sea" changed the face of modern warfare. (HN, 2/8/99)(AP, 4/7/99)(MC, 2/8/02). 1820 nend Feb 15, American suffragist Susan B. Anthony (d.1906) was born in Adams, Mass. Her middle name was Brownell. Her biography by Lynn Sherr was titled: "Failure Is Impossible." (SFEC, 9/21/97, Par p.4)(AP, 2/15/98)(HN, 2/15/98)(SFC, 8/15/98, p.E4) 1820 nend Feb 15, Pierre-Joseph Cambon (63), member of Committee of Public Safety (French Revolution), died. (MC, 2/15/02) 1820 nend Feb 17, Henri Vieuxtemps, composer, teacher (Brussels Cons), was born in Verviers, Belgium. (MC, 2/17/02) 1820 nend Feb 28, John Tenniel (d.1914), illustrator of "Alice in Wonderland," was born. He was an English caricaturist. (HN, 2/28/98)(WUD, 1994, p.1463) 1820 nend Feb, The Cato Street Conspiracy, organized by revolutionary Arthur Thistlewood, was the. assassination of the entire British Cabinet. Earlier, in 1816, Thistlewood helped plan the Spa Fields Riots, during which the Bank of England and Tower of London were to be seized. In February, 1820, Thistlewood learned the entire British Cabinet planned to dine at the Earl of Harrowby?s house in London?s Grosvenor Square. His plot for murder was revealed to the police, who apprehended Thistlewood and a number of accomplices as they prepared to leave a room on Cato Street for Grosvenor Square. Thistlewood was tried for high treason and hanged, along with four others. (HNQ, 6/28/99) 1820 nend cFeb, Five surviving crew members in 2 boats of whale ship Essex were picked up by 2 ships. [see Owen Chase in 1819, 1821] (SFEC, 7/23/00, BR p.12) 1820 nend Mar 3, The Missouri Compromise was passed by Congress. It allowed Missouri to enter the Union as a slave state and Maine to enter as a free state. [see Mar 6] (PCh, 1992, p.389)(SC, 3/3/02) 1820 nend Mar 5, Dutch city of Leeuwarden forbade Jews to go to synagogues on Sundays. (MC, 3/5/02) 1820 nend Mar 6, The Missouri Compromise, enacted by Congress, was signed by President James Monroe. This compromise provided for the admission of Missouri into the Union as a slave state, but prohibited slavery in the rest of the northern Louisiana Purchase territory. The compromise was invalidated in the 1856 Scott vs. Sanford case. [see Mar 3] (HN, 3/6/98)(SFC, 11/30/00, p.A3) 1820 nend Mar 9-11, Philippines chased out foreigners and about 125 died. (MC, 3/9/02) 1820 nend Mar 9, Congress passed the Land Act, paving the way for westward expansion. (HN, 3/9/99) 1820 nend Mar 14, Victor Emmanuel II, King of Sardinia (1849-61) and Italy (1861-78), was born. (MC, 3/14/02) 1820 nend Mar 15, Maine, a province of Massachusetts since 1647, became the 23rd state. Maine entered the Union as a free state and helped maintain the balance in the US Senate, that would have been disrupted by the entrance of Missouri Territory into the Union as a slave state. (AP, 3/15/97) 1820 nend Mar 22, The Decatur-Barron Duel. U.S. naval hero Stephen Decatur (b.1779) was killed in a duel with Commodore James Barron near Washington, D.C. (HFA, ?96, p.26)(AP, 3/22/97) 1820 nend Mar 30, Anna Sewell, English novelist, was born. Her "Black Beauty" has become the classic story about horses. (HN, 3/30/99) 1820 nend Apr 15, Evander McNair, Brig General (Confederate Army), died in 1902, was born. (MC, 4/15/02) 1820 nend Apr 17, Alexander Cartwright, sportsman, was born. He developed baseball. (HN, 4/17/01) 1820 nend Apr 20, Arthur Young, author (Annals of Agriculture), died. (MC, 4/20/02) 1820 nend May 4, Joseph Whitaker, bookseller and publisher, was born. He founded Whitaker's Almanac. (HN, 5/4/99) 1820 nend May 12, Florence Nightingale, Crimean War nurse known as "Lady with the Lamp," was born in Florence, Italy. She is also known as the founder of modern nursing (AP, 5/12/97)(HN, 5/12/99) 1820 nend May 13, The opera "Die Jearsbraut" was completed. (SS, Internet, 5/13/97) 1820 nend May 15, The US Congress designated the slave trade to a form of piracy. (HN, 5/15/99) 1820 nend May 23, James Buchanan Eads, engineer of the Eads Bridge in St. Louis, was born. (HN, 5/23/98) 1820 nend Jun 14, John Bartlett, editor, compiler of Bartlett's Familiar Quotations, was born. (HN, 6/14/01) 1820 nend Jun 19, Joseph Banks, English natural historian (Cook, Australia), died. (MC, 6/19/02) 1820 nend Jun 28, The tomato was proven to be non-poisonous. (MC, 6/28/02) 1820 nend Jul 10, Captain Jairus of the USRC Louisiana captured four pirate ships off Belize. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_of_31_August_1819) 1820 nend Aug 2, John Tyndall (d.1893), British physicist, was born. He was the first scientist to show why the sky is blue. "It is as fatal as it is cowardly to blink (at) facts because they are not to our taste." (AP, 9/25/99)(HN, 8/2/00) 1820 nend Aug 6, M.A. Elisa Bonaparte (43), Corsican monarch of Lucca, died. (MC, 8/6/02) 1820 nend Aug 7, The 1st potatoes were planted in Hawaii. (MC, 8/7/02) 1820 nend Aug 12, Oliver Mowat, a founder of the Canadian Confederation, was born. (SC, 8/12/02) 1820 nend Aug 13, George Grove, biblical scholar, musicographer (Grove's Dictionary), was born in London, England. (MC, 8/13/02) 1820 nend Aug 14, The 1st US eye hospital, the NY Eye Infirmary, opened in NYC. (MC, 8/14/02) 1820 nend Sep 2, China?s Emperor Jiaqing (b.1760) died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiaqing_Emperor)(Econ, 3/19/11, p.93) 1820 nend Sep 4, Czar Alexander declared that Russian influence in North America extended as far south as Oregon and closed Alaskan waters to foreigners. (HN, 9/4/98) 1820 nend Sep 20, John Fulton Reynolds, Major General (Union volunteers), was born. He died in 1863 on first day at Gettysburg. (MC, 9/20/01) 1820 nend Sep 26, The legendary frontiersman Daniel Boone died quietly at the Defiance, Mo., home of his son Nathan, at age 85. (HN, 9/26/99) 1820 nend Sep 28, Friedrich Engels, socialist who collaborated with Karl Marx on The Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital, was born. (HN, 9/28/98) 1820 nend Sep, John Keats and the young painter Severn started for Italy aboard the cargo boat Maria Crowther. (WP, 1951, p.15) 1820 nend Sep, William Moorcroft, East India Co. head of 5,000 acre horse farm at Pusa, India, arrived in Ladakh, while enroute to Bukhara, Uzbekistan, to trade for horses. He spent 2 years here before continuing his journey. (ON, 1/02, p.5) 1820 nend Oct 6, Jenny Lind (d.1887), soprano, was born. She was known as the "Swedish Nightingale." (HN, 10/6/00) 1820 nend Oct 11, Sir George Williams, founder of the YMCA, was born. (HN, 10/11/00) 1820 nend Oct 12, John James Audubon boarded the steamboat Western Engineer in Cincinnati, Ohio, and embarked on a 5-year journey along the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers collecting and painting birds. (ON, 12/05, p.7) 1820 nend Oct 15, Florence Nightingale (d.1910), English hospital reformer and nursing pioneer, was born. "Were there none who were discontented with what they have, the world would never reach anything better." (AP, 11/12/97)(HN, 10/15/98) 1820 nend Oct 20, Spain sold a part of Florida to US for $5 million. (MC, 10/20/01) 1820 nend Oct, Argentina?s Jose de San Martin blockaded Lima, Peru, and urged the people of Peru to join in the uprising against Spain. (www.gdws.co.uk/chacabuco.htm)(Econ, 4/25/09, p.87)(ON, 10/09, p.10) 1820 nend Nov 18, U.S. Navy Capt. Nathaniel B. Palmer discovered the frozen continent of Antarctica. (AP, 11/18/97) 1820 nend Nov 28, Friedrich Engels (d.1895), German social philosopher; Marx's collaborator, was born. (V.D.-H.K.p.257)(MC, 11/28/01) 1820 nend Dec 6, James Monroe, the 5th US president, was elected for a 2nd term. (MC, 12/6/01) 1820 nend Dec 7, Peru?s army, after sweeping out the Spanish, swore in the first mayor of the Peruvian Republic, in Chaupimarca plaza, the central district of Cerro de Pasco. By 2010 the town faced destruction due to industrial mining. (AP, 4/19/10) 1820 nend Dec 20, Missouri imposed a $1 bachelor tax on unmarried men between 21 and 50. (MC, 12/20/01) 1820 nend Dec, Franz Schubert composed his String Quartet No. 12 in C Minor (Quartettsatz). It was only introduced to the public in 1867. (www.owlhaven.com/schubert/schubertchron.htm) 1820 nend Anne Bronte (d.1849), younger sister of Charlotte and Emily, was born. Her novels included "Agnes Grey" and "The Tenant of Wildfell Hall." (WSJ, 7/28/99, p.A21) 1820 nend Lola Montez, cabaret singer and countess, was born Eliza Gilbert and grew up in India as a military brat. She was later involved with King Ludvig of Bavaria and he made her Countess of Landsfeld. She later traveled to California. Her biography by Bruce Seymour is titled: "Lola Montez: A Life." (SFC, 7/7/96, BR p.8) 1820 nend Constable made his painting of Salisbury Cathedral. (WSJ, 12/6/01, p.A19) 1820 nend Keisai Eisen, Japanese artist, pictured an intricately coifed woman that later appeared on the cover of a French magazine and inspired Van Gogh?s 1887 "Courtesan." (WSJ, 12/1/98, p.A20) 1820 nend Mary Shelley wrote her children?s story "Maurice, or the Fisher?s Cot. " It did not get published until 1998 when Claire Tomalin published an edition with an extensive editorial preface. (SFEC, 11/15/98, BR p.3) 1820 nend Helen Keller?s grandfather built the Ivy Green House in Tuscumbia, Alabama. (PC, Polychrome Picture Products) 1820 nend The Mexican government granted Luis Peralta (1759-1851) the 44,800-acre Rancho San Antonio in the East Bay of northern California, for his military services. The rancho ran from San Leandro Creek to a rise known as El Cerrito. Peralta settled in San Jose, while his four sons took over the land grant. The Peralta Hacienda in Oakland was built in 1870. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_Mar%C3%ADa_Peralta)(SFC,5/3/02, p.A20)(SFC, 11/26/10, p.D9) 1820 nend In New Jersey a county poorhouse farm was established on 200 acres of land in what later became Hudson County, directly across the river from Manhattan. Be the end of the century it had become the sprawling Snake Hill complex with isolation hospitals and 3 burial grounds. In the 20th century it was renamed Laurel Hill. The institutions steadily emptied after the Depression and in 1950 the new New Jersey Turnpike ran through the site. In 2002 the New Jersey Turnpike Authority purchased the eastern burial ground of Snake Hill. Research soon revealed an estimated 3,500 burials on the purchased property, which became known as the Secaucus Potter?s field site. In 2003 the last burial was disinterred for a total of 4,571 sets of human remains from 2686 graves. (Arch, 5/05, p.43) 1820 nend In Tennessee an iron forge was established by settler Isaac Love on the Little Pigeon River at the foot of the Great Smokey Mountains. (SFC, 6/9/97, p.A3) 1820 nend Congregational missionaries from New England arrived. The brig Thaddeus delivered the first missionaries and Lucy Thurston taught the native women to sew calico patch work. James Michener later used their story as the focus of his historical novel "Hawaii." (Wired, 8/95, p.90)(Hem., 2/96, p.72)(SFEM, 2/8/98, p.10) 1820 nend Thomas Jefferson wrote of slavery: "We have a wolf by the ears and can neither hold him, nor safely let him go." Although a slaveholder himself, Jefferson had expressed hopes that in the wake of the American Revolution, slavery in the South would wither and die. (HNQ, 2/16/00) 1820 nend Eliphalet Snedecor rented land on Long Island, NY, and established a tavern. It became popular among fisherman and bird shooters. (WSJ, 10/9/07, p.D6) 1820 nend Norwich Univ. began as a private military college in the Green Mountains of Vermont. (Hem, 9/04, p.69) 1820 nend American cotton exports reached 400,000 bales a year. (Econ, 12/20/03, p.46) 1820 nend An American whaling ship from Brighton, Massachusetts, was later believed to be the first to enter Japanese waters. (Econ, 12/22/07, p.64) 1820 nend In the Antelope seizure, a Spanish flag vessel was involved at a time when Spain still sanctioned the slave trade. (WSJ, 12/31/97, p.A11) 1820 nend The industrial force exceeded the number of people engaged in agriculture in Great Britain. (V.D.-H.K.p.284) 1820 nend There are more than a thousand ships engaged in transporting timber from the North America to the British Isles. Human cargo filled the return journey. (NOHY, 3/90, p.52) 1820 nend US census takers on the Virginia-Tennessee border at Stone Mountain labeled the local Melungeons as "free persons of color." The people were of a mixed ancestry, neither all black, nor all white, nor all Indian. In 1997 some 500 Melungeon descendents still lived in the area. Later N. Brent Kennedy wrote: "The Melungeons... An Untold Story of Ethnic Cleansing in America." (WSJ, 4/14/97, p.B1) 1820 nend Hans Christian Oersted, Danish physicist, discovered that an electric current creates a magnetic field around a conductor. (V.D.-H.K.p.269) 1820 nend The Greek Venus de Milo statue of marble was found in 1820 on Melos and is now in the Louvre. It was sculpted about c200BC. [2nd source says 2,500 years old] (WUD, 1994, p.1586)(SFEC, 3/9/96, Z1 p.5) 1820 nend Scotsman Gregor MacGregor (1791-1845), later known as His Serene Highness Gregor I, Prince of Poyais, returned to London from Venezuela and began selling land in the fictional kingdom of Poyais. He served 8 months in jail after English and French expeditions revealed the hoax. In 1839 he returned to Venezuela. In 2004 David Sinclair authored "The Land That Never Was: Sir Gregor MacGregor and the Most Audacious Land Fraud in History." (SSFC, 1/18/04, p.M2) 1820 nend Some 4,000 British colonists, the Albany settlers, settled in the eastern coastal region of the Cape of Good Hope. (EWH, 4th ed, p.884) c 1820 nend In London Thomas Hancock sliced up a rubber bottle from the Americas to create garters and waistbands. (SFC, 9/19/98, p.E3) 1820 nend In India the Prince of Baroda was forbidden to increase his daily number of canon salutes by the British Raj, so instead he had his fort's canons made from solid gold at 28 pounds each. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R4) 1820 nend In southern Poland Jan Kutschera opened the Sczcawnica Zdroj health resort. He sold it in 1929 to the Hungarian Szalay family, which turned it into a fashionable place. Josef Szalay bequeathed it to Krakow?s Academy of Arts and Sciences, which sold it to Count Stadnicki in 1909. Stadnicki (d.1982 at 99) was ousted by the communists in 1948. By 2008 his heirs had regained control of the spa and invested $4.5 million in restoration. (SSFC, 8/17/08, p.F7) 1820 nend Nguyen Du (b.1766), author of ?The Tale of Kieu,? died. His Vietnamese epic tells the story of woman who sells herself into prostitution to pay off her father?s debt. (SSFC, 8/21/05, p.B1) 1820 nend s Grain prices collapsed in Britain. (WSJ, 12/11/98, p.W10) 1820 nend s Renegade Zulus rebelled against King Chaka, but were crushed. Descendents of the renegade Zulus are of the Ndebele tribe, which forms a 5th of Zimbabwe?s 11 million people, the majority of which are of the Shona tribe. (SFEC, 1/12/97, p.C16) 1820 nend s The Garinagu, descendants of African slaves and Caribbean Indians, fled to Belize from the Bay Islands of Honduras. (SFEC, 6/1/97, p.T3) 1820 1825 In India Ghulam Ali Khan painted his gouache and watercolor: "Assembly of Ascetics and Yogins around a Fire." (SFC, 2/7/98, p.E8) 1820 1891 George Hearst, later businessman and politician, was born. (SFEM, 10/24/99, p.20) 1820 1903 Herbert Spencer, nineteenth-century British thinker and early upholder of the theory of evolution, regarded human progress as "not an accident but a necessity." Spencer was born in England believed that every aspect of reality must be viewed in terms of a continuing development from lower to higher stages. His naturalistic philosophy had a great influence on the development of biology, psychology, anthropology and sociology. Spencer published his idea of the evolution of biological species before Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace. Spencer coined the phrase "survival of the fittest in his 1864 work Principles of Biology. "Hero-worship is strongest where there is least regard for human freedom." (HNQ, 8/19/98)(AP, 2/25/00) 1820 1904 Christian Nestell Bovee, American author: "Doubt whom you will, but never doubt yourself." (AP, 3/10/99) 1820 1910 Felix Nadar, French photographer, was born in Paris as Gaspard-Felix Tournachon. He is known for photographing such people as George Sand, Alexandre Dumas, Gioacchino Rossini, Eugene Delacroix, Sarah Burnhardt, Charles Baudelaire and Gerard de Nerval. He was the first photographer to experiment with electric lighting, and explored the realm of aerial photography. (Smith., 5/95, p.72) 1820 1920 Some 6 million Irish people, 90% of them Catholic, immigrated to America. (WSJ, 10/27/08, p.A15) 1821 nend Jan 4, The first native-born American saint, Elizabeth Ann Seton, died in Emmitsburg, Md. (AP, 1/4/98) 1821 nend Jan 21, John Breckinridge (d.1875), 14th U.S. Vice President, was born. He served under James Buchanan (1857-1861). Breckenridge was a Confederate General in the Civil War. [His brother-in-law was Lloyd Tevis, founder of Wells Fargo] (WUD, 1994, p.183)(HN, 1/21/99) 1821 nend Feb 3, Elizabeth Blackwell (d.1910), first woman to get an MD from a U.S. medical school, was born in Bristol, England. (HN, 2/3/99)(ON, 4/03, p.3) 1821 nend Feb 11, Auguste Edouard Mariette, French Egyptologist, (dug out Sphinx 12/16/42), was born. (MC, 2/11/02) 1821 nend Feb 12, The Mercantile Library of City of NY opened. (MC, 2/12/02) 1821 nend Feb 21, Charles Scribner, was born. He founded the New York Publishing firm which became Charles Scribner's Sons and also founded Scribner's magazine. (HN, 2/21/99) 1821 nend Feb 22, The Adams-Onis Treaty became final, whereby Spain gave up all of Florida to the US. The boundary between Mexico and the Louisiana Purchase was established and the US renounced all claims to Texas. (AH, 2/06, p.15) 1821 nend Feb 23, College of Apothecaries, the 1st US pharmacy college, was organized in Philadelphia. (MC, 2/23/02) 1821 nend Feb 23, John Keats, English poet, died of tuberculosis at the age of 26. In 1998 the biography "Keats" by Andrew Motion was published. Earlier biographies included one by W. Jackson Bates (1963), and a novelistic psychological portrait by Aileen Ward (1963). The standard work on Keats was written by Robert Gittings in 1968. (WP, 1951, p.11)(WSJ, 1/15/98, p.A17)(SFEC, 3/29/98, BR p.6) 1821 nend Feb 24, Mexico rebels proclaimed the "Plan de Iguala," their declaration of independence from Spain, and took over the mission lands in California. (HT, 3/97, p.61)(AP, 2/24/98)(HN, 2/24/98) 1821 nend Mar 5, Monroe was the first president to be inaugurated on March 5, only because the 4th was a Sunday. (HN, 3/5/98) 1821 nend Mar 14, African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church founded in NY. (MC, 3/14/02) 1821 nend Mar 15, Josef Loschmidt (d.1895), a pioneer of 19th-century physics and chemistry, was born in Putschim (Pocerny), Bohemia. In his first publication (1861) Loschmidt proposed the first structural chemical formulae for many important molecules, introducing markings for double and triple carbon bonds. In 1865 he became the first person to use the kinetic theory of gases to obtain a reasonably good value for the diameter of a molecule. What we call "Avogadro's number" is, in German-speaking countries, called "Loschmidt's number." (www.physicstoday.org/pt/vol-54/iss-3/p45.html) 1821 nend Mar 19, Sir Richard Burton (d.1890), English explorer, was born. (HN, 3/19/01) 1821 nend Mar 25, Greece gained independence from Turkey (National Day). [see Mar 28] (MC, 3/25/02) 1821 nend Mar 26, Franz Grillparzer's "Das Goldene Vliess" premiered in Vienna. (SS, 3/26/02) 1821 nend Mar 28, Greek Independence Day celebrates the liberation of Southern Greece from Turkish domination. In 1844 Thomas Gordon authored a study of the Greek revolution. In 2001 David Brewer authored "The Greek War of Independence." (SFC, 3/28/98, p.A15)(WSJ, 9/17/01, p.A20) 1821 nend Apr 4, Linus Yale, American portrait painter and inventor of the Yale lock, was born. (HN, 4/4/01)(MC, 4/4/02) 1821 nend Apr 9, Charles Baudelaire (d.1867), French poet, was born. His works were censored and he was considered a pathetic psychopath; he also became the most acute critic of his age in France. He was photographed by Felix Nadar in 1855. (V.D.-H.K.p.278)(Smith., 5/95, p.72)(HN, 4/9/01) 1821 nend Apr 20, Franz K. Achard (67), German physicist, chemist, died. (MC, 4/20/02) 1821 nend May 3, The Richmond [Virginia] Light Artillery was organized. (RC handout, 5/27/96) 1821 nend May 5, Napoleon Bonaparte, emperor France (1799-1815), died in exile on the island of St. Helena. He died by slow poisoning at the hands of his companion Charles Tristan de Montholon on the island of St. Helena. Scottish pathologist Dr. Hamilton Smith later used Napoleon?s hair to determine that arsenic had been administered about 40 times from 1820-1821. In 1992 Proctor Patterson Jones authored "Napoleon, An Intimate Account." In 1999 an English translation of Jean-Paul Kauffmann's "The Black Room at Longwood: Napoleon's Exile on St. Helena" was published. In 1904 F. De Bouirrienne published "Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte." In 1988 S. De Chair edited "Napoleon's Memoirs." In 2010 a lock of Napoleon?s hair fetched 140,000 New Zealand dollars ($97,000) at auction. (V.D.-H.K.p.232)(AP, 5/5/97)(SFEC, 1/18/98, BR p.9)(SFEC, 8/16/98,Z1 p.8)(SFC, 4/8/99, p.C5)(AP, 8/8/97)(SFEC, 8/1/99, Par p.16)(AP, 7/01/10) 1821 nend May 25, Diederich Krug, composer, was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1821 nend Jun 2, Ion Bratianu (Lib), premier of Romania (1876-88), was born. (SC, 6/2/02) 1821 nend Jun 19, The Ottomans defeated the Greeks at the Battle of Dragasani. (HN, 6/19/98) 1821 nend Jun 21, African Methodist Episcopal Zion (AMEZ) Church was organized in NYC as a national body. [see Mar 14] (MC, 6/21/02) 1821 nend Jun 24, Battle of Carabobo: Bolivar defeated the royalists outside of Caracas. (MC, 6/24/02) 1821 nend Jul 2, Charles Tupper, 6th Canadian PM (1896), was born. (SC, 7/2/02) 1821 nend Jul 6, Edmund Pettus (d.1907), for whom the civil rights landmark Edmund Pettus Bridge was named, was born in Alabama. He earned his fame as a Confederate brigadier general. Pettus was a lawyer and judge and served throughout the western theater during the Civil War. He resumed his law practice after the war and went on to serve in the U.S. Senate. Pettus died while in his second term in Congress. The Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, Alabama, became a civil rights landmark when on March 7, 1965, a band of civil rights marchers on their way to Montgomery crossed the bridge, only to be attacked by state troopers on the other side. (HNQ, 10/21/01) 1821 nend Jul 13, Confederate cavalry commander Nathan Bedford Forrest was born in Tennessee?s Bedford County. (AP, 7/13/97) 1821 nend Jul 16, Mary Baker Eddy (d.1910), founder of the Christian Science movement (1879), was born. (HN, 7/16/98)(WSJ, 9/26/03, p.W17) 1821 nend Jul 17, Spain ceded Florida to the United States. [see Feb 22] (AP, 7/17/97) 1821 nend Jul 17, Andrew Jackson became the governor of Florida. (HN, 7/17/98) 1821 nend Jul 19, The coronation of George IV of England was held. His wife, Caroline, was refused admittance. She died Aug 7. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom) 1821 nend Jul 28, Peru declared its independence from Spain. Lima had been the seat of the Spanish viceroys until this time. Jose Francisco de San Martin of Argentina had blockaded Lima and forced the Spanish viceroy to abandon the city. Martin returned to Argentina in 1822 (SFC, 12/20/96, p.B4)(AP, 7/28/97)(ON, 10/09, p.10) 1821 nend Jul, English captain John Franklin led a party to explore the Barrens in northwest section of Canada?s Hudson Bay. George Back, midshipman, Royal Navy, painted a scene of the Sandstone Rapids on the Arctic Circle of Canada?s Northwest Territories. Of the 20 men in the party to map the northern coast of Canada west of the Hudson Bay, 11 starved and froze to death. Back returned to England and was hailed as "the man who ate his boots." Twenty-three years later he led a third arctic expedition of 129 men in two ships and all perished. (NH, 5/96, p.30)(WSJ, 2/10/95, p.A-7) 1821 nend Aug 4, The 1st edition of Saturday Evening Post was published. It continued until 1969. (MC, 8/4/02) 1821 nend Aug 7, Caroline of Brunswick (b.1768), wife of England?s King George IV, died. In 2006 Jane Robins authored ?The Trial of Queen Caroline: The Scandalous Affair that Nearly Ended a Monarchy.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom)(Econ,8/5/06, p.76) 1821 nend Aug 10, Missouri became the 24th state. (AP, 8/10/97) 1821 nend Aug 19, There was a failed liberal coup against French King Louis XVIII. (MC, 8/19/02) 1821 nend Aug 23, After 11 years of war, Spain granted Mexican independence as a constitutional monarchy. Spanish Viceroy Juan de O'Donoju signed the Treaty of Cordoba, which approved a plan to make Mexico an independent constitutional monarchy. (HN, 8/23/00)(MC, 8/23/02) 1821 nend Aug 28, In the city of Puebla a nun served a tri-colored chili dish to the Emperor Agustin de Iturbide, who was on his way home from signing the Treaty of Cordoba, which effectively freed Mexico from Spain. Iturbide, a Creole, had led the suppression of the initial rebellion for independence. He later abdicated, went into exile, returned and was executed. After Iturbide Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna led the country over 11 presidential terms. (WSJ, 9/5/96, p.B1)(WSJ, 8/13/97, p.A12) 1821 nend Sep 1, William Becknell led a group of traders from Independence, Mo., toward Santa Fe on what would become the Santa Fe Trail. (HN, 9/1/99) 1821 nend Sep 10, English captain John Franklin led a party to explore the Barrens in northwest section of Canada?s Hudson Bay. Naturalist John Richards recorded that they found the summer track of a man, where summer last only 8-weeks. (NH, 5/96, p.30) 1821 nend Sep 15, A junta convened by the captain-general in Guatemala declared independence for its provinces Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua San Salvador and Chiapas. (AP, 9/15/97)(EWH, 1968, p.843) 1821 nend Sep 27, The Mexican Empire declared its independence. Revolutionary forces occupied Mexico City as the Spanish withdraw. (MC, 9/27/01) 1821 nend Oct 5, Greek rebels captured Tripolitza, the main Turkish fort in the Peloponnesian area of Greece. (HN, 10/5/98) 1821 nend Oct 13, Rudolf Virchow, German politician and anthropologist (cell pathology), was born. (MC, 10/13/01) 1821 nend Oct 16, Albert Franz Doppler, composer, was born. (MC, 10/16/01) 1821 nend Oct 17, Alexander Gardner, American photographer, was born. He documented the Civil War and the West. (HN, 10/17/00) 1821 nend Nov 9, The 1st US pharmacy college held 1st classes in Philadelphia. (MC, 11/9/01) 1821 nend Nov 10, Andreas J Romberg (54), German violinist and composer (Der Rabe), died. (MC, 11/10/01) 1821 nend Nov 11, Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (d.1881), Russian novelist who wrote "The Brothers Karamazov," was born. "Originality and a feeling of one?s own dignity are achieved only through work and struggle." (AP, 12/9/97)(HN, 11/11/98) 1821 nend Nov 16, Trader William Becknell reached Santa Fe, N.M., on the route that will become known as the Santa Fe Trail. (HN, 11/16/98) 1821 nend Dec 12, Gustave Flaubert (d.1880), French novelist, was born. "Our ignorance of history causes us to slander our own times." [see May 8, 1880] (V.D.-H.K.p.278)(AP, 6/19/99)(HN, 12/12/99) 1821 nend Dec 17, Kentucky abolished debtor?s prisons. (MC, 12/17/01) 1821 nend Dec 25, Clara Barton (d.1912), the founder of the American Red Cross, was born in North Oxford, Massachusetts. She worked as a volunteer nurse during the Civil War, distributing food and medical supplies to troops and earning herself the label "Angel of the Battlefield." She later served alongside the International Red Cross in Europe--however, she could not work directly with the organization because she was a woman. In 1882 she formed an American branch of the Red Cross. Barton lobbied for the Geneva Convention and she expanded the mission of the Red Cross to include helping victims of peacetime disasters. Clara Barton died at her home in Glen Echo, Maryland, on April 12, 1912, when she was 90 years old. (HNPD, 12/26/98)(WUD, 1994 p.123) 1821 nend Dec 28, Gioacchino Rossini moved to Bologna. (MC, 12/28/01) 1821 nend In California Esteban Munras, engaged by Friar Juan Francisco Martin, arrived at Mission San Miguel and supervised the interior decorations of the new church. Munras, an artist trained by the Spanish, designed murals for the new church. (SB, 3/28/02)(SFC, 10/1/09, p.E6) 1821 nend Owen Chase, the first mate, ghost-wrote the "Narrative of the Most Extraordinary and Distressing Shipwreck of the White-Whale ship Essex." The story inspired Herman Melville?s "Moby Dick." In 2000 Nathaniel Philbrick authored "In the Heart of the Sea," a complete investigation into the Nantucket whaler?s story and "the taboo of gastronomic incest." (WSJ, 4/28/00, p.W6) 1821 nend Thomas Jefferson wrote his autobiography. (Civil., Jul-Aug., ?95, p.62) 1821 nend Stefano Cavaletti, Italian tuner and craftsman, left a note on the snaggle-toothed spinet that he tuned for the young Verdi, free of charge due to Verdi?s talent. (Civil., Jul-Aug., ?95, p.90) 1821 nend An independent institution for the instruction of Lutheran and reformed theologies was established at the Univ. of Vienna. (StuAus, April ?95, p.18) 1821 nend In the US Emma Willard started the first secondary school for girls in Troy, N.Y. (SFEC, 11/3/96, Z1,p.2) 1821 nend John Quincy Adams, Sec. of State, wrote: "America does not go abroad in search of monsters to destroy. She is the well-wisher to the freedom and independence of all. She is the champion only of her own." (WSJ, 6/25/97, p.A20) 1821 nend Tucson raised the Mexican flag after the Revolution in Mexico. (AWAM, Dec. 94, p.31) 1821 nend In the US south Denmark Vessey mounted a slave rebellion. (SFC, 6/24/96, p.A19) 1821 nend John (Cameron) Gilroy of Scotland married Maria Clara Ortega, the 13-year-old granddaughter of Jose Francis Ortega, a member of the "Sacred Expedition" of 1769. They lived in San Ysidro. The town of Gilroy, Ca., is named after John Gilroy. (SFC, 11/29/97, p.A18) 1821 nend Ignaz Venetz-Sitten, Swiss civil engineer, recognized the continent covering scale of the Pleistocene glaciers. (DD-EVTT, p.128) 1821 nend Thomas Johann Seebeck (1770-1831), Estonia-born German physicist, discovered that applying a temperature difference across two adjoined metals would give rise to a small voltage. This came to be called the Seebeck effect. (Econ, 9/6/08, TQ p.6) 1821 nend The 1st alphabet for Hawaiians was prepared by Christians missionaries. The letters of the alphabet were a,e,h,i,k,l,m,n,o,p,u,w. (SSFC, 4/4/04, Par p.17)(Internet) 1821 nend Amherst College was founded in Amherst, Mass. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amherst_College) 1821 nend The Boston English High School, the first US public high school, held its opening classes. (HNQ, 7/5/00) 1821 nend One hunter in 12 months shot 18,000 migrating golden plover for the dinner table. (SFEC, 11/3/96, Z1,p.2) 1821 nend William Playfair, Scottish engineer, political economist and scoundrel, published a visual chart that displayed the ?weekly wages of a good mechanic? along with the price of a ?quarter of wheat? with the reigns of monarchs displayed along the top. (Econ, 12/22/07, p.74) 1821 nend Anita Ribeiro (d.1849), later wife of Italian revolutionary Garibaldi, was born in Laguna Brazil. (ON, 10/06, p.5) 1821 nend Guatemala established independence (NG, 6/1988, p.781) 1821 nend Mexican rule began over the New Mexico territory. (SSFC, 5/22/05, p.E12) 1821 nend Ignatz Venetz, Swiss civil engineer, presented a paper titled ?Temperature Variation in the Swiss Alps? to the Helvetic Society of Natural Sciences, in which he described retreating ice glaciers and acknowledged Jean-Pierre Perraudin, a hunter and mountain guide, as the originator of the idea that a glacier had once occupied the full length of the Val de Bagnes. In 1833 Jean de Charpentier (1786-1855), a German-Swiss geologist, arranged to have the paper published. (ON, 10/08, p.10)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_de_Charpentier) 1821 1823 In Iceland the Eyjafjallajokull volcano erupted over this period. (Econ, 4/24/10, p.62) 1821 1846 Mexico ruled over California with a series of 12 governors. During part of this time Gen?l. Jose Castro commanded all of the Spanish forces in California and was an active opponent of US rule in 1846. (SFEC, 9/21/97, p.C7) 1821 1858 Elisa Rachel Felix, French actress, died of tuberculosis. She introduced a new voicing into French theater in part due to her physical condition. (WP, 1951, p.21-22) 1821 1881 Henri Frederic Amiel, Swiss critic: "The man who has no inner life is the slave of his surroundings." (AP, 8/3/97) 1821 1894 Hermann Helmholtz, German physician turned physicist, a leader in energetics who helped establish the principle of the conservation of energy along with Kelvin. (TNG, Klein, p.88) 1821 1924 Thirty-three million people arrive into the US in this period. (NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.52) 1822 nend Jan 2, Rudolph J.E. Clausius, German physicist (thermodynamics), was born. (MC, 1/2/02) 1822 nend Jan 6, Heinrich Schliemann (d.1890), German businessman and amateur archeologist, was born. He began excavating Troy in 1870 following a visit to Hissarlik in 1868. no_source 1822 nend Feb 4, Free American Blacks settled Liberia, West Africa. The first group of colonists landed in Liberia and founded Monrovia, the colony's capital city, named in honor of President James Monroe. (HNPD, 7/26/98)(MC, 2/4/02) 1822 nend Feb 9, The American Indian Society organized. (MC, 2/9/02) 1822 nend Feb 16, Francis Galton (d.1911), English scientist, was born. He was one of the first moderns to present a carefully considered eugenics program. (NH, 6/97, p.18)(SFC, 8/28/97,p.A12)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Galton) 1822 nend Feb 22, Adolf Kuszmaul, German physician (stomach pump, Kuszmaul disease), was born. (MC, 2/22/02) 1822 nend Feb 23, Boston was granted a charter to incorporate as a city. (AP, 2/23/98) 1822 nend Mar 9, The first patent for false teeth was requested by C. Graham of NY. [see Jun 9, 1882] (HN, 3/9/98)(MC, 3/9/02) 1822 nend Mar 16, John Pope, Union general in the American Civil War, was born. (HN, 3/16/01) 1822 nend Mar 16, Rosa Bonheur, French painter and sculptor, was born. (HN, 3/16/01) 1822 nend Mar 19, Boston was incorporated as a city. (HN, 3/19/98) 1822 nend Mar 22, Gioacchino Rossini married Isabella Colbran in Bologna. (MC, 3/22/02) 1822 nend Mar 30, Congress combined East and West Florida into the Florida Territory. (AP, 3/30/97)(MC, 3/30/02) 1822 nend Apr 3, Edward Everett Hale, American clergyman and author (Man without a Country) , was born. (HN, 4/3/98) 1822 nend Apr 13, Gaetano Valeri (61), composer, died. (MC, 4/13/02) 1822 nend Apr 26, Frederick Olmstead, landscape architect, was born in Connecticut. His work included Yosemite Nat?l. Park, Central Park in New York City (1858), and other city parks in Boston, Ma., Hartford, Ct., and Louisville, Ky. (440 Int?l. Internet, 4/26/97, p.5)(SFC, 4/5/04, p.B5) 1822 nend Apr 27, Ulysses S. Grant (d.1885), general and 18th U.S. president (1869-1877), was born in Point Pleasant [Hiram], Ohio. (AP, 4/27/97)(HN, 4/27/02) 1822 nend May 24, At Battle of Pichincha (Ecuador) General Sucre (1795-1830) won a decisive victory against Spanish forces. Shortly after the battle, Sucre and Bolivar entered the newly-liberated Quito and Sucre was named President of the Province of Quito, which formed Gran Colombia with Venezuela and Colombia. (HN, 5/24/98)(AP,11/24/02)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Jos%C3%A9_de_Sucre) 1822 nend May 26, Edmond de Goncourt, writer, was born. (MC, 5/26/02) 1822 nend May, Dr. Gideon Mantell published his book ?The Fossils of South Downs,? based on his studies of huge teeth and bones found at the Tilgate Forest quarry. (ON, 7/06, p.1) 1822 nend Jun 6, Alexis St. Martin, a fur trader at Fort Mackinac in the Michigan territory, was accidentally shot in the abdomen. William Beaumont, a US Army assistant surgeon, treated the wound and St. Martin survived. The stomach wound did not close and Beaumont undertook experiments in 1825 to study the digestive system. (ON, 1/02, p.6) 1822 nend Jun 9, Charles Graham patented false teeth. [see Mar 9, 1822] (MC, 6/9/02) 1822 nend Jun 16, Denmark Vessey [Vesey] led a slave rebellion in South Carolina. [see Jul 2] (MC, 6/16/02) 1822 nend Jun 18, Slave revolt leaders Denmark Vesey [Vessey] and Peter Poyas were arrested in SC. (MC, 6/18/02) 1822 nend Jun 14, Charles Babbage (1792-1871), a young Cambridge mathematician, announced the invention of a machine capable of performing simple arithmetic calculations in a paper to the Astronomical Society. His 1st Difference Engine could perform up to 60 error-free calculation in 5 minutes. Babbage and engineer John Clement completed the calculator portion of a new engine in 1832, but the project lost funding and remained unfinished. (I&I, Penzias, p.94)(ON, 5/05, p.5) 1822 nend Jun 25, Ernst Theodor Amadeus (ETA) Hoffmann (46), German writer, judge, composer, died. (MC, 6/25/02) 1822 nend Jul 2, Denmark Vesey [Vessey] (b.1767) was executed in Charleston, South Carolina, for planning a massive slave revolt. (HN, 7/2/01) 1822 nend Jul 8, Percy Bysshe Shelley (b.1792), English poet, drowned while sailing in Italy at age 29. (HN, 7/8/01) 1822 nend Jul 22, Gregor Johann Mendel (d.1884), Austrian botanist who developed the theory of heredity, was born. (HN, 7/22/98)(NH, 6/01, p.30) 1822 nend Jul 25, Gen. Agustin de Iturbide was crowned Agustin I, 1st emperor of Mexico. (SC, 7/25/02) 1822 nend Jul 26, Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin held a secret meeting. (MC, 7/26/02) 1822 nend Aug 19, Melchor Lopez Jimenez (62), composer, died. (MC, 8/19/02) 1822 nend Aug 25, F. William Herschel (85), German astronomer (discovered Uranus), died. (MC, 8/25/02) 1822 nend Aug 31, Fitz John Porter (d.1901), Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 8/31/01) 1822 nend Sep 6, John Constable, English painter, painted his ?Cloud Study, 6 September 1822.? He painted some 100 studies of the sky between 1821-1822. (MC, 3/31/02)(WSJ, 6/9/04, p.D8) 1822 nend Sep 7, Brazil declared its independence from Portugal. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil)(AP, 9/7/97) 1822 nend Sep 9, Napoleon J K P Bonaparte, French prince and member National Convention, was born. (MC, 9/9/01) 1822 nend Oct 4, Rutherford B. Hayes, the 19th president (R) of the United States, was born in Delaware, Ohio. Hayes was a major-general in the Civil War, then an Ohio congressman, then succeeded Grant as president (1877-81). Hayes won the Electoral College by a margin of one vote after his opponent won the popular vote in an election so fraught with charges of vote fraud that there were even fears of a coup. Hayes refused to seek a second term. (AP, 10/4/97)(HN, 10/4/98)(MC, 10/3/01) 1822 nend Oct 8, The Galunggung volcano on Java sent boiling sludge into valley. The eruption left 4,011 dead. The long-inactive volcano erupted Apr 4 and blew its top on Apr 12. The Oct 8 and Oct 12 eruptions left 4,011 dead. (www.emergency-management.net/volcanic.htm) 1822 nend Oct 9, George Sykes (d.1880), Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 10/9/01) 1822 nend Oct 13, Antonio Canova (b.1757), Italian sculptor, died at age 64. His work included a sculpture of Napoleon?s sister Pauline, as a semi-naked Venus Victrix. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Canova)(Econ, 11/10/07, p.105) 1822 nend Oct 15, Alfred Meissner, Austrian physician and writer, was born. (MC, 10/15/01) 1822 nend Oct 20, The 1st edition of the London Sunday Times was published. (MC, 10/20/01) 1822 nend Nov 2, The USRC Louisiana along with USS Peacock and the Royal Navy schooner HMS Speedwell captured five pirate vessels off Havana, Cuba. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_of_31_August_1819) 1822 nend Dec 1, Franz Liszt (11) made his debut as a pianist for Isabella Colbran. (MC, 12/1/01) 1822 nend Dec 4, Frances Crabbe, English feminist and founder of the Anti-Vivisection Society, was born. (MC, 12/4/01) 1822 nend Dec 6, John Eberhard was born. He built the 1st large-scale pencil factory in US. (MC, 12/6/01) 1822 nend Dec 12, Mexico was officially recognized as an independent nation by US. (MC, 12/12/01) 1822 nend Dec 14, John Christie, English patron of music, was born. He founded the Glyndebourne Festival Opera. (HN, 12/14/99) 1822 nend Dec 14, The Congress of Verona ended, ignoring the Greek war of independence. (AP, 12/14/02) 1822 nend Dec 26, Dion Boucicault, Irish-US actor and playwright (Rip van Winkle), was born. (MC, 12/26/01) 1822 nend Dec 27, Louis Pasteur (d.1895), French chemist and microbiologist, was born in Dole, France. One of his several monumental contributions to science and industry was pasteurization, the process of heating wine, beer and milk to kill microorganisms that cause fermentation and disease. Pasteur also developed important vaccines and his work on molecular asymmetry led to the science of stereochemistry. He was the first to vaccinate animals for anthrax and chicken cholera, and in 1885 he proved that his rabies vaccine could be used successfully on humans when he saved the life of a 9-year-old boy who had been bitten by a rabid dog. The Pasteur Institute was formed in Paris in 1888 for research on rabies. Pasteur ran the institute until his death in 1895. (WUD, 1994, p.1055)(AP, 12/27/97)(HNPD, 12/27/98) 1822 nend Dec 28, William Booth Taliaferro (d.1898), Brig Gen (Confederate Army), was born. (MC, 12/28/01) 1822 nend Charles Willson Peale painted his "Self Portrait." (SFC, 1/25/97, p.E1) 1822 nend Pierre-Paul Prud?hon (1758-1823) painted "A Grief-Stricken Family." It was painted shortly after his student and mistress, Constance Mayer, slit her throat. (WSJ, 4/8/98, p.A20) 1822 nend Utagawa Kunisada, Japanese artist, painted "The Popular Type." (WSJ, 4/24/96, A-12) 1822 nend William West painted a portrait of the poet Lord Byron. (SFC, 6/9/97, p.D3) 1822 nend J.F. Champollion published his work on deciphering the Rosetta Stone. (RFH-MDHP, p.183) 1822 nend Thomas De Quincey wrote his "Confessions of an English Opium Eater." He used the word tranquilizer to describe the effect of the drug. (SFEC, 11/24/96, Z 1 p.2) 1822 nend The Queen of the Angels Roman Catholic Church in Los Angeles was built. (SFEC,12/797, p.T3) 1822 nend Twenty years after the war of 1812 the US government finished paying off the national debt entirely. (WSJ, 3/12/97, p.A18) 1822 nend The Superintendent of Mails in Washington, D.C., complained about the need to hire 16 extra mailmen because of the volume of Christmas cards and holiday mail. The tradition of Christmas cards had become so popular it became a burden for the United States Postal System, which petitioned Congress to limit the exchange of cards by post. But the cards kept coming and the postal burden worsened. (HNQ, 12/15/99) 1822 nend California became part of Mexico. (SFEC, 9/20/98, Z1 p.4) 1822 nend Monterey had begun the century as the Spanish capital of Alta California but in this year became the Mexican capital of Alta California. (SFEC, 11/3/96, DB p.71) 1822 nend Christian Buschmann (17), organ and clavier tuner, constructed the first primitive accordion. It wasn?t until the 1840s that the "magdaburgerspelen" came into fashion, the instrument generally believed to be the forerunner to the durspel of our time. (www.weirdal.0catch.com/txt/squeezeplay.html) 1822 nend Mary Mantell, a fossil collector in Sussex, England, discovered a handful of teeth that her husband, Dr. Gideon Mantell, recognized as similar to those of the iguana lizard of South America. This was recorded as one of the first dinosaurs to be discovered. (T.E.-J.B. p.20) 1822 nend The parasitic plant Rafflesia was discovered in the lowland forests of Southeast Asia. It steals nutrition from other plants and periodically creates a monstrous, red-brown flower with the perfume of rotten flesh. (SFC, 1/19/04, p.A4) 1822 nend Albanian leader Ali Pasha of Tepelena was assassinated by Ottoman agents for promoting autonomy. (www, Albania, 1998) 1822 nend In London a bronze Achilles cast from cannons from the Napoleonic wars was unveiled at the residence of the Duke of Wellington. A strategic fig leaf was soon added. (SFEM, 3/21/99, p.24) 1822 nend Gebruder Heubach (Heubach Brothers) began a porcelain manufacturing operation in Lichte, Thuringia, Germany. The firm became known for manufacturing doll heads and in 2005 was still in operation as Lichte Porcelain. (SFC, 10/5/05, p.G3) 1822 nend There was a massacre of Greeks on the island of Chios. The event was later depicted in a painting by Delacroix. (WSJ, 9/17/01, p.A20) 1822 nend In Mexico the mission of St. Gertrude the Great on the Baha Peninsula was closed as the local population diminished. (WSJ, 12/26/97, p.A9) 1822 nend In New Zealand Welshman John Grono named Milford Sound, South Island, after his home, Milford Haven. It was later named a UN protected World Heritage Site. (SSFC, 4/21/02, p.C5) 1822 1825 Luis Antonio Arguello, son of Jose Dario, was the first native-born governor of Alta California. (SFEC, 9/21/97, p.C7) 1822 1831 Pedro I ruled Brazil. (EWH, 4th ed., p.854) 1822 1884 Gregor Mendel, Austrian botanist monk, established basic principles of heredity. (V.D.-H.K.p.329-330) 1822 1888 Matthew Arnold, English poet and critic. His books included "Culture and Anarchy." His best known poem is Dover Beach." In 1999 Ian Hamilton wrote "A Gift Imprisoned: The Poetic Life of Matthew Arnold." (WSJ, 3/25/99, p.A24) 1822 1889 The period of the Brazilian monarchy. (Hem, 8/96, p.68) 1822 1890 Cesar Auguste Franck, French composer born in Belgium. His work included "Piece Heroique." (WUD, 1994, p.563)(SFC, 8/13/96, p.B2) 1822 1895 Louis Pasteur, French chemist and bacteriologist, was born on Dec. 27. (CFA, ?96, p.60)(WUD, 1994, p.1055) 1822 1900 Edward John Phelps, American lawyer and diplomat: "The man who makes no mistakes does not usually make anything." (AP, 8/9/97) 1822 1904 Some 23,000 immigrants, mostly from the US, arrived in Liberia. (NG, Feb, 04) 1823 nend Jan 15, Matthew Brady, Civil War photographer, was born. (HN, 1/15/99) 1823 nend Jan 27, Edouard-Victoire-Antoine Lalo, French composer (Symphonie Espagnole), was born. (MC, 1/27/02) 1823 nend Jan 27, Pres. Monroe appointed 1st US ambassadors to South America. (MC, 1/27/02) 1823 nend Feb 2, Rossini's opera "Semiramide" premiered in Venice. (MC, 2/2/02) 1823 nend Feb 16, John Daniel Imboden (d.1895), Brig General (Confederate Army), was born. (MC, 2/16/02) 1823 nend Feb 27, William Buel Franklin (d.1903), Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 2/27/02) 1823 nend Feb 28, Ernst Renan, French philosopher, historian, scholar of religion, was born. (MC, 2/28/02) 1823 nend Mar 3, Guyla Andrássy Sr., premier of Hungary (1867-71), was born. (SC, 3/3/02) 1823 nend Mar 23, Schuyler Colfax, (R) 17th US Vice President (1869-73), was born. (SS, 3/23/02) 1823 nend Mar 25, Coelestin Jungbauer (75), composer, died. (MC, 3/25/02) 1823 nend Apr 1, Simon Bolivar Buckner (d.1914), Lt. Gen. (Confederate Army), was born. (MC, 4/1/02) 1823 nend Apr 3, William Macy "Boss" Tweed, New York City political boss, was born. (HN, 4/3/98) 1823 nend Apr 4, Karl Wilhelm Siemens, inventor (laid undersea cables), was born. (MC, 4/4/02) 1823 nend Apr 22, R.J. Tyers patented roller skates. (MC, 4/22/02) 1823 nend May 5, James Allen Hardie (d.1876), Bvt Major General (Union Army), was born. (MC, 5/5/02) 1823 nend May 8, "Home Sweet Home" was 1st sung in London. (MC, 5/8/02) 1823 nend May 10, The 1st steamboat to navigate the Mississippi River arrived at Ft. Snelling (between St. Paul and Minneapolis). (MC, 5/10/02) 1823 nend May 15, Antonio Frantisek Becvarovsky (69), composer, died. (MC, 5/15/02) 1823 nend Jun 11, Major General James L. Kemper, Confederate hero, was born. He fought at the battles of Williamsburg and Gettysburg. (HN, 6/11/99) 1823 nend Jul 1, The United Provinces of Central America (Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and San Salvador) gained independence from Mexico. The union dissolved by 1840. (PC, 1992, p.393)(ON, 12/99, p.5) 1823 nend Sep 10, Simon Bolivar was named president of Peru and assumed the presidency with dictatorial powers. He had led the wars for independence from Spain in Venezuela, Colombia, Peru and Bolivia. (MC, 9/10/01) 1823 nend Sep 21, The Angel Moroni 1st appeared to Joseph Smith (b.1823), according to Smith (founder of Mormon Church). Smith in New York claimed that an angel named Moroni led him to ancient golden plates that revealed the untold story of America during biblical times. (SFC, 4/8/96, p.A-1,6)(MC, 9/21/01) 1823 nend Oct 5, Carl Maria von Weber visited Beethoven. (MC, 10/5/01) 1823 nend Oct 12, Charles Macintosh of Scotland began selling raincoats (Macs). (MC, 10/12/01) 1823 nend Dec 2, President Monroe, replying to the 1816 pronouncements of the Holy Alliance, proclaimed the principles known as the Monroe Doctrine, "that the American continents, by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by European powers." His doctrine opposing European expansion in the Western Hemisphere insured that American influence in the Western hemisphere remain unquestioned. Former US Pres. Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809) helped Monroe shape the Monroe Doctrine. (V.D.-H.K.p.232)(AP,12/2/97)(www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/Monroe.html) 1823 nend Dec 7, Leopold Kronecker, German mathematician (Tensor of Kronecker), was born. (MC, 12/7/01) 1823 nend Dec 19, Georgia passed the 1st US state birth registration law. (MC, 12/19/01) 1823 nend Dec 20, Franz Schubert's "Ballet-Musik aus Rosamunde," premiered in Vienna. (MC, 12/20/01) 1823 nend Dec 23, The poem: ?A Visit from St. Nicholas,? was published. The poem was first published anonymously in the Troy, New York Sentinel, and was reprinted frequently thereafter with no name attached. Authorship was later attributed to Clement Clarke Moore and the poem was included in an anthology of his works. His connection with the verses has been questioned by some. Recent scholarship reveals the original to have been written by Major Henry Livingston (1748-1828). The segment of the poem referring to reindeer reads: Now! Dasher, now! Dancer, now! Prancer, and Vixen, On! Comet, on! Cupid, on! Dunder and Blixem. Rudolph was added following the publication of Robert L. May's Christmas story in 1939. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Visit_from_St._Nicholas)(AP,12/23/97)(AH, 2/05, p.18) 1823 nend Alfred Russel Wallace (d.1913), naturalist, was born. He developed the theory of evolution by natural selection at the same time as did Charles Darwin. (NH, 2/02, p.74) 1823 nend Raphaelle Peale painted "After the Bath." The artist was a hopeless lush and one of the subtlest still-life painters who ever lived. On display at the Nelson Art Gallery, Kansas City, Missouri. (T&L, 10/1980, p.67) 1823 nend Johann Anton Ramboux, German artist, created "Merenda in the Farnesi Gardens in Rome" in pen and brown ink over pencil. (WSJ, 7/16/98, p.A16) 1823 nend Franz Schubert composed his song cycle "Die Schöne Müllerin." He also became gravely ill with syphilis in this year. (WSJ, 4/16/97, p.A16) 1823 nend The Reverend Hiram Bingham, leader of a group of New England Calvinist missionaries, began translating the Bible into Hawaiian. The project took 16 years. (Wired, 8/95, p.90) 1823 nend Mission San Francisco de Solano de Sonoma was established by Father Jose Altimira. It was to be the last of the 21 California missions set up to convert the native Indians and develop the local resources. The native Indians were of the Nappa tribe, hence the name of the Napa Valley. Spanish explorer Francisco Castro accompanied Father Altimira and they planted the first grapevines. (WCG, p.58)(INV, 7/95, p.12)(SFC, 7/14/00, WBb, p.8) 1823 nend The city of Ypsilanti, Mich., was initially named Woodruff's Grove and was founded by pioneers in 1823. It was re-named Ypsilanti in honor of a Greek war hero, Demetrius Ypsilanti. The railroad came to the city in 1838, and it became a major stopping point for travelers between Detroit and the west. The Michigan State Normal School, now Eastern Michigan University, was founded here in 1849. (www.ypsilanti.org/welcome.html) 1823 nend In New Orleans Louis Joseph Dufilho Jr. established a pharmacy and was the first licensed pharmacist in the US. The building later became The Pharmacy Museum. (SFEM, 6/14/98, p.24) 1823 nend John Rankin, Presbyterian minister, moved to Ripley, Ohio, and soon established the Ripley Line of the underground railroad. In 2003 Ann Hagedorn authored "Beyond the River: The Untold Story of the Heroes of the Underground Railroad." In 2005 Fergus M. Bordewich authored ?Bound for Canaan,? a look at the people involved in the UR operations. (WSJ, 1/30/03, p.D8)(WSJ, 3/29/05, p.D6) 1823 nend Philip Cazenova founded a British banking firm partnership. It incorporated in 2001. (Econ, 11/13/04, p.82) 1823 nend Lord Byron returned to Greece to provide moral support to insurgents and draw attention to Ottoman massacres of Greek civilians. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Byron)(SFC, 9/7/08, Books p.5) 1823 nend Steam powered shipping began on Lake Geneva between Switzerland and France. (SFEC, 7/19/98, p.T3) 1823 nend The first New England missionaries arrived on Maui. (http://olowalu.net/index.cfm?fuseaction=ig.page&PageID=70) 1823 nend The Momotomba volcano, 18 miles from Managua and on the northwest shore of Lake Nicaragua, went dormant. In the 17th cent. it had destroyed the capital of Leon. (SFC, 4/13/96, p.A-15) 1823 nend Poet Lord Byron spent a summer on the Ionian island of Cephalonia. (SFEC, 1/18/98, p.T3) 1823 nend In Brazil homosexual acts were decriminalized. (SFC, 1/11/99, p.A10) 1823 nend British Major Dixon Denham and Captain Hugh Clapperton (1788-1827) entered Northern Nigeria from the north, crossing the desert from Tripoli. (Econ, 1/7/06, p.74)( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Clapperton) 1823 nend A fire in Rome destroyed a basilica, said to have been built over the burial site of St. Paul. This basilica had been built by Theodosius over an older church built over the burial site. A new St. Paul Outside the Walls basilica was built over the site. In 2006 a sarcophagus was uncovered that dated to at least 390BC. (AP, 12/6/06) 1923 nend In Nha Trang, Vietnam, a retreat was built for Bao Dai, the last Vietnamese king. It later became the Bao Dai Villas Hotel. (SFEC, 4/26/98, p.T5) 1823 1871 Charles Buxton, English author: "You will never 'find' time for anything. If you want time you must make it." (AP, 10/21/99) 1823 1890 William Kitchen Parker, English anatomist and embryologist. See [1883]. (NH, 10/96, p.37) 1823 1896 Coventry Patmore, English poet: "Nearly all our disasters come from a few fools having the ?courage of their convictions."? (AP, 3/16/98) 1823 1900 F. Max Mueller, German philologist: "To think is to speak low. To speak is to think aloud." (AP, 10/14/97) 1823 1911 Thomas Wentworth Higginson, American clergyman-author: "To be really cosmopolitan, a man must be at home even in his own country." (AP, 4/6/97) 1824 nend Jan 1, The Camp Street Theatre opened as the first English-language playhouse in New Orleans. (HN, 1/1/99) 1824 nend Jan 8, William Wilkie Collins, English novelist (Woman in White), was born. (www.qub.ac.uk/en/imperial/india/wilkie-background.htm) 1824 nend Jan 8, Tom Spring defeated Jack Langan in a British championship boxing match that lasted 2œ hours. (SFC, 2/1/06, p.G6)(www.cyberboxingzone.com/boxing/spring-t.htm) 1824 nend Jan 21, Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson, Confederate General, was born. (HN, 1/21/99) 1824 nend Jan 22, A British force was wiped out by an Asante army under Osei Bonsu on the African Gold Coast. This was the first defeat for a colonial power. (HN, 1/22/99) 1824 nend Jan 26, Edward Jenner, discoverer of vaccination, died. (MC, 1/26/02) 1824 nend Feb 4, J.W. Goodrich introduced rubber galoshes to public. (MC, 2/4/02) 1824 nend Feb 9, Anna Katharina Emmerick (b.1774), a sickly, virtually illiterate German nun, died. Her gory visions of Jesus' last hours of suffering before his crucifixion drew pilgrims to her bedside in the years before her death. In 2004 she was beatified by Pope John Paul VI. (AP, 10/3/04)(www.vatican.va/news_services) 1824 nend Feb 10, Simon Bolivar was named President by the Congress of Peru. (MC, 2/10/02) 1824 nend Feb 14, Winfield Scott Hancock (d.1886), Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 2/14/02) 1824 nend Feb 23, Lewis Cass Hunt (d.1886), Brig General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 2/23/02) 1824 nend Feb 28, Charles Blondin, tightrope walker, was born. (HN, 2/28/01) 1824 nend Mar 2, Bedrich Friedrich Smetana (1884), Czech, Bohemian composer (Bartered Bride, Moldau), was born. (WUD, 1994, p.1345)(WSJ, 10/4/96, p.A7)(SC, 3/2/02) 1824 nend Mar 2, In the Supreme Court case of Gibbons v Ogden held that the power to regulate interstate commerce was granted to Congress by the Commerce Clause of the Constitution. The Court found that New York's licensing requirement for out-of-state operators was inconsistent with a congressional act regulating the coasting trade. Gibbons had hired Cornelius Vanderbilt as captain of his boat, which operated under a federal license. no_source 4 nend /18/09, p.90) no_source 1824 nend Mar 5, Elisha Harris, U.S. physician, founder of the American Public Health Association, was born. (HN, 3/5/98) 1824 nend Mar 5, James Merritt Ives, lithographer for Currier and Ives, was born. (HN, 3/5/98) 1824 nend Mar 7, Meyerbeer's opera "Il Crociati in Egitto," premiered in Venice. (MC, 3/7/02) 1824 nend Mar 9, Leland Stanford, railroad builder and founder of Stanford University, was born in what was then Watervliet, New York (later the town of Colonie). (HN, 3/9/98)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leland_Stanford) 1824 nend Mar 11, The U.S. War Department created the Bureau of Indian Affairs. A lifelong friend and trusted aide of Ulysses S. Grant, Ely Parker rose to the top in two worlds, that of his native Seneca Indian tribe and the white man?s world at large. He went on to become the first Indian to lead the Bureau. (HN, 3/11/98) 1824 nend Mar 12, Gustav Robert Kirchoff, physicist, was born in Prussia. (HN, 3/12/98)(MC, 3/12/02) 1824 nend Mar 26, 1st performance of Beethoven's "Missa Solemnis." (SS, 3/26/02) 1824 nend Apr 17, Russia abandoned all North American claims south of 54? 40?. (HN, 4/17/98) 1824 nend Apr 19, George Gordon, (6th Baron Byron, b.1788) aka Lord Byron, English poet, died of malaria in Greece at Missolonghi on the gulf of Patras preparing to fight for Greek independence. In 1999 Benita Eisler published the biography "Byron: Child of Passion, Fool of Fame." In 2002 Fiona MacCarthy authored "Byron : Life and Legend." In 2009 Edna O?Brien authored ?Byron in Love.? (SFC, 6/9/97, p.D3)(WSJ, 4/26/99, p.A16)(HN, 4/1901)(SSFC, 12/29/02,p.M2)(SSFC, 6/21/09, Books p.J5) 1824 nend Apr 27, William Richard Bexfield, composer, was born. (MC, 4/27/02) 1824 nend May 7, The Ninth Symphony by Beethoven had its premiere. The "Ode to Joy" lyric was originally written by Friedrich von Schiller as the "Ode to Freedom." (LGC, 1970, p.98)(WSJ, 12/10/01, p.A16) 1824 nend May 8, William Walker, president of Nicaragua, was born. (HN, 5/8/98) 1824 nend May 16, Edmund Kirby-Smith, educator and soldier, was born. He was a Confederate general in the western theater. (HN, 5/16/99) 1824 nend May 29, Cadmus Marcellus Wilcox, Major General (Confederate Army), was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1824 nend Jun 8, A washing machine was patented by Noah Cushing of Quebec. (MC, 6/8/02) 1824 nend Jun 10, Caesar Augustus Rodney (v.1772), US Attorney General (1807-1811) and nephew of US Judge Caesar Rodney (1728-1784), died in Buenos Aires. He served as a US Senator from Delaware (1822-1823). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_A._Rodney) 1824 nend Jun 16, The Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals was formed at Old Slaughter?s Coffee House in London under the direction of Arthur Broome. (www.animallaw.info/historical/articles/arukrspcahist.htm) 1824 nend Jul 20, Alexander Schimmelfennig, Brig. General Union volunteers, was born in Prussia. (MC, 7/20/02) 1824 nend Jul 20, Marc Brunel (55) was appointed as engineer for the Thames Tunnel Company. He hired his son, Isambard Brunel, as his assistant. Brunel senior, a royalist, had fled the French Revolution to become, briefly, official engineer to the city of New York, and then, having settled in London, a consultant engineer to the Royal Navy. Educated and trained in both French and English schools and workshops, Brunel junior served his practical apprenticeship assisting his father in the building of the first tunnel under the Thames, which later carried the Underground between Wapping and Rotherhithe. (HN,6/26/01)(www.bris.ac.uk/is/services/specialcollections/brunelchronology.html) 1824 nend Jul 27, Alexandre Dumas fils, French playwright, novelist (Camille), was born. (MC, 7/27/02) 1824 nend Jul 30, Gioacchino Rossini became manager of Theatre Italian in Paris. (MC, 7/30/02) 1824 nend Jul, The Richmond [Virginia] Light Artillery changed its name to the Richmond Fayette Artillery in honor of the Marquis de La Fayette. (RC handout, 5/27/96) 1824 nend Aug 15, General Lafayette returned to the US under an invitation from Pres. Monroe. Political ribbons were printed in for the 1st time in large quantities to celebrate his US tour. (http://friendsoflafayette.org/data/timeline.html) 1824 nend Aug 15, Freed American slaves formed the country of Liberia. (MC, 8/15/02) 1824 nend Aug 24, Simon Bolivar's army beat the Spanish in Peru in the Battle at Junin. (PC, 1992, p.394) 1824 nend Sep 4, Anton Bruckner, composer and Wagner disciple, was born in Austria. (MC, 9/4/01) 1824 nend Sep 23, Captain Richard Charlton was appointed British Consul to Hawaii. He arrived in Hawaii and assumed his post in April, 1825. (Hawaii state archives) 1824 nend Oct 4, The Federal Constitution of the United Mexican States of 1824 was enacted, after the overthrow of the Mexican Empire of Agustin de Iturbide. In the new constitution, the republic took the name of United Mexican States, and was defined as a representative federal republic, with Catholicism as the official religion. A liberal constitution, established at this time, was later replaced by Santa Anna. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1824_Constitution_of_Mexico)(AP, 9/15/10) 1824 nend Oct 21, Joseph Aspdin patented Portland cement in Yorkshire, England. (MC, 10/21/01) 1824 nend Oct 22, The Tennessee Legislature adjourned ending Davy Crockett?s state political career. Crockett died at the legendary siege of the Alamo in 1836. (HN, 10/22/98) 1824 nend Oct 23, The 1st steam locomotive was introduced. (MC, 10/23/01) 1824 nend Nov 2, Popular presidential vote was 1st recorded; Jackson beat J.Q. Adams. Gen. Jackson won the popular vote followed by John Quincy Adams, William Crawford and Henry Clay. Jackson won 99 electoral votes, Adams won 84, Crawford won 41 and Clay won 37. Crawford, Treasury secretary, was accused of malfeasance. Henry Clay was denounced for passing days gambling and nights in a brothel. Clay convinced his supporters in congress to vote for Adams. The House of Representatives chose John Quincy Adams, who chose Clay for vice president. A furious Jackson proceeded to help found the Democratic Party. (WSJ, 10/8/96, p.A22)(WSJ, 11/9/00, p.A26)(WSJ, 12/11/00, p.A18)(MC,11/2/01) 1824 nend Nov 5, Stephen Van Rensselaer established the Rensselaer School with a letter to Rev. Dr. Samuel Blatchford, in which he asked him to serve as the first president. The first engineering college in the U.S., Rensselaer School, opened in Troy, New York, on Jan 3, 1825. It later became known as Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rensselaer_Polytechnic_Institute)(WSJ,6/2/06, p.79) 1824 nend Nov 16, NY City's Fifth Avenue opened for business. (MC, 11/16/01) 1824 nend Nov 18, Franz Sigel (d.1902), Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 11/18/01) 1824 nend Dec 1, The presidential election was turned over to the U.S. House of Representatives when a deadlock developed among John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, William H. Crawford and Henry Clay with Jackson 32 votes shy of a majority. John Quincy Adams ended up the winner. He was reportedly the only bald-headed president. (AP, 12/1/97)(WSJ, 12/31/97, p.A11)(SFEC, 11/1/98, Z1p.10) 1824 nend Dec 9, In the Battle of Ayacucho (Candorcangui) Peru defeated Spain. (MC, 12/9/01) 1824 nend Dec 22, Chiefess Kapiolani, a Christian, defied Pele, the Hawaiian volcano goddess, and lived. Tennyson's eponymous poem celebrated the event. (www.aracnet.com/~sbvoices/days_dec.html) 1824 nend John Hayter painted portraits of Hawaii?s King Kamehameha II and Queen Kamamalu in London shortly before they died there of measles. (AH, 10/01, p.14) 1824 nend Lydia Maria Child of Wayland, Mass., authored "Hobomok," a novel of a Puritan girl who falls in love with an Indian after her fiancée is lost at sea. She later founded Juvenile Miscellany, the 1st children?s magazine in the US. She later authored "The Frugal Housewife" and "An Appeal in Favor of That Class of Americans Called Africans" (1833) and the poem: "The New England?s Boy?s Song About Thanksgiving Day" (Over the river, and through the woods?). In 1994 Carolyn Karcher authored her biography: "The First Woman in the Republic." (WSJ, 11/21/02, p.A1) 1824 nend James Morier authored ?The Adventures of Haji Bab of Ispahan,? the tale of a barber?s son who seeks his fortunes in Persia. (WSJ, 10/6/07, p.W8) 1824 nend Meyerbeer composed his opera "Il Crociato in Egitto," with a part for the last of the great castrato singers, Giovanni Batista Velluti. (LGC-HCS, p.44) 1824 nend The Second Bank of the United States, established by federal charter in 1791, was completed in Philadelphia by William Strickland. It was modeled after the Parthenon. From 1841-1934 it served as a Custom House. It was acquired by the National Park Service in 1939 and in 1974 became the home of the Peale portraits. The renovated museum reopened Dec 1, 2004. (WSJ, 2/22/05, p.D10) 1824 nend Rafael Garcia led the defense of Mission San Rafael against hostile Indians. (SFC, 5/26/97, p.A11) 1824 nend Hens called Rhode Island Reds were first bred in Little Compton, R.I. They lay brown eggs and gained a regional preference. (SFC, 5/26/96, Z 1 p.2) 1824 nend Publish and be damned, was exclaimed by the Duke of Wellington to Harrietta Wilson, a courtesan of note, whose publisher went trolling amongst her former beaux, offering exclusion from her memoirs for 200 hundred pounds sterling. (WSJ, 2/3/95, p.A-11) 1824 nend Dean William Buckland of Oxford Univ. discovered and described the bones of the meat-eating Megalosaurus, "huge reptile." (T.E.-J.B. p.24) 1824 nend William Moorcroft, East India Co. head of 5,000 acre horse farm at Pusa, India, arrived in Peshawar, Afghanistan, while enroute to Bukhara, Uzbekistan, to trade for horses. (ON, 1/02, p.3) 1824 nend The Ashanti tribe in West Africa defeated the troops under Sir Charles MacCarthy. His polished skull then became a prized feature of the annual yam festival. (WSJ, 5/16/96, p.A-12) 1824 nend The first company to come out with the paper milk carton was the Toronto East India Company, which developed it in 1824 due to a glass shortage. (www.milk.com/experiments/exper17.html) 1824 nend In England the first animal welfare group was founded. (SFEC, 1/10/99, p.A20) 1824 nend The Royal National Lifeboat Institution was established in England. (Econ, 5/14/05, p.87) 1824 nend The Mexican governor of California offered all missions for sale under a program of secularization. (SFEC, 3/12/00, p.T4) 1824 nend A Mexican General was served chiles en nogada after he threw out the last Spanish viceroy. The dish consisted of green chiles, pomegranate seeds and a white walnut sauce. (WSJ, 12/11/98, p.A1) 1824 nend Newfoundland became a British colony. (SFEC, 6/25/00, BR p.6) 1824 nend The Saud family established a new capital at Riyadh. (WSJ, 11/13/01, p.A14) 1824 1860 Yanagawa Shigenobu II, Japanese printmaker, was active. His work included the color woodcut ?Kuroho? (1832-1836). (www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/shigenobu_ii_yanagawa.html) 1824 1868 Lesotho acted as a buffer between the Afrikaner?s Boer Republic and British colonial interests and supplied seasonal farm workers to both. (WSJ, 3/25/98, p.A11) 1824 1877 Julia Kavanagh, Irish novelist: "The slight that can be conveyed in a glance, in a gracious smile, in a wave of the hand, is often the ne plus ultra of art. What insult is so keen or so keenly felt, as the polite insult which it is impossible to resent?" (AP, 6/7/97) 1824 1879 William Morris Hunt, artist. His work included an oil of Niagara Falls. (WSJ, 11/6/98, p.W10) 1824 1887 Gustav Kirchoff, German physicist, discovers that the reasons for the Fraunhoffer lines in light spectra from the sun are due to absorption of specific wavelengths of energy by elements in the gaseous chromosphere that resonate when impacted at specific energy levels. The light emitted by the excited atoms will then have characteristic markings such as the D-line of sodium. (SCTS, p.34) 1824 1889 (William) Wilkie Collins, English novelist. His work included the 1860 mystery: "The Woman in White." It was later made into a TV version on both "Mystery" (1985) and "Masterpiece Theater" (1998). (WUD, 1994, p.290)(WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20) 1824 1892 George William Curtis, American author-editor "Heroes in history seem to us poetic because they are there. But if we should tell the simple truth of some of our neighbors, it would sound like poetry." (AP, 8/26/99) 1824 1907 William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), Scottish scientist-inventor, a leader in energetics. Along with Helmholtz he helped establish the principle of the conservation of energy. (TNG, Klein, p.88) 1825 nend Jan 1, Dr. Gideon Mantell presented his paper ?Notice on the Iguanodon? to members of England?s Philosophical Society. His paper linked the large hypothetical ?Sussex lizard? to a modern species of reptile. This work led to his induction to the Royal Society on Dec 25, 1825. (ON, 7/06, p.3) 1825 nend Jan 3, Scottish factory owner Robert Owen bought 30,000 acres in Indiana as site for New Harmony utopian community. (MC, 1/3/02) 1825 nend Jan 25, Eli Whitney (b.1765), cotton gin inventor and gun manufacturer, died. (ON, 2/03, p.6) 1825 nend Jan 19, Ezra Daggett and nephew Thomas Kensett received a patent from Pres. Monroe for food storage in tin cans. [see 1810] (www.foodreference.com/html/html/january19.html) 1825 nend Jan 27, Congress approved Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma), clearing the way for forced relocation of the Eastern Indians on the "Trail of Tears." (HN, 1/27/99) 1825 nend Jan 28, George Edward Pickett (d.1875), Major General in the Confederate Army, was born. When blame was being sought for why his ill-fated charge was the final action of the Battle of Gettysburg, and why the Confederacy did not win the three-day battle, George Pickett suggested that "The Union Army might have had something to do with it." Pickett had been sponsored for West Point by the Illinois congressman, Abraham Lincoln. (MC, 1/28/02) 1825 nend Feb 9, The House of Representatives elected John Quincy Adams Jr. 6th U.S. president (1825-1829) after no candidate received a majority of electoral votes. (A&IP, ESM, p.96b, photo)(AHD, 1971, p.14)(HN, 2/9/97)(AP, 2/9/99) 1825 nend Feb 12, Creek Indian treaty signed. Tribal chiefs agreed to turn over all their land in Georgia to the government and migrate west by Sept 1, 1826. (MC, 2/12/02) 1825 nend Feb 22, Russia and Britain established the Alaska/Canada boundary. (HN, 2/22/98) 1825 nend Feb 24, Thomas Bowdler, self-appointed Shakespearean censor, died. His expurgated Shakespeare edition was published in 1818. (MC, 2/24/02)(SFC, 1/21/04, p.D2) 1825 nend Feb 25, William Moorcroft, East India Co. head of 5,000 acre horse farm at Pusa, India, arrived at Bukhara, Uzbekistan, to trade for horses. He met with Khan Haydar, Emir of Bukhara. (ON, 1/02, p.5) 1825 nend Feb 28, Quincy Adams Gillmore (d.1888), Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 2/28/02) 1825 nend Mar 2, The 1st grand opera in US sung in English was in NYC. (SC, 3/2/02) 1825 nend Mar 4, John Quincy Adams was inaugurated as 6th President. (SC, 3/4/02) 1825 nend Mar 12, The English Sloop, Eliza Ann, was captured by pirates, who proceeded to murder the crew of ten. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.18) 1825 nend Mar 25, The first Brazilian Constitution was promulgated by Peter I and solemnly sworn in the Cathedral of the Empire. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil) 1825 nend Apr 16, John Henry Fuseli (aka Johan Heinrich Fussli b.1741), Swiss born British Romantic painter, died. His paintings included ?Nightmare? (1782). (www.artnet.com/library/03/0302/T030268.asp)(Econ, 2/18/06, p.78) 1825 nend Apr 25, Charles Ferdinand Dowd was born. He standardized time zones. (SS, 4/25/02) 1825 nend May 1, George Inness, US landscape painter (Delaware Water Gap), was born. (MC, 5/1/02) 1825 nend May 4, Thomas Henry Huxley (d.1895), British biologist, naturalist and author, was born. "God give me strength to face a fact though it slay me." "My experience of the world is that things left to themselves don't get right." His work includes the collected Essays in nine volumes: 1. Method and Results, 2. Darwiniana, 3. Science and Education, 4. Science and the Hebrew Tradition, 5. Science and the Christian Tradition, 6. Hume, with Helps to the Study of Berkeley, 7. Man?s Place in Nature, 8. Discourses, Biological and Geological, 9. Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays. In 1997 Adrian Desmond wrote the biography: "Huxley." "God give me strength to face a fact though it slay me." (OAPOC-TH, p.71)(WSJ, 10/10/97, p.A20)(AP, 11/1/97)(AP, 1/26/99)(HN,5/4/01) 1825 nend May 7, Italian composer Antonio Salieri (74) died in Vienna, Austria. (AP, 5/7/97)(MC, 5/7/02) 1825 nend May 20, Charles X became King of France. (MC, 5/20/02) 1825 nend May 25, American Unitarian Association was founded. (SC, 5/25/02) 1825 nend May 29, David Bell Birney (d.1864), Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1825 nend Jun 7, R.D. Blackmore, author (Norie), was born. (SC, 6/7/02) 1825 nend Jun 19, Gioacchino Rossini's "Il Viaggio a Reims," premiered. Rossini wrote the "IL Viaggio a Reims" opera to celebrate the coronation of Charles X. The libretto by Luigi Balocchi was intended to show all major European nationalities coming together to celebrate the event. (WSJ, 9/29/99, p.A20)(MC, 6/19/02) 1825 nend Jun 20, Coronation of French king Charles X, the surviving brother of guillotined Louis XVI. (MC, 6/20/02) 1825 nend Jul 16, Alexander Gordon Laing (32), British Army Major, set off on camel from Tripoli in an attempt to become the 1st European to cross the Sahara Desert and reach the fabled city of Timbuktu (Mali). (SSFC, 1/1/06, p.M2)(ON, 11/06, p.5) 1825 nend Aug 1, William Beaumont, a US Army assistant surgeon at Fort Mackinac in the Michigan territory, began experiments to study the digestive system of Alexis St. Martin, a fur trader who was accidentally shot in the abdomen in 1822. (ON, 1/02, p.6) 1825 nend Aug 6, Simon Bolivar drew up a constitution for Bolivia in which a life president appointed his successor. Sucre served as the sole capital until losing a brief civil war to La Paz in 1899. Upper Peru became the autonomous republic of Bolivia. (Econ, 7/1/06, p.77)(AP, 7/21/07)(AP, 8/6/08) 1825 nend Sep 7, The Marquis de Lafayette, the French hero of the American Revolution, bade farewell to President John Quincy Adams at the White House. (AP, 9/7/99) 1825 nend Aug 25, Uruguay declared its independence from Brazil. (AP, 8/25/97) 1825 nend Aug 27, William Moorcroft, East India Co. head of 5,000 acre horse farm at Pusa, India, died near Balkh, Afghanistan, while returning to India following his trip to Bukhara, Uzbekistan, to trade for horses. In 1985 Garry Alder authored "Beyond Bukhara: The Life of William Moorcroft, Asian Explorer and Veterinary Surgeon." (ON, 1/02, p.6) 1825 nend Sep 27, The Stockton and Darlington rail line opened in England. The first locomotive to haul a passenger train was operated by George Stephenson in England. The British engineers Richard Trevithick and George Stevenson were the first innovators of the technology. (AP, 9/27/97)(www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/RAstephensonG.htm) 1825 nend Oct 9, The first Norwegian immigrants to America arrived on the sloop Restaurationen. (HN, 10/9/98) 1825 nend Oct 16, Thomas Turpin Crittenden (d.1905), Brig. Gen. (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 10/16/01) 1825 nend Oct 17, Franz Liszt's operetta Don Sanche premiered in Paris (MC, 10/17/01) 1825 nend Oct 25, Johann Strauss (d.1899), Austrian orchestra conductor and composer, was born. (WUD, 1994, p.1405)(HN, 10/25/98) 1825 nend Oct 26, The Erie Canal was opened in upstate New York. It cut through 363 miles of wilderness and measured 40 feet wide and 4 feet deep. It had 18 aqueducts and 83 locks and rose 568 feet from the Hudson River to Lake Erie. The first boat on the Erie Canal left Buffalo, N.Y. after eight years of construction. At the request of New York Governor DeWitt Clinton, the New York state legislature had provided $7 million to finance the project. The canal facilitated trade between New York City and the Midwest--manufactured goods were shipped out of New York and agricultural products were returned from the Midwest. As the canal became vital to trade, New York City flourished and settlers rapidly moved into the Midwest and founded towns like Clinton, Illinois. [see 1826] Gov. Clinton rode the Seneca Chief canal boat from Buffalo to New York harbor for the inauguration. In 2004 Peter L. Bernstein authored ?Wedding of the Waters: The Erie Canal and the Making of a Great Nation.? In 2009 Gerard Koeppel authored ?Bond of Union: Building the Erie Canal and the American Empire.? (SFEC, 4/20/97, p.T10)(AP, 10/26/97)(HN, 10/26/98)(WSJ, 2/8/00,p.A24)(WSJ, 1/14/05, p.W6)(Econ, 2/28/09, p.89) 1825 nend Nov 9, Ambrose Powell Hill (d.1865), Lt Gen (Confederate 3rd Army Corp), was born. (MC, 11/9/01) 1825 nend Nov 26, The first college social fraternity, the Kappa Alpha Society, was formed at Union College in Schenectady, N.Y. (AP, 11/26/97)(HN, 11/26/98) 1825 nend Nov 29, 1st Italian opera in US, "Barber of Seville," premiered in NYC and was welcomed by the legendary librettist for Mozart (and friend of Casanova), Lorenzo DaPonte, who was Professor of Italian at King's (later Columbia) College. (MC, 11/29/01) 1825 nend Dec 27, The 1st public railroad using steam locomotive was completed in England. (MC, 12/27/01) 1825 nend Dec 28, US General James Wilkinson (b.1757) died in Mexico City. He was generally regarded as an American patriot, but historians in the 1850s found evidence that he had worked as a spy on behalf of Spanish officials while serving as governor of the Louisiana Territory (1805-1806). (ON, 12/08, p.7)(www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1B1-382718.html) 1825 nend Dec 29, Giuseppe Maria Gioacchino Cambini, composer, died. (MC, 12/29/01) 1825 nend Dec 29, Jacques-Louis David (b.1748), French painter (Death of Marat), died. (WUD, 1994 p.369)(MC, 12/29/01) 1825 nend Camille Corot created his painting "View of Rome." (WSJ, 9/9/03, p.D6) 1825 nend Goya (79) made his 4 lithographs known as the "Bulls of Bordeaux." (WSJ, 5/4/99, p.A20) 1825 nend Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin (1755-1826), French lawyer and professor, invented the genre of food writing with his book ?The Physiology of Taste.? (WSJ, 5/5/07, p.P10) 1825 nend Beethoven composed his String Quartet No. 15 in A Minor. (http://www.karadar.net/Cataloghi/beethoven.html) 1825 nend The Marquis de Lafayette laid the cornerstone for the Monument at Bunker Hill in a ceremony addressed by Daniel Webster. (HT, 3/97, p.33) 1825 nend Sing Sing Prison opened on the banks of the Hudson River. The name was from the local Sint Sinct Indian tribe. [see 1901] (WSJ, 3/29/02, p.A1) 1825 nend Franciscan missionaries planted vineyards north of San Francisco to make sacramental wine. (WSJ, 4/16/97, p.CA1) 1825 nend Philadelphia druggist Elie Magliore Durand first touted the effervescent soda water as a health drink. Shortly afterward, New York inventor John Matthews originated the fountain apparatus that conveniently rested on a pharmacist?s counter to dispense carbonated drinks. (HNQ, 6/12/98) 1825 nend The US government launched a mapping and surveying expedition of the Sant Fe Trail. The notes ended up filed for decades. In 2000 David Dary authored "The Santa Fe Trail: Its History, Legends and Lore." (WSJ, 12/28/00, p.A9) 1825 nend The US experienced a financial panic. (Panic, p.6) 1825 nend The Bureau of Indian Affairs began as an office of the War Department that dealt with what white Americans saw as the "Indian problem." (SFC, 9/9/00, p.A3) 1825 nend A law that defined and set punishment for abortion was placed into the Missouri penal code. It was the 2nd US abortion law after a 1821 law in Connecticut. The law prohibited only abortions induced by poisoning. (SFEM, 2/1/98, p.13) 1825 nend The element aluminium was discovered. (NH, 7/02, p.35) 1825 nend William Sturgeon, English inventor, found that an electric current flowing through a coil of wire created a magnet. Shortly thereafter, the American physicist Joseph Henry discovered that placing an iron core inside the wire coil strengthened the effect- permitting this electromagnet to lift and drop small iron objects at the closing and opening of a switch connecting the coil to a storage battery. (I&I, Penzias, p.96) 1825 nend The Miramichi fires burned some 3 million acres in Maine and New Brunswick, Canada. (SFC, 10/30/03, p.A15) 1825 nend Parson Weems, writer, died. His work included "Life of George Washington With Curious Anecdotes, equally Honorable to Himself and Exemplary to his Young Countrymen." (SFEC, 7/12/98, Par p.13) 1825 nend In Egypt British traveler and draftsman James Burton sketched tombs of the New Kingdom pharaohs in the Valley of the Kings. (NG, 9/98, p.7) 1825 nend A French emissary of Charles X demanded that Haiti pay 150 million gold francs in exchange for recognition as French warships cruised over the horizon. The deal required 5 annual payments of 30 million and required a loan from a French bank for the 1st payment. Haiti renegotiated the debt in 1838. (WSJ, 1/2/04, p.A1) 1825 nend France established its imperial paramilitary, the Gendarmerie Coloniale, for law enforcement across its colonial empire. (WSJ, 2/2/04, p.A12) 1825 nend The impresario of La Scala in Milan, Italy, sold the theater?s library of manuscript opera scores to the young copyist Giovannin Ricordi. This initiated the rise of Ricordi?s music-publ. firm. (Civil., Jul-Aug., ?95, p.84) 1825 nend Japan issued an edict that spelled out what would happen to uninvited guests. ?Should any foreigners land anywhere, they must be arrested or killed.? (Econ, 12/22/07, p.63) 1825 nend A disastrous breach of Dutch coastal defenses occurred. (www.metoffice.com/education/secondary/students/flood.html) 1825 nend The Decembrists consisted of idealistic military officers who plotted unsuccessfully against the Russian tsar. (Econ, 5/21/05, p.27) 1825 1829 John Quincy Adams served as the 6th president of the US. (WSJ, 10/22/97, p.A20) 1825 1832 Lambert Hitchcock marked all his furniture with the insignia "L. Hitchcock." (SFC, 6/12/96, Z1 p.5) 1825 1833 Scottish botanist and gardener, David Douglas, visited the US Pacific Coast and sent a collection of poppies to the London Horticultural Society, where the species was successfully cultivated. [see 1792,1794, 1816] (NBJ, 2/96, p.12) 1825 1852 Master Juba was a free black man and the first recognized master of tap dancing. (WSJ, 4/21/98, p.A21) 1825 1858 The Suffolk Bank operated a clearing house in Boston that served the New England region, and required all country banks doing business in Boston to maintain clearing deposits. (WSJ, 2/5/98, p.A23) 1825 1859 An ongoing project under Frederick Burkhardt has undertaken the task of editing and publishing the letters of Charles Darwin of this period. The first of 30 volumes came out in 1985 published by Cambridge Univ. Press, and the 10th in 1996. Selected letters over this period from the first 7 volumes have been published as "Charles Darwin?s Letters: A Selection 1825-1859." (NH, 5/96, p.6) 1825 1888 Sandwich glass, also known as pressed glass, was made by the Boston and Sandwich Glass Works in Sandwich, Mass. They made the original dolphin-based glassware. (SFC, 7/9/97, Z1 p.3) 1825 1893 Jean Martin Charcot, hypnotist. He taught Sigmund Freud and influenced Freud?s theories of the subconscious. (WSJ, 5/30/00, p.A24) 1825 1997 The 1997 book, "The American Opera Singer" by Peter G. Davis, covers the lives and adventures of opera and concert singers over this period. (WSJ, 11/6/97, p.A20) 1826 nend Jan 26, Julia Dent Grant, First Lady and wife of Ulysses Grant, was born. (HN, 1/26/99) 1826 nend Feb 2, Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin (b.1755), French lawyer and epicure, died. ?Tell me what you eat and I will tell you what you are.? His famous work, Physiologie du goût (The Physiology of Taste), was published in December 1825, two months before his death. (WSJ, 7/19/08, p.W1)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brillat-Savarin) 1826 nend Feb 11, London University was founded. (MC, 2/11/02) 1826 nend Feb 13, The American Temperance Society formed in Boston. (MC, 2/13/02) 1826 nend Feb 16, Franz von Holstein, composer, was born. (MC, 2/16/02) 1826 nend Mar 4, The Granite Railway in Quincy, MA, became the 1st US RR to be chartered. (SC, 3/4/02) 1826 nend Mar 21, Beethoven's Quartet #13 in B flat major (Op 130) premiered in Vienna. (MC, 3/21/02) 1826 nend Apr 1, Samuel Mory patented the internal combustion engine. (OTD) 1826 nend Apr 6, Gustave Moreau, French painter, was born. (MC, 4/6/02) 1826 nend Apr 9, Chatham Roberdeau Wheat was born in Alexandria, Va. He studied law at the University of Nashville and then served in the 1st Tennessee Cavalry as a lieutenant during the Mexican War. He became a Confederate commander of the 1st Louisiana Special Battalion in the Civil War, also known as Wheat's Tigers. (HN, 4/9/00) 1826 nend Apr 12, Karl Maria von Weber's opera "Oberon," premiered in London. (MC, 4/12/02) 1826 nend Apr 13, Franz Danzi (62), composer, died. (MC, 4/13/02) 1826 nend Apr 22, Ibrahim, son of Mohammed Ali of Egypt, took Missolonghi (in West Greece) after a long siege. [see Apr 23] (CMW, 1968, p.154) 1826 nend Apr 23, Missolonghi (in west Greece) fell to Egyptian-Turkish forces. [see Apr 22] (HN, 4/23/99)(MC, 4/23/02) 1826 nend Apr 28, Alexander Stadtfeld, composer, was born. (MC, 4/28/02) 1826 nend May 4, Frederick Church, US romantic landscape painter (Hudson River School), was born. (MC, 5/4/02) 1826 nend May 7, Varina Howell Davis (d.1905), 1st lady (Confederacy), was born. (MC, 5/7/02) 1826 nend May 10, Giuseppe Sigismondo (86), composer, died. (MC, 5/10/02) 1826 nend May 25, Christian Friedrich Ruppe (72), composer, died. (SC, 5/25/02) 1826 nend May 29, Ebenezer Butterick, inventor (tissue paper dress pattern), was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1826 nend Jun 4, Karl Maria FE von Weber (39), German composer (Oberon), died. (MC, 6/4/02) 1826 nend Jul 4, Stephen Foster (Stephen Collins Foster, d. Jan 13, 1864) composer, was born near Pittsburgh. His famous songs include "My Old Kentucky Home," "O Susanna," "Old Folks at Home," "Old Black Joe" and "Camptown Races." (HFA, ?96, p.22)(AHD, p. 519)(BAAC PN, Chambers, 1/8/96)(IB,Internet, 12/7/98) 1826 nend Jul 4, Construction of the Pennsylvania Grand Canal was begun. (WSJ, 7/3/96, p.A8) 1826 nend Jul 4, Thomas Jefferson, the nation's third president, died at age 83 at one o'clock in the afternoon and was buried near Charlottesville, Virginia. He was the founder of the Univ. of Virginia and wrote the state?s statute of religious freedom. In 1981 Dumas Malone, aged 89 and nearly blind, published "The Sage of Monticello," the sixth and final volume of his Pulitzer Prize-winning biography of Jefferson. In 1997 Joseph J. Ellis won the National Book Award in nonfiction for "American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson." "Nothing gives one person so much of an advantage over another as to remain unruffled in all circumstances." (A&IP, Miers, p.29)(SFEC, 6/29/97, BR p.5)(AP, 7/4/97)(SFC, 4/29/98,p.A6)(SFEC, 10/25/98, Z1 p.12)(IB, Internet, 12/7/98) 1826 nend Jul 4, John Adams died at age 90 in Braintree [Quincy], Mass, just a few hours after Jefferson. Because communications was slow in those days, Adams and Jefferson, at their death, thought the other was still alive. Adams' last words were, "Thomas Jefferson still survives." It was 50 years to the day after the Declaration of Independence was adopted. Adams was the 2nd president of the US. A multi-generational biography of the Adams family was later written by Paul C. Nagel: "Descent from Glory." The Joseph Ellis book The Passionate Edge" helped restore Adams to his rightful place in the American pantheon. The 1972 musical film 1776 focused on Adams? efforts to get an independence resolution through Congress. In 1998 C. Bradley Thompson published "John Adams and the Spirit of Liberty." In 2001 David McCullough authored "John Adams." In 2005 James Grant authored ?John Adams: Party of One.? (A&IP, p.29)(AP, 7/4/97)(SFC, 7/4/98, p.E4)(IB, Internet,12/7/98)(WSJ, 12/22/98, p.A16)(WSJ, 5/30/01, p.A20)(WSJ, 3/24/05, p.D8) 1826 nend Jul 4, In 2001 Andrew Burstein authored "America?s Jubilee," a description of the jubilee year as it was experienced by various people. (WSJ, 1/23/00, p.A20) 1826 nend Jul 8, Luther Martin (b.1748), Maryland lawyer and former delegate to the Constitutional Convention, died in NYC. In 2008 Bill Kaufman authored ?Forgotten Founder, Drunken Prophet: The Life of Luther Martin.? (WSJ, 9/20/08, p.A21)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luther_Martin) 1826 nend Jul 22, Giuseppe Piazzi (80), monk, mathematician (found 1st asteroid, 1801), died. (MC, 7/22/02) 1826 nend Jul 26, Riots in Vilnius, Lithuanian, caused the death of many Jews. (MC, 7/26/02) 1826 nend Aug 7, Marc Brunel hired his son, Isambard, to replace William Armstrong as chief engineer for building the tunnel under England?s Thames River. (ON, 4/06,p.8)(www.bris.ac.uk/is/services/specialcollections/brunelchronology.html) 1826 nend Aug 13, Major Gordon Laing, Scottish explorer, became the 1st European to enter Timbuktu (Mali), where some 12,000 people lived. Laing was killed by a Tuareg nomad spear on Sep 26 as he headed for Morocco. In 2005 Frank T. Kryza authored ?The Race for Timbuktu: In Search of Africa?s City of Gold.? (SSFC, 4/11/04, p.D6)(SSFC, 1/1/06, p.M2)(Econ, 1/7/06, p.75)(ON,11/06, p.6) 1826 nend Aug 22, Colonies under Jedediah Strong Smith moved near Salt Lake Utah. (http://www.americanjourneys.org/aj-112/summary/index.asp) 1826 nend Sep 3, USS Vincennes left NY to become 1st warship to circumnavigate globe. (MC, 9/3/01) 1826 nend Sep 26, The Persian cavalry was routed by the Russians at the Battle of Ganja in the Russian Caucasus. (HN, 9/26/99) 1826 nend Oct 7, The first railway in the United States opened at Quincy, Massachusetts. (HN, 10/7/98) 1826 nend Nov 24, Carlo Collodi, the creator of Pinocchio, was born. (HN, 11/24/00) 1826 nend Nov 27, Jedediah Smith?s expedition reached San Diego, becoming the first Americans to cross the south-western part of the continent. He crossed the Mohave Desert and the San Bernadino Mountains from Utah. (HN, 11/27/98)(SFEC, 12/5/99, p.T5) 1826 nend Dec 3, George Brinton McClellen (d.1885), Union general who defeated Robert E. Lee at Antietam and ran against Abraham Lincoln for president, was born. (HN, 12/3/98)(MC, 12/3/01) 1826 nend Dec 26, Franz Coenen, composer, was born. (MC, 12/26/01) 1826 nend Theophile Bra, French academic sculptor, experienced a nervous breakdown and began to make visionary paintings. (SFEM, 11/1/98, p.) 1826 nend Corot painted "Cascade of Terni." "Its flat light, monumentalizing simplicity and minimal content anticipated Courbet, Manet and Cezanne." (SFC, 6/4/96, p.E5) 1826 nend The Erie Canal, 387 miles long and completed in 1826, connected Lake Erie, at Buffalo, to the Hudson River at Albany, New York. Begun in 1817 through the determined efforts of New York Governor DeWitt Clinton, the canal, which utilized light packet boats drawn by horses, reduced the passenger schedule between Buffalo and Albany from the 10 days required by stage service to three-and-a-half days. The canal brought many settlers to the Mohawk Valley and formed a great highway for freight from the Northwest to the seaboard. [see 1825] (HNQ, 12/29/99) 1826 nend David Farragut gathered youngsters from warships anchored in Hampton Roads and established America?s first floating Annapolis aboard the U.S.S. Alert. (NG, Sept. 1939, J. Maloney p.363) 1826 nend The Galerie Vero-Dodat (2, Rue de Bouloi), was built by two well-off charcutiers in Paris, France. Vero and Dodat spared no expense with the classical style interior that featured sculpted woodwork, ceiling frescoes, mosaic flooring, and brass ornament, (Hem., 10/?95, p.109) 1826 nend Joseph Buchner refined willow bark in crystals that he named salicin, after salix, the Latin name for willow. [see aspirin in 1899] (SSFC, 10/24/04, p.M6) 1826 nend Samuel Heinrich Schwabe, German amateur astronomer, began a systematic program of observing the Sun from his home in Dessau. He kept careful records of sunspots over 17 years and in 1843 noted an 11-year cycle in their frequency. (Econ, 6/28/03, p.77)(NG, 7/04, p.21) 1826 nend Scotsman Robert Stein invented the continuous still. It was later refined by Aeneas Coffey as the Coffey still. (Hem, 11/02, p.36) 1826 nend An American mechanic developed mold-blown glass. (SFC, 9/21/05, p.G3) 1826 nend Rene Theophile Hyacinthe Laennec, French physician and inventor of the stethoscope, died from tuberculosis. (ON, 9/00, p.11) 1826 nend In Batavia Capt. William Morgan was kidnapped by brother Masons for divulging fraternity secrets. His body was never found. His book "Illustrations of Freemasonry" revealed some Mason secrets. His death inspired America?s 1st third party, the anti-Mason, who dominated western NY for almost a decade. (WSJ, 7/25/00, p.A20)(WSJ, 2/6/02, p.A16)(WSJ, 6/28/02, p.W13) 1826 nend In Argentina Bernardino Rivadavia (1780-1845) was chosen as the first president of the United Provinces of La Plata. He was forced to resign in 1827. His political opponents called him the ?Chocolate Dictator.? (www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0841998.html)(SSFC, 11/27/05, p.A24) 1826 nend Englishmen scientist James Smithson (1765-1829) drew up his will and named his nephew as beneficiary. In the will he stated that should his nephew die without heirs, the estate should go to the US of America to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institute, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men. (SFEC, 8/25/96, p.T6) 1826 nend Pilkington, a British glass producer, was founded in St. Helens, Lancashire. In 2006 it was bought by Nippon Sheet Glass (NSG). (Econ, 3/27/10, p.78)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilkington) 1826 nend The British Cape Colony was extended northward to the Orange River. (EWH, 4th ed, p.885) 1826 nend John James Audubon (1785-1851), painter and ornithologist, arrived in Britain to oversee the production of his "Birds of America." Although the 1st engravings were done in Edinburgh the project was soon transferred to London and completed over the next 12 years. (WSJ, 3/26/04, p.W6)(AH, 10/04, p.75) 1826 nend Audubon read a technical paper before the Natural History Society of Edinburgh entitled: "Account of the habits of the turkey buzzard, particularly with the view of exploding the opinion generally entertained of its extraordinary power of smelling." [see K.E. Stager in 1964] (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.54) 1826 nend In Egypt Jean-Francois Champollion, French Egyptologist and decipherer of the Rosetta Stone, began collecting Egyptian artifacts. He convinced Charles X to purchase the private collections of the French and English consuls in Egypt. (WSJ, 1/29/98, p.A16) 1826 nend In Mexico Plutarco Elias Calles, founder of the modern Mexican political system, tried to suppress the Church. This fomented the Cristiada, 3 years of rebellion and outright war. (WSJ, 8/13/97, p.A12) 1826 nend Dom Pedro IV, emperor of Brazil, attained the Portuguese throne. (SSFC, 1/28/01, p.T1) 1826 nend In Scotland the first exhibition of Clydesdale horses for show occurred at the Glasgow Exhibition. The horses had been bred for hauling coal. (SFEC, 1/30/00, Z1 p.2) 1826 nend Methodist missionaries arrived at Tonga from Australia. (SFEC, 5/28/00, p.T10) 1826 1828 Corot was in Italy and painted "View of St. Peter?s and the Castel Sant?Angelo." (FAMSF, 2/98) 1826 1829 Dumont d?Urville (1790-1842), French explorer and naturalist, sailed around the Pacific Ocean. (CW, Spring ?99, p.3) 1826 1833 In NYC the Hawk and Buzzard newspaper subsisted largely on gossip. (SFEM, 11/8/98, p.12) 1826 1852 The Duke of Wellington served as Constable of the Tower of London. (Hem, 9/04, p.71) 1826 1877 Walter Bagehot, English editor and economist: "One of the greatest pains to human nature is the pain of a new idea." "It is good to be without vices, but it is not good to be without temptation." (AP, 5/22/97)(AP, 9/2/98) 1826 1887 Dinah Maria Mulock Craik, English novelist. "The man who does his work, any work, conscientiously, must always be in one sense a great man." (AP, 3/14/97) 1826 1908 Henry Clifton Sorby, English geologist, invented a method for making thin rock slices for microscopic investigation. (OAPOC-TH, p.71) 1827 nend Feb 1, Alphonse de Rothschild, French banker, was born. (MC, 2/1/02) 1827 nend Feb 7, Ballet (Deserter) was introduced to US at Bowery Theater in NYC. (MC, 2/7/02) 1827 nend Feb 7, Franz Anton Dimmler (73), composer, died. (MC, 2/7/02) 1827 nend Feb 17, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (81), Swiss educator, died. (MC, 2/17/02) 1827 nend Feb 27, Richard W. Johnson (d.1897), Bvt Major General (Union Army), was born. (MC, 2/27/02) 1827 nend Feb 27, A Mardi Gras street procession in New Orleans was initiated by students, who were home from school in France. They formed a parade of masked marchers on Shrove Tuesday, the day before the period of penance begins on Ash Wednesday. (HN, 2/27/98)(HNQ, 2/9/99) 1827 nend Feb 28, The first U.S. railroad chartered to carry passengers and freight, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Co., was incorporated. (AP, 2/28/98) 1827 nend Mar 5, Pierre-Simon Laplace (b.1749), French mathematician, astronomer, physicist, died. He invented perturbation theory and wrote the 5-volume work "Celestial Mechanics." In 1998 Charles Couiston Gillespie published his biography "Pierre-Simon Laplace: A Life in Exact Science." (WSJ, 2/19/98, p.A20)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace) 1827 nend Mar 5, Alessandro Volta (b.1745), Italian physicist who made 1st battery (1800), died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Volta) 1827 nend Mar 16, The first Afro-American newspaper , Freedom?s Journal, was published in New York City. (HFA, ?96, p.26)(AP, 3/16/97) 1827 nend Mar 26, Ludwig von Beethoven (56), German composer, died in Vienna. He had been deaf for the later part of his life, but said on his death bead "I shall hear in heaven." It was later determined that he suffered from lead poisoning. In 1995 Tia DeNora authored "Beethoven and the Construction of Genius." In 2000 Russell Martin authored "Beethoven?s Hair: An Extraordinary Historical Odyssey and a Scientific Mystery Solved." (WSJ, 5/29/96, p.A5)(AP, 3/256/97)(HN, 3/26/99)(SFC, 10/18/00,p.A2)(WSJ, 1/17/02, p.A12) 1827 nend Mar 29, Composer Ludwig van Beethoven was buried in Vienna amidst a crowd of over 10,000 mourners. (HN, 3/29/01) 1827 nend Apr 2, William Holdman Hunt, English painter (Light of the World), was born. (MC, 4/2/02) 1827 nend Apr 2, Joseph Dixon began manufacturing lead pencils. (MC, 4/2/02) 1827 nend Apr 5, Joseph Lister (d.1912), English physician, was born. He founded the idea of using antiseptics during surgery. (WUD, 1994, p.836)(HN, 4/5/99) 1827 nend Apr 7, English chemist John Walker invented wooden matches. (MC, 4/7/02) 1827 nend Apr 10, Lewis Wallace (d.1905), soldier, lawyer, diplomat and author (Ben Hur), was born. "As a rule, there is no surer way to the dislike of men than to behave well where they have behaved badly." (HN, 4/10/98)(AP, 12/5/00) 1827 nend Apr 13, Hugh Clapperton, Scottish traveler and explorer of West and Central Africa, died in Sokoto, Nigeria, of dysentery. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Clapperton) 1827 nend Apr 20, John Gibbon (d.1896), Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 4/20/02) 1827 nend Apr 26, Charles Edward Hovey, Bvt Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 4/26/02) 1827 nend May 4, John Hanning Speke, English explorer, was born. He discovered Lake Victoria and the source of the Nile. (HN, 5/4/99) 1827 nend May 29, Reuben Lindsay Walker (d.1890), Brigadier General (Confederate Army), was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1827 nend Jun 5, Athens fell to the Ottomans during Greek War of Independence. (HN, 6/5/98)(MC, 6/5/02) 1827 nend Jun 12, Johanna Spyri (d.1901), Swiss author, was born. She is best known for her novel Heidi, the story of a young girl who leave her home in the Swiss Alps for adventures in the world below. [see June 12, 1829] (WUD, 1994 p.1379)(HN, 6/12/99) 1827 nend Jul 4, New York state law emancipated adult slaves. The laws were rewritten to make sure that all slaves would eventually be freed. (SFEC, 12/1/96, BR p.5)(Maggio, 98)(ON, 11/99, p.5) 1827 nend Jul 16, Josiah Spode, potter, died. (MC, 7/16/02) 1827 nend Aug 10, There were race riots in Cincinnati and some 1,000 blacks left for Canada. (MC, 8/10/02) 1827 nend Aug 12, William Blake (b.1757), English visionary engraver and poet, died. In 2001 G.E. Bentley Jr. authored "The Stranger From Paradise: A Biography of William Blake." (SSFC, 5/27/01, DB p.73)(MC, 8/12/02) 1827 nend Aug 22, Industrialist Ezra Butler Eddy (d.1906) was born in Vermont. E.B. Eddy, who became known as the matchmaker of the world, moved his small friction-match factory from Burlington, Vt., to Hull, Que., in 1851. He expanded, modernized and diversified to produce a variety of wood and paper products. Eddy was elected mayor of Hull six times and was a member of the Quebec legislature for six years. (AP, 8/22/01) 1827 nend Aug 22, Josef Strauss, Austrian composer (Dorfschwalben aus Austria), was born. (MC, 8/22/02) 1827 nend Sep 18, John Towsend Trowbridge, poet and author of books for boys, who wrote the Jack Hazzard and Toby Trafford series, was born. (HN, 9/18/98) 1827 nend Oct 15, Charles Darwin reached Christ's Counsel, Cambridge. (MC, 10/15/01) 1827 nend Oct 20, British, French and Russian squadrons entered the harbor at Navarino, Greece, and destroyed most of the Egyptian fleet there. The Ottomans demanded reparations. (EWH, 4th ed, p.770)(www.ipta.demokritos.gr/erl/navarino.html) 1827 nend Nov 10, Alfred Howe Terry (d.1890), Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 11/10/01) 1827 nend Nov 15, Creek Indians lost all their property in US. (MC, 11/15/01) 1827 nend Nov 26, Ellen Gould White, founder of the Seventh Day Adventists, was born. (HN, 11/26/00) 1827 nend Luther Roby, a Concord printer, published "A Journal Kept By Mr. John Howe While He Was Employed As A British Spy during the Revolutionary War; Also While He Was Engaged In The Smuggling Business." The book was later thought to based on the journal of British officer Henry De Berniere and published by John Gill, member of the Sons of Liberty, in 1779. (AH, 10/01, p.56) 1827 nend David Zeisberger, Moravian missionary, published "Grammar of the Language of the Lenni-Lenape," a Delaware Indian tribe. (NH, 10/96, p.16) 1827 nend V. Bellini wrote his opera "Il Pirata." It was his 1st major success. (WSJ, 10/31/02, p.A1) 1827 nend August Marschner wrote his opera "Der Vampyr." (WSJ, 1/21/98, p.A16) 1827 nend Franz Schubert composed his song cycle "Winterreise." (WSJ, 4/16/97, p.A16) 1827 nend Businessman and publisher Louis A. Godey bought the Boston Godey?s Lady?s Book, a ladies? magazine, and offered its editorship to successful novelist Sarah Hale, a widow with four children to support. Godey?s Lady?s Book, with Sarah Josepha Hale as its editor and driving force for 50 years, was an important cultural influence in 19th-century America. Godey?s enjoyed great success publishing morally upright and sentimental literature and avoiding unfeminine topics like politics, scandal and controversy. By mid-century it had 150,000 subscribers. Particularly popular were fashion plates, such as the steel-plate engraving of wedding gowns shown here, crafts, décor and housekeeping ideas that greatly influenced American home life. Competition and Hale?s retirement in 1877 led Louis Godey to sell the magazine in 1883. Thirteen years later, Godey?s was absorbed into another publication. (HNPD, 9/29/98) 1827 nend The first edition of New York's Freedom's Journal was published by John Russworm and Samuel Cornish. "For too long others have spoken for us." The journal lasted for 2 years. (SFEC, 1/31/99, DB p.28)(SFC, 2/22/99, p.A21) 1827 nend John Nelson Darby (1800-1882), British evangelical preacher, first conceived the doctrine of a secret rapture based on a passage of St. Paul?s letter to the Thessalonians. (www.sullivan-county.com/news/cathouse/darby.htm)(Econ, 12/18/04, p.34) 1827 nend Joseph Smith, Mormon founder, received his tablets on Mount Cumorah near Palmyra, NY. (NW, 9/10/01, p.48) 1827 nend Catherine McAuley (1787-1841), founded the Sisters of Mercy in Dublin, Ireland. They engaged chiefly in works of spiritual and corporal mercy. Frances Warde led the sisters out from Ireland. In 2002 John J. Fialka authored "Sisters: Catholic Nuns and the Making of America." (WUD, 1994 p.1333)(SSFC, 1/19/03, p.M6) 1827 nend The U.S. and Great Britain submitted the Maine and New Brunswick boundary dispute to arbitration by the King of the Netherlands in 1827, whose compromise was accepted by the British but rejected by the U.S. (HNQ, 9/30/99) 1827 nend Roger Brooke Taney became attorney general of Maryland. (WSJ, 11/21/06, p.D8) 1827 nend The government hired Capt. Henry Miller Shreve to remove a 100-mile "raft" of snags and trees that prevented steamboats from entering the Red River. His work camp later became the city of Shreveport, La. (ON, 7/02, p.11) 1827 nend John Davis opened the doors of the first full-dress American gambling casino in New Orleans. (HN, 3/19/98) 1827 nend John Herschel proposed contact lenses. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1827 nend Friction matches were first produced. (SFEC, 8/13/00, Z1 p.2) 1827 nend Francois Soudre invented the artificial language Solresol. He proposed using the musical scale for the building blocks of an international vocabulary. (Wired, 8/96, p.86) 1827 nend Jean-Baptist-Joseph Fourier, French mathematician who served under Napoleon in Egypt, compared the interaction of the earth and its atmosphere to the setting in a hothouse. He said the Earth?s gases are like the greenhouse glass walls and help keep us warm. (NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.26) 1827 nend Greenwich Academy, the oldest school for girls in Connecticut, was founded. (NG, Feb, 04, p.120) 1827 nend Balkaria, a Caucasus region later known as known as Kabardino-Balkari, was annexed by Russia. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Kabardino-Balkaria) 1827 nend The Univ. of Toronto, Canada, was founded. (Econ, 1/22/05, p.20) 1827 nend The Chippewa community of Aamjiwnaang First Nation was founded in Ontario just across from Port Huron, Mich. Much of the original reserve was sold via questionable land deals in the 1960s. In 1993 the percentage of boys born in the community began dropping and by 2005 girls outnumbered boys by 3:1. Local petrochemical manufacturing was suspected as the cause. (SSFC, 12/18/05, p.A30) 1827 nend The Cocos Islands (aka Keeling Islands) in the Indian Ocean were settled by the Clunies-Ross family. A descendent ceded the coral atolls to Australia in 1978. (Econ, 12/24/05, p.84) 1827 nend In France Victor Hugo wrote the official coronation ode for Charles X, the last Bourbon king. (WSJ, 2/10/98, p.A16) 1827 nend The lithopane (lithophane) was patented in Paris. It allowed a picture, embedded in porcelain, to be viewed in light by varying the thickness of a porcelain base. Generally credited as being the invention of Baron Paul de Bourguignon, of Rubelles, France, in 1827, the earliest forms of lithophanes were actually produced in China many years before other countries produced them. (SFC, 3/1/06,p.G7)(http://bellerosefarm.com/html/_lithopane_history.html) 1827 nend Joseph Niepce, French inventor, met with English botanist Francis Bauer, who agreed to present Niepce?s ground breaking photographic work to the Royal Society, which rejected the bid. Before leaving London Niepce made a gift of his 1826 pewter image to Bauer. The pewter image was re-discovered in 1952 by photo historian Helmut Gernsheim. (ON, 10/08, p.8) 1827 nend The Hanseatic city of Bremen, faced with the silting of its Weser River, bought land for Bremerhaven from the king of Hanover in order to maintain a link to the sea. (Econ, 5/21/11, p.60) 1828 nend Jan 31, Alexandros Ypsilanti (35), Greek resistance fighter, died. (MC, 1/31/02) 1828 nend Feb 8, French author Jules Verne (d.1905) was born. He is considered the father of science fiction. Many of his 19th-century works forecast amazing scientific feats--feats that were actually carried out in the 20th century--with uncanny accuracy. Verne's 1865 book From the Earth to the Moon told the story of a space ship that is launched from Florida to the moon and that returns to Earth by landing in the ocean. Something of a scientist and traveler himself, Verne's 1870 work about a submarine, "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea," and "Around the World in Eighty Days" also foretold technological advances that seemed fantastic at the time. "Anything one man can imagine, other men can make real." (HNPD, 2/8/99)(AP, 10/1/00) 1828 nend Feb 12, George Meredith, English poet and novelist, was born. (HN, 2/12/01) 1828 nend Feb 18, More than 100 vessels were destroyed in a storm at Gibraltar. (MC, 2/18/02) 1828 nend Feb 21, The first issue of the Cherokee Phoenix, the 1st American Indian newspaper in US, was printed, both in English and in the newly invented Cherokee alphabet. (HN, 2/21/98)(MC, 2/21/02) 1828 nend Mar 5, Johann Gungl, composer, was born. (MC, 3/5/02) 1828 nend Mar 8, Johann Anton Sulzer (75), composer, died. (MC, 3/8/02) 1828 nend Mar 17, Maj. Gen'l. Patrick R. Cleburne, the "Stonewall" of the West, was born. (HN, 3/17/98) 1828 nend Mar 20, Henrik Ibsen (d.1906), poet and dramatist was born in Skien, Norway. His work included ?Peer Gynt? and ?Hedda Gabler.? "The worst enemy of truth and freedom in our society is the compact majority. Yes, the damned, compact, liberal majority." In 1971 the 3rd and final volume of ?Ibsen: A Biography? by Michael Meyer (d.2000) was published. (HFA, '96, p.26)(HN, 3/20/98)(AP, 7/22/98)(SFC, 8/10/00, p.D2) 1828 nend Apr 4, Casparus van Wooden patented chocolate milk powder (Amsterdam). (MC, 4/4/02) 1828 nend Apr 14, The first edition of Noah Webster's "American Dictionary of the English Language" was published. Webster had finished writing it in England in January, 1825. (AP, 4/14/97)(HN, 4/14/98)(http://tinyurl.com/2hyj76) 1828 nend Apr 16, Francisco Jose Goya y Lucientes (b.1746), Spanish painter, cartoonist, died at age 82 in France. He had served 3 generations of Spanish kings as court painter. In 2002 Julia Blackburn authored "Old Man Goya." In 2003 Robert Hughes authored "Goya." See link for Goya timeline. (WSJ, 5/10/02, p.W8)(Econ, 10/18/03, p.81)(http://tinyurl.com/ngxt7) 1828 nend Apr 21, Hippolyte Taine, French philosopher, historian (Voyage in Italy), was born. (MC, 4/21/02) 1828 nend Apr 26, Russia declared war on Turkey to support Greece's independence. (MC, 4/26/02) 1828 nend May 6, The Cherokee Indians were forced to sign a treaty giving up their Arkansas Reservation for a new home in what later became Oklahoma. This led to a split in the tribe as one group moved to Oklahoma and others stayed behind and became known as the Lost Cherokees. (Econ, 3/11/06,p.28)(http://digital.library.okstate.edu/KAPPLER/Vol2/treaties/che0288.htm) 1828 nend May 8, Jean Henri Dunant (d.1910), Swiss philanthropist, was born. He founded the Int?l. Committee of the Red Cross and was the first recipient (jointly) of the Nobel Peace Prize. (HN, 5/8/99) 1828 nend May 12, Dante Gabriel Rossetti (d.1882), English poet and painter, was born. He helped found the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dante_Gabriel_Rossetti)(WSJ, 7/25/95,p.A-10) 1828 nend May 13, US passed the Tariff of Abominations. Congress raised duties on manufactured goods from abroad on which the South was dependent. South Carolina declared the tariff null and void within its borders and pres. Jackson threatened to send in troops. The tariffs were lowered in 1833. (SS, Internet, 5/13/97)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R50) 1828 nend May 16, Sir William Congreve (b.1772), British artillerist and inventor, died. In 1805 he developed the Congreve Rocket. (MC, 5/16/02)(WUD, 1994 p.310) 1828 nend May 18, The Battle of Las Piedras, ended the conflict between Uruguay and Brazil. (HN, 5/18/98) 1828 nend May 22, Albrecht von Grafe, German eye surgeon, founder of modern ophthalmology, was born. (HN, 5/22/01) 1828 nend Jun 7, A party led by Jebediah Smith completed a journey down the Klamath River and were on the verge of starvation when they were visited by Indians who brought food. Smith's party proceeded north to Oregon and most of the party was killed by Umpqua Indians. Smith was killed in 1831 by Comanches on the Cimarron River. Smith?s party were the 1st white people to see Lake Earl, the biggest lagoon on the West Coast. (SFEC, 12/5/99, p.T5)(SFEC, 7/16/00, p.B1) 1828 nend Jun 13, Simon Bolivar (1783-1830) was proclaimed dictator (Colombia). (MC, 6/13/02) 1828 nend Jul 4, James Johnston Pettigrew, scholar, teacher, Brig General (Confederate Army), was born. (MC, 7/4/02) 1828 nend Jul 4, Ground-breaking ceremonies were held in Baltimore for construction of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. Charles Carroll, last surviving signer of the Declaration of Independence, turned the spade in Baltimore. At the groundbreaking, Carroll said, "I consider this among the most important acts of my life, second only to that of signing the Declaration of Independence, if even it be second to that." On the same day, in nearby Georgetown, President John Quincy Adams, with great fanfare, lifted the first shovel of dirt to begin construction of the Chesapeake & Ohio Canal that would link Washington, Baltimore and Pittsburgh by water. The railroad went on to become one of the nation's longest rail lines, reaching St. Louis, Missouri, in 1857. The 185-mile canal, though it had many years of use, was quickly eclipsed as a transportation medium by the superior technology of the railroad. (IB, Internet, 12/7/98)(SFEC, 4/25/99, p.T6)(HNQ, 10/4/99) 1828 nend Jul 27, Gilbert Charles Stuart, painter, died. (MC, 7/27/02) 1828 nend Aug 22, Franz Joseph Gall (70), German-French physician, fraud (phrenology), died. (MC, 8/22/02) 1828 nend Aug 28, Leo Tolstoy (d.1910), Russian novelist, was born. His work included "War and Peace" and "Anna Karenina." "History would be an excellent thing if only it were true." "It is amazing how complete is the delusion that beauty is goodness." [see Sep 9] (WUD, 1994 p.1491)(AP, 4/15/97)(AP, 10/14/99)(HN, 8/28/00) 1828 nend Aug, England?s Thames Tunnel Company was forced to halt operations due to accidents and loss of financial support. Work was halted for 7 years. (ON, 4/06, p.9) 1828 nend Sep 8, Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain, Bvt Major General (Union volunteers), hero of Little Round Top at Gettysburg, was born. (MC, 9/8/01) 1828 nend Sep 9, Leo Tolstoy, Russian novelist, was born. [see Aug 28] (HN, 9/9/00) 1828 nend Sep 20, Gioacchino Rossini?s opera "Le Comte Ory," premiered in Paris. (MC, 9/20/01) 1828 nend Nov 1, Balfour Steward, Scottish physicist and meteorologist, was born. (HN, 11/1/00) 1828 nend Nov 8, Thomas Bewick (b.1753), English engraver and ornithologist, died. In 2007 Jenny Uglow authored ?Nature?s Engraver: A Life of Thomas Bewick.? (Econ, 5/26/07, p.98)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Bewick) 1828 nend Nov 19, Franz Schubert (b.1797), Austrian composer, died of syphilis in Vienna. In this he composed his song cycle "Schwanengesang." His work included the C-Major Symphony, string quartets, 3 piano sonatas, and the C-Major String Quartet. Otto Erich Deutsch catalogued his work [hence the "D" numbers] and wrote a documentary biography. In 1997 Brian Newbould wrote "Schubert: The Music and the Man." (SFEC, 2/2/97, DB. p.32)(WSJ, 4/16/97, p.A16)(WSJ, 5/13/97, p.A21) 1828 nend Dec 3, Andrew Jackson was elected 7th president of the United States over John Quincy Adams. Resentment of the restrictive credit policies of the first central bank, the Bank of the United States, fueled a populist backlash that elected Andrew Jackson. (AP, 12/3/97)(WSJ, 12/31/97, p.A11)(WSJ, 6/10/98, p.A18) 1828 nend Dec 22, Rachel Jackson, beloved wife of Andrew Jackson, died of heart disease just weeks before her recently elected husband was inaugurated as president of the United States. Andrew Jackson had been 21 and a promising young lawyer when Rachel Donelson Robards, his landlady's daughter and the estranged wife of Lewis Robards of Kentucky, caught his eye. Robards had started divorce proceedings, but had dropped them without his wife's knowledge. Believing she was a free woman, Rachel married Andrew Jackson in 1791. Two years later, the couple discovered that Robards was finally suing for divorce--on the grounds of adultery and desertion. The divorce was granted, and in 1794, the couple quietly remarried. Yet, for the rest of her life, Rachel was unjustly slandered for her irregular marriage. The gossip became particularly painful during the 1828 presidential campaign when the 37-year-old scandal was resurrected as a campaign issue. Andrew Jackson defeated his opponent John Quincy Adams, but when Rachel died soon after the election, Jackson bitterly attributed her death to "those vile wretches who...slandered her." (HNPD, 12/22/98) 1828 nend Dec 23, Mathilde Wesendonk, German writer, poet (Tagebuchblatter), was born. (MC, 12/23/01) 1828 nend Dr. Paul Ferdinand Gachet was born in Lille. He moved to Paris in 1848 to study medicine and developed a clientele of artists that included Pissarro and Cezanne. He accepted paintings in exchanged for services and amassed a sizable collection. He also painted and used the pseudonym Paul Van Ryssel. (WSJ, 2/16/99, p.A20) 1828 nend Pietro Tenerani, Italian sculptor, made his two statues, allegories of Hunting and Fishing, at Carrara. They were placed in Carrara?s Academy of Fine Arts, the former Cybo-Malaspina palace. (SFEC,10/19/97, p.T5) 1828 nend John Rubens Smith painted his watercolor "West Front of the United States Capital." [see 1775-1844, Smith] (Civil., Jul-Aug., ?95, p.66) 1828 nend Sister Mary Elizabeth Lange of Haiti co-founded the first black Catholic school in the US. (SFC, 5/26/96, T-7) 1828 nend Me-a-pa-te, "the hill that is hard to go around," in western Nebraska was renamed Scott?s Bluff, after the body of trapper Hiram Scott was found nearby. (HT, 3/97, p.34) 1828 nend Opponents of Andrew Jackson accused the general of having murdered a Baptist minister and five other white militiamen during the Creek War. (WSJ, 10/8/96, p.A22) 1828 nend John Overlord, Andrew Jackson and James Winchester, the founders of Memphis, Tenn., bestowed an easement to the Mississippi riverfront for a promenade. (Econ, 4/10/04, p.24) 1828 nend McKendree University, a private liberal arts college, was founded in Illinois. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McKendree_University) 1828 nend Conspirators broke into the presidential palace in Bogota in an attempt to murder Simon Bolivar, who escaped. (Econ, 2/9/08, p.40) 1828 nend The Republic of Gran Colombia fell apart due to political rivalries between its constituent provinces. Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela became independent countries. (ON, 3/05, p.2) 1828 nend The Danish government decreed that all persons should have a surname which was inherited from the preceding generation. (http://share-hodgson.org/patronym.html)(NYT, 10/8/04, p.A4) 1828 nend In France a perfume and cosmetics house was established. In 1998 the firm was led by Jean-Paul Guerlain, the great-grandson of the founder. (SFC, 6/13/98, p.A11) 1828 nend In France Louis Daguerre contacted Joseph Niepce with an offer to work together on the photographic process that Niepce had developed. (ON, 10/08, p.8) 1828 nend Rennee Caillie of France became the 1st Westerner to reach Timbuktu, Mali, and survive to tell the tale. In 1830 he published an account of his journey. (SSFC, 4/11/04, p.D6)(ON, 11/06, p.7) 1828 nend The Mexican city of Valladolid was renamed Morelia after independence hero Jose Maria Morelos (SSFC, 11/17/02, p.C11) 1828 nend Russia conquered the Armenian provinces of Persia, and this had brought within her frontier the Monastery of Etchmiadzin, in the Khanate of Erivan, which was the seat of the Katholikos of All the Armenians. (http://raven.cc.ukans.edu/~kansite/ww_one/docs/bryce2.htm) 1828 nend Siamese [Thailand] forces invaded Laos. Vat Sisaket, a temple in Vientiane, survived the invasion. (SFEC, 8/28/98, p.T4) 1828 nend Uruguay, created as a buffer state between Argentina and Brazil, declared its independence. (Hem., 2/96, p.26) 1828 1830 Arthur Wellesley (1769-1852), the duke of Wellington, served as British prime minister. He blocked badly needed political reform and was later considered one of England?s worst prime ministers. (WSJ, 1/6/95, A-10)(ON, 4/06, p.5) 1828 1861 Queen Ranavalona I ruled over Madagascar. (WSJ, 10/10/06, p.A1)(www.gasikara.net/Historama.htm) 1828 1896 Elizabeth Charles, British writer: "To know how to say what others only know how to think is what makes men poets or sages; and to dare to say what others only dare to think makes men martyrs or reformers -- or both." (AP, 12/13/98) 1828 1909 George Meredith, English poet: "Cynicism is intellectual dandyism." (AP, 10/20/98) 1829 nend Jan 19, Johann von Goethe's "Faust, Part 1," premiered. (MC, 1/19/02) 1829 nend Jan 28, In Scotland William Burke was hanged for murder following a scandal in which he was found to have provided extra-fresh corpses for anatomy schools in Edinburgh. His partner William Hare had turned king?s witness. The scandal led to the 1832 Anatomy Act. (Econ, 11/15/08, p.99)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Burke) 1829 nend Feb 11, Alexander Griboyedov (b.1795), Russian diplomat, playwright and composer, was beheaded by a mob attack on the Russian embassy in Tehran. Griboyedov was protecting an Armenian eunuch, who had escaped from the harem of the Persian shah along with 2 Armenian girls. The Russians let the incident pass after an Iranian apology. They were already at war with the Turks and in regional competition with the British. (WSJ, 2/10/96, p.A18)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandr_Griboyedov) 1829 nend Feb 16, Francois-Joseph Gossec (95), Belgian-French composer (Messe de Morts), died. (MC, 2/16/02) 1829 nend Feb 26, Levi Strauss, creator of blue jeans, was born. (HN, 2/26/98) 1829 nend Mar 2, Carl Schurz, was born. He was a Civil War general, political reformer and anti-imperialist. (HN, 3/2/99) 1829 nend Mar 2, New England Asylum for the Blind, 1st in US, was incorporated in Boston. (SC, 3/2/02) 1829 nend Mar 4, An unruly crowd mobbed the White House during the inaugural reception for President Jackson, the 7th US President. The event was later depicted by artist Louis S. Glanzman in his painting ?Andrew Jackson?s Inauguration? (1970). (AP, 3/4/98)(WSJ, 1/17/09, p.W5) 1829 nend Apr 6, Niels Henrik Abel (b.1802), Norwegian mathematician, died of tuberculosis. After him comes the term Abelian group, an algebraic commutative group. In 2004 Peter Pesic authored ?Abel?s Proof: An Essay on the Sources and Meaning of Mathematical Unsolvability.? (AHD, 1971, p.2)(SFC, 3/26/04, p.A15)(Econ, 5/15/04, p.80) 1829 nend Apr 10, William Booth, founder (Salvation Army), was born. (MC, 4/10/02) 1829 nend Apr 13, English Emancipation Act granted freedom of religion to Catholics. (MC, 4/13/02) 1829 nend May 8, Louis Moreau Gottschalk (d.1869), American pianist, was born in New Orleans. (HN, 5/8/02)(http://w3.rz-berlin.mpg.de/cmp/gottschalk.html) 1829 nend May 10, Thomas Young, physicist, decipherer of Egyptian hieroglyphics, died. (MC, 5/10/02) 1829 nend May 15, Joseph Smith was "ordained" by John the Baptist- according to Joseph Smith. Mormon church was founded in NY. (MC, 5/15/02) 1829 nend May 18, Bernardo Bittoni, composer, died. (SC, 5/18/02) 1829 nend May 29, Humphrey Davy (84), scientist, inventor (Miner's safety lamp), died at age 50. In 1963 Anne Treneer authored "The Mercurial Chemist: A Life of Sir Humphrey Davy." (ON, 12/01, p.7)(SC, 5/29/02) 1829 nend May, In Poland Niccolo Paganini (1782-1840), Italian violinist, performed in concert in Warsaw. Frederic Chopin (19) was so impressed that he proceeded to compose a series of piano studies a la Paganini. Chopin?s 27 Etudes later became a cornerstone of every gifted pianist?s repertoire. (WSJ, 11/15/08, p.W11) 1829 nend Jun 8, John Everett Millais, painter (Order of Release), was born in England. (MC, 6/8/02) 1829 nend Jun 12, Johanna Spyri (d.1901), Swiss author (Heidi), was born. [see June 12, 1827] (HN, 6/12/01) 1829 nend Jun 27, James Smithson (b.1765), Englishmen scientist, died. His 1926 will he stated that should his nephew die without heirs, the estate should go to the US of America to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institute, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men. In 2003 Nina Burleigh authored "The Stranger and the Statesman: James Smithson, John Quincy Adams and the Making of America's Greatest Museum, The Smithsonian." [see 1836] (SFEC, 8/25/96, p.T6)(SC, 6/27/02)(SSFC, 12/21/03, p.M1)(SSFC,12/21/03, p.A1) 1829 nend Jul 4, Cornerstone laid for 1st US mint (Chestnut & Juniper St, Phila). (Maggio, 98) 1829 nend Jul 4, In Boston, Mass., abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison (1805-1879) gave a passionate antislavery sermon at the Park Street Church and was attacked by a white supremacist mob who dragged him from the pulpit and beat him nearly to death. Garrison published the anti-slavery newspaper, the Liberator, from 1831-1865. (www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p1561.html)(AH, 10/07, p.72) 1829 nend Jul 23, William Austin Burt of Mount Vernon, Mich., received a patent for his "typographer," a forerunner of the typewriter. (AP, 7/23/99) 1829 nend Aug 9, The locomotive "Stourbridge Lion" went into service. (MC, 8/9/02) 1829 nend Aug 16, The original Siamese twins, Chang and Eng Bunker, arrived in Boston aboard the ship Sachem to be exhibited to the Western world. (AP, 8/16/97) 1829 nend Aug 25, Pres. Jackson made an offer to buy Texas, but the Mexican government refused. (chblue.com, 8/25/01) 1829 nend Aug 31, Giachinno Rossini's final opera "William Tell" was produced in Paris. (MC, 8/31/01) 1829 nend Sep 8, George Crook (d.1890), Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 9/8/01) 1829 nend Sep 12, Charles Dudley Warner, essayist and novelist who, with Mark Twain, wrote "The Guilded Age," was born. (HN, 9/12/98) 1829 nend Sep 25, There was a failed assassination attempt on Simon Bolivar. (MC, 9/25/01) 1829 nend Sep 28, Walker's Appeal, a racial antislavery pamphlet, was published in Boston. (MC, 9/28/01) 1829 nend Sep 29, London?s reorganized police force, "bobbies", which became known as Scotland Yard, went on duty. In 1828 Sir Robert Peel set up a committee whose findings paved the way for his police Bill, which led to the setting up of an organized police service in London. (http://www.met.police.uk/history/timeline1829-1849.htm)(AP, 9/29/97) 1829 nend Sep, Ralph Waldo Emerson married Ellen Louisa Tucker. She had active tuberculosis and died two years later. His two brothers, Edward Bliss and Charles Chauncy died of TB in 1834 and 1835. [see 1883-1885] (WP, 1952, p.41) 1829 nend Oct 5, the 21st president of the United States, Chester Alan Arthur, was born in Fairfield, Vt. Some sources list 1830. (AP, 10/5/07) 1829 nend Oct 16, Tremont Hotel, 1st US modern hotel, opened in Boston. (MC, 10/16/01) 1829 nend Oct 17, Delaware River and Chesapeake Bay Canal formally opened. The Chesapeake-Delaware Canal was 14 miles long. (NG, Sept., 1939, p.379)(MC, 10/17/01) 1829 nend Oct 17, Sam Patch (~23), stunt diver, successfully dove 120 feet from a platform on Goat Island at Niagara Falls. (MC, 11/13/01)(ON, 4/02, p.6) 1829 nend Oct 23, The Eastern State Penitentiary in Philadelphia received its 1st prisoner, burglar Charles Williams (18). It was based on the Quaker idea of reform through solitude and reflection. It opened to tourists in 1971 after being closed to prisoners. The prison was designed by John Haviland. (WSJ, 9/19/97, p.B1)(AHHT, 10/02, p.18) 1829 nend Oct 29, Maria A. [Nannerl] Mozart, Austrian pianist (Wolfgang's sister), died. (MC, 10/29/01) 1829 nend Nov 8, Lord William Bentinck, Governor-General of the East India Company, called for the abolition of sati (suttee), the practice of a widow burning herself to death on her husband's funeral pyre. [see Dec 4] (www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1829bentinck.html) 1829 nend Nov 13, Sam Patch (~23), stunt diver, dove 125 feet from a platform at the Genessee Falls in Rochester. His body was found the following March in the Genessee River ice. In 2003 Paul E. Johnson authored "Sam Patch, the Famous Jumper." (MC, 11/13/01)(ON, 4/02, p.6)(SSFC, 6/15/03, p.M6) 1829 nend Nov 16, Anton G. Rubinstein, Russian pianist, conductor and composer, was born. (MC, 11/16/01) 1829 nend Nov 20, Jews were expelled from Nikolayev and Sevastopol, Russia. (MC, 11/20/01) 1829 nend Nov 28, Anton Rubinstein (d.1894), pianist and composer (Omitri Doskoy), was born in Vykhvatinetz, Podolia. He was the teacher of Tchaikovsky and considered the only rival of Liszt. His work included 6 symphonies, dozens of concertos and chamber works, and 20 operas, of which only "The Demon" has shown staying power. It was based on Lermontov?s Byronic poem. (WSJ, 7/16/96, p.A9)(MC, 11/28/01) 1829 nend Dec 4, British colonial rulers abolished "suttee" (Sati) in India. This was the practice of a widow burning herself to death on her husband's funeral pyre. (http://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/p/103.html)(Reuters, 9/21/06) 1829 nend Dec 8, The first presidential address of Andrew Jackson. (WSJ, 4/2/96, p.A-14) 1829 nend Dec 14, In France Joseph Niepce signed a 10-year partnership agreement with Louis Daguerre to perfect a new photographic imaging process discovered by Niepce. (ON, 10/08, p.9) 1829 nend Dec 18, Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck (~85), French nature investigator, died. (MC, 12/18/01) 1829 nend Dec 21, The 1st stone arch railroad bridge in US was dedicated in Baltimore. (MC, 12/21/01) 1829 nend Dec 22, The Baltimore & Ohio Railroad opened the first passenger railway line. (HN, 12/22/98) 1829 nend Dec 27, Hinton Helper, southern abolitionist, was born. He wrote "The Impending Crisis," the most stinging indictment of slavery. (HN, 12/27/98) 1829 nend David Walker, an outspoken black abolitionist, stated the Mr. Jefferson?s remarks (on white superiority) "have sunk deep into the hearts of millions of whites and will never be removed this side of eternity." [see 1743] (SFC,12/897, p.A27) 1829 nend Hans Christian Andersen (1805-1875) published his first literary work: ?A Walking Tour from Holmen?s Canal to the Eastern Point of Amager.? (ON, 7/06, p.7) 1829 nend William Cobbett, British writer, authored ?The Emigrant?s Guide,? offering advice on settling in the New World. (WSJ, 12/22/08, p.A17) 1829 nend Mendelssohn's revived Bach?s St. Matthew Passion. (LGC-HCS, p.32) 1829 nend Frederic Chopin at 19 published his Waltz #10, Op.69/2 and Waltz #13 Op.70/3. These were his first and second published waltzes. (BAAC PN, Chambers, 1/8/96) 1829 nend Utopian reformers opened the Hall of Science in a disused downtown Manhattan church, across the street from Tract House, the headquarters of a new Christian evangelical movement. (SSFC, 9/8/02, p.M2) 1829 nend The American Bible Society published scripture in the Seneca Indian language. (WSJ, 8/7/98, p.W13) 1829 nend Sister Mary Elizabeth Lange of Haiti co-founded the first black religious order of nuns (the Oblate Sisters of Providence) in the US. (SFC, 5/26/96, T-7) 1829 nend US Senator Daniel Webster appointed the first Senate page. The first US House page was appointed in 1842. (SFC, 10/5/06, p.A16)(WSJ, 10/5/06, p.A4) 1829 nend Plymouth Brethren missionaries from the US made their 1st trip to Baghdad. (WSJ, 1/17/03, p.W13) 1829 nend Abner Cutler started a cabinet making business in Buffalo, New York. The company manufactured roll-top desks for decades. (SFC, 8/17/05, p.G5) 1829 nend The Yeungling Brewery began producing beer in Pottsville, Pa. (WSJ, 3/23/04, p.B5) 1829 nend William Austin Burt patented his typographer, the first practical typewriter writing machine. (SJSVB, 3/25/96, p.27) 1829 nend In Western Australia the Nyoongar people were largely dispossessed by white settlement. In 2006 they proved native title to over more than 6,000 square kilometers (2,300 square miles) covering Perth and its surrounds by continuing to observe traditional customs. (AFP, 9/20/06) 1829 nend Daniel O?Connell, an Irish Catholic, took a seat in the House of Commons and began to work for the repeal of the union between Britain and Ireland. Nationalistic sentiments became identified mainly with the Catholics. (SFEC, 12/22/96, Z1,p.6) 1829 nend In England the ban on Catholic voting was lifted. (SFEC, 10/6/96, BR p.5) 1829 nend Oxford and Cambridge held their first boat race on the River Thames at Henley in Oxfordshire. The second race occurred in 1836, with the venue moved to be from Westminster to Putney. (Econ, 3/28/09, p.95)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Boat_Race) 1829 nend The Obelisk of Luxor, a gift from Egypt, was transported to the Place de la Concorde in Paris. [see 1836] (WSJ, 10/26/99, p.A24) 1829 nend Friedrich Buschmann, German musician, invented the accordion and laid out the buttons in a circle of fifths pattern. (ElMus, 3/95, p.69) 1829 nend A hurricane destroyed the town of Loreto in Baha California except for the Mission Nuestra Senora de Loreto. The center of government was moved down the coast to La Paz. (SFEC, 5/18/97, p.T5)(SSFC, 11/2/03, p.C10) 1829 1833 Walter Bowne served as mayor of NYC. (SSFC, 4/17/05, Par p.12) 1829 1833 Honore Daumier, French artist, created his bust of Comte de Lameth. Daumier honed his caricaturing skills with a series of terra-cotta busts that lampooned the right-wing leaders of the Court party. Lameth had fought for the colonists in the American Revolution and had voted to abolish the aristocracy during the French revolution. (WSJ, 3/10/00, p.W16) 1829 1837 Andrew Jackson was President of the US. In 2001 Robert V. Remini authored "Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars." (A&IP, ESM, p.96b, photo)(SSFC, 7/15/01, DB p.63) 1829 1877 This period in US history was covered by Walter A. McDougall in his 2008 book ?Throes of Democracy: The American Civil War Era 1829-1877.? (WSJ, 3/11/08, p.D6) 1829 1900 Charles Dudley Warner, American author and editor: "Public opinion is stronger than the legislature, and nearly as strong as the Ten Commandments." (AP, 9/24/98) 1829 1904 John Rogers, sculptor. He depicted Americans the way they wanted to be seen and became known as the "People?s Sculptor." (AHHT, 4/01, p.7) 1829 1906 Carl Schurz, American politician: "Ideals are like stars; you will not succeed in touching them with your hands. But like the seafaring man on the desert of waters, you choose them as your guides, and following them you will reach your destiny." (AP, 5/21/98) 1829 1908 Thomas Hill, American landscape painter. (SSFC, 2/4/01, DB p.65) 1829 1912 General William Booth was the founder and leader of the Salvation Army, a Christian and social welfare organization taking spiritual and material help to the needy, first in London and then around the world. Booth, ordained a Methodist minister in 1858 but later becoming an independent evangelist, changed the name of his Christian Mission to the Salvation Army in 1878, adopting a military structure. Booth?s seven children toiled in the Army, organizing units (including the Volunteers of America) throughout the world. (HNQ, 3/13/00) 1830 nend Jan 7, 1st US Railroad Station opened in Baltimore. (MC, 1/7/02) 1830 nend Jan 7, Albert Bierstadt, painter (US landscapes), was born in Germany. (MC, 1/7/02) 1830 nend Jan 8, Gouverneur Kemble Warren (d.1882), Major Gen (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 1/8/02) 1830 nend Jan 8, Hans von Bulow, pianist, virtuoso conductor, was born in Dresden. (MC, 1/8/02) 1830 nend Jan 13, There was a great fire in New Orleans. It was thought to be set by rebel slaves. (MC, 1/13/02) 1830 nend Jan 28, Daniel Auber's opera "Fra Diavolo," premiered in Paris. (MC, 1/28/02) 1830 nend Feb 3, Robert Cecil, Marquess of Salisbury (C), British PM (1885-1902), was born. (MC, 2/3/02) 1830 nend Feb, In France the Comedie-Francaise performed "Hernani," a play whose hero swears vengeance against Don Carlo, i.e. King Charles. The play "provoked a brouhaha that heralded the July Revolution." (WSJ, 2/10/98, p.A16) 1830 nend Mar 4, V. Bellini's opera "I Capuleti e i Montecchi" premiered in Venice. (WSJ, 11/10/98, p.A20)(SC, 3/4/02) 1830 nend Mar 16, London reorganized its police force, Scotland Yard. (MC, 3/16/02) 1830 nend Apr 5, Alexander Muir, poet (Maple Leaf Forever), was born in Lesmahagow, Scotland. (MC, 4/5/02) 1830 nend Apr 6, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints was organized by Joseph Smith and five others in Fayette, Seneca County, N.Y. Joseph Smith published the "Book of Mormon" in Palmyra, New York. He claimed that the manuscript was based on ancient golden plates revealed to him by the angel Moroni and written in the language of the Egyptians. The book records the journey of an ancient Israelite prophet, Lehi, and his family to the American continent some 2,000 years ago. [see 1827, 1831] (SFC, 4/9/96, A-7)(NH, 10/96, p.19)(AP, 4/6/97)(HN, 4/6/98) 1830 nend Apr 9, Edward Muybridge, pioneered study of motion, photography, was born in England. In 2002 Rebecca Solnit authored "River of Shadows: Eadweard Muybridge and the Technological Wild West." (MC, 4/9/02)(SSFC, 1/26/03, p.M1) 1830 nend May 1, Mother (Mary Harris) Jones, reformer and labor organizer, was born. [see 1837] (HN, 5/1/01) 1830 nend May 3, The 1st regular steam train passenger service started. (MC, 5/3/02) 1830 nend May 5, John B. Stetson, American hat maker, was born. He gave his name to the wide-brimmed cowboy hat. (HN, 5/5/99) 1830 nend May 18, Karl Goldmark Keszthely, composer, was born in Hungary. (HN, 5/18/98)(SC, 5/18/02) 1830 nend May 18, Edwin Beard Budding of England signed an agreement for the manufacture of his invention, the lawn mower. He adopted the rotary blade in the cloth industry to grass. (SC, 5/18/02)(Econ, 12/20/03, p.118) 1830 nend May 20, The 1st railroad timetable was published in the newspaper Baltimore American. (MC, 5/20/02) 1830 nend May 20, Dr. Hyde patented a fountain pen. (MC, 5/20/02) 1830 nend May 24, "Mary Had a Little Lamb," was written. Sarah Josepha Hale of Newport, N.H., published a collection of poems "Poems for Our Children," that included "Mary Had a Little Lamb." [see 1815] (SFC, 8/24/98, p.B6)(MC, 5/24/02) 1830 nend May 24, The first passenger railroad in the United States began service between Baltimore and Elliott?s Mills, Md. The first regularly scheduled railroad passenger service was pulled by the engine named "The Best Friend of Charleston." (AP, 5/24/97)(SFC, 6/18/99, p.D4) 1830 nend May 25, Jules de Geyter, Belgian poet (International), was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1830 nend May 28, Congress authorized Indian removal from all states to western prairie. (HN, 5/28/98) 1830 nend Jun 26, Britain?s King George IV (b.1762) died. George Augustus Frederick of Hanover, Prince of Wales, was called Prinny by his friends. He was succeeded by his brother, King William IV. In 2002 Steven Parissien authored "George IV." The crown passed to George's brother who became William IV. (WSJ, 4/5/02,p.W12)(www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/george_iv_king.shtml)(ON,4/09, p.7) 1830 nend Jul 4, William Sublette, a trapper and explorer, named Independence Rock, Wyo., when he celebrated his 54th birthday there. (SFC, 8/13/98, p.A3) 1830 nend Jul 5, The French occupied the North African city of Algiers. (AP, 7/5/97) 1830 nend Jul 10, Camille Pissarro (d.1903), French impressionist painter, was born on the island of St. Thomas in the West Indies. He studied as a child in Paris but spent his early years as an artist in Caracas, Venezuela. In Paris he became a devotee of the neo-Impressionist technique. (WUD, 1994, p.1097)(DPCP 1984)(HN, 7/10/01) 1830 nend Jul 15, 3 Indian tribes, Sioux, Sauk & Fox, signed a treaty giving the US most of Minnesota, Iowa & Missouri. (MC, 7/15/02) 1830 nend Jul 18, Uruguay adopted a liberal constitution. (HN, 7/18/98) 1830 nend Jul 26, King Charles X of France issued five ordinances limiting the political and civil rights of citizens. (HN, 7/26/98) 1830 nend Jul 27, A second Revolution broke out in Paris opposing the laws of Charles X. (MC, 7/27/02) 1830 nend Jul 28, Revolution in France replaced Charles X with Louis Philippe. (SC, 7/28/02) 1830 nend Jul 29, Liberals led by the Marquis of Lafayette seized Paris in opposition to the king?s restrictions on citizens? rights. (HN, 7/29/98) 1830 nend Jul 31, Charles X of France was forcibly ejected from the French throne. [see Jul 28] (MC, 7/31/02) 1830 nend Jul-1830 Aug, In Britain the June 26 death of Britain?s King George IV triggered elections. Polling took place in July and August and the Tories won a majority over the Whigs, but division among Tory MPs allowed Earl Grey to form an effective government and take the question of electoral reform to the country the following year. (ON, 4/09,p.7)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_general_election,_1830) 1830 nend Aug 4, Plans for the city of Chicago were laid out. (AP, 8/4/97) 1830 nend Aug 9, Louis-Philippe formally accepted the crown of France, following abdication of Charles X, last brother of guillotined Louis XVI. He was the son of the opportunistic Duke d'Orleans, first cousin to the late king, who renounced his royal heritage and called himself plain Phillipe Egalite. Louis-Philippe voted for his cousin's death in 1793, but followed him to the guillotine in 1794. (MC, 8/9/02) 1830 nend Aug 25, The "Tom Thumb" steam locomotive, designed by Peter Cooper, ran its famous race with a horse-drawn car. The horse won because the engine, which had been ahead, broke down. [see Sep 18] (HN, 8/25/98)(ON, 1/01, p.12) 1830 nend Aug 25, Belgium rebelled against Netherlands. (chblue.com, 8/25/01) 1830 nend Aug 28, "Tom Thumb," the 1st locomotive in US, ran from Baltimore to Ellicotts Mill. (MC, 8/28/01) 1830 nend Sep 9 Charles Durant flew a balloon from New York City across the Hudson River to Perth Amboy, N.J. (AP, 9/9/05) 1830 nend Sep 15, British MP William Huskisson (b.1770) was killed under the wheels of the ?Rocket? train at the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. He was the 1st person to be run-over by a railroad train. (SFEC,12/21/97, Z1 p.5)(www.wordiq.com/definition/William_Huskisson) 1830 nend Sep 18, Tom Thumb" the first locomotive built in the United States, lost a nine-mile race in Maryland to a horse. [see Aug 25] (HN, 9/18/98)(ON, 1/01, p.12) 1830 nend Sep 18, William Hazlitt (b.1778), in his time England?s finest essayist, died. "A nickname is the heaviest stone that the devil can throw at a man." In 2008 Duncan Wu authored ?William Hazlitt: The First Modern Man.? (AP, 11/10/99)(WSJ, 1/16/09,p.W10)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hazlitt) 1830 nend Sep 20, The National Negro Convention convened in Philadelphia with the purpose of abolishing slavery. (HN, 9/20/98) 1830 nend Oct 15, Helen Maria Hunt Jackson (d.1885), writer and poet, was born in Amherst, Massachusetts. Her 1881 non-fiction work, "A Century of Dishonor," raised concerns about the treatment of Native Americans. Jackson, a lifelong friend of Emily Dickinson, worked on a government investigation of the treatment of Mission Indians. Her 1884 novel Ramona was also about the plight of Indians in California. "Wounded vanity knows when it is mortally hurt; and limps off the field, piteous, all disguises thrown away. But pride carries its banner to the last; and fast as it is driven from one field unfurls it in another." "It is the weakness and danger of republics, that the vices as well as virtues of the people are represented in their legislation." (AP, 5/24/97)(HN, 10/15/98)(HNQ, 12/20/99)(AP, 2/17/00) 1830 nend Nov 8, Oliver Otis Howard (d.1909), Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 11/8/01) 1830 nend Nov 13, Oliver Wendell Holmes published "Old Ironsides." (MC, 11/13/01) 1830 nend Nov 15, In Britain Lord Grey used his majority in the House of commons to defeat the government of Arthur Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington. Wellington resigned the next day. (ON, 4/09, p.8) 1830 nend Dec 5, Christina Rossetti (d.1894), poet (Winter Rain, Passing Away), was born in London. She wrote devotional verse, curious fairy tales and category defying poems. Her brothers, William Michael and Dante Gabriel, helped found the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, whose professed aim was to revive the purity and vividness they admired in late medieval art. Her story is told by Jan Marsh in "Christina Rosetti: A Writer?s Life." "Better by far you should forget and smile, Than that you should remember and be sad." (WSJ, 7/25/95, p.A-10)(AP, 12/11/98)(MC, 12/5/01) 1830 nend Dec 10, Emily Dickinson (d.1886), American poet, was born in Amherst, Massachusetts. Perhaps the best-known woman poet in the United States today, Dickinson led a rather secluded life. After studying at Amherst Academy and then for one year at the Mount Holyoke Female Seminary, she lived with her family and never married. The few friends that Emily Dickinson did have received regular gifts of poetry and letters from her. Although she wrote poetry constantly, she never seriously pursued publishing her work. Only about 10 poems were published in her lifetime, and those were submitted for publication without her permission. After her death in 1886, more than 1,700 of her poems, which she had bound together in bundles, were discovered and published. "They say that God is everywhere, and yet we always think of Him as somewhat of a recluse." (HNPD, 12/8/98)(AP, 1/10/99) 1830 nend Dec 17, Simon Bolivar (b.1783), called "the Liberator," died of TB in Santa Marta, in Colombia. He was a leader in Venezuela for struggles of national independence in South America. He formed a Gran Colombia that lasted 8 years, but broke apart into Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador. In 2006 John Lynch authored ?Simon Bolivar: A Life.? (AHD, p.148)(SFC, 6/14/97, p.E3)(AP, 12/17/97)(Econ, 7/1/06, p.77) 1830 nend Dec 20, An international conference declared the dissolution of the Kingdom of the Netherlands effectively recognizing the independence of Belgium. (http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~noemeetjesland/1830/1830.htm) 1830 nend Dec 26, Gaetano Donizetti's opera "Anna Bolena," premiered in Milan. (MC, 12/26/01) 1830 nend Ingres made his pencil study for "La Grande Odalisque. " (WSJ, 7/1/96, p.A11) c 1830 nend Franz Kreuger painted his portrait of Russia?s Empress Alexandra Fedorovna. (SSFM, 4/1/01, p.61) c 1830 nend Sheldon Peck, American New England artist, painted the portrait of a revolutionary soldier or dignitary. The portrait had been found in a local auction and was bought for $25. In 1997 it was valued at about $250,000. (SFC, 8/19/97, p.A6) 1830 nend George Earl Bulwer-Lytton (Edward George Bulwer-Lytton) published his novel "Paul Clifford." The opening line was "It was a dark and stormy night," and led to the 1982 Bulwer-Lytton Fiction Contest for bad writing. Lytton also coined the phrase "the pen is mightier than the sword." (SFC, 7/14/99, p.A14)(SFC, 7/10/01, p.A18) 1830 nend Stendhal (1783-1842), the nom de plume of French author Henri Beyle, authored ?The Red and the Black,? the story of a peasant who reaches for upward mobility through the favors of two mistresses. (WSJ, 3/15/08, p.W10) 1830 nend Charles Lyell published the first edition of his "Principles of Geology." (RFH-MDHP, p.70) 1830 nend The First Symphony by Berlioz had its premiere. (SFC, 6/28/97, p.E1) 1830 nend In Pennsylvania George Brinton began constructing a home later called Rondelay in Chadds Ford. After extensive renovations the 6 bedroom home on 38.9 acres was listed for sale in 1998 for $2.9 mil. (WSJ, 4/3/98, p.W8) 1830 nend Andrew Jackson, seventh President of the US, signed the Indian Removal Act of 1830. The act banished the Cherokee and other eastern tribes to beyond the Mississippi. (NG, 5/95, p.78) 1830 nend Pres. Andrew Jackson forced Thomas L. McKenney from his job as the 1st US superintendent of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Jackson disagreed with McKenney?s opinion that ?the Indian was, in his intellectual and moral structure, our equal.? (WSJ, 3/15/06, p.D16) 1830 nend Pres. Jackson named Roger Brooke Taney as US Attorney General. (WSJ, 11/21/06, p.D8) 1830 nend A year after leaving office as the sixth president of the United States, the Plymouth district of Massachusetts unexpectedly elected John Quincy Adams to the House of Representatives, where he served until he suffered a stroke on the House floor in 1848. He died two days later. Adams at the time enjoyed the distinction of having been the only son to follow his father to the presidency. (HNQ, 5/31/01) 1830 nend Senator Daniel Webster said: "Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable!" (WSJ, 9/30/97, p.A20) 1830 nend The USS Constitution (aka Old Ironsides) was condemned as unseaworthy. The ship was saved by a poem by Oliver Wendell Holmes, a Harvard anatomy professor, that stirred up protests. "Oh, better that her shattered hulk / Should sink beneath the wave..." (SFEC, 7/13/97, Par p.14)(SFC, 7/22/97, p.A11)(SFC,10/24/97, p.E5) 1830 nend The US Naval Observatory in Washington became the official timekeeper for the United States. (WSJ, 10/17/95, B-1) 1830 nend Commercial bottling operations for ketchup began in Boston. (SFC, 8/27/03, p.E4) 1830 nend The yard was standardized at 36 inches. It had started out as the girth of a Saxon. (SFC, 10/28/00, p.D4) c 1830 nend The Bowie knife was first introduced. (WSJ, 11/9/98, p.A1) 1830 nend Samuel Morrill, a newspaper printer, cooked up a new ink in his kitchen in Andover, Mass., forming a company that ultimately become Sun Chemical. In 2004 it was the largest maker of ink in the world. (SFC, 7/26/04, p.F4) 1830 nend A Frenchman patented a sewing machine. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1830 nend American alcohol consumption reached 7.1 gallons per capita. (WSJ, 10/5/98, p.A28) 1830 nend The non-Indian population of California was 4,256. (SFEC, 9/20/98, Z1 p.4) 1830 nend There were 40 million buffalo in the US at this time. By 1890 the number was reduced to 1,000. (NH, 12/96, p.10) 1830 nend Richard Lander, British explorer, completed Mungo Park?s journey down the Niger from Bussa to the mouth of the river in 5 months. (ON, 7/00, p.12) 1830 nend Henry Philip Hope, a London banker, purchased the 45 carat blue diamond. It later began to be known as the "Hope Diamond." (THC, 12/3/97)(EB, 1993, V6 p.51) 1830 nend A Massachusetts spice trading ship was seized by pirates in Sumatra. In 2001 "Drums of Quallah Battoo: Salem Pepper Traders and Sumatran Pirates" by Charles P Corn (d.2001) was to be published. (SFC, 3/20/01, p.A19) 1830 nend 1000 Albanian leaders were invited to meet with an Ottoman general who killed about half of them. (www, Albania, 1998) 1830 nend Mayor de San Andres, Bolivia?s major university, was founded in La Paz. (www.ddg.com/LIS/aurelia/boltou.htm) 1830 nend A French taxidermist stuffed an African Bushman from Botswana and took the body to Europe for exhibition. In 2000 the body was returned from a Spanish museum. (WSJ, 10/5/00, p.A1) 1830 nend In Germany the Altes Museum was designed by Karl Friedrich Schinkel in the center of Berlin. (WSJ, 7/29/98, p.A13) 1830 nend In Germany Michael Thonet (d.1871) started making bentwood furniture. He moved to Vienna in 1842 and in 1850 started making bentwood chairs for commercial use. His 5 sons joined the company and by 1856 it was known as Gebruder Thonet. In 1923 the company joined others to form Thonet-Kohn-Mundus and began making tubular steel furniture. It moved its headquarters to the US in 1940 and is still in business. (SFC, 9/4/96, z1 p.5) 1830 nend The Gran Colombia union collapsed and Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela became independent countries. (AP, 11/24/02) 1830 nend Some sources say that the 1st pizzeria opened in Naples about this time. [see 1889] (SFCM, 4/18/04, p.16) 1830 nend Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849), Japanese artist, created his famous woodblock print ?Beneath the Wave of Kanagawa? about this time. (Econ, 6/4/11, p.54) 1830 nend The government of Peru exempted guano from taxes. The commercial mining and export of the rich fertilizer soon followed. (www.newscotland1398.net/remem/cannonsndx.html) 1830 nend Nicholas I of Russia ruthlessly repressed the insurrection in Poland. (WSJ, 4/13/99, p.A16) 1830 1835 Tocqueville published his Democracy in America. In a democracy such as the United States, he said, private associations are permitted by the central government to perform quasi-governmental functions that take the brunt of governmental power and protect the people like a great umbrella spread out against a rainstorm. A nation without this crucial element in its makeup will be a more terrible tyranny than the world has ever seen. (V.D.-H.K.p.308) 1830 1837 Some 347 new banks were chartered in the US. The value of real estate rose 150%. (Panic, p.13,18) c 1830 1840 In St. Louis Henry Shaw made a fortune outfitting westward bound wagon trains. He retired at 40 and began to transform a wild prairie outside the city into magnificent gardens known later as The Missouri Botanical Garden (Shaw?s Garden). (SFC, 10/12/97, p.T5) c 1830 1840 Wine production began in Hunter Valley, north of Sydney (SFEC, 9/10/00, p.T6) c 1830 1840 Thomas Babington Macaulay (1800-1859), English essayist, historian and politician, served as a member of the British Supreme Council in India. (www.britannica.com)(Econ, 10/30/04, p.48) 1830 1840 Hokusai (1760-1849) made his "Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji during this decade. The wood blocks included "Under the Wave of Kanagawa," "The Back of Mt. Fuji from Minobu River," and "Winter Loneliness." The last was inspired by a poem of Minamoto no Muneyuki Ason. Another series was titled "A Tour of Japanese Waterfalls. (SFC, 9/24/98, p.E3) c 1830 1840 Charles Wheatsone of London developed the English concertina with a range of three chromatic octaves. (BAAC, 8/96, p.6) c 1830 1840 Chair manufacturers started using metal for chair parts. (SFC, 4/1/98, Z1 p.7) c 1830 1840 Don Vincente, a former Spanish monk, committed 8 murders for books owned by others. (SFC, 9/6.96, p.C5) c 1830 1840 s The US Congress adhered to a gag rule that prohibited any consideration of any petition regarding the status of slavery or the slave trade on federal territory. (WSJ, 7/29/96, p.A12) c 1830 1880 s The art of creating a memorial wreath from the hair of a departed loved one was a popular Victorian mourning ritual. (SFC,11/5/97, Z.1 p.3) 1830 1850 The Pennsylvania German community made traditional hand-stitched show towels and most show towels date from this period. They were hung on a door in the main room of a house. (SFC,12/10/97, Z1 p.9) 1830 1859 Alfred King worked as a jeweler and clockmaker in Chippenham, England, during this time. He signed his work "A. King." His clocks fetch $2-3k. (SFC, 7/9/97, Z1 p.3) 1830 1862 Britain?s economy doubled in size over this period as increased productivity spread from cotton to other industries. (Econ, 9/24/11, SR p.5) 1830 1864 Private coins were manufactured in several areas of the US. (SFEC, 7/5/98, Par p.17) 1830 1867 Alexander Smith, Scottish poet and essayist: "Christmas is the day that holds all time together." (AP, 12/24/97) 1830 1877 Some 12,500 convicts were locked in Tasmania during this period. (SSFC, 1/23/05, p.E6) 1830 1895 Lothar Meyer, German chemist, independently of Mendeleev discovered that if the chemical elements are arranged in a sequence according to their atomic weights, various chemical properties repeat periodically along the sequence. (SCTS, p.54) 1830 1897 In Brazil Antonio Vicente Mendes Maciel, aka Antonio Conselheiro, was born in Quixeramobim, Ceara. He founded the settlement of Canudos in Bahia that was destroyed by government forces. [see 1896] (SFC, 10/7/97, p.A14) 1830 1917 Belva Ann Bennett Lockwood, American social reformer: "The glory of each generation is to make its own precedents." (AP, 6/28/99) 1831 nend Jan 1, William Lloyd Garrison (1805-1879), 24-year-old reformer of Massachusetts, began publishing his newspaper The Liberator, dedicated to the abolition of slavery. Garrison's stridency and uncompromising position on both the institution of slavery and slave owners offended many in the North and South, but he vowed to continue the fight until slavery was abolished. In the first issue of his newspaper, he wrote, "I am aware that many object to the severity of my language; but is there not cause for severity? I will be as harsh as truth, and as uncompromising as justice. On this subject I do not wish to think, or speak, or write, with moderation. No! No!" Garrison once burned a copy of the U.S. Constitution, condemning it as "a covenant with death and an agreement with hell" because it did not forbid slavery. The Liberator ceased publication in 1865 after the 13th Amendment was passed, outlawing slavery. [see 1830] (HNPD, 12/31/98) 1831 nend Jan 20, Protocols were signed in London that recognized Belgium as an independent nation. Belgium became a nation and combined French and Flemish-speaking lands. The Rothschild banking empire financed the founding of Belgium. (SFC, 7/12/96, p.A11)(SSFC, 2/24/02, p.C5)(http://tinyurl.com/3335jt) 1831 nend Feb 7, The first Belgian Constitution was ratified. (http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~noemeetjesland/1830/1830.htm) 1831 nend Feb 13, John Aaron Rawlins (d.1969), Bvt. Major General (Union Army), was born. (MC, 2/13/02) 1831 nend Feb 19, The 1st practical US coal-burning locomotive made its 1st trial run in Pennsylvania. (MC, 2/19/02) 1831 nend Feb 20, Polish revolutionaries defeated the Russians in the Battle of Grochow. (HN, 2/20/98) 1831 nend Feb 25, The Polish army halted the Russian advance into their country at the Battle of Grochow. (HN, 2/25/99) 1831 nend Mar 2, John Frazee becomes 1st US sculptor to receive a federal commission. (SC, 3/2/02) 1831 nend Mar 3, George Pullman (inventor: railroad sleeping car; industrialist: Pullman Palace Car Company), was born. (HC, Internet, 3/3/98) 1831 nend Mar 4, Georg Michael Telemann (82), composer, died. (SC, 3/4/02) 1831 nend Mar 6, Philip Henry Sheridan, Union Army General and hero of the Battle of Cedar Creek, was born. (HN, 3/6/99) 1831 nend Mar 6, Edgar Allan Poe failed out of West Point. He was discharged from West Point for "gross neglect of duty." His parade uniform was supposedly incorrect. (SFEC, 4/13/97, Z1 p.4)(HN, 3/6/98) 1831 nend Mar 12, Clement Studebaker, auto maker, was born. John Studebaker mad a small fortune manufacturing wheelbarrows and pick axes for the miners in Placerville, Ca., that he used to found an automobile firm. (HN, 3/12/98)(SFEC, 4/12/98, p.T7) 1831 nend Mar 19, The first recorded US bank robbery occurred at the City Bank, in New York. Some $245,000 is stolen. (HN, 3/19/98) 1831 nend Mar 26, An interim government was set up in Raseiniai as a Lithuanian revolt against Russian rule began. There was a major uprising led by the Polish nobility in Warsaw against Russian rule. Russian forces began to march through Lithuania and this led many people of Lithuania to join in the rebellion against Russian rule. Serf uprisings also followed. The rebellion was eventually quelled by Russian force. (H of L, 1931, p.85-86)(LHC, 3/26/03) 1831 nend Mar 31, Archibald Scott, Scottish chemist, was born. (MC, 3/31/02) 1831 nend Mar 31, Quebec and Montreal were incorporated. (HN, 3/31/98) 1831 nend Apr 7, Pedro I of Brazil abdicated in favor of his 5-year-old son, Pedro de Alcantara, Pedro II. (EWH, 4th ed., p.855) 1831 nend Apr 12, Grenville Mellen Dodge, Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 4/12/02) 1831 nend May 16, David Edward Hughes, inventor (microphone, teleprinter), was born. (MC, 5/16/02) 1831 nend May 26, Russians defeated the Poles at battle of Ostrolenska. (HN, 5/26/98) 1831 nend May 31, Captain John Ross, English explorer, identified the magnetic north pole on the west coast of the Boothia Peninsula, Netsilik territory. (www.south-pole.com/p0000081.htm) 1831 nend Jun 1, John B. Hood Confederate Civil War general, was born. (HN, 6/1/98) 1831 nend Jun 13, James Clerk Maxwell (d.1879), Scottish physicist, was born. He showed that electrical, magnetic and optical phenomena were all united in a single universal force, electromagnetism, and formulated electromagnetic theory, (V.D.-H.K.p.269)(HN, 6/13/98) 1831 nend Jun 28, Joseph Joachim, violinist (Hungarian Concerto), was born in Kittsee, Germany. (MC, 6/28/02) 1831 nend Jul 4, "America (My Country 'Tis of Thee)" was 1st sung in Boston. [see Jul 4, 1832] (Maggio, 98) 1831 nend Jul 4, James Monroe, 5th President of the United States, died in New York City at age 73, making him the third ex-President to die on Independence Day. (AP, 7/4/97)(HN, 7/4/98)(IB, Internet, 12/7/98) 1831 nend Jul 21, Belgium became independent as Leopold I was proclaimed King of the Belgians. (AP, 7/21/97) 1831 nend Jul 24, Maria Agata Szymanowska (41), composer, died. (MC, 7/24/02) 1831 nend Jul 30, Helene P. Blavatsky, founder (Theosophist Cooperation), was born. (MC, 7/30/02) 1831 nend Aug 1, London Bridge opened to traffic. (MC, 8/1/02) 1831 nend Aug 2, The Dutch army, headed by the Dutch princes, invaded Belgium, in the so-called "Ten Days Campaign", and defeated Belgian forces near Hasselt and Leuven. Only the appearance of a French army under Marchal Gerard caused the Dutch to stop their advance. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian_Revolution) 1831 nend Aug 9, 1st US steam engine train run was from Albany to Schenectady, NY. (MC, 8/9/02) 1831 nend Aug 10, William Driver of Salem, Massachusetts, was the first to use the term "Old Glory" in connection with the American flag, when he gave that name to a large flag aboard his ship, the Charles Daggett. (HN, 8/10/98) 1831 nend Aug 21, Nat Turner led a rebellion in Southampton county, Va. This became known as "Nat Turner's Rebellion" or the "Southampton Slave Revolt." Turner and about seven followers murdered 55 white people, including the entire family of his owners, the Joseph Travis's. Turner had been taught to read by the Travis children and his studies of the bible led him to have visions of insurrection. Turner was later executed. A 1998 play by Robert O?Hara "Insurrection: Holding History" centered on the event. (www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3p1518.html)(SFC, 1/16/98, p.D1)(AP,8/21/07) 1831 nend Aug 24, John Henslow asked Charles Darwin to travel with him on HMS Beagle. (MC, 8/24/02) 1831 nend Aug 29, Michael Faraday, British physicist, demonstrated the 1st electric transformer. Faraday had discovered that a changing magnetic field produces an electric current in a wire, a phenomenon known as electromagnetic induction. (www.acmi.net.au/AIC/FARADAY_BIO.html)(WSJ, 9/17/01, p.R6) 1831 nend Aug 30, Charles Darwin refused to travel with the HMS Beagle. On Dec 27 he was onboard. (MC, 8/30/01)(AP, 12/27/97) 1831 nend Sep 7, Victorien Sardou, French stage writer (Madame Sans-Gene, Tosca), was born. (MC, 9/7/01) 1831 nend Sep 9, Eleven men, accused and convicted for participating in the revolt led by Nat Turner, were hanged. The death sentence for 7 others was commuted by the governor to "transportation," i.e. sale outside the state. (ON, 10/99, p.10) 1831 nend Sep 27, Joannis Capodistrias (55), Greek governor of Troezen, was murdered. (MC, 9/27/01) 1831 nend Oct 17, Felix Mendelssohn's 1st Piano concert in G premiered. (MC, 10/17/01) 1831 nend Oct 31, Daniel Butterfield (d.1901), Major General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 10/31/01) 1831 nend Oct 31, Nat Turner, rebel slave, was caught by Mr. Benjamin Phipps and locked up in Jerusalem, Va. Thomas Gray, his court appointed attorney, spent 3 days talking to Turner and compiled his notes into "The Confessions of Nat Turner," which were published in 1969. (ON, 10/99, p.10) 1831 nend Nov 3, Ignatius Donnelly (d.1901), American social reformer, was born. Donnelly was an important scholar of the mythical continent of Atlantis. In 1882 he wrote "Atlantis: The Antediluvian World." (SFEC, 7/26/98, BR p.3)(HN, 11/3/99) 1831 nend Nov 5, Nat Turner, rebel slave, was tried in Southampton county, Va. (www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3p1518.html) 1831 nend Nov 8, Edward R.L. Bulwer-Lytton, English writer, was born. (MC, 11/8/01) 1831 nend Nov 11, Nat Turner was hanged and skinned in Southampton county, Va. Hysteria surrounded this rebellion and over 200 slaves, some as far away as North Carolina, were murdered by whites in fear of a generalized uprising. A martyr to the anti-slavery cause, Turner's actions had the adverse effect of virtually ending all abolitionist activities in the south before the Civil War. (www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3p1518.html)(HN, 11/11/98) 1831 nend Nov 14, Ignaz Joseph Pleyel (74), Austrian composer and piano builder, died. (MC, 11/14/01) 1831 nend Nov 16, Karl von Clausewitz (51), Prussian strategist (Campaign 1813), died. (MC, 11/16/01) 1831 nend Nov 19, James A. Garfield (d.1881) the 20th Pres. of the US, was born in Orange Township, Ohio. (WUD, 1994, p.584)(AP, 11/19/08) 1831 nend Nov 22, Giacomo Meyerbeer's opera "Robert Le Diable" was produced (Paris). (MC, 11/22/01) 1831 nend Dec 5, Former President John Quincy Adams took his seat as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives. (AP, 12/5/01) 1831 nend Dec 23, Emilija Pliateryte (b.1831), Lithuanian rebel leader, died in Kapciamiestis while retreating to Prussia with the rebel army. She had organized a detachment in Dusetos with her cousin Cesar Pliateris (1810-1869) and both took an active part in the uprising. Together with the detachment of H. Horodeckij they defeated Zarasai. Emilija Pliateryte took part in many battles: at Mai?iagala, Kaunas, and ?auksnai. (http://www.mmlab.ktu.lt/mmlab/ZarasaiE/zmo/za_pli.htm) 1831 nend Dec 26, Vincenzo Bellini's opera "Norma," premiered at La Scala in Milan. (www.musicabona.com/bellini_vincenzo/13853/cd/index.html.en) 1831 nend Dec 27, HMS Beagle departed from Plymouth. Naturalist Charles Darwin set out on a voyage to the Pacific aboard the HMS Beagle. Darwin's discoveries during the voyage helped formed the basis of his theories on evolution. (HN, 12/27/98)(AP, 12/27/97) 1831 nend Dec 28, Samuel Sharp (1801-1832) led a slave uprising that was put down at great cost by the British. The Rebellion lasted for eight days and resulted in the death of around 186 Africans and 14 white planters or overseers. The white vengeance convicted over 750 rebel slaves, of which 138 were sentenced to death. (Econ, 2/24/07, p.73)(http://tinyurl.com/3cu2ds) 1831 nend Dec 29, Adam Badeau (d.1895), Bvt Brig General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 12/29/01) 1831 nend Balzac wrote his story "The Unknown Masterpiece." It became a parable of modern art. (WSJ, 1/4/98, p.A8) 1831 nend The "Hunchback of Notre Dame" (Notre Dame de Paris) by Victor Hugo was published. Disney released an animated film based on the classic in 1996. (WSJ, 6/20/95, p.B-1) 1831 nend Frederic Chopin at 21 published his Waltz #1 in Eb Major and Waltz #3. These were his third and fourth published waltzes. (BAAC PN, Chambers, 1/8/96) 1831 nend The Sinking Spring Presbyterian Church was built in Abingdon, Virginia. It was later bought by the Sons of Temperance. In 1900 it was deeded to the city and in 1933 became the home of the Barter Theater. (HT, 3/97, p.14) 1831 nend Early followers of Joseph Smith merged with a communal Christian sect and relocated to Kirkland, Ohio. [see 1838] (SFC, 4/9/96, A-7) 1831 nend The International Platform Association was founded by Daniel Webster and Josiah Holbrook. It is an organization for those on the lecture platform. (DrEE, 10/26/96, p.4) 1831 nend At Yale the Skull and Bones society was founded. Boneswomen were not admitted until 1991. (USAT, 1/15/97, p.6D) 1831 nend The New York City Marble Cemetery on Manhattan's Lower East Side was established. (AP, 10/12/10) 1831 nend The American Railroad Journal was established. (Panic, p.7) 1831 nend US copyright protections were expanded to cover musical compositions. (SFC, 4/8/02, p.E1) 1831 nend The anti-Mason Party met in Baltimore for the first presidential nominating convention in the US. The 116 delegates selected William Wirt of Maryland. (Hem, 8/96, p.86) 1831 nend New York Senator William L. Marcy made the statement, "To the victor belong the spoils of the enemy," on the floor of the U.S. Senate in 1831. Marcy was responding to attacks on Secretary of State Martin van Buren made by Senator Henry Clay with regard to the use of patronage for party purposes, known as the "spoils system." Marcy, who retired from the senate in 1833, became known as the "champion of the spoils system." He went on to serve as secretary of war and secretary of state. (HNQ, 9/23/99) 1831 nend George Calvert Yount of North Carolina first arrived in the Napa Valley, Ca. (www.westsong.com/yountville/yountdo.html) 1831 nend In the US the first federally financed artwork was a $400 bust John Jay, the first Chief Justice of the US. (WSJ, 12/1/95, p.A-1) 1831 nend Robert A. Kinzie paid $127.68 for 102 acres of land that became much of Chicago. (SFC, 2/26/00, p.B3) 1831 nend In New Hampshire Joseph Foster began building reed organs and melodeons. In 1845 he moved from Winchester to Keene and was joined by his brother Ephraim. The firm became known as "J&E Foster." They worked together until Joseph died in 1875. (SFC, 2/18/98, Z1 p.3) 1831 nend The Ohio city of Cincinnati became known as "Porkopolis". Strategically located on the banks of the Ohio River, Cincinnati gained the nickname because it was then America?s greatest meat packing center. (HNQ, 3/16/00) 1831 nend The lawn mower was invented in England. (SFC, 7/14/99, p.4) 1831 nend Stephen Girard (b.1750), shipping, real estate, banking and insurance magnate, died. His $7 million estate was the largest in the nation and he bequeathed it to create and sustain a school for orphan boys. His value in 1999 dollars totaled $56 billion. (WSJ, 1/2/97, p.6) 1831 nend The original Zouaves, Zouaoua tribesmen from Algeria, formed their brightly dressed fighting force and later gained renown for their bravery during the Crimean and Franco-Austrian wars. American units imitated both the dress and battle courage of these fierce fighters. (HNQ, 10/12/01) 1831 nend James Busby, Scottish-born father of Australian viticulture, collected 680 different vines from botanical gardens in Montpellier, Paris and London and brought them to Australia. These included the syrah grape, called shiraz in Australia. (SFC, 5/5/05, p.F10) 1831 nend The Austro-Italian insurance company Assicurazioni Generali Austro-Italiche was established. (www.generali.ro/eng_despre_noi/istorie.htm) 1831 nend In London a 9-bedroom residence was built for a nobleman that in 1931 became the Abbey Road recording studio. (Sky, 9/97, p.53) 1831 nend The Garrick Club was founded in London for actors, writers and politicians. (SFEC, 8/16/98, p.A20)(NW, 4/24/03, p.55) 1831 nend A cholera epidemic broke out in London. (ON, 5/05, p.8) 1831 nend Sayyid Ahmad of Rai Bareilly (b.1786), Islamic warrior, died in a battle against the Sikhs. Sayeed Ahmad Shaheed was slain in Balakot (later part of Pakistan) while failing to repel Sikh invaders. (WSJ, 4/4/08,p.W5)(www.turntoislam.com/forum/showthread.php?t=11151)(AP, 4/6/06) 1831 nend Slaves in Jamaica were emancipated. (SFC, 12/10/99, p.AA8) 1831 nend Takashsimaya was founded in Kyoto, Japan, as a kimono shop. It grew to become the nation?s largest department store chain. (SFC, 6/11/96, p.A14) 1831 nend Patrick Matthew, a Scottish landowner, provided a description of natural selection in an appendix to a book about growing the best trees to make warships. (Econ, 2/7/09, p.73) 1831 1832 Animals from the Tower of London menagerie created the core of the London Zoo. (Hem, 9/04, p.71) 1831 1837 Abraham Lincoln lived in New Salem, Ill. During this time he enlisted in the Black Hawk War. [see 1832] (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.)(SFEC, 3/22/98, p.T4) 1831 1870 Louis Remy Mignot, painter. He was a landscape artist of the Hudson River School and painted in North America, Europe and South America. (WSJ, 11/5/96, p.A20) 1831 1892 The 16 œ mile Savannah-Ogeechee Canal in Savannah, Georgia, was built by slaves and Irish workers to transport cotton and timber between the 2 rivers. Plans for restoration of the canal were made in 1998. (SFEC, 8/23/98, p.T3) 1831 1899 Othniel Charles Marsh, born in Lockwood, New York, becomes Professor of Paleontology at Yale Univ. and vertebrate Paleontologist to the US Geological Survey. His expeditions unearthed 80 new species of dinosaur. (T.E.-J.B. p.24) 1831 1919 Amelia Edith Barr, American author and journalist "The fate of love is that it always seems too little or too much." (AP, 3/29/98) 1832 nend Jan 6, Gustave Dore, illustrator (Inferno, Ancient Mariner), was born in Strasbourg, France. (MC, 1/6/02) 1832 nend Jan 13, Horatio Alger, Jr., the author of more than 100 inspirational books for young people from the Civil War to the turn of the 20th century, was born the son of a Unitarian minister. Rejected by the Union Army because of asthma, Horatio Alger was a poet, teacher and newspaper correspondent before he eventually followed in his father's footsteps and became a minister on Cape Cod. Alger is best-known, however, for his books with rags-to-riches themes. In Alger's world, everyone, no matter how poor or powerless, could succeed through hard work, honesty and high moral values. His "pluck and luck" books of hope in the face of adversity were always bestsellers and almost every home, school and church owned a large collection. More than 250 million copies of his books have been sold worldwide. His books included "Ragged Dick" and "Tattered Tom." (HNPD, 1/13/99) 1832 nend Jan 23, Edouard Manet (d.1883), French impressionist painter. His work was a major influence on the young artists who created the Impressionist movement. His style was influenced by the Spanish masters, particularly Velasquez. His work included the "Execution of Maximilian," "Luncheon on the Grass," the pastel "Portrait of Mademoiselle Lemaire," "In the Boat," "La Promenade" and "Le Journal Illustre" (ca. 1878-79). (WUD, 1994, p.871)(WSJ, 7/1/96, p.A11)(SFC, 8/21/96, p.A9)(AAP,1964)(WUD, 1994, p.871)(WSJ, 2/13/97, p.A16)(DPCP 1984) 1832 nend Jan 27, Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (d.1898), who wrote "Alice?s Adventures in Wonderland" in 1865 under the pen name Lewis Carroll, was born in Cheshire, England. He was also know as a skilled photographer and did nude photography with an "intense focus on his subjects? personalities." Dodgson lectured on mathematics at Oxford from 1855 to 1881 and made up the stories about Alice in Wonderland for his daughter Alice and her sisters. He wrote "Through the Looking Glass" in 1872 and other children?s books. His most important mathematical work was the 1879 "Euclid and His Modern Rivals." "If you limit your actions in life to things that nobody can possibly find fault with, you will not do much." In 1995 Morton N. Cohen published an authoritative biography titled "Lewis Carroll: A Biography." (WSJ, 11/9/95, p.A-20)(AP, 1/14/98)(AP, 1/27/98) 1832 nend Feb 6, A US ship destroyed a Sumatran village in retaliation for piracy. (MC, 2/6/02) 1832 nend Feb 6, There was an appearance of cholera at Edinburgh, Scotland. (MC, 2/6/02) 1832 nend Feb 13, Cholera appeared in London for the 1st time. (MC, 2/13/02) 1832 nend Feb 20, Charles Darwin visited Fernando Noronha in Atlantic Ocean. (MC, 2/20/02) 1832 nend Feb 22, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (b.1749), poet, (Faust, Egmont) died in Weimar, Germany. Goethe had served as minister of mines under Bismarck. He completed "Faust" just before his death: "When Ideas fail, words come in handy." In 1988 Kenneth Weisinger authored "The Classical Facade: A Non-Classical Reading of Goethe's Criticism." In 2006 John Armstrong authored ?Love, Life, Goethe: How to Be Happy in an Imperfect World.? (SFEC, 4/26/98, Z1 p.8)(SFC, 8/7/03, p.A19)(SFC, 12/14/04,p.B1)(WSJ, 1/13/07, p.P10) 1832 nend Feb 26, Jo George Nicolay, private secretary to Abraham Lincoln and his biographer, was born. (HN, 2/26/98)(SC, 2/26/02) 1832 nend Feb 26, The Polish constitution was abolished by Czar Nicholas I. (SC, 2/26/02) 1832 nend Feb, A cholera epidemic ended in Great Britain. Some 800 people died of the disease in London. Dr. John Snow eventually traced the London epidemic to a water pump on Broad Street. [see 1849] In 2006 Steven Johnson authored ?The Ghost Map,? a history of London?s cholera outbreak. (www.mernick.co.uk/thhol/1832chol.html)(WSJ, 10/21/06, p.P8) 1832 nend Mar 4, Jean Francois Champollion (b.1790), French scholar, died. His work included the 2-volume book ?Egypt Under the Pharaohs? (1814) and a translation of the hieroglyphics of the Rosetta Stone, completed in 1822. (ON, 8/10,p.7)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Champollion) 1832 nend Mar 10, Muzio Clementi (79), Italian composer, died. (MC, 3/10/02) 1832 nend Mar 11, Franz Melde, German physicist (Melde test), was born. (MC, 3/12/02) 1832 nend Mar 12, Charles Boycott, estate manager who caused boycotts, was born in Ireland. (MC, 3/12/02) 1832 nend Mar 17, Daniel Conway Moncure, U.S. clergyman, author, abolitionist, was born. (HN, 3/17/98) 1832 nend Mar 24, Mormon founder, martyr Joseph Smith was beaten, tarred and feathered in Ohio. (MC, 3/24/02) 1832 nend Mar 24, The British Reform Act passed the House of Commons under the Whig government. It introduced the first changes to electoral franchise legislation in almost one hundred and fifty years. On June 4 it passed the House of Lords and on June 7 received Royal Assent. (www.historyhome.co.uk/peel/refact/campaign.htm)(Econ, 6/30/07, p.93) 1832 nend Mar 26, Famed western artist George Catlin began his voyage up the Missouri River aboard the American Fur Company steamship Yellowstone. Painted Warriors. (HN, 3/26/99) 1832 nend Apr 4, Charles Darwin aboard HMS Beagle reached Rio de Janeiro. (MC, 4/4/02) 1832 nend Apr 8, Charles Darwin began a trip through Rio de Janeiro. (MC, 4/8/02) 1832 nend Apr 8, Some 300 American troops of the 6th Infantry left Jefferson Barracks, St. Louis, to confront the Sauk Indians in what would become known as the Black Hawk War. (HN, 4/8/99) 1832 nend Apr 13, James Wimshurst, British designer, inventor (electric static generator), was born. (MC, 4/13/02) 1832 nend Apr 15, Wilhelm Busch, German artist, was born. He created the precursor to the cartoon strip. (HN, 4/15/02) 1832 nend Apr 19, Lucretia Rudolph, President Garfield?s first lady, was born. (HN, 4/19/97) 1832 nend Apr 21, Abraham Lincoln (23) assembled with his New Salem neighbors for the Black Hawk War on the Western frontier. Illinois Governor John Reynolds had called for volunteers to beat back a new Indian threat. Black Hawk, chief of the Sac and Fox Indians, had returned to his homeland at the head of a band of 450 warriors, intent on forcibly reversing the treaty he had signed 28 years earlier that ceded control of the tribe?s ancestral home in northwestern Illinois to the U.S. government. (HNQ, 7/21/00) 1832 nend May 5, H.H. Bancroft, historian, publisher (History of Pacific States), was born. (MC, 5/5/02) 1832 nend May 7, The Treaty of London protocol was signed between Bavaria and the protecting Powers. It basically dealt with the way in which the Regency of Bavaria was to be managed until Otto of Bavaria reached his majority. Greece was defined as an independent kingdom, with the Arta-Volos line as its northern frontier and Otto as king. (http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php/Treaty_of_London,_1832) 1832 nend May 12, Gaetano Donizetti's opera "L'elisir d'amore," premiered in Milan. (MC, 5/12/02) 1832 nend May 14, Felix Mendelssohn's "Hebrides," premiered. (MC, 5/14/02) 1832 nend May 18, Bonafacio Asioli, composer, died. (SC, 5/18/02) 1832 nend May 21, The first Democratic National Convention got under way, in Baltimore and re-nominated Andrew Jackson. (Hem, 8/96, p.86)(AP, 5/21/97) 1832 nend May 23, Samuel Sharp was hanged in Jamaica for leading a slave rebellion. He is survived by his immortal declaration: "I would rather die upon yonder gallows than live in slavery." (Econ, 2/24/07, p.73)(http://tinyurl.com/3cu2ds) 1832 nend May 31, Evariste Galois (b.1811), French mathematician who developed a general theory of equations, died from wounds suffered in a duel. In 2005 Mario Livio authored ?The Equation That couldn?t Be Solved: How Mathematical Genius Discovered the Language of Symmetry.? no_source 8 nend /27/05, p.68) no_source 1832 nend Jun 5, In Paris an insurrection took place during General Lamarque's funeral when insurgents got as far as the Rue Montorgueil and were then driven back. (SFC, 6/30/07, p.E2)(www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/07/01.htm) 1832 nend Jun 6, Jeremy Bentham (b.1748), English social reformer, died. He had his body preserved at the Univ. College, London. Bentham was later considered the father of utilitarianism. He thought that enlightened policymakers should seek the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people. (WSJ, 4/15/99, p.A20)(www.britannica.com)(Econ, 11/27/10, p.84) 1832 nend Jun 7, The British Reform Act received royal assent and became law. The act, pressed through by PM Earl Grey, forestalled a revolution by increasing the number of people who were eligible to vote. (ON, 4/09, p.10) 1832 nend Jul 4, The song "America" was sung publicly for the first time at a Fourth of July celebration by a group of children at Park Street Church in Boston. The words were written on a scrap of paper in half an hour by Dr. Samuel Francis Smith, a Baptist minister, and were set to the music of "God Save the King." (IB, Internet, 12/7/98) 1832 nend Jul 5, The German government began curtailing freedom of the press after German Democrats advocate a revolt against Austrian rule. (HN, 7/5/98) 1832 nend Jul 10, President Andrew Jackson vetoed legislation to re-charter the Second Bank of the United States. (AP, 7/10/97) 1832 nend Jul 13, Henry Schoolcraft discovered the source of the Mississippi River in Minnesota. Henry Rowe Schoolcraft came upon the lake where the Mississippi starts and intended to call it Veritas Caput, the Latin for "true head." The name was too long and got shortened at both ends to Itasca. (SFC, 10/5/96, p.E3)(HN, 7/13/98) 1832 nend Jul 22, Napoleon FKJ Bonaparte (21), [l'Aiglon], king of Rome, died. (MC, 7/22/02) 1832 nend Jul 25, The 1st US railroad accident was at Granite Railway, Quincy, Mass., and 1 died. (SC, 7/25/02) 1832 nend Aug 2, Some 1,300 Illinois militia under General Henry Atkinson massacred Sauk Indian men, women and children who were followers of Black Hawk at the Bad Axe River in Wisconsin. Black Hawk himself finally surrendered three weeks later, bringing the Black Hawk War to an end. (HN, 8/2/98)(MC, 8/2/02) 1832 nend Aug 27, Black Hawk, leader of Sauk-Indians, gave himself up. (MC, 8/27/01) 1832 nend Aug 31, Jean Nicolas Auguste Kreutzer, composer, died at 53. (MC, 8/31/01) 1832 nend Aug, In Pennsylvania 57 Irish immigrants died of cholera after traveling there to build a railroad. In 2009 their bones were found at a woodsy site known as Duffy's Cut, named after Philip Duffy, who hired the immigrants from Donegal, Tyrone and Derry to help build the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad. In 2010 evidence indicated that at least some of the men?s remains showed signs of violence. (AP, 3/25/09)(AP, 8/16/10) 1832 nend Sep 21, Sir Walter Scott (b.1771), Scottish poet and novelist, died at Abbotsford near Melrose in the Scottish Borders. His novels included "Ivanhoe" and "Rob Roy." Scott was later credited with inventing the genre of historical fiction. In 2010 Stuart Kelley authored ?Scott-land: The Man Who Invented a Nation.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Scott)(SSFC, 3/11/07,p.G3)(Econ, 7/31/10, p.67) 1832 nend Sep 25, William Le Baron Jenney, US, architect and "father of the skyscraper," was born. (MC, 9/25/01) 1832 nend Oct 4, William Griggs, inventor (photo chromo lithography), was born. (MC, 10/4/01) 1832 nend Oct 14, Blackfeet Indians attacked American Fur Company trappers near Montana?s Jefferson River, killing one. (HN, 10/14/98) 1832 nend Oct 22, Leopold Damrosch, composer, was born. (MC, 10/22/01) 1832 nend Nov 14, Charles Carroll (95), large landowner and signer Declaration of Independence, died. (MC, 11/14/01) 1832 nend Nov 14, The first streetcar?a horse-drawn vehicle called the John Mason?went into operation in New York City. (AP, 11/14/97) 1832 nend Nov 15, Felix Mendelssohn's Symphony # 5 ("Reformation") premiered. (MC, 11/15/01) 1832 nend Nov 15, Jean-Baptiste Say (b.1767), French economist, died. He is remembered for what came to be called Say?s Law: ?the supply (sale) of X creates the demand (purchase) of Y.? This law can be shown by business-cycle statistics. When downturns start, production is always first to decline, ahead of demand. When the economy recovers, production recovers ahead of demand. A society can?t consume if it does not produce. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say)(WSJ, 1/23/08, p.A25) 1832 nend Nov 24, South Carolina passed an Ordinance of Nullification. The US government had enacted a tariff. South Carolina nullified it and threatened to secede. Pres. Jackson threatened armed force on his home state but a compromise was devised by Henry Clay that ducked the central problem. (WSJ, 9/19/97,p.A13)(www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/Nullification.html) 1832 nend Nov 24, The doctrine of nullification involved an argument concerning the nature of the union as defined by the writers of the Constitution and addressed the question: "Was the US a compact of sovereign states, each retaining ultimate authority, or was the US one nation formed by the people through the writing of the Constitution?" John C. Calhoun, supporter of the doctrine of nullification, was Pres. Jackson's principal opponent in the nullification crises. (www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/butowsky2/constitution4.htm#17) 1832 nend Nov 26, Public streetcar service began in New York City. The fare: 12 œ cents. (AP, 11/26/97) 1832 nend Nov 29, Louisa May Alcott (d.1888), American author who wrote "Little Women," was born in Germantown, Pa. Under the pen name A.M. Barnard she wrote stories of violence and revenge that included "Pauline?s Passion and Punishment." "It takes people a long time to learn the difference between talent and genius, especially ambitious young men and women." (WUD, 1994, p.35)(SFC, 6/17/97, p.E3)(AP, 7/12/98)(HN, 11/29/98) 1832 nend Dec 5, Andrew Jackson was re-elected US president and became the 1st president to win an election in which the turnout exceeded 50%. The US anti-Mason Party with William Wirt drew 8% of the vote against Henry Clay and the eventual winner, Andrew Jackson. Clay led the Whig Party which coalesced against the power of Andrew Jackson. The Whigs came from the conservative, nationalist wing of the Jeffersonian Republicans. The election served as a referendum on Jackson?s position against the 2nd Bank of the US. (Hem, 8/96, p.86)(WSJ, 7/8/99, p.A16)(Panic, p.3)(AH, 6/07, p.45) 1832 nend Dec 15, Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel, designed named the tower in Paris, was born. (HN, 12/15/98) 1832 nend Dec 22, HMS Beagle and Charles Darwin reached Barnevelts Islands. (MC, 12/22/01) 1832 nend Dec 25, Charles Darwin celebrated Christmas in St. Martin at Cape Receiver. (MC, 12/25/01) 1832 nend Dec 28, John C. Calhoun became the first vice president of the United States to resign, stepping down over differences with President Jackson. Van Buren served as vice president under Andrew Jackson from 1833 to 1837. (SFC, 9/19/96, p.A18)(AP, 12/28/97)(HNQ, 9/19/99) 1832 nend Uriah Phillips Levy, a US naval lieutenant, commissioned a statue of Thomas Jefferson by Paris sculptor Piere-Jean David D?Anger. In 1847 Pres. Polk set the statue in front of the white House, where it stood for 27 years. (SFC, 11/23/01, p.D8) 1832 nend Delacroix painted the Moroccan scene "A Street in Meknes." (WSJ, 9/27/00, p.A24) 1832 nend Jean Ingres, French artist, painted the portrait of the self-made newspaperman "Louis-Francois Bertin." (WSJ, 5/28/99, p.W12) 1832 nend The Durham Steer was painted by Austin Neame for the Kent & Canterbury Show of livestock. (WSJ, 9/66/96, p.B8) 1832 nend Jean Giono wrote his 1954 novel: "The Horseman on the Roof." In 1996 it was made into a film directed by Jean-Paul Rappeneau and is set in plague-stricken Provence in 1832. (WSJ, 5/17/96,p.A-12) 1832 nend A lexicon of famous hand gestures was written by a canon of the Cathedral of Naples. In 2000 it was translated by to English by Andrea de Jorio. (SFCM, 3/11/01, p.32) 1832 nend Berlioz composed "Lelio." (SFC, 6/28/97, p.E1) 1832 nend The Hudson Bay Company founded its trading post of Fort Nisqually. 2nd source has it established in 1833, 15 miles south of Tacoma as the hub of the Puget Sound Agricultural Company. (AM, Vol. 48, No. 3)(HT, 3/97, p.8) 1832 nend Pres. Jackson dispatched the US Navy to South Carolina to quash an effort to nullify federal tariffs within the state. (WSJ, 5/19/05, p.D8) 1832 nend Pres. Jackson sent the frigate Potomac to bombard the pirate lair of Kuala Batu. (WSJ, 10/9/01, p.A22) 1832 nend The US Congress passed a law that required all US citizens to fast and pray one day a week. It was neither enforced nor observed. (SFC, 10/31/98, p.D4) 1832 nend Congress set aside the thermal springs at Hot Springs, Ark., as a federal reservation. (USAT, 2/4/04, p.9A) 1832 nend Phrenology, the "science" of reading the human personality from bumps on the skull, was brought to America by German physician Johann Spurzheim. It was founded on the theory that the brain had 35 to 45 sectors, each the site of a particular character trait such as appetite, combativeness and benevolence. Phrenology gained an enthusiastic following in America and spawned a whole industry producing phrenological paraphernalia. Cranial "maps" could be purchased to chart the topography of the skull and reveal the subject's true self. Although phrenology was ultimately rejected as having no basis in scientific fact, it reflected 19th-century scientists' growing interest in the workings of the human brain. (HNPD, 5/20/99) 1832 nend Alfred Mosher Butts, an architect in Poughkeepsie, N.Y., invented the game he called "Lexico." He made millions after the name was changed to "Scrabble." [see 1938] (SFEC, 2/9/97, z1 p.6) 1832 nend A cholera epidemic hit Baltimore and at least 853 people were killed. Fundamentalist Christians blamed the deaths on the "judgement of God." (SFEC, 3/5/00, Z1 p.4) 1832 nend The Pittsburgh riverfront home of coal baron Abraham Hays flooded. Hays built a new mansion, which later became a stop on the Underground Railroad, harboring slaves who traveled a tunnel from the Monongahela River to the vast brick-lined basement. (www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/s_640258.html) 1832 nend Charles Carroll, one of the signers of the US Declaration of Independence, died at age 95. (SFEC, 7/27/97, Z1 p.7) 1832 nend Franz Sacher, a chef in the employ of Prince Metternich, invented the torte. Family documents at the Hotel Sacher in Vienna support the claim. (SFEM, 10/13/96, p.14) 1832 nend The United Kingdom passed the Anatomy Act, which allowed hospitals and workhouses to hand over for dissection bodies left unclaimed for two days. (Econ, 11/15/08, p.99) 1832 nend Honore Daumier, French artist, was imprisoned for 6 months for his barbs against King Louis-Philippe. (WSJ, 3/10/00, p.W16) 1832 nend Charles-Louis Havas sets up a foreign newspapers translation agency. (www.afp.com) 1832 nend Jul 1, The firm Jardine, Matheson & Co. was founded in Canton following a meeting between William Jardine and another Scots trader, James Matheson from Sutherland. (Econ, 6/30/07, SR p.13) 1832 nend In Kazakhstan Akmolinsk was founded. It was later renamed Tselinograd and then Akmola. In 1998 it became the capital and was renamed Astana, which means capital. (SFC, 5/22/98, p.A14) 1832 nend In Sweden King Karl XIV Johan inaugurated the Göta Canal. (SFEC, 4/20/97, p.T8) 1832 1889 Juan Montalvo, Ecuadorian essayist and political writer: "There is nothing harder than the softness of indifference." (AP, 7/23/99) 1832 1904 Luigi Palma di Cesnola was born in Italy and later served for the Union Army in the Civil War. He was appointed as American Consul to Cyprus in 1865, where he collected many artifacts. He later sold his collection to the NYC Metropolitan Museum. (AM, 7/00, p.60) 1832 1914 This period was covered by Robert Bickers in his 2011 book: ?The Scramble For China: Foreign Devils in the Qing Empire, 1832-1914.? (Econ, 2/19/11, p.92) 1833 nend Jan 3, Britain seized control of the Malvina Islands (Falkland Islands) in the South Atlantic. In 1982 Argentina seized the islands, but Britain took them back after a 74-day war. (AP, 1/3/98)(SFC, 4/3/02, p.A7) 1833 nend Jan 8, Boston Academy of Music, 1st US music school, was established. (MC, 1/8/02) 1833 nend Jan 19, Louis J. Ferdinand Herold (41), French composer (Zampa), died. (MC, 1/19/02) 1833 nend Jan 26, Gaetano Donizetti?s tragic opera "Lucrezia Borgia," premiered in Milan. (WSJ, 7/27/98, p.A12)(MC, 1/26/02) 1833 nend Jan 28, Charles George "Chinese" Gordon, general (China, Khartoum), was born in London. (MC, 1/28/02) 1833 nend Feb 11, Melville Weston Fuller, 8th U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice was born. (HN, 2/11/97) 1833 nend Feb 13, William Whedbee Kirkland (d.1915), Brig Gen (Confederate Army), was born. (MC, 2/13/02) 1833 nend Feb 17, Lt. George Back departed Liverpool, England, on the packet ship Hibernia with 4 men to search for missing Arctic explorer Captain John Ross. Ross had left England in 1829 to seek a Northwest Passage by way of the Arctic Ocean. (ON, 5/04, p.10) 1833 nend Mar 14, Lucy Hobbs Taylor, first woman dentist, was born. (HN, 3/14/98) 1833 nend Mar 16 Susan Hayhurst became the first woman to graduate from a pharmacy college. (HN, 3/16/98) 1833 nend Mar 20, The United States and Siam (now Thailand) concluded a commercial treaty in Bangkok. (AP, 3/20/97) 1833 nend Apr 9, The US first tax-supported public library was founded in Peterborough, N.H. (AP, 4/9/97) 1833 nend Apr 22, Richard Trevithick (b.1771), British engineer, died in Kent, England. In 1804 he built the first steam locomotive. (ON, 4/04, p.6)(WSJ, 4/11/09,p.W8)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Trevithick) 1833 nend Apr 24, A patent was granted for the first soda fountain. (HN, 4/24/98) 1833 nend May 2, Czar Nicholas banned the public sale of serfs. (MC, 5/2/02) 1833 nend May 6, John Deere made his 1st steel plow. (MC, 5/6/02) 1833 nend May 7, Composer Johannes Brahms was born in Hamburg, Germany, and died on Apr 3, 1897. His works number through Opus 122 and included: the "Hungarian Dances," the "Haydn Variations," the "Violin Concerto in D Major," "Lullaby" and compositions for the pianoforte, organ, chamber music, orchestral compositions, numerous songs, small and large choral works. A biography of his life and work was written by Karl Geiringer in 1934 titled: "Brahms: His Life and Work." In 1997 Jan Swafford published the biography: "Johannes Brahms." In 1998 Styra Avins published "Johannes Brahms: Life and Letters." (BLW, Geiringer, 1963 ed.)(AP, 5/7/97)(WSJ, 12/3/97, p.A20)(WSJ,5/4/98, p.A20)(HN, 5/7/99) 1833 nend May 15, Edmund Kean (46), English actor (Shylock), died. (MC, 5/15/02) 1833 nend May 28, Johann Christian Friedrich Haeffner (74), composer, died. (MC, 5/28/02) 1833 nend May 29, William Marshall (84), composer, died. (SC, 5/29/02) 1833 nend Jun 16, Lucie (Ruthy) Blackburn (30), a fugitive slave, escaped from jail in Detroit and made her way to Canada. The next day a riot erupted, ?The Blackburn Riots,? as her husband, Thornton Blackburn (21), was escorted for return to slavery. Thornton escaped to Canada to join his wife. The first extradition case between the US and Canada over the issue of fugitive slaves soon followed. Canada ruled it could not extradite people to a jurisdiction that imposed harsher penalties then they would have received for the same offense in Canada and the Blackburns remained in Ontario. (AH, 4/07, p.43) 1833 nend Jun 27, Prudence Crandall, a white woman, was arrested for conducting an academy for black women in Canterbury, Conn. The academy was eventually closed. (HN, 6/27/99) 1833 nend Jul 5, Joseph Nicephore Niepce (b.1765), French inventor most noted as the inventor of photography, died. He is well-known for taking some of the earliest photographs, dating to the 1820s. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pce) 1833 nend Jul 27, Bartolommea Capitanio (26), Italian monastery founder, saint, died. (MC, 7/27/02) 1833 nend Jul 29, William Wilberforce (b.1759), English abolitionist, died. He was best known for his efforts relating to the abolition of slavery in the British Empire. A politician and philanthropist, Wilberforce was prominent from 1787 in the struggle to abolish the slave trade and slavery itself in British overseas possessions. He was an ardent and eloquent sponsor of anti-slavery legislation in the House of Commons until his retirement in 1825. Wilberforce University in Ohio, an African Methodist Episcopal Church institution (f.1856), was named for William Wilberforce. In 2008 William Hague authored ?William Wilberforce: The Life of the Great Anti-Slave Trade Campaigner.? (www.nndb.com/people/824/000049677/)(WSJ, 7/25/08, p.A13) 1833 nend Jul, In Australia the native warrior Yagan was shot dead by teenage bounty hunters. He had been a go-between for his people and European settlers in Western Australia and later an implacable foe. His head and the tribal tattoo on his back were hacked off and taken to Britain for study and display. The body parts were returned in Sep 1997. A statue was erected in his honor on an island park in Perth in 1983. It was repeatedly vandalized and its head was sawed off in 1997 shortly after the homecoming of Yagan?s real head. In 2010 his remains were laid to rest in a traditional ceremony after his skull was recovered from Britain. (SFEC, 10/5/97, p.A20)(AFP, 7/10/10) 1833 nend Aug 7, Powell Clayton, Brig. General (Union volunteers), (Gov-R-Ark), was born in Pa. (MC, 8/7/02)(Internet) 1833 nend Aug 8, Lt. George Back and his team reached Fort Resolution on Great Slave Lake on their expedition to find Arctic explorer Capt. John Ross. (ON, 5/04, p.10) 1833 nend Aug 9, Maximilian, German Prince of Wied, reached Fort McKenzie, the westernmost outpost of white settlement on the Missouri River. He was a student of natural history and planned to collect native plants and animals and to study the native people. He was accompanied by Swiss artist Karl Bodmer. Maximilian?s "Travels in the Interior of North America" was published between 1839 and 1843. (SFC, 2/6/01, p.10) 1833 nend Aug 11, Robert G. Ingersoll (d.1899), American lawyer and statesman and advocate of scientific realism and humanistic philosophy, was born. "Heresy is what the minority believe; it is the name given by the powerful to the doctrines of the weak." "The history of the world shows that when a mean thing was done, man did it; when a good thing was done, man did it." "Courage without conscience is a wild beast." (AP, 6/28/97)(AP, 6/7/98)(AP, 7/20/98)(HN, 8/10/98) 1833 nend Aug 12, Chicago incorporated as a village of about 350. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago) 1833 nend Aug 13, The Bank of the US under Nicholas Biddle began to contract its loans. (Panic, p.4) 1833 nend Aug 17, The first steam ship to cross the Atlantic entirely on its own power, the Canadian ship Royal William, began her journey from Nova Scotia to The Isle of Wight. (HN, 8/17/98) 1833 nend Aug 20, Benjamin Harrison, the 23rd president of the United States (1889-1893) and grandson of President William Henry Harrison, was born in North Bend, Ohio. (HN 8/20/97)(AP, 8/20/99)(MC, 8/20/02) 1833 nend Aug 23, The British Parliament ordered the abolition of slavery in its colonies by Aug 1, 1834. This would free some 700,000 slaves, including those in the West Indies. The Imperial Emancipation Act also allowed blacks to enjoy greater equality under the law in Canada as opposed to the US. (V.D.-H.K.p.276)(MT, 3/96, p.14)(PC, 1992, p.412)(AH, 10/02, p.54) 1833 nend Aug 28, Edward Burne-Jones, British painter, was born. (RTH, 8/28/99) 1833 nend Sep 3, The first successful penny newspaper was published. Benjamin H. Day issued the first copy of "The New York Sun". By 1826, circulation was the largest in the country at 30,000. New York?s population was over 250,000, but its 11 daily newspapers had a combined circulation of only 26,500. (SFEM, 11/8/98,p.12)(http://library.nyu.edu/research/news/historical/nyc.html)(WSJ,11/7/08, p.A15) 1833 nend Sep 4, Barney Flaherty (10) answered an ad in "The New York Sun" and became the first newsboy, what we now call a paperboy. (MC, 9/4/01) 1833 nend Sep 8, Charles Darwin departed to Buenos Aires. (MC, 9/8/01) 1833 nend Sep 20, Petroleum V. Nasby (David Ross Locke), humorist, was born. His work was enjoyed by Abraham Lincoln. (HN, 9/20/00) 1833 nend Sep 20, Charles Darwin rode a horse to Buenos Aires. (MC, 9/20/01) 1833 nend Sep 27, Charles Darwin rode a horse to Santa Fe. (MC, 9/27/01) 1833 nend Sep 28, Lemuel Haynes, Revolutionary War veteran, died at 88. (MC, 9/28/01) 1833 nend Sep 29, King Ferdinand of Spain died and his daughter Isabella was proclaimed as queen. A civil war broke out in Spain between Carlisists, who believed Don Carlos deserved the throne, and supporters of Queen Isabella. (HNQ, 8/20/98)(HN, 9/29/98) 1833 nend Oct 1, Charles Darwin reached Rio Tercero, Argentina. (MC, 10/1/01) 1833 nend Oct 2, The NY Anti-Slavery Society was organized. (MC, 10/2/01) 1833 nend Oct 12, Charles Darwin began his return trip to Buenos Aires. (MC, 10/12/01) 1833 nend Oct 19, Adam Lindsay Gordon, Australian poet, was born. (HN, 10/19/00) 1833 nend Oct 20, Charles Darwin reached the river mouth of Parana. (MC, 10/20/01) 1833 nend Oct 21, Alfred Bernhard Nobel (d.1896) was born in Sweden. The chemist, engineer and industrialist who invented dynamite, later established the prestigious Nobel prizes to honor the world?s greatest scientists, writers and peacemakers. In 1859, after four years in the United States, Nobel returned to Sweden and built a factory to manufacture the explosive nitro-glycerine. In 1864 the factory accidentally blew up, killing Nobel?s youngest brother and four others. Two years later, Nobel invented dynamite, a safe and manageable form of nitro-glycerine. A pacifist by nature, Nobel hoped that the destructive power of his invention would bring an end to wars. By the time of his death on December 10, 1897, Nobel had acquired a massive fortune. In his will, he left instructions that the bulk of his estate should endow the annual Nobel prizes for those who had most contributed to the areas of physics, chemistry, medicine, literature and peace. In 1968, a sixth award for economics was established. (WUD, 1994, p.969)(SFEC,12/797, Par p.28)(HNPD, 10/21/98)(HNPD,10/21/99) 1833 nend Oct, Capt. John Ross (1877-1856), Arctic explorer, returned to England. (www.collectionscanada.ca/explorers/h24-1810-e.html) 1833 nend Nov 12, Aleksandr Porfirievich Borodin (d.1887), physician, chemist, composer (Prince Igor), was born in Russia. His work included the "Sunless" and the opera "Prince Igor,? which was left incomplete. (SFEC, 6/27/99, p.T11)(WSJ, 2/6/00, p.A16)(MC, 11/12/01)(LGC, 1970,p.338) 1833 nend Nov 13, Edwin Thomas Booth, actor (Hamlet), was born. (MC, 11/13/01) 1833 nend Nov 14, Charles Darwin departed by horse to Montevideo. (MC, 11/14/01) 1833 nend Nov 20, Charles Darwin reached Punta Gorda and saw Rio Uruguay. (MC, 11/20/01) 1833 nend Nov 28, Charles Darwin rode through Las Pietras while returning to Montevideo. (MC, 11/28/01) 1833 nend Dec 3, Carlos Juan Finlay, Cuban epidemiologist, was born. (HN, 12/3/00) 1833 nend Dec 3, Oberlin College in Ohio, the first truly coeducational school of higher learning in the United States, opened its doors. (AP, 12/3/98) 1833 nend Dec 4, American Anti-Slavery Society was formed by Arthur Tappan in Phila. (MC, 12/4/01) 1833 nend Dec 6, John Singleton Mosby (d.1916), lawyer and Col. ("Grey Ghost" of Confederate Army), was born. He later gave riding lessons to young George Patton. (MC, 12/6/01) 1833 nend Dec 6, HMS Beagle and Charles Darwin departed Rio de la Plata. (MC, 12/6/01) 1833 nend Dec 12, Matthias Hohner (d.1902), German manufacturer (harmonica), was born. (MC, 12/12/01) 1833 nend Dec 13, HMS Beagle and Charles Darwin arrived in Port Deseado, Patagonia. (MC, 12/13/01) 1833 nend Dec 25, Charles Darwin celebrated Christmas in Port Desire, Patagonia. (MC, 12/25/01) 1833 nend Dec, William Beaumont (d.1853), a US Army assistant surgeon, published his new book: "Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice and the Physiology of Digestion. It was based on the digestive system of Alexis St. Martin, a fur trader who was accidentally shot in the abdomen at Fort Mackinac in 1822. (ON, 1/02, p.6) 1833 nend John Marshall Harlan (d.1911), later US Supreme Court Justice, was born. (WSJ, 5/28/02, p.D7) 1833 nend John Mohler Studebaker was born in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. In 1858 joined his two older brothers in a South Bend firm producing wagons. The company went on to become the world?s largest producer of farm wagons and carriages, coining the slogan: "Always give more than you promise. From the 1920s until its closing, Studebaker was a leader in styling and engineering. Studebaker went out of business after its 1966 Avanti model. (WSJ, 6/13/96, p.A12)(HNQ, 1/21/02) 1833 nend J.M.W. Turner completed his 1st oil painting "Bridge of Sighs and the Ducal Palace," his 1st exhibited painting of Venice. (WSJ, 3/17/04, p.D4) 1833 nend James Boardman (1801-1855), English traveler and writer, authored ?America and the Americans.? (http://tinyurl.com/2olhxh) 1833 nend Alexander Pushkin, Russian poet, wrote his poem "The Bronze Horseman" (Myedny Vsadnik). (SFEC, 6/27/99, p.T11)(WSJ, 8/5/06, p.P12) 1833 nend In NYC Benjamin Day founded the New York Sun newspaper. He appealed to a general readership and charged a penny a copy. (SFEM, 11/8/98, p.12) 1833 nend The NY Mechanics Institute opened to encourage the mechanical arts. (Panic, p.8) 1833 nend American Navy pensioners moved into what was then called the Naval Asylum, a 180-room stone building on the bank of the Schuylkill River in Philadelphia. The name was later changed to the Naval Home. It closed in 1977. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia_Naval_Asylum) 1833 nend Sylvester Graham, Presbyterian minister, preached against overindulging the appetites and warned that intemperance would lead to "diseased irritability and inflammation, painful sensibility, and finally, disorganization and death." His whole wheat Graham flour was the main ingredient in Graham crackers. (WSJ, 9/29/00, p.W17) 1833 nend George C. Yount built the first structure in Sonoma, Ca., and planted the first grape vines in Napa Valley, the coarse Mission variety. (SFEC, 2/22/98, p.T4)(SSFC, 1/21/01, p.T8) 1833 nend In New Orleans the Lafayette Cemetery No. 1 opened to take in the victims of yellow fever. (Hem., 1/97, p.65) 1833 nend John Anderson, a Kentucky-based slave trader, was one of 10 dealers who, during a cholera epidemic, petitioned to move the Natchez, Miss., slave market outside the city limits. (WSJ, 12/2/04, p.D12) 1833 nend The McKesson Corp. began as a drugstore in NYC. (SFEC, 5/23/99, p.B1) 1833 nend Charles Babbage abandoned his calculator project completely in favor of a programmable machine. It was to be controlled by punched cards adapted from the devices French weavers used to control thread sequences in their looms. (I&I, Penzias, p.95) 1833 nend An improved version of the typographer (typewriter) was made in France. The early versions were chiefly for the blind as they produced embossed writing. (SJSVB, 3/25/96, p.27) 1833 nend George Fibbleton invented the first shaving machine. It was an imperfect device that left numerous scars on his face. (SFEC, 3/23/97, z1 p.7) 1833 nend Walter Hunt of NY state invented a lock stitching sewing machine, but it was never patented. (ON, 11/00, p.9) 1833 nend M. Tournal published his paper General Consideration on the Phenomenon of Bone Caverns. His work is one of the first accounts which produced evidence of the contemporaneity of man and extinct animals. (RFH-MDHP, p.84) 1833 nend John James Audubon visited Canada?s Grand Manan Island off the southeast coast of New Brunswick to see herring gulls nesting in trees. (NH, 9/96, p.58) 1833 nend England passed stronger measures regulating child labor. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R28) 1833 nend The first clearing house to exchange checks was built in London, England. Prior to this checks were exchanged informally in coffee houses. (AP, 12/16/09) 1833 nend In Paris the St. Vincent de Paul Society was founded to provide aid to the poor. (SFC, 9/15/98, p.A9) 1833 nend The slave trade in Ghana ended. (AP, 7/11/09) 1833 nend Giuseppe Garibaldi, Italian revolutionary, was forced to flee Italy following a failed uprising against Austrian rule in northern Italy. In 1939 he arrived in Brazil to aid the rebel cause. (ON, 10/06, p.5) 1833 nend In Jamaica Annie Palmer, a "white witch," was murdered in her bed. She had reportedly murdered 3 husbands and various lovers and slaves. She was later said to haunt Rose Hall. (SFEC, 2/14/99, p.T7) 1833 nend Aoki Mokubei (b.1767), Japanese poet and potter, died. (NYT, 10/8/04, p.B35) 1833 nend Mexico took mission property from the Church and turned out the Acagchemem Indians at Mission San Juan Capistrano. (HT, 3/97, p.61) 1833 nend The people of Iztapalapa, Mexico, began re-enacting the Passion of Christ, to give thanks for divine protection during a cholera epidemic. (AP, 4/5/06) 1833 nend Sir Henry C. Rawlinson was sent to Persia as one of a group of British officers charged with reorganizing the Shah?s army. (RFH-MDHP, p.193) 1833 1841 Lawyer and poet Francis Scott Key was the U.S. attorney for the District of Columbia serving under three presidents. Key penned the verses to "The Star-Spangled Banner" after watching the British bombardment of Fort McHenry on the night of September 13, 1814, during the War of 1812. Key?s four-stanza verse was later put to the tune of a British drinking song and became enormously popular. It officially became the American national anthem on March 3, 1931. These were the only lyrics Key ever composed. (HNQ, 8/3/99) 1833 1868 The Carlist Wars comprised the dynastic struggle in Spain between Isabelline liberalism and the reactionary rural traditionalism represented by Don Carlos. With the death of Ferdinand on September 29, 1833, and the proclamation of his daughter Isabella as queen?excluding Ferdinand?s brother Don Carlos from the succession?the First Carlist War was ignited. (HNQ, 8/20/98) 1833 1905 Baron Ferdinand von Richthofen, German geographer and geologist. He coined the expression "Silk Road" to describe the ancient trade routes between China and the West. (AM, 7/00, p.72) 1834 nend Jan 10, Lord Acton [John E.E. Dalberg], English historian and editor of The Rambler, a Roman Catholic monthly, was born. (HN, 1/10/99) 1834 nend Jan 29, President Jackson ordered the 1st use of US troops to suppress a labor dispute. Jackson ordered the War Department to put down a "riotous assembly" near Willamsport, Maryland, among Irish laborers constructing the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. (HNQ, 1/23/99)(MC, 1/29/02) 1834 nend Jan, New of the failure of business houses and banks in Philadelphia, NY, and Washington heralded the newspapers. (Panic, p.4) 1834 nend Feb 8, Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleyev (d.1907), Russian chemist, was born. He formulated the periodic table of elements. (V.D.-H.K.p.324)(HN, 2/8/01) 1834 nend Feb 9, Franz Xaver Witt, composer, was born. (MC, 2/9/02) 1834 nend Feb 26, New York and New Jersey ratified the 1st US interstate crime compact. (SC, 2/26/02) 1834 nend Mar 6, The city of York in Upper Canada was incorporated as Toronto. (AP, 3/6/98) 1834 nend Mar 22, Horace Greeley published "New Yorker," a weekly literary and news magazine and forerunner of Harold Ross' more successful "The New Yorker." (HN, 3/22/01) 1834 nend Mar 24, John Wesley Powell, US, geologist, explorer, ethnologist, was born. (HFA, '96, p.26)(MC, 3/24/02) 1834 nend Mar 24, William Morris, English craftsman, poet, socialist, was born. (HN, 3/24/98) 1834 nend Mar 28, The US Senate voted to censure Pres. Jackson for the removal of federal deposits from the Bank of the United States. The Senate declared that Pres. Andrew Jackson: "in the last executive proceedings in relation to the public revenue, has assumed upon himself authority and power not conferred by the constitution and laws, but in derogation of both." (AP, 3/28/97) 1834 nend Apr 1, Isidore Edouard Legouix, composer, was born. (MC, 4/1/02) 1834 nend Apr 2, Frederic-Auguste Bartholdi, sculptor (Statue of Liberty), was born in Colmar, France. (HN, 4/2/01) 1834 nend Apr 13, HMS Beagle anchored at river mouth of Rio Santa Cruz, Patagonia. (MC, 4/13/02) 1834 nend Apr 15, The Honore Daumier painting "Rue Transnonain, le 15 Avril 1834" showed the ghastly aftermath of a civilian massacre by French government forces. (WSJ, 5/9/00, p.A24) 1834 nend Apr 18, William Lamb became the prime minister of England. (HN, 4/18/98) 1834 nend Apr 26, Artemus Ward, (Charles Farrar Browne), humorist, was born. (MC, 4/26/02) 1834 nend Apr 29, Charles Darwin's expedition saw the top of Andes from Patagonia. (MC, 4/29/02) 1834 nend May 5, The first mainland railway line opened in Belgium. (HN, 5/5/98) 1834 nend May 5, Charles Darwin's expedition continued at Rio Santa Cruz. (MC, 5/5/02) 1834 nend May 20, The Marquis de Lafayette (78), US Revolutionary War hero (Marie Joseph Paul Yves Roche Gilbert du Motier), died in Paris, France. He was the 1st foreigner to address Congress. In 2002 Congress moved to make him an honorary US citizen. In 1983 Olivier Bernier authored ?Lafayette, Hero of Two Worlds.? In 200 Harlow Giles Unger authored ?Lafayette.? (WSJ, 1/15/97, p.A12)(SFC, 7/23/02, p.A2)(ON, 2/09,p.5)(www.marquisdelafayette.net/) 1834 nend Jun 2, The 5th national black convention met in NYC. (SC, 6/2/02) 1834 nend Jun 21, Cyrus Hall McCormick received a patent for his reaping machine. (AP, 6/21/97)(HN, 6/21/98) 1834 nend Jun 30, Congress passed the final Indian Intercourse Act. In addition to regulating relations between Indians living on Indian land and non-Indians, this final act identified an area known as "Indian country". This land was described as being "?all that part of the United States west of the Mississippi and not within the states of Missouri and Louisiana, or the territory of Arkansas?" This is the land that became known as Indian Territory. Oklahoma was declared Indian Territory. (SFCM, 3/9/08,p.20)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Intercourse_Act) 1834 nend Jul 10, James Abbott McNeil Whistler (d.1903), US expatriate painter famous for painting his mother, was born. (HN, 7/10/98)(WUD, 1994 p.1628) 1834 nend Jul 15, Lord Napier of England arrived at Macao, China as the first chief superintendent of trade. (HN, 7/15/98) 1834 nend Jul 19, Hilaire Germain Edgar Degas (d.1917), French impressionist painter. His mother was a Creole and he journeyed to New Orleans in 1872. His work included "The Millinery Shop," "Combing the Hair," "Nude Fixing Her Hair," "Two Dancers" (c1890-1898), "Frieze of Dancers" (1893-1898), "Self Portrait" (c1863-1865 & c1895-1900) and "Blue Dancers" (1895). He also collected art and by the time of his death had amassed more than 500 paintings and 5,000 prints. The collection was auctioned off in Paris from Mar 1918 to Jul 1919. His time in New Orleans is covered in the 1997 book "Degas in New Orleans: Encounters in the Creole World of Kate Chopin and George Washington Cable" by Christopher Benfey. (WSJ, 7/1/96, p.A11)(AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.380)(WSJ, 10/2/96,p.B5)(SFC, 10/22/96,p.E8)(WSJ,10/21/97,p.A20)(SFEC, 1/4/98, BR p.9)(HN,7/19/98) 1834 nend Jul 23, James Gibbons, American religious leader and founder of Catholic University, was born. (HN, 7/23/98) 1834 nend Jul 25, Samuel Taylor Coleridge (b.1772), English poet, died. He and his friend William Wordsworth were among the founders of the Romantic Movement in England and later identified, along with Robert Southey, as the Lake School of poets. Coleridge?s work included "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner," "Frost at Midnight" and "Kubla Khan." In his later life he authored the "Bibliographia Literaria," a work of literary theory. In 1999 Richard Holmes published "Coleridge: Darker Reflections, 1804-1834," which focused on the poet's later life. His volume "Coleridge: Early Visions" was published in 1989. In 2007 Adam Sisman authored ?The Friendship: Wordsworth & Coleridge.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Coleridge-Taylor)(WSJ, 4/15/99,p.A20)(WSJ, 2/20/07, p.D8) 1834 nend Aug 1, The British Emancipation Act went into effect abolishing slavery throughout the British Empire. This ended slavery in Canada, in the West Indies and in all Caribbean holdings. Some 35,000 slaves were freed in the Cape Colony. The Minstrels Parada in Cape Town, SA, originated as a spontaneous outpouring of marches, music and dancing to mark the abolition of slavery. (NH, 7/98, p.29)(HN, 8/1/98)(EWH, 4th ed, p.885)(AP, 1/2/06) 1834 nend Aug 18, Mt. Vesuvius erupted. (MC, 8/18/02) 1834 nend Aug 31, Amilcare Ponchielli, composer (La Gioconda), was born in Paderno, Italy. (MC, 8/31/01) 1834 nend Aug, The barque Charles Eaton was wrecked on Australia?s Great Barrier Reef. 2 years later the schooner Isabella arrived in Sydney with the cabin boy of the lost ship, a 5-year old child and 17 skulls of passengers murdered on Boydang Island. This event prompted an expedition to survey the reef, the Torres Strait and the southern coast of new Guinea. In 2005 Jordan Goodman authored ?The Rattlesnake: A Voyage of Discovery to the Coral Sea,? an account of the survey expedition. (Econ, 3/19/05, p.88) 1834 nend Sep 9, Parliament passed the Municipal Corporations Act, reforming city and town governments in England. (HN, 9/9/98) 1834 nend Sep 16, The Bank of the US abandoned its policy of loan curtailment as Nicholas Biddle moved to secure a new charter from the state of Pennsylvania. (Panic, p.4) 1834 nend Sep 27, Charles Darwin returned to Valparaiso. (MC, 9/27/01) 1834 nend Oct 8, Francois-Adrien Boiledieu (58), composer (La Dame Blanche), died. (MC, 10/8/01) 1834 nend Oct 16, In London the Houses of Parliament caught fire and many historic documents were burned. J.M.W. created two oil paintings of the burning of the Houses of Parliament. no_source 9 nend /29/07, p.90) no_source 1834 nend Oct, Constantine Samuel Rafinisque submitted an essay to the Royal Institute of France on the language of the Delaware Indians. (NH, 10/96, p.16) 1834 nend Nov 1, The 1st published reference to poker was as Mississippi riverboat game. (MC, 11/1/01) 1834 nend Nov 10, HMS Beagle with Charles Darwin sailed from Valparaiso. (MC, 11/10/01) 1834 nend Nov 14, William Thomson entered Glasgow Univ. at 10 yrs 4 months. (MC, 11/14/01) 1834 nend Nov 21, HMS Beagle anchored at Bay of San Carlos, Chile. (MC, 11/21/01) 1834 nend Nov 23, Hector Berlioz's "Harold in Italy," premiered. (MC, 11/23/01) 1834 nend Nov 25, Jean-Baptist Colyns, composer, was born. (MC, 11/25/01) 1834 nend Nov 25, Delmonico's, one of NY's finest restaurants, provided a meal of soup, steak, coffee & half a pie for 12 cents. (SFEC, 5/18/97, Z1 p.6) 1834 nend Nov, John Heckewelder, Moravian missionary, published a list of Lenape Indian names, a Delaware Indian tribe. (NH, 10/96, p.16) 1834 nend Dec 3, 1st US dental society was organized in NY. (MC, 12/3/01) 1834 nend Dec 10, Robert Peel (1788-1850) became prime minister of Britain after launching the first national election manifesto in British history. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Peel) 1834 nend Dec 23, Joseph Hansom of London received a patent for Hansom cabs. (MC, 12/23/01) 1834 nend Dec 25, Charles Darwin celebrated Christmas on Beagle at Tres Montes, Chile. (MC, 12/25/01) 1834 nend Dec 27, Charles Lamb (b.1775), English critic, poet, essayist, died. "No one ever regarded the first of January with indifference. It is the nativity of our common Adam." (AP, 12/31/97)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Lamb) 1834 nend Dec 29, Thomas R. Malthus (b.1766), English vicar, economist ("Essay On Population"), died. (Internet) 1834 nend Dec, Constantine Samuel Rafinisque submitted a supplement to the Royal Institute of France to his essay on the language of the Delaware Indians. (NH, 10/96, p.16) 1834 nend James McNeill Whistler (d.1903), American painter and etcher, was born in Lowell Mass., the son of a civil engineer. He grew up in St. Petersburg, Russia, where his father was overseeing a railway line. He attended West Point and was expelled. He left the US for good at age 21 and painted beside Gustave Courbet. He worked in France and England after 1855. He painted "The White Girl." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.1628)(WSJ, 5/31/95, p. A-14) 1834 nend Honore Daumier created his lithograph "The Legislative Belly." (WSJ, 5/9/00, p.A24) 1834 nend Frederick Marryat authored the novel ?Jacob Faithfully.? The term Shiver My Timbers!, an expletive denoting surprise or disbelief, was first seen in this book. It alluded to a ship's striking a rock or shoal so hard that her timbers shiver. In 1881, Robert Louis Stevenson found the term to be the perfect exclamation for the irascible Long John Silver: "So! Shiver me timbers, here's Jim Hawkins!" This stereotypical expletive became extremely popular with writers of sea yarns and Hollywood swashbucklers. (www.answerbag.com/q_view.php/16871) 1834 nend Turkey in the Straw became a popular tune in the US. (SFEC, 5/31/98, Z1 p.8) 1834 nend Gaetano Donizetti had the premier of his opera "Rosmonda d?Inghilterra," a story of Rosamond Clifford, who was put in a tower by her lover King Henry II. (WSJ, 11/10/98, p.A20) 1834 nend A new brass plaque was forged in 1996 for the San Francisco Pioneer Monument that reads: With their efforts over in 1934, the missionaries left behind about 56,000 converts- and 150,000 dead. Half the original native American population had perished during this time from diseases, armed attacks and mistreatment. (SFC, 4/17/96, p.A-13) 1834 nend Pres. Jackson had special 1804 silver dollars minted for the sultan of Muscat (later Oman) and the King of Siam (later Thailand) for trade treaties negotiated by Edmund Roberts. (SFEC, 8/8/99, p.A6) 1834 nend Roger Brooke Taney was nominated to the US Supreme Court. (WSJ, 11/21/06, p.D8) 1834 nend New York and New Jersey made a compact over Ellis Island, then a 3-acre site that held that the surrounding submerged land belonged to New Jersey. By 1998 the island was 27.5 acres due to landfill and its ownership was under contention. (SFC, 1/13/98, p.A2) 1834 nend California?s 1st printing press, an old wooden Ramage press, was off-loaded at Monterey, Ca. It later produced the 1st issues of 5 California newspapers of the gold rush. It was burned by ruffians in Columbia, Ca, on Nov 13, 1861. (CVG, Vol 16, p.10) 1834 nend Orders to secularize the California missions arrived from Mexico and ended mission ownership by the Franciscans. General Mariano Vallejo also arrived to Mission San Francisco Solano de Sonoma. General Vallejo?s job was to establish a town and so Sonoma was designed around a central plaza. (WCG, p.58)(SFEC, 3/1/98, p.W34) 1834 nend A crippled Hojun-maru junk, blown off course with 3 Japanese castaways, washed ashore on Cape Flattery in Washington state. Makah Indians seized the cargo, enslaved the sailors and then sold them to the Hudson?s Bay Company. (Econ, 12/22/07, p.64) 1834 nend Bolivia?s Penal Code of 1834, Article 139, stated: "Anyone who conspires directly and in fact to establish another religion in Bolivia or (promotes) that the Republic cease to profess the Roman, Catholic, and Apostolic Religion, is traitor and will be punished with the death penalty." (http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/rihand/Bolivia.html) 1834 nend Lord Sandys, English governor of Bengal, took a sample of an Indian sauce to an apothecary in Worcester, 100 miles northwest of London, and asked the pharmacists John Wheeley Lea and William Perrins to make a similar batch. The new batch tasted awful until it was allowed to age for a while. They then put together what became known worldwide as Worcestershire Sauce. [2nd source gave an 1835 date] (WSJ, 7/22/96, p.A1)(SFC, 4/12/97, p.E3) 1834 nend Sardines were canned in Europe for the first time. (SFEC, 5/31/98, Z1 p.8) 1834 nend Henry Fox Talbot, a wealthy English gentleman, began experimenting with silver chloride to produce photographic images. (ON, 4/00, p.9) 1834 nend William Russell Birch (b.1755), English-born artist, died. He had settled in Philadelphia with his son in 1794 and in 1800 published 28 drawn and engraved hand-colored images of Philadelphia. (SFC, 5/18/02, p.E6) 1834 nend Joseph-Marie Jacquard (b.1752), French loom maker and inventor, died. In 2004 James Essinger authored ?Jacquard?s Web,? a biography that connects Jacquard?s work to computer technology. (WSJ, 11/12/04, p.W10) 1834 nend Eleuthere Irenee du Pont de Nemours, founder of a large gun powder operation, died. The company was re-charted as a partnership and then the French and original stockholders were all bought out buy the family. General Henry du Pont, the 2nd son of E.I. du Pont led the company till his death in 1899. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R46) 1834 nend Banco Economico SA was founded in Brazil. In 1995 this 8th largest bank in Brazil and the oldest bank in Latin America failed and was taken over by the central bank. (WSJ, 8/15/95, p. A-6) 1834 nend After this time the Tories, a political group in the British House of Commons, preferred to use the term Conservative. The word Tories was originally used to describe rural bandits in Ireland. In the 17th century it had become a term applied to monarchists in the House of Commons. By the 18th century the Tories were politicians who favored royal authority, the established church and who sought to preserve the traditional political structure and opposed parliamentary reform. (www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/Ptories.htm) 1834 nend In London Joe Hansom put his Hansom cabs onto the streets. (SFEC, 5/31/98, Z1 p.8) 1834 nend Mexico granted Don Salvio Pacheco 18,000 acres in northern California known as Monte del Diablo, which included what would later became Concord and Walnut Creek. The family later donated land to the government for roads and public buildings. The area was originally inhabited by the Bolbones Indians. (SFC, 12/31/99, p.A22)(SFC, 5/26/01, p.A13)(SFC, 7/17/06, p.B5) 1834 nend A Frenchman invented a wire nail-making machine. (SFEC, 5/31/98, Z1 p.8) 1834 nend Carl Friedrich Uhlig of Germany developed the German concertina. (BAAC, 8/96, p.6) 1834 nend Slavery was abolished in Guyana and people from India were brought in to work on sugar plantations. (SFC, 3/19/01, p.A8) 1834 nend At the Shrine of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem the ceremony of the Holy Fire led to a stampede in which many people were killed. (Econ, 3/26/05, p.82) 1834 nend In Madrid, Spain, a time capsule with books, documents and mementos, was buried beneath a statue of writer Miguel de Cervantes. The lead box was uncovered in December, 2009. (SFC, 1/16/10, p.A2) 1834 nend The maharaja of Jammu was able to annex Ladakh, a West Tibetan kingdom. (SFEC,12/14/97, p.T4) 1834 1840 10-20,000 Afrikaners set out on the Great Trek to get away from British rule. This was less than 20% of the Afrikaners of the frontier districts. (NG, Oct. 1988, p. 563) 1834 1858 Imam Shamil (1797-1871) ruled over a self-proclaimed imamat (Chechnya). He united part of the North Caucasian highlanders in their struggle against tsarist Russia and set up a theocratic sharia state known as imamat that resisted Tsarist Russia for 27 years. (www.chechnyafree.ru) 1834 1861 The Citizens Bank of Louisiana, a predecessor of J.P. Morgan Chase & Co., secured loans with mortgages and thousands of slaves. Bernard de Marigny, plantation owner and one of the richest men of the epoch, put 62 slaves into the banks books as collateral for borrowed money to support his gambling habit. (WSJ, 5/10/05, p.A1) 1834 1888 Currier and Ives lithographs, manufactured in New York and form a sweeping pictorial record of mid-19th century America. When he first opened his shop, Nathaniel Currier had just finished an apprenticeship in lithography, an 18th-century printing process involving making images from inked stones. When an 1835 fire destroyed much of old New Amsterdam, Currier rushed a lithograph of the disaster into print. Ruins of the Merchant's Exchange, NY (shown above) sold briskly and launched Currier's career in pictorial journalism. In 1852, Currier hired bookkeeper and lithographer James Ives, making him a business partner in 1857. Together the two men built Currier and Ives into the most successful lithography house of their time and left a legacy of more than 7,000 prints that document the humor, political climate, current events and sentiments of mid-19th-century American life. (HNPD, 11/15/98) 1834 1894 Philip G. Hamerton, English artist and essayist: "Have you ever observed that we pay much more attention to a wise passage when it is quoted than when we read it in the original author?" (AP, 5/2/99) 1834 1896 William Morris, founder of the Socialist League and active in painting, designing, printing and literature. He was born in Walthamstow (near London), England. His biography is written by Fiona MacCarthy in 1995 and titled: William Morris: A Life for Our Time. She describes Morris as wearing Nietzsche?s "mask of the great man," i.e. one who embraces a gargantuan cause not out of conviction but simply because he feels that this is what he is supposed to do. (WSJ, 9/15/95, p.A-14) 1834 1896 Heinrich von Treitschke, German historian. Treitschke coined the word and concept of "lebensraum"-German for "living space"-which was later embraced by Hitler in his drive for domination of Europe. Von Treitschke believed Prussia should be a world power and should seize whatever land it needed. German geographer Karl Haushofer took the idea to justify Germany?s need for more territory for a growing population, and that notion was subsequently taken up by Hitler and the Nazis. Haushofer became one of Hitler?s closest advisers and his theories, known as "Weltpolitik" were among the cornerstones of Nazi expansion. (WUD, 1994, p.1509)(HNQ, 4/9/99) 1834 1902 Lord Acton, English historian: "Liberty is not a means to a higher political end. It is itself the highest political end." (AP, 10/4/99) 1834 1902 John Wesley Powell, American scientist and explorer. He explored the canyons of the Green and Colorado Rivers. he was the first director of the Bureau of Ethnology and a director of the Geological Survey (1881-1892). (HFA, ?96, p.127) 1834 1910 Leon Walras, French economist. He founded the marginalist school of economic thought, which held that prices depend on the level of customer demand. He developed a mathematical formulation of the mechanics of the price system with equations that tied together theories of production, exchange, money and capital. His general equilibrium theory is called "Walrasion general equilibrium" and is still part of modern economic theory. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R20) 1834 1919 Ernst Haeckel, German biologist, morphologist and philosopher. He coined the terms ecology and phylogeny and proposed the theory that "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny." (WUD, 1994, p.635)(NH, 12/98, p.4,56) 1835 nend Jan 17, Antanas Baranauskas (d.1902), Lithuanian poet and bishop, was born in Anyksciai. (LC, 1998, p.8)(LHC, 1/17/03) 1835 nend Jan 18, Cesar A. Cui, fort architect, composer, was born in Vilnius, Lithuania. (MC, 1/18/02) 1835 nend Jan 31, Richard Lawrence misfired at President Andrew Jackson (aka 'Old Hickory') at the White House. Lawrence fired 2 pistols at Pres. Andrew Jackson during funeral services for Rep. Warren Davis. Jackson wasn?t hit and Lawrence, who thought he was the king of England and that Jackson owed him money, was found to be insane. (SFC, 7/25/98, p.A6)(HN, 1/31/99)(SFC, 2/5/00, p.B3) 1835 nend Jan, Consiguina volcano in Nicaragua erupted and threw ash as far away as Mexico and Jamaica. (SSFC, 4/10/05, p.F5) 1835 nend Feb 20, Concepcion, Chile, was destroyed by earthquake and some 5,000 died. (MC, 2/20/02) 1835 nend Feb 22, HMS Beagle with Charles Darwin left Valdivia, Chile. (MC, 2/22/02) 1835 nend Mar 3, Congress authorized a US mint at New Orleans, LA. (SC, 3/3/02) 1835 nend Mar 4, HMS Beagle moved into Bay of Concepcion. (SC, 3/4/02) 1835 nend Mar 6, Charles Ewing (d.1883), Brig General (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 3/6/02) 1835 nend Mar 7, HMS Beagle returned from Concepcion to Valparaiso. (MC, 3/7/02) 1835 nend Mar 10, Charles Darwin in a letter to Carolyn Darwin described a massive earthquake in Concepcion, Chile. (NH, 5/96, p.7) 1835 nend Mar 12, Simon Newcomb, US scientist, mathematician, astronomer, was born. (MC, 3/12/02) 1835 nend Mar 13, Charles Darwin departed Valparaiso for Andes crossing. (MC, 3/13/02) 1835 nend Mar 18, Charles Darwin departed Santiago, Chile, on his way to Portillo Pass. (MC, 3/18/02) 1835 nend Mar 23, Charles Darwin reached Los Arenales in the Andes. (SS, 3/23/02) 1835 nend Mar 27, The Mexican army massacred Texan rebels at Gohad. (HN, 3/27/99) 1835 nend Mar 29, Elihu Thomson, the English-born American inventor of electric welding and arc lighting, was born. (HN, 3/29/99) 1835 nend Apr 10, Charles Darwin returned to Santiago, Chile. (MC, 4/10/02) 1835 nend Apr 17, William Henry Ireland (b.1775)), English forger of Shakespeare?s works, died. He is less well-known as a poet, writer of gothic novels and histories. (ON, 8/10, p.5)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Ireland) 1835 nend Apr 26, Frederic Chopin?s "Grand Polonaise Brillante," premiered in Paris. (MC, 4/26/02) 1835 nend Apr, Hans Christian Andersen (1805-1875) published novel ?Improvisatore,? an alternative version of his own life based on his travel experiences in Italy. (ON, 7/06, p.7) 1835 nend May 6, The 1st edition of NY Herald was priced at 1 cent. The Herald specialized in crime with an emphasis on murder. James Gordon Bennett was the Scottish-born steward of the Herald. Within a few years of the 1936 Jewett murder case, a coalition of clergymen, financiers and rival editors waged a "Moral War" against Bennett and his newspaper (SFEM, 11/8/98, p.12)(SFEM, 8/6/00, p.45)(MC, 5/6/02) 1835 nend May 12, Charles Darwin visited the copper mines in North Chile. (MC, 5/12/02) 1835 nend May 13, John Nash, British town planner, architect (Regent's Park), died. (MC, 5/13/02) 1835 nend May 14, Charles Darwin reached Coquimbo in Northern Chile. (MC, 5/14/02) 1835 nend May 26, Edward Porter Alexander, brigadier general of artillery, was born. (HN, 5/26/98) 1835 nend May 26, A resolution was passed in the U.S. Congress stating that Congress has no authority over state slavery laws. (HN, 5/26/99) 1835 nend Jun 2, St. Pius X, 257th Roman Catholic pope (1903-14), was born. (SC, 6/2/02) 1835 nend Jun 2, P.T. Barnum and his circus began 1st tour of US. (SC, 6/2/02) 1835 nend Jul 1, German printer Carl Bertelsmann (1791-1850) founded Bertelsmann Verlag in Gutersloh, as a publisher and printer of religious books. In 2004 it was Europe?s largest media company. (Econ, 3/6/04, p.61)(Econ, 10/17/09, p.102)(http://tinyurl.com/y8odb47) 1835 nend Jul 4, The Boston and Worcester Railroad was inaugurated. (WSJ, 7/3/96, p.A8) 1835 nend Jul 6, John Marshall, the 3rd chief justice of the US Supreme Court, died at the age of 79. Two days later, while tolling in his honor in Philadelphia, the Liberty Bell cracked. Marshall served on the court for 34 years. (HN, 7/6/98)(SFC, 9/5/05, p.A8) 1835 nend Jul 8, The US Liberty Bell in Philadelphia cracked while being tolled for Chief Justice John Marshall. It was never rung again. (HFA, ?96, p.34)(HN, 7/6/98)(WSJ, 12/10/96, p.A20) 1835 nend Jul 28, King Louis Philippe of France survived an assassination attempt by Giuseppe Maria Fieschi, who rigged 25 guns together and fired them all with the pull of a single trigger. (www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9034220&query=July%20Revolution) 1835 nend Aug 2, Elisha Grey, inventor (Telephone), was born. (MC, 8/2/02) 1835 nend Aug 10, Mob of whites and oxen pulled a black school to a swamp outside of Canaan, NH. (MC, 8/10/02) 1835 nend Aug 18, The last Pottawatomie Indians left Chicago. (MC, 8/18/02) 1835 nend Aug 25, Ann Rutledge (22), said to be Lincoln's true love, died in Ill. (MC, 8/25/02) 1835 nend Aug 31, Angry mob in Charleston, South Carolina, seized U-S mail containing abolitionist literature and burned it in public. (MC, 8/31/01) 1835 nend Sep 13, Ladd & Co. began the 1st sugar cane plantation in Hawaii. (www.laddfamily.com/Files/Hawaii.htm) 1835 nend Sep 15, HMS Beagle and Charles Darwin reached the Galapagos Islands, a scattering of 19 small islands and scores of islets. (SFC, 12/4/94, p. T-5)(www.gct.org/darwinfact.html) 1835 nend Sep 17, Charles Darwin landed on Chatham in the Galapagos-archipelago. (MC, 9/17/01) 1835 nend Sep 23, HMS Beagle sailed to Charles Island in the Galapagos archipelago. (MC, 9/23/01) 1835 nend Sep 26, Gaetano Donizetti's opera "Lucia di Lammermoor," premiered in Naples. (MC, 9/26/01) 1835 nend Sep, Texans petitioned for statehood separate from Coahuila. They wrote out their needs and their complaints in The Declaration of Causes. This document was designed to convince the Federalists that the Texans desired only to preserve the 1824 Constitution, which guaranteed the rights of everyone living on Mexican soil. But by this time, Santa Anna was in power, having seized control in 1833, and he advocated the removal of all foreigners. His answer was to send his crack troops, commanded by his brother-in-law, General Martin Perfecto de Css, to San Antonio to disarm the Texans. (HNQ, 3/24/01) 1835 nend Oct 2, The first battle of the Texas Revolution took place as American settlers fought Mexican soldiers near the Guadalupe River; the Mexicans ended up withdrawing. (AP, 10/2/08) 1835 nend Oct 6, The people of Michigan approved an new state constitution by a vote of 6,299 to 1,359. The constitution repudiated slavery and safeguarded personal liberty. (AH, 4/07,p.45)(www.michigan.gov/formergovernors/0,1607,7-212--56877--,00.html) 1835 nend Oct 8, HMS Beagle and Charles Darwin reached James Island, Galapagos archipelago. (MC, 10/8/01) 1835 nend Oct 9, Camille Saint-Saens, composer (Carnival of the Animals, Organ Symphony, Samson et Dalilah), was born in Paris, France. (MC, 10/9/01) 1835 nend Oct 20, HMS Beagle left the Galapagos Archipelago and sailed to Tahiti. (MC, 10/20/01) 1835 nend Oct 23, Adlai Ewing Stevenson, (D) 23rd VP (1893-97), was born. (MC, 10/23/01) 1835 nend Oct 29, In NYC Tammany Hall radicals lit candles with the new self-igniting friction matches, known as loco-focos, and continued to nominate their own ticket and formulate their program. The radical urban wing of the Democratic Party, which emerged in New York in opposition to Andrew Jackson?s banking policies, thus became known by the nickname Loco-Focos. Also known as Equal Rights men, the Loco-Focos fought those financial interests aided by the regular Democratic Party in applying for bank and corporation charters from the legislature. They also advocated hard money, elections by direct popular vote, direct taxes, free trade, abolition of monopolies and Jeffersonian strict construction. They got the name Loco-Focos from an incident that occurred at a party primary meeting in Tammany Hall. After party regulars pushed through a ticket over the objections of the Equal Rights men, the radicals refused to vacate the hall. To get them to leave, the party regulars turned out the gas lights. (HNQ, 12/17/99) 1835 nend Oct 31, Adelbert Ames (d.1933), Bvt Major General (Union Army), was born. (MC, 10/31/01) 1835 nend Oct 31, J.F.W. Adolf Ritter von Baeyer, German chemist (Nobel 1905), was born. (MC, 10/31/01) 1835 nend Oct, Before the Alamo, Mexican General Css led troops against the small community of Gonzales, since enshrined in history as the "Lexington of Texas." San Antonio de Bixar went under military rule, with 1,200 Mexican troops under General Css? command. When Css ordered the small community of Gonzales, about 50 miles east of San Antonio, to return a cannon loaned to the town for defense against Indian attack--rightfully fearing that the citizens might use the cannon against his own troops--the Gonzales residents refused. "Come and take it!" they taunted, setting off a charge of old chains and scrap iron, shot from the mouth of the tiny cannon mounted on ox-cart wheels. Although the only casualty was one Mexican soldier, Gonzales became enshrined in history as the "Lexington of Texas." The Texas Revolution was on. (HNQ, 3/24/01) 1835 nend Nov 1, Godfrey Weitzel, (Union volunteers Major general, died in 1884), was born. (MC, 11/1/01) 1835 nend Nov 4, Lunsford Lindsay Lomax (d.1913), Major General (Confederate Army), was born. (MC, 11/4/01) 1835 nend Nov 13, Texans officially proclaimed Independence from Mexico, and called itself the Lone Star Republic, after its flag, until its admission to the Union in 1845. In 2001 Randy Roberts and James S. Olson authored "A Line in the Sand," a narrative of the Texas drive for independence. (HN, 11/13/98)(WSJ, 2/9/00, p.W6) 1835 nend Nov 15, HMS Beagle and Charles Darwin reached Tahiti. (MC, 11/15/01) 1835 nend Nov 16, Charles Darwin's voyage account was published in Cambridge Philosophical Society. (MC, 11/16/01) 1835 nend Nov 19, Fitzhugh Lee (d.1905), Major General (Confederate Army), was born. (MC, 11/19/01) 1835 nend Nov 23, Henry Burden invented the first machine for manufacturing horseshoes. He then made most of the horseshoes for the Union Cavalry in the Civil War. Burden patented a Horseshoe manufacturing machine in Troy, NY. (SFC, 7/13/96, p.E3)(MC, 11/23/01) 1835 nend Nov 24, Texas Rangers, a mounted police force, was authorized by the Texas Provisional Government. The Mexicans called them Los Diablos Tejanos -The Texas Devils. (MC, 11/24/01)(HNQ, 4/7/02) 1835 nend Nov 25, Andrew Carnegie (d.1919), American industrialist, was born to a poor weaver in Dunfermline, Scotland. He emigrated to the US in 1848 and worked as a superintendent for the Pennsylvania Railroad. In invested in iron manufacturing, railroad cars and oil and moved into the steel business by 1873 where he improved quality and lowered costs. He sold his interests at age 65 and retired to Scotland. He donated $5 million to a pension fund for his workers and gave away an estimated $350 million over the next 2 decades for public libraries, church organs and other causes: There is no idol more debasing than the worship of money." (WSJ, 1/11/98, p.R18)(AP, 11/25/99) 1835 nend Nov 26, HMS Beagle left Tahiti for NZ. (MC, 11/26/01) 1835 nend Nov 30, Samuel Langhorne Clemens (d.1910), author, -- better known under his penname as Mark Twain -- was born in Florida, Mo. In 1999 Ron Powers published "Dangerous Water: A Biography of the Boy Who Became Mark Twain." "Truth is stranger than fiction, but it is because fiction is obliged to stick to possibilities; truth isn't." "Everybody's private motto: It's better to be popular than right." "Let us be thankful for the fools. But for them, the rest of us could not succeed." "Why is it that we rejoice at a birth and grieve at a funeral? It is because we are not the person involved." (HFA, '96, p.18)(AHD, 1971, p.1385)(WUD, 1994, p.276)(AP,6/2/97)(AP, 10/17/97)(AP, 11/30/97)(AP, 4/1/98)(AP, 4/21/98)(SFEC,8/8/99, BR p.3) 1835 nend Dec 1, Hans Christian Andersen published his 1st book of fairy tales. (MC, 12/1/01) 1835 nend Dec 3, 1st US mutual fire insurance company issued 1st policy in RI. (MC, 12/3/01) 1835 nend Dec 4, Samuel Butler (d.1902), English writer and painter, was born. His work included "Erewhon" and "The Way of All Flesh." "There are two great rules of life, the one general and the other particular. The first is that everyone can, in the end, get what he wants if he only tries. This is the general rule. The particular rule is that every individual is more or less an exception to the general rule." "A hen is only an egg?s way of making another egg." "Life is one long process of getting tired." (AP, 4/25/97)(SFEC, 3/1/98, Z1 p.8)(AP, 4/22/98)(HN, 12/4/00) 1835 nend Dec 7, German railway Nurnberg-Furth opened. (MC, 12/7/01) 1835 nend Dec 13, Phillips Brooks, the American Episcopal bishop, was born in Boston. He wrote the words to "O Little Town of Bethlehem." (AP, 12/13/99) 1835 nend Dec 16, A fire in New York City destroyed property estimated to be worth $20,000,000. Beginning in a store at Pearl and Merchant (Hanover) Streets, it lasted two days, ravaged 17 blocks (52 acres), and destroyed 674 buildings including the Stock Exchange, Merchants' Exchange, Post Office, and the South Dutch Church. 13 acres were scorched. 23 of the city?s 26 fire-insurance companies were forced into bankruptcy. (HN, 12/16/98)(WSJ, 9/14/00, p.A24)(WSJ, 9/4/02, p.B1) 1835 nend Dec 21, HMS Beagle sailed into Bay of Islands, New Zealand. (MC, 12/21/01) 1835 nend Dec 25, Charles Darwin celebrated Christmas in Pahia, New Zealand. (MC, 12/25/01) 1835 nend Dec 30, Cherokees were forced to move across the Mississippi River after gold was discovered in Georgia. A minority faction of Cherokee agreed to the emigration of the whole tribe from their lands by signing the Treaty of New Echota. The Treaty of New Echota resulted in the cession of all Cherokee land to the U.S. and provided for the transportation of the Cherokee Indians to land beyond the Mississippi. The removal of the Cherokee was completed by 1838. (NG, 5/95, p.86)(HNQ, 6/21/98)(MC, 12/30/01) 1835 nend Dec 30, HMS Beagle and Charles Darwin sailed from NZ to Sydney. (MC, 12/30/01) 1835 nend Karl Baedeker (1801-1859), German publisher, published "Travel on the Rhine." It was later widely considered as the 1st modern guidebook. (SSFC, 11/30/02, p.C3) 1835 nend Hagop Melik-Agopian, Armenian novelist known as "Raffi", helped develop a nationalist literature. (Compuserve Online Enc. / Armenia) 1835 nend John Lloyd Stephens authored "Incidents of Travel in Arabia Petra." (ON, 12/99, p.5) 1835 nend Frenchman Alexis de Tocqueville (25) wrote "Democracy in America." He had been dispatched by the French government to study America?s penal system. His book predicted that henceforth equality would always increase everywhere, and justice be thereby served in the life of mankind. He also foresaw that democratic man, no longer protected by traditional institutions, found himself in danger of being exposed to the absolute tyranny of the state that he himself had created, i.e. a case of totalitarianism. He also predicted that the extremes of social diversity would be lost and that more human beings would tend to cluster around a central norm. He stated that: "Americans of all ages, all conditions and all dispositions constantly form associations." In 1938 George Wilson Pierson wrote "Tocqueville in America." (Smith., 4/1995, p.134)(SFEC, 6/14/98, Par p.10)(Econ, 1/30/10, p.92) 1835 nend Frederic Chopin composed his Waltz #2 in C# Minor. Chronologically this was his 5th published waltz. (BAAC PN, Chambers, 1/8/96) 1835 nend The San Ysidro church was built on the outskirts of Santa Fe, NM. It was named after the patron saint of farmers. (LP, Spring 2006, p.42) 1835 nend Pres. Andrew Jackson succeeded in retiring the national debt largely through the sale of public land. (WSJ, 2/6/97, p.C18)(Panic, p.6) 1835 nend The 1825 Missouri abortion law was rewritten to prohibit instrumental abortions as well as those induced by poisons. (SFEM, 2/1/98, p.13) 1835 nend There was a workers? walkout and strike in Lowell, Mass. (SFEC, 9/29/96, BR p.10) 1835 nend The Paine Furniture Co. began operations in Boston, Mass. It later moved to Cape Cod changed its name to Paine?s Patio. (SFC, 10/1/08, p.G6) 1835 nend The New York Sun hired Richard Adams Locke, a Briton, as editor. He soon wrote an anonymous series about a new telescope and observations of the moon that included the mention of vast forests, fields of poppies and lunar animals. Circulation soared to 19,360. In 840 he admitted to writing the moon hoax series. In 2008 Matthew Goodman authored ?the Sun and the Moon: The Remarkable True Account of Hoaxers, Showmen, Dueling Journalists, and Lunar Man-Bats in Nineteenth-Century New York.? (WSJ, 11/7/08, p.A15) 1835 nend Solomon Laurent Juneau, a fur trader, laid out the eastern part of Milwaukee and became the first president of the village in 1837. Juneau was born in Montreal and in 1818 settled on the site of Milwaukee and established a trading business. Juneau, who became a U.S. citizen in 1831, was elected the city?s first mayor in 1846. (HNQ, 2/6/00) 1835 nend George Calvert Yount chose to settle in the heart of the Napa Valley at what is now called Yountville. (SFC, 6/9/96, DB p.69) 1835 nend Richard Henry Dana, writer, arrived in SF aboard the brig Pilgrim. (SFEC, 3/1/98, p.W34) 1835 nend Alexander Forbes served as the British vice-consul in Monterey, Ca. (SFC, 12/5/03, p.D6) 1835 nend Ohio and Michigan engaged in ?The Toledo War? (1835?1836), also known as the Ohio-Michigan War, a bloodless boundary dispute that was settled in 1836. (WSJ, 5/31/08, p.W9)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toledo_War) 1835 nend Natural gas was used for cooking. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1835 nend Riley Whiting (b.1785), Connecticut clock maker, died. (SFC, 5/17/06, p.G5) 1835 nend Orlando Reeves, a soldier, was shot with an arrow by a Seminole Indian warrior during a fight. The city of Orlando, Florida is named after Orlando Reeves. (Hem, Mar. 95, p.27) 1835 nend The Ottoman Porte divided Albanian-populated lands into vilayets of Janina, Manastir, Shkodra, and Kosova with Ottoman administrators. (www, Albania, 1998) 1835 nend The French government prohibited political caricature. (Econ, 12/20/03, p.75) 1835 nend A foreign newspapers translation agency, set up by Charles-Louis Havas, became the Agence Havas, the first worldwide news agency. (www.afp.com) 1835 nend Madame Tussaud opened her London Wax Museum. (SFEC, 7/18/99, Par p.4) 1835 nend Lt. Henry Creswicke Rawlinson (25) began examining the ancient inscriptions on the rock of Behistun in the Kurdish foothills of the Zagros mountain range. He soon found that they had been made to honor Darius the Great, Persian ruler in the 5th century BCE. (ON, 4/04, p.7) 1835 nend Madagascar?s Queen Ranavalona I persecuted and expelled foreigners, including the island's missionaries and extended her rule all over the island with her 20,000-man army. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranavalona_I_Rabodoandrianampoinimerina) 1835 nend Trinity Cathedral in St. Petersburg, Russia, was consecrated. In 2006 a fire collapsed the central dome and one of four smaller cupolas surrounding it. (AP, 8/26/06) 1835 nend The wooden Neve Shalom synagogue was built in Suriname. (SSFC, 12/7/08, p.E5) 1835 nend James Hogg (b.1770), Scottish writer, died. His novels included ?The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner? (1824). (www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/arts/writingscotland/writers/james_hogg/) 1835 1853 The Lost Woman of San Nicolas. A report by a Captain Hubbard, whose schooner carried away the Indians of Ghalast-at, mentioned a girl who jumped into the sea and returned to the Island of San Nicolas. Records of a Captain Nidever record that 18 years later, a young woman living alone was picked up from San Nicolas. She was taken to the Santa Barbara Mission under the protection of Father Gonzales and died there. Her skirt of green cormorant feathers was sent to Rome. Her story is told by Scott O?Dell in his novel: Island of the Blue Dolphins. (IBD, 1960, p.183) 1835 1868 Adah Isaacs Menken, a Jewish poet and actress, was born near New Orleans and learned French, German, Spanish and Hebrew in school. She shocked American and European audiences in the 1860s for her bold acting style and became notorious for her role in the play Mazeppa, where she appeared on stage barely clothed tied to the back of a running horse. Around 1856 she published her first book of poems and married Alexander Isaacs Menken, whose name she kept through divorce and subsequent remarriages and liaisons. Called the most perfectly developed woman in the world, she moved between Europe and the United States as she performed. Adah Isaacs Menken died of tuberculosis in Paris and was buried there in the Montparnasse Cemetery. (HNPD, 11/16/98) 1835 1868 Lesotho acted as a buffer between the Afrikaner?s and British colonial interests and supplied seasonal farm workers to both. (WSJ, 3/25/98, p.A11)(EWH, 4th ed, p.885) 1835 1909 Augusta Jane Evans, American novelist: "Life does not count by years. Some suffer a lifetime in a day, and so grow old between the rising and the setting of the sun." (AP, 2/11/99) 1835 1916 Hetty Green, investor, was known as the "Witch of Wall street." She began investing in the financials markets after inheriting some $10 million from her shi-owner father. She married a wealthy trader, Edward Green, who went bankrupt, but maintained her wealth with separate accounts. She refused to treat her son for a knee injury and the leg was amputated. She left about $100 million when she died. (WSJ, 1/11/98, p.R18) 1836 nend Jan 5, Davy Crockett arrived in Texas just in time to die at the Alamo. (MC, 1/5/02) 1836 nend Jan 18, Knife aficionado Jim Bowie arrived at the Alamo to assist its Texas defenders. (HN, 1/18/99) 1836 nend Jan 27, Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, Austrian writer (masochism), was born. (MC, 1/27/02) 1836 nend Feb 7, The essays "Sketches by Boz" were published by Charles Dickens. (MC, 2/7/02) 1836 nend Feb 12, Mexican General Santa Anna crossed the Rio Grande en route to the Alamo. (HN, 2/12/99) 1836 nend Feb 17, HMS Beagle and Charles Darwin left Tasmania. (MC, 2/17/02) 1836 nend Feb 18, Swami Ramakrishna [Gadadhar Chatterji], Indian mystic, Hindu leader, was born. (MC, 2/18/02) 1836 nend Feb 21, Leo Delibes, ballet composer (Coppelia), was born in Saint-Germain-du-Val, France. (MC, 2/21/02) 1836 nend Feb 23, The Alamo was besieged by Santa Anna. Thus began the siege of the Alamo, a 13-day moment in history that turned a ruined Spanish mission in San Antonio, Texas, into a shrine known and revered the world over. (HN, 2/23/98)(AP, 2/23/98) 1836 nend Feb 24, Winslow Homer (d.1910), American painter, was born. He began his career as an illustrator for Harper's Weekly during America's Civil War. He is believed to have died a virgin and took up a hermit?s life in his mid 40s. He captured the look and spirit of 19th century American life. (WSJ, 4/2/96, p.A-12)(HN, 2/24/99)(WSJ, 7/21/00, p.W2) 1836 nend Feb 24, Some 3,000 Mexicans under Gen. Santa Ana launched an assault on the Alamo, with its 182 Texan defenders. The siege lasted 13 days. (HN, 2/24/98)(MC, 2/24/02) 1836 nend Feb 25, Samuel Colt patented the first revolving barrel multi-shot firearm. This allowed the shooter to fire 5 or 6 times before reloading. (AP, 2/25/98)(AH, 2/06, p.15) 1836 nend Feb 27, Mexican forces under General Jose de Urrea defeated Texan forces at the Battle of San Patricio. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goliad_Campaign) 1836 nend Mar 2, Texas declared its independence from Mexico on Sam Houston's 43rd birthday. The first vice-president was Lorenzo de Zavala. Mexico refused to recognize Texas but diplomatic relations were established with the US, Britain and France. Texas was an independent republic until 1845. (WSJ, 11/21/95, p.A-12)(WP, 6/29/96, p.A15)(SFC, 4/28/97, p.A3)(AP,3/2/98)(HN, 3/2/99) 1836 nend Mar 2, Mexican forces under General Jose de Urrea defeated Texan forces at the Battle of Agua Dulce. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goliad_Campaign) 1836 nend Mar 5, Samuel Colt manufactured the 1st pistol, a 34-caliber "Texas" model. (MC, 3/5/02) 1836 nend Mar 6, The Alamo fell after fighting for 13 days. Angered by a new Mexican constitution that removed much of their autonomy, Texans seized the Alamo in San Antonio in December 1835. Mexican president General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna marched into Texas to put down the rebellion. By late February, 1836, 182 Texans, led by Colonel William Travis, held the former mission complex against Santa Anna?s [3,000] 6,000 troops. At 4 a.m. on March 6, after fighting for 13 days, Santa Anna?s troops charged. In the battle that followed, all the Alamo defenders were killed while the Mexicans suffered about 2,000 casualties. Santa Anna dismissed the Alamo conquest as "a small affair," but the time bought by the Alamo defenders? lives permitted General Sam Houston to forge an army that would win the Battle of San Jacinto and, ultimately, Texas? independence. Mexican Lt. Col. Pena later wrote a memoir: "With Santa Anna in Texas: Diary of Jose Enrique de la Pena," that described the capture and execution of Davy Crockett and 6 other Alamo defenders. In 1975 a translation of the diary by Carmen Perry (d.1999) was published. Apparently, only one Texan combatant survived Jose María Guerrero, who persuaded his captors he had been forced to fight. Women, children, and a black slave, were spared. (AP, 3/6/98)(HN, 3/6/98)(HNPD, 3/6/99)(SFC, 6/15/99, p.C6) 1836 nend Mar 6, HMS Beagle and Darwin reached King George's Sound, Australia. (MC, 3/6/02) 1836 nend Mar 12, Mexican forces under General Jose de Urrea defeated Texan forces at the Battle of Refugio. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goliad_Campaign) 1836 nend Mar 13, Refugees from the Alamo arrived in Gonzales, Texas, and informed Gen. Sam Houston of the March 6, fall of the Alamo. Houston immediately ordered a retreat. (ON, 8/10, p.1) 1836 nend Mar 16, Andrew S. Hallidie, inventor (cable car), was born. (MC, 3/16/02) 1836 nend Mar 16, The Republic of Texas approved a constitution. (AP, 3/16/97) 1836 nend Mar 17, David G. Burnet (1788-1870) became interim president of Texas and continued to Oct 22, 1836. he became the second Vice President of the Republic of Texas (1839-41), and Secretary of State (1846) for the new state of Texas after it was annexed to the United States of America. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_G._Burnet) 1836 nend Mar 20, At Coleto Creek, Texas, Colonel James Fannin after being surrounded by Mexican forces under General Urrea, agreed to surrender to Colonel Juan Jose Holzinger. Fannin was unaware that General Santa Anna had decreed execution for all rebels. Urrea negotiated the surrender "at the disposal of the Supreme Mexican Government," falsely stating that no prisoner taken on those terms had lost his life. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goliad_Campaign) 1836 nend Mar 23, Coin Press was invented by Franklin Beale. (SS, 3/23/02) 1836 nend Mar 26, Mexican Colonel Jose Nicolas de la Portilla received orders from Gen. Santa Anna in triplicate to execute his Texan prisoners at Goliad. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goliad_Campaign) 1836 nend Mar 27, The first Mormon temple was dedicated, in Kirtland, Ohio. (AP, 3/27/97)(HN, 3/27/98)(NW, 9/10/01, p.48) 1836 nend Mar 27, Mexican Colonel Jose Nicolas de la Portilla executed his Texan prisoners at Goliad. Colonel Portilla had the 342 Texians marched out of Fort Defiance into three columns. The Texians were then fired on at point-blank range. The wounded and dying were then clubbed and stabbed. Those who survived the initial volley were run down by the Mexican cavalry. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goliad_Campaign) 1836 nend Mar 31, The first monthly installment of The Pickwick Papers by Charles Dickens was published in London. (HN, 3/31/01) 1836 nend Mar, George Yount became the grantee of the Rancho Caymus (11,814 acres), the first US citizen to be ceded a Spanish land grant in Napa Valley, Ca., in exchange for making wooden shingles for Gen. Mariano Vallejo. In Oct 1843 he was deeded the Rancho de La Jota (4,053 acres). (WCG, 7/95,p.21)(www.noehill.com/napa/cal03.asp)(www.sfmuseum.org/hist1/vets.html) 1836 nend Mar, Thousands of English speaking Texans abandoned their homes as the Mexican army advanced following the fall of the Alamo. They fled toward Louisiana in what came to be called the ?Runaway Scrape.? (ON, 8/10, p.2) 1836 nend Apr 9-10, Helen Jewett, a prostitute in a Thomas St. bordello in Manhattan, was murdered. Her boyfriend, Richard P. Robinson (17), a clerk for a local merchant and engaged to a woman of good pedigree, was tried for the murder but acquitted. In 1998 Patricia Cline Cohen published "The Murder of Helen Jewett," an account of the story. (WSJ, 8/21/98, p.W6)(SFEM, 11/8/98, p.12) 1836 nend Apr 20, The Territory of Wisconsin was established by Congress. (AP, 4/20/97)(HN, 4/20/98) 1836 nend Apr 20, Johan I Jozef (75), monarch of Liechtenstein, field marshal, died. (MC, 4/20/02) 1836 nend Apr 21, Some 910 Texians led by Sam Houston, the former governor of Tennessee, defeated the Mexican army under Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna at San Jacinto. The victory in the 18 minute battle sealed Texan independence from Mexico. Houston counted 9 fatalities. 630 Mexicans were killed out of some 1,250 troops. Some 700 were taken prisoner. (AP, 4/21/97)(HN, 4/21/98)(AH, 2/03, p.22)(ON, 8/10, p.3) 1836 nend May 6, Christian Ignatius Latrobe (78), composer, died. (MC, 5/6/02) 1836 nend May 9, HMS Beagle with Charles Darwin departed Port Louis, Mauritius. (MC, 5/9/02) 1836 nend May 16, Edgar Allan Poe (27) married Virginia Clem (13) in Richmond, Virginia. (SFEM, 1/25/98, p.67) 1836 nend May 17, Joseph Norman Lockyer, discovered helium, was born. He founded Nature magazine. (HN, 5/17/98)(MC, 5/17/02) 1836 nend May 18, Wilhelm Steinitz was born. The Czech-born world chess champion (1866-94) later became a naturalized American. (HN, 5/18/99)(SC, 5/18/02) 1836 nend May 19, Comanche warriors in Texas attacked Fort Parker and kidnapped Cynthia Ann Parker (9) and several others. She was recaptured by whites in 1860 and was forced to live among whites until her death in 1871. Her son Quanah (d.1911) escaped capture and grew up to become leader of the Quahadi, the most feared subset of the Comanche. In 2010 S.C. Gwynne authored ?Empire of the Southern Moon: Quanah Parker and the Rise of the Comanches, the Most Powerful Indian Tribe in American History.? (Econ, 6/19/10,p.85)(www.lone-star.net/mall/texasinfo/CynthiaAnnParker.htm) 1836 nend May 27, Jay Gould, US railroad executive, financier, was born. (MC, 5/27/02) 1836 nend May 31, HMS Beagle anchored in Simons Bay, Cape of Good Hope. (MC, 5/31/02) 1836 nend Jun 10, Yamaoka Tesshu, Japanese swordsman, was born. (HN, 6/10/98) 1836 nend Jun 10, Andre M. Ampere, French mathematician, physicist (Amp), died. (MC, 6/10/02) 1836 nend Jun 15, Arkansas became the 25th state. (AP, 6/15/97) 1836 nend Jun 23, Congress approved the Deposit Act, which contained a provision for turning over surplus federal revenue to the states. (AP, 6/23/97) 1836 nend Jun 26, Claude-Joseph Rouget de Lisle, author, composer ("La Marseillaise"), died. (MC, 6/26/02) 1836 nend Jun 28, James Madison (85), the 4th president of the United States (1809-17), died in Montpelier, Va. His writings included the 29 Federalist essays. In 1999 "James Madison: Writings," edited by Jack N. Rakove, was published. In 2002 Garry Wills authored James Madison." (AP, 6/28/97)(WSJ, 2/2/95, p.A-16)(WSJ, 9/1/99, p.A24)(WSJ, 3/26/02,p.A21) (MC, 6/28/02) 1836 nend Jun, In NYC Richard P. Robinson was found not guilty of the murder of Helen Jewett by a jury after 10 minutes of deliberation. (SFEM, 11/8/98, p.12) 1836 nend Jul 4, The territorial government of Wisconsin was established. (IB, Internet, 12/7/98) 1836 nend Jul 4, Narcissa Prentiss Whitman and Eliza Hart Spaulding made a marker at South Pass Wyoming as the first European women to cross the continent. (SFC, 8/18/98, p.A8) 1836 nend Jul 6, French General Thomas Bugeaud defeated Abd al-Kader?s forces beside the Sikkak River in Algeria. (HN, 7/6/98) 1836 nend Jul 11, Pres. Jackson, alarmed by the growing influx of state bank notes being used to pay for public land purchases, issued the Specie Circular shortly before leaving office. This order commanded the Treasury to no longer accept paper notes as payment for such sales. This led to the financial panic of 1837. (www.u-s-history.com/pages/h967.html)(Panic, p.6) 1836 nend Jul 15, William Winter, drama critic and essayist for The New York Times, was born. (HN, 7/15/98) 1836 nend Jul 20, Charles Darwin climbed Green Hill on Ascension. (MC, 7/20/02) 1836 nend Aug 7, Evander McIvor Law (d.1920), Brig General (Confederate Army), was born in South Carolina. (MC, 8/7/02)(Internet) 1836 nend Aug 14, Walter Besant (d.1901), English writer, philanthropist (Rebel Queen), was born. (MC, 8/14/02) 1836 nend Aug 22, Archibald M. Willard, US, artist (Spirit of '76), was born. (MC, 8/22/02) 1836 nend Aug 25, Bret Harte (d.1902), American author and journalist (Outcasts of Poker Flat), was born in Albany, NY. "The only sure thing about luck is that it will change." [1839 also given as a birth date] (WUD, 1994 p.648)(AP, 4/2/98)(SFEC, 9/3/00, BR p.6) 1836 nend Sep 1, Protestant missionary Dr. Marcus Whitman led a party to Oregon. His wife, Narcissa, was one of the first white women to travel the Oregon Trail. (HN, 9/1/99) 1836 nend Sep 1, Reconstruction began on Synagogue of Rabbi Judah Hasid in Jerusalem. (MC, 9/1/02) 1836 nend Sep 5, Sam Houston was elected president of the Republic of Texas. (AP, 9/5/97) 1836 nend Sep 10, Joseph Wheeler II, Maj Gen of the Confederacy, Cavalry, Army of Tennessee, was born. (MC, 9/10/01) 1836 nend Sep 12, Mexican authorities crushed the revolt which broke out on August 25. (HN, 9/12/98) 1836 nend Sep 14, Aaron Burr, the 3rd US Vice President, died. He had served as vice-president under Thomas Jefferson. Burr is alleged to have fathered a black illegitimate son named John Pierre Burr. In 1999 Roger W. Kennedy authored "Burr, Hamilton and Jefferson: A Study in Character." In 2007 Nancy Isenberg authored ?Fallen Founder: The Life of Aaron Burr.? (WSJ, 10/27/99, p.A16)(WSJ, 10/5/05, p.A1)(WSJ, 5/24/07, p.D7) 1836 nend Oct 2, Darwin returned to England aboard HMS Beagle after 5 years abroad. He visited Brazil, the Galapagos Islands, and New Zealand. His studies were important to his theory of evolution, which he put forth in his groundbreaking scientific work of 1859, "The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection." (MC, 10/2/01) 1836 nend Oct 22, Sam Houston was inaugurated as the first constitutionally elected president of the Republic of Texas. (AP, 10/22/97)(HN, 10/22/98) 1836 nend Oct 24, A. Phillips patented the match. (HN, 10/24/98)(MC, 10/24/01) 1836 nend Oct, Don Juan Alvarado, president of the 7-man legislature in the Mexican territory of California, fled Monterey with his deputies to Mission San Juan Bautista under threats from Lt. Col. Nicolas Gutierrez, the military governor. There they formed plans for a coup. (ON, 4/04, p.9) 1836 nend Nov 4, Don Juan Alvarado and a group of followers forced the surrender of Lt. Col. Nicolas Gutierrez, the military governor Monterey. The quickly drafted a constitution and proclaimed California independent of Mexico. Officials in southern California refused to recognize Alvarado's government and he agreed to make California a territory of Mexico with himself as governor. (ON, 4/04, p.10) 1836 nend Nov 6, Charles X (79), King of France (1824-30), died. (MC, 11/6/01) 1836 nend Nov 10, Charles Louis Napoleon (1808-1873), nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, failed in an attempted coup at Strasbourg and was exiled to the US by the government of Louis Philippe. (www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0859871.html) 1836 nend Nov 18, William S. Gilbert (d.1911), English playwright, librettist and humorist, was born. He was one half of Gilbert & Sullivan. "Life is a joke that's just begun." (HN, 11/18/00) 1836 nend Nov 27, Carle [Antoine CH] Vernet, French painter and lithographer, died. (MC, 11/27/01) 1836 nend Dec 7, Martin Van Buren (d.1862) was elected the eighth president of the United States and served one term. He was known as the "Little Magician" and the "Red Fox of Kinderhook." The eighth president earned these monikers for his political adroitness and skill at keeping his thoughts close to the vest. (AP, 12/7/97)(HNQ, 9/19/99) 1836 nend Dec 28, Spain recognized the independence of Mexico. (MC, 12/28/01) 1836 nend Leopold von Sacher-Masoch was born in Lemberg, Galicia. He was the author of "Venus in Furs." He voluntarily enslaved himself to Fanny von Pister and later to his bride Aurore Rumelin. The term masochism was derived from his name. (WSJ, 2/7/96, p.A-12) 1836 nend Thomas Cole, Hudson River School painter, painted "The Course of Empire," a series of 5 paintings chronicling the rise and fall of a great civilization. (WSJ, 9/19/02, p.D12) 1836 nend Auguste Mayer painted "Scene from the Battle of Trafalgar." (WSJ, 5/7/02, p.D7) 1836 nend Edward Lane (1801-1876), English orientalist, published ?Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians,? a classic account of Egyptian society. (Econ, 7/17/10, SR p.14) 1836 nend Augustus Pugin (1812-1852), English Gothic architect and designer, authored ?Contrasts,? the first ever architectural manifesto. (WSJ, 3/20/09, p.W14)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_Pugin) 1836 nend Constantine Samuel Rafinisque (1783-1840), naturalist, wrote "The American Nations," which contained what he claimed to be the deciphered ancient document written by the Lenape (Delaware) Indians called the Walam Olum. (NH, 10/96, p.14) 1836 nend King Kamehameha III formed the Royal Hawaiian Band. (WSJ, 3/10/05, p.A1) 1836 nend Meyerbeer composed his opera "Les Huguenots" with a libretto by Scribe. It was set around the 16th century Catholic and Protestant struggle that exploded with the 1572 St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. (WSJ, 11/23/99, p.A21) 1836 nend In Boston a small group of New England intellectuals began gathering at the home of minister George Ripley to discuss issues of religious and philosophical importance. The group, known as the Transcendental Club, disbanded in 1840. In 2007 Philip F. Gura authored ?American Transcendentalism: A History.? (SSFC, 12/2/07, p.M3) 1836 nend Father Veniaminov, later canonized, as St. Innokenty of Alaska, spent 3 months at Fort Ross, Ca., baptizing, burying and teaching. (SFEC, 3/23/97, p.T14) 1836 nend Pres. Jackson vetoed the bill to renew the charter of the Second Bank of the United States in 1836. Not until the Federal Reserve Act of 1911 did the US Government get back its monopoly on the creation of money. [see the New York Free Banking Act of 1838] (WSJ,11/24/95, p.A-8) 1836 nend Pres. Jackson named Martin Van Buren as his successor and Col. Richard Johnson as the vice presidential candidate, despite Johnson?s mulatto mistress and 2 illegitimate children. (WSJ, 8/15/00, p.A26) 1836 nend The US Congress, led by congressman and former president J.Q. Adams, voted to accept the 100,000 gold sovereign donation of Englishman James Smithson and establish the Smithsonian Institution for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men. The actual Institution was not established until 1846. (SFEC, 8/25/96, p.T6)(ON, 2/06, p.5) 1836 nend Roger Brooke Taney was confirmed as US Chief Justice. (WSJ, 11/21/06, p.D8) 1836 nend The 4-wheeled steam locomotive John Hancock was built with vertical boilers, cylinders and driving rods that gave its class the nickname "grasshoppers." (SFEC, 4/25/99, p.T6) 1836 nend Isaac Wade Ross, Revolutionary war hero, died in Mississippi. His will stipulated that his slaves should be emancipated upon his death, but only if they agreed to go to Liberia. The 1st of almost 200 were finally set free in 1848. In 2004 Alan Huffman authored "Mississippi in Africa: The Saga of the Slaves of Prospect Hill Plantation and Their Legacy in Liberia Today." (SSFC, 2/1/04, p.M1) 1836 nend Nathan Rothschild, son of Mayer Amschel Rothschild, died in London. His younger brother James took charge of the business. (WSJ, 11/17/98, p.21) 1836 nend The London-based Anti Slavery International human rights group was founded. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R28) 1836 nend Britain?s Peninsula and Oriental Steam Navigation (P&O Line) was founded to carry mail among Portugal, Spain and England and later expanded to passenger service. In 2005 Dubai?s DP World purchased the company for $5.7 billion. (www.theshipslist.com/ships/lines/pando.html)(SFC, 11/30/05, p.C2) 1836 nend The 107-foot-tall Egyptian Obelisk reached Paris. [see 1829] (SFC, 5/15/98, p.D3) 1836 nend The oldest shop in the Galerie Vivienne, Paris, France, is Librarie Jousseaume (nos. 45,46,47), which opened in 1836 and has been owned for the past 100 years by the Jousseaume family. Books span the 18th century to the present. (Hem., 10/?95, p.109) 1836 nend In France the medieval timber roof of the Chartres cathedral burned. Architect J.B. Lassus replaced it with an innovative roof of iron. (WSJ, 7/5/08, p.W9) 1836 nend La Fenice opera house in Venice burned down for the 1st time. (WSJ, 9/24/05, p.P12) 1836 nend Spain?s central government revoked the Basque?s fiscal privileges. These were restored in 1979. (Econ, 11/8/08, SR p.10) 1836 nend Seitnazar Seyidi (b.1775) and Kurbandurdy Zelili (b.1780), Turkmenistan poets, died. Both are considered to be successors of Makhtum Kuli. (www.advantour.com/turkmenistan/culture.htm) 1836 nend In Uruguay the Colorado party and the National Party were formed. (Econ, 10/24/09, p.44) 1836 1838 Sam Houston (1793-1863), US soldier and political leader, was president of the Republic of Texas. (WUD, 1994, p.689) 1836 1845 Texas was an independent republic. (SFC, 4/28/97, p.A3) 1836 1922 In 2004 the US government said it would digitize newspapers published over this period and make them available to the public in 2006. (SFC, 11/17/04, p.A8) 1836 1926 Joseph G. Cannon, Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives: "By descent, I am one-fourth German, one-fourth Irish, one-fourth English, and another quarter French. My God! If my ancestors are permitted to look down upon me, they might perhaps upbraid me. But I am also an American!" (AP, 2/19/00) 1837 nend Jan 2, Mili Alexeyevich Balakirev, composer (Tamara), was born in Nizhny-Novgorod, Russia. (MC, 1/2/02) 1837 nend Jan 11, John Field (54), Irish pianist, composer (Nocturnes), died. (MC, 1/11/02) 1837 nend Jan 11, Francois Gerard (66), French baron, painter, died. (MC, 1/11/02) 1837 nend Jan 22, An earthquake in southern Syria killed thousands. (MC, 1/22/02) 1837 nend Jan, 26, Michigan became the 26th state of the US. (HFA, ?96, p.22)(AP, 1/26/98) 1837 nend Feb 5, Dwight L. Moody (d.1899), evangelist, was born. He founded the Moody Bible Institute. "No man can resolve himself into Heaven." (AP, 7/26/00)(HN, 2/5/01) 1837 nend Feb 7, Sir James Augustus Henry Murray, Scottish lexicographer and editor, was born. He created the Oxford Dictionary. HN, 2/7/01)(MC, 2/7/02) no_source 1837 nend Feb 8, The Senate selected Richard Mentor Johnson as the vice president of the United States. Johnson was nominated for vice president on the Democratic ticket with Martin Van Buren in 1836. When Johnson failed to receive a majority of the popular vote, the election was thrown into the Senate for the first and only time. Johnson won the election in the Senate by a vote of 33 to 16. (AP, 2/8/99)(HNQ, 3/8/99) 1837 nend Feb 12, Thomas Moran (d.1926), American painter, was born in Bolton, England. His paintings of Yellowstone helped persuade Congress to designate it a national park. (WSJ, 5/11/95, p. A-14)(SFC,10/15/97, p.D3) 1837 nend Feb 13, There was a riot in NY over the high price of flour. (MC, 2/13/02) 1837 nend Feb 25, Cheyney University was established in Pennsylvania through the bequest of Richard Humphreys, and became the oldest institution of higher learning for African Americans. It was initially named the African Institute. However, the name was changed several weeks later to the Institute for Colored Youth (ICY). In subsequent years, the university was renamed Cheyney Training School for Teachers (July 1914), Cheyney State Teacher?s College (1951), Cheyney State College (1959), and eventually Cheyney Univ. of Pennsylvania (1983). (www.cheyney.edu/pages/index.asp?p=428) 1837 nend Mar 1, William Dean Howells (d.1920), US author, critic and editor, was born. He edited the work of William James at the Atlantic Monthly. "We are creatures of the moment; we live from one little space to another; and only one interest at a time fills these." "If we like a man's dream, we call him a reformer; if we don't like his dream, we call him a crank." (WUD, 1994, p.689)(SFEC, 11/3/96, BR p.10)(AP, 3/3/98)(AP,11/13/98)(HN, 3/1/01) 1837 nend Mar 3, US President Andrew Jackson and Congress recognized the Republic of Texas. (SC, 3/3/02) 1837 nend Mar 3, Congress increased Supreme Court membership from 7 to 9. (SC, 3/3/02) 1837 nend Mar 4, Martin Van Buren was inaugurated as 8th President. (SC, 3/4/02) 1837 nend Mar 4, When Pres. Jackson left office there followed a financial crash and a bitter depression and the government was again forced to borrow money. Pres. Jackson had returned surplus government funds to the state governments as bonuses. (WSJ, 2/6/97, p.C18)(WSJ, 6/26/00, p.A1) 1837 nend Mar 4, The Illinois state legislature granted a city charter to Chicago. (AP, 3/4/99) 1837 nend Mar 4, Weekly Advocate changed its name to the Colored American. (SC, 3/4/02) 1837 nend Mar 17, Upon his return to his home in Tennessee, Andrew Jackson, the seventh president of the U.S., proclaimed that he left office "with barely $90 in my pocket." The old soldier and war hero who had served as president for eight years, spoke those words when he returned to his home in Tennessee. (HNQ, 8/6/98) 1837 nend Mar 18, Stephen Grover Cleveland was born in Caldwell, N.J. He was the 22nd (1885-1889) and 24th (1893-1897) president of the United States, the only President elected for two nonconsecutive terms. (AP, 3/18/97)(HN, 3/18/02) 1837 nend Mar 24, Canada gave blacks the right to vote. (MC, 3/24/02) 1837 nend Mar 28, Felix Mendelssohn married Cecile Jeanrenaud. (MC, 3/28/02) 1837 nend Mar 31, John Constable (60), English painter, water colors painter, died. His work included some 100 studies of the sky done between 1821-1822. In 2009 Martin Gayford authored ?Constable in Love: Love, Landscape, Money and the Making of a Great Painter.? (WSJ, 6/9/04, p.D8)(Econ, 3/21/09,p.92)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Constable) 1837 nend Apr 3, John Burroughs (d.1921), American author and naturalist, was born. "Time does not become sacred to us until we have lived it, until it has passed over us and taken with it a part of ourselves." (HN, 4/3/01)(AP, 5/28/98) 1837 nend Apr 5, Algernon Charles Swinburne (d.1909), English poet (Atalanta in Calydon), was born. (MC, 4/5/02) 1837 nend Apr 17, J. Pierpont Morgan (d.1913), American financier, was born in Hartford, Conn. J.P. Morgan later owned U.S. Steel and International Harvester. In 1999 Jean Strouse published the biography "Morgan: American Financier." (WSJ, 3/30/99, p.A24)(HN,4/7/99)(www.netstate.com/states/peop/people/ct_jpm.htm) 1837 nend Apr 15, Horace Porter (d.1921), Bvt Brig General (Union Army), was born. (MC, 4/15/02) 1837 nend May 2, Henry Martyn Roberts, parliamentarian (Robert's Rules of Order). (HN, 5/2/02) 1837 nend May 5, Niccolo Antonio Zingarelli (85), Italian composer, bandmaster, died. (MC, 5/5/02) 1837 nend May 9, "Sherrod" burned in Mississippi River below Natchez, Miss., and 175 died. (MC, 5/9/02) 1837 nend May 27, Legendary gunfighter James Butler "Wild Bill" Hickok was born in Troy Grove, IL. As a youth, Hickok helped his father operate an Underground Railroad stop for runaway slaves and during the Civil War became a daring Union scout. After the war Hickok's fame as a skilled marksman, Indian fighter and frontier marshal grew, leading to a stint as a featured attraction with Buffalo Bill Cody's Wild West Show. On August 2, 1876, Hickok was shot from behind and killed while playing poker in Saloon No. 10 in Deadwood, Dakota Territory. Contrary to his custom, Hickok was sitting with his back to the door. (HNPD, 5/28/99)(MesWP) 1837 nend May 29, Luca Fumagalli, composer, was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1837 nend May 29, Alexander F. de Savornin Lohmann, Dutch minister, party leader (CHU), was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1837 nend May 31, Astor Hotel opened in NYC. It later became the Waldorf-Astoria. John Jacob Astor bought up foreclosed properties during the financial bust. He later sold them for a 10-fold profit. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R43)(MC, 5/31/02) 1837 nend Jun 17, Vincent Strong, Civil War Union Colonel (killed in action at Gettysburg in 1863), was born. (MC, 6/17/02) 1837 nend Jun 20, Queen Victoria (18) ascended the British throne following the death of her uncle, King William IV (b.1765). She ruled for 63 years to 1901. (AP, 6/20/97)(WSJ, 4/27/00, p.A24)(HN, 6/20/01) 1837 nend Jul 31, William Clarke Quantrill (d.1865), Confederate guerrilla leader, was born at Canal Dover, Ohio. (www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/QQ/fqu3.html) no_source 1837 nend Aug 11, Marie Francois Carnot, engineer, French pres (1887-94), was born. (MC, 8/11/02) 1837 nend Aug 18, The Great Western, a steamship designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, was towed out of the Bristol shipyard and proceeded under sail to London to be fitted with engines. (ON, 8/07, p.6) 1837 nend Aug 28, Pharmacists John Lea & William Perrins began to manufacture Worcester Sauce. [see 1834] (MC, 8/28/01) 1837 nend Sep 6, The Oberlin Collegiate Institute of Ohio went co-educational. (AP, 9/6/97)(http://tinyurl.com/lcgnj) 1837 nend Sep 21, Charles Lewis Tiffany (1812-1902) founded his jewelry and china stores. (MC, 9/21/01)(SSFC, 9/7/03, p.I4) 1837 nend Oct 1, Robert Gould Shaw was born to a prominent abolitionist family. He became commander of the 54th Massachusetts Regiment, the first unit of black soldiers in the Civil War. He was later asked by the governor of Massachusetts to organize the first regiment of black troops in a Northern state. Shaw recruited free blacks from all over New England. On May 13, 1863, the 54th Massachusetts Regiment was mustered into service in the Union Army with Shaw as its commanding officer. After leading the regiment in a handful of smaller actions, Shaw and the 54th joined two brigades of white troops in an assault on Confederates holding Battery Wagner on the South Carolina coast. Although the action was unsuccessful and Shaw himself died leading the charge, the courage of black troops under fire was proven beyond any doubt. This Kurz and Allison print honors Shaw and the 54th Massachusetts at Fort Wagner. (HNPD, 10/1/98)(HN, 10/1/98) 1837 nend Oct 1, A treaty was made with the Winnebago Indians. (MC, 10/1/01) 1837 nend Oct 9, Francis Parker, educator and founder of progressive elementary schools, was born. (HN, 10/9/00) 1837 nend Oct 11, Samuel Wesley, composer (Exultate Deo), died at 71. (MC, 10/11/01) 1837 nend Oct 17, Johann Nepomuk Hummel, Austrian composer, died at 58. (MC, 10/17/01) 1837 nend Oct 21, During the Second Seminole War (1835-1842), under a flag of truce during peace talks, U.S. troops under Gen. Thomas S. Jesup (1788-1860) sieged the Indian Seminole Chief Osceola in Florida and sent to a jail in North Carolina, where he later died. Jesup's trickery outraged the American public. (HN, 10/21/98)(DoW, 1999, p.435) 1837 nend Oct 31, The collision of river boats Monmouth & Trement on Mississippi left 300 dead. (MC, 10/31/01) 1837 nend Nov 7, A mob attack on the Alton, Illinois, office newspaper editor Elijah P. Lovejoy and the subsequent killing of Lovejoy was inspired by the editor?s anti-slavery writings. Several persons were indicted in the killing, but they were found not guilty. Lovejoy was killed while defending a newly arrived printing press. People opposed to Lovejoy?s mission had already destroyed three previous presses. (HNQ, 3/18/99)(HNQ, 6/26/00) 1837 nend Nov 8, Mount Holyoke Seminary, the 1st US college exclusively for women, opened in South Hadley, Massachusetts. (AP, 11/8/00) 1837 nend Nov 15, Isaac Pitman introduced his shorthand system for rapid writing. The stenographic system was based on sounds and was rapidly adopted in India. (MC, 11/15/01)(WSJ, 8/20/04, p.A1) 1837 nend Nov 21, Thomas Morris of Australia skipped rope 22,806 times. (MC, 11/21/01) 1837 nend Nov 28, John Wesley Hyatt (d.1920), inventor (celluloid), was born. (MC, 11/28/01)(ON, 11/03, p.4) 1837 nend Dec 2, Dr. Joseph Bell, British physician, was born. He is believed to be the prototype of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's detective 'Sherlock Holmes.' (HN, 12/2/99) 1837 nend Dec 5, Hector Berlioz' "Requiem," premiered. (MC, 12/5/01) 1837 nend Dec 9, Charles Emile Waldteufel, waltz composer (Skaters), was born in Strasbourg, France. (MC, 12/9/01) 1837 nend Dec 25, In the Battle of Okeechobee US forces defeated the Seminole Indians. (MC, 12/25/01) 1837 nend Dec 26, George Dewey, Admiral of the Navy, was born: Spanish-American War: hero of Manila: "You may fire when you are ready, Gridley." (440.com) 1837 nend Dec 29, Canadian militiamen, claiming self-defense, destroyed the Caroline, a US steamboat docked at Buffalo, N.Y. It was being used to ferry supplies to anti-British rebels in Canada. (AP, 12/29/97)(Econ, 11/22/03, p.25) 1837 nend Dec 29, A threshing machine powered by a single horse treadmill was patented in Winthrop, Maine, by twins Hiram A. and John A. Pitts. (DM, 8/5/03) 1837 nend Mary Harris (d.1931), aka Mother Jones, was born in County Cork, Ireland. [see May 1, 1830] (SSFC, 2/25/01, BR p.5) 1837 nend Reverend George Bush published ?The Life of Mohammed, founder of the religion of Islam and of the Empire of the Saracens.? It described the Prophet as an "imposter" and Muslims as "locusts." In 2005 Egyptian newspapers announced that the highest authority in Sunni Islam had approved publication of the book. In 2005 the US administration said the author was "a distant relative of the current president, five generations removed. (AP, 6/25/05)(www.muhammadanism.org/bush/bush_mohammed.pdf) 1837 nend The Dickens novel "Great Expectations" was set in this year. A 1998 version of the novel by Australian writer Peter Carey was titled "Jack Maggs." (WSJ, 2/4/98, p.A20) 1837 nend Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864) wrote "Twice Told Tales." (www.novelguide.com) 1837 nend Tennyson (1809-1892) wrote his poem ?Locksley Hall.? It included a vision of a tranquil world ?lapt in universal law.? It was published as part of a collection in 1842. The poem embodied the pain of lost love and looked forward to a time when the nations of the world would abandon war and form a ?parliament of man.? (WSJ, 6/28/06, p.D10)(www.firstscience.com/site/POEMS/tennyson4.asp) 1837 nend The Mahavamsa ("Great Chronicle"), a historical poem written in the Pali language of the kings of Sri Lanka, was published by George Turnour, an historian and officer of the Ceylon Civil Service. It covers the period from the coming of King Vijaya of Kalinga (ancient Orissa) in 543 BCE to the reign of King Mahasena (334?361). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahavamsa) 1837 nend Noah Webster?s Spelling Book had an estimated printing of 15 million. First published in 1783 as "A Grammatical Institute of the English Language," the Spelling Book was influential in standardizing and differentiating, from the British forms, English spelling and pronunciation in America. By 1890, more than 70 million copies of the book had been printed. (HNQ, 8/9/98) 1837 nend Oliver Wendell Holmes referred to a speech given by Ralph Waldo Emerson in 1837 as "our intellectual Declaration of Independence." Emerson, a philosopher and author born in Boston on May 25, 1803, gave the speech, entitled "The American Scholar," to the Phi Beta Kappa Society of Harvard. It called for an indigenous national culture and defined the functions of the intellectual in the light of Transcendentalism. He urged the mottoes: "Know Thyself" and "Study Nature." In 1838 Emerson?s address to the Harvard Divinity School criticized orthodox Christianity and led to accusations that he was an atheist. It was 30 years before he was invited again to speak at Harvard. He died on April 27, 1882. (HNQ, 6/14/98) 1837 nend Washington Irving wrote "The Adventures of Captain Bonneville." (HT, 3/97, p.38) 1837 nend In Maine the Edwards Dam on the Kennebec River was constructed. (SFC,11/26/97, p.A7) 1837 nend Conflicts broke up the Mormon communities in Missouri and Ohio. (NW, 9/10/01, p.48) 1837 nend The Presbyterian Church split into two denominations. (SFC, 7/21/97, p.A11) 1837 nend A US treaty with the Chippewa Indians in Minnesota guaranteed their right to hunt and fish and gather wild rice on territory relinquished to the federal government. (SFC, 3/25/99, p.A8) 1837 nend US Chief Justice Taney justified the government use of eminent domain in the Charles River case and wrote: "the object and end of all government is to promote the happiness and prosperity of the community by which it is established." (Wired, 10/96, p.133) 1837 nend John Marsh (1799-1856), Harvard graduate and Minnesota Indian agent, bought Rancho de Los Meganos east of Mount Diablo and became the 1st American in the San Joaquin Valley. He purchased the Rancho Los Meganos from Jose Noriega for $300 in cowhides. The land stood where the hills of Contra Costa met the San Joaquin Valley. He built a stone Gothic mansion in 1856. In 2002 plans were made to restore the Marsh House. (SFC, 12/7/02, p.E4)(SSFC, 9/24/06, p.B3) 1837 nend A Michigan Public Act declared that the Univ. of Michigan would "provide the inhabitants of the State with the means of acquiring a thorough knowledge of the various branches of literature, science, and the arts... (and) be open to all residents of this state." (LSA., Fall 1995, p.11) 1847 nend City College, later known as City Univ. of New York (CUNY) was founded in Harlem. (Econ, 1/21/06, p.29) 1837 nend The Procter & Gamble Company was formed in Cincinnati, Ohio. William Procter and James A. Gamble built a business manufacturing soap and candles from the tallow produced by the city?s thriving meat packing industry. In 2004 Davis Dyer, Frederick Dalzell and Rowena Olegario authored ?Rising Tide,? a history of Procter and Gamble. (WSJ, 1/15/97, p.A12)(WSJ, 7/23/04, p.W12)(Econ, 8/11/07, p.61) 1837 nend The B&O Railroad and the C&O Canal both reached Harper's Ferry. At this point the B&O built a bridge across the Potomac and began an inland route up the mountains to Martinsburg. (SFEC, 4/25/99, p.T7) 1837 nend Samuel F.B. Morse incorporated the discoveries of Sturgeon and Henry in the first practical telegraph, separating the magnet from the switch by some five hundred yards of wire. [see 1838, 1844] (I&I, Penzias, p.96) 1837 nend In California Jose Maria Amador led a "recapturing expedition." They found and murdered 200 Indians. (SFC, 12/31/00, BR p.12) 1837 nend In London construction began on the new Palace of Westminster. Architect Charles Barry and his assistant A.W.N. Pugin had won the open competition for the design. (WSJ, 3/20/09, p.W14) 1837 nend Moses Montefiore (1784-1885), Italy-born British financier, was elected Sheriff of London and served until 1838. He was also knighted this same year by Queen Victoria and received a baronetcy in 1846 in recognition of his services to humanitarian causes on behalf of the Jewish people. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moses_Montefiore) 1837 nend A parliamentary commission?s report indicated that there were nearly 30,000 charitable endowments in Britain at this time. (WSJ,11/24/95, p.A-8) 1837 nend English plumber Thomas Crapper came out with a flush model, valve controlled, water closet. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow installed one in his home in 1840 and sparked public attention. Thomas Crapper, popularly credited with inventing the water closet, held three patents, although he may simply have bought the siphon discharge system patent from Albert Giblin and marketed it himself. In 1969 Wallace Reyburn authored ?Flushed with Pride: The Story of Thomas Crapper.? (HNQ, 11/25/00)(http://tinyurl.com/2ws5w) 1837 nend Thierry Hermes (1801-1878), French saddle maker, established the Hermes company as a harness workshop. It grew to become a maker of high fashion leather goods. The company went public in 1993. (Econ, 1/1/11, p.56)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herm%C3%A8s) 1837 nend French explorer Dumont d?Urville (1790-1842) sailed along a coastal area of Antarctica that he named the Adélie Coast in honor of his wife. He also named the Adelie penguin after his wife. (WSJ, 7/1/97, p.A6)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dumont_D'Urville) 1837 nend In St. Petersburg Alexander Pushkin (b.1799), poet, was killed in a duel with his wife's suitor, D'Anthes, a French nobleman. Pushkin's work included "Eugene Onegin," a novel-in-verse, and "Boris Godunov," made famous in the Mussorgsky opera. In 1993 an English translation of "Strolls With Pushkin" by Abram Tertz (Andrei Sinyavsky) was published. In 1999 Elaine Feinstein published "Pushkin: A Biography." (SFC, 6/3/99, p.C2)(WSJ, 7/15/99, p.A16)(WSJ, 8/3/99, p.A23) 1837 nend Sayyid Muhammad ibn Ali as-Senussi (1787-1860), an Algeria-born mendicant founded the Sanusi, a Sufi order, in Mecca. Beida, Libya, later became the seat of the Sanusi. (Econ, 2/26/11, p.27)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senussi) 1837 nend In Scotland Fife Pottery in Kirkcaldy was purchased by Mary and Robert Heron. They developed a new style of decoration for pottery and called the pieces Wemyss Ware. the pottery was decorated on the clay before it was glazed. the factory closed in 1920 and rights were purchased by a pottery in Devon. (SFC, 9/2/98, Z1 p.6) 1837 nend Louis Agassiz (1807-1873), Swiss paleontologist, proposed to the Helvetic Society that ancient glaciers had not only flowed outward from the Alps, but that even larger glaciers had simultaneously encroached southward on the plains and mountains of Europe, Asia and North America, smothering the entire northern hemisphere in a prolonged Ice Age. (ON, 10/08, p.12) 1837 1841 Martin Van Buren became 8th President of the US. His term was marred by depression and financial panic. (A&IP, ESM, p.96b, photo)(HFA, ?96, p.46) 1837 1844 Thomas L. McKenney and James Hall published their 3-volume work: ?The Indian Tribes of North American.? (WSJ, 3/15/06, p.D16) 1837 1863 More than 700 US banks could issue their own notes during this period and as many as one-third of all bills were fake. (Econ, 2/23/08, p.104) 1837 1901 The Victorian Era was covered by Peter Gay in his 5-volume work: The Bourgeois Experience: Victoria to Freud." The 5th volume "Pleasure Wars" came out in 1998. Other volumes were titled: Education of the Sense," "The Tender Passion," and "The Cultivation of Hatred." (SFEC, 1/11/98, BR p.9) 1837 1899 The Countess de Castiglione, mistress to Napoleon III, actively collaborated in the making of some 500 images of herself in a wide variety of costume and pose mostly photographed by Pierre-Louis Pierson. She advertised herself as "The Most Beautiful Woman of the Century." (SFEC, 9/19/99, p.C13) 1838 nend Jan 4, Charles Sherwood Stratton (d.1883), later known as the dwarf Tom Thumb, was born in Bridgeport, Conn. In 1842, P.T. Barnum discovered Charles, who measured 25 inches and weighed 15 pounds, only six pounds more than his birth weight. (www.barnum-museum.org) 1838 nend Jan 6, Max Bruch, composer Scottish Fantasy), was born in Cologne, Germany. (MC, 1/6/02) 1838 nend Jan 6, Samuel Morse (1791-1872) first publicly demonstrated his telegraph, in Morristown, N.J. In 2003 David Paul Nickles authored "Under the Wire," a history of the telegraph and its impact on the world. (AP, 1/6/98)(WSJ, 1/7/04, p.D10) 1838 nend Jan 7, John Joseph Hughes (aka "Dagger John") was consecrated as bishop of New York. He encouraged the formation of the Society for the Protection of Destitute Catholic Children and helped form the Irish Emigrant Society. (WSJ, 3/17/97, p.A18) 1838 nend Jan 26, Tennessee became the 1st state to prohibit alcohol. (MC, 1/26/02) 1838 nend Feb 6, Having failed to obtain land by trickery from the Zulus of South Africa, the Boar leader Piet Retief was executed as a witch. (HN, 2/6/99) 1838 nend Feb 16, Henry Adams (d.1918), was born. He was the son and grandson of the presidents who became a U.S. historian and wrote "The Education of Henry Adams." (HN, 2/16/99)(SFEC, 4/23/00, BR p.6) 1838 nend Feb 20, Ludwig Boltzmann (d.1906), Austrian atomic physics engineer, was born. [see 1844] (HN, 2/20/98) 1838 nend Feb 21, Alexis De Rochon, Spyglass Developer, was born. (HN, 2/21/98) 1838 nend Feb 23, Gilbert Moxley Sorrel (d.1901), Brig General (Confederate Army), was born. (MC, 2/23/02) 1838 nend Feb 24, Thomas Benton Smith, Brig. General (Confederate Army), was born in Mechanicsville, Tennessee. He was wounded at Stone?s River/Murfreesboro and again at Chickamauga. He was captured at the Battle of Nashville (1864) where he was beaten over the head with a sword by Col. William Linn McMillen of the 95th Ohio Infantry. His brain was exposed and it was believed he would die. He recovered partially and spent the last 47 years of his life in the State Asylum in Nashville, Tennessee, where he died on May 21, 1923. He?s buried in Mount Olivet Cemetery, Nashville, Davidson County, Tennessee. (MC, 2/24/02)(Internet) 1838 nend Mar 3, Rebellion at Pelee Island, Ontario, Canada. (SC, 3/3/02) 1838 nend Mar 7, Soprano Jenny Lind ("the Swedish Nightingale") made her debut in Weber's opera Der Freischultz. (HN, 3/7/01) 1838 nend Mar 16, Nathaniel Bowditch (b.1773), mathematician, astronomer, polyglot, author (Marine Sextant), died. In 1802 he published "The New American Practical Navigator." (SS, 3/26/02)(AH, 12/02, p.22) 1838 nend Mar 18, Randal Cremer, British trade unionist, pacifist (Nobel 1903), was born. (MC, 3/18/02) 1838 nend Apr 3, Leon Michel Gambetta, French attorney, premier (1881-82), was born. (MC, 4/3/02) 1838 nend Apr 3, Francesco Antommarchi (57), Napoleon's physician on St Helena, died. (MC, 4/3/02) 1838 nend Apr 8, The British steamship "Great Western" set out on its maiden voyage from Bristol, England, to NYC. (ON, 8/07, p.7) 1838 nend Apr 12, John Shaw Billings, American librarian, army physician, was born. (HN, 4/12/98) 1838 nend Apr 17, J. Schopenhauer (71), writer, died. (MC, 4/17/02) 1838 nend Apr 21, John Muir (d.1914), naturalist, was born in Dunbar, Scotland. He discovered glaciers in the High Sierras of California. (HN, 4/21/98)(SFEC, 1/2/00, DB p.23)(SFC, 2/2/00, p.A21) 1838 nend Apr 22, The English steamship "Sirius" docked in NYC after a record Atlantic crossing. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Riband) 1838 nend Apr 23, The British steamship "Great Western" arrived in NYC on its maiden voyage from Bristol, England, just hours after the retrofitted steamship Sirius, which had departed Cork on April 4. The Great Western crossed the Atlantic in a record 15 days and 12 hours. (ON, 8/07, p.7) 1838 nend Apr 27, Fire destroyed half of Charleston. (MC, 4/27/02) 1838 nend May 10, John Wilkes Booth (d.1865), assassin of Abraham Lincoln, was born near Bel Air, Maryland. (HN, 5/10/98) 1838 nend May 17, Pennsylvania Hall in Philadelphia was burned following an abolitionist meeting. (SFEC, 1/3/99, BR p.1) 1838 nend May 17, Charles-Maurice duke of Talleyrand-Perigord (84), diplomat, revolutionary, bishop and former PM of France (1815), died. In 2006 David Lawday authored ?Napoleon?s Master: A Life of Prince Talleyrand.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand)(Econ,9/30/06, p.93) 1838 nend Jun 12, The Iowa Territory was organized. (AP, 6/12/97) 1838 nend Jun 27, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Bengali novelist (Anandamath), was born. (SC, 6/27/02) 1838 nend Jun 28, Britain's Queen Victoria was crowned in Westminster Abbey. (AP, 6/28/98)(http://tinyurl.com/zezjg) 1838 nend Jul 1, Charles Darwin presented a paper on his theory of evolution to the Linnaean Society in London. (HN, 7/1/01) 1838 nend Jul 8, Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin (d.1917), German designer and manufacturer of airships, was born. (HN, 7/8/98)(WUD, 1994, p.1660) 1838 nend Jul 11, John Wanamaker (d.1922), US merchant who founded a chain of stores in Philadelphia, was born. (HN, 7/11/98)(ON, 12/05, p.6) 1838 nend Aug 1, Slavery was abolished in Jamaica. (HFA, ?96, p.36) 1838 nend Aug 18, Six US Navy ships departed Hampton Roads, Va., led by Lt. Charles Wilkes on a 3-year mission called the US South Seas Exploring Expedition, the "U.S. Ex. Ex." The mission proved Antarctica to be a continent. Wilkes was tried in a military court for abuses of power, but was generally acquitted. In 2003 Nathaniel Philbrick authored "Sea of Glory," an account of the expedition. (Econ, 11/8/03, p.80)(WSJ, 11/12/03,p.D12)(www.sil.si.edu/DigitalCollections/usexex/) 1838 nend Aug 23, One of the first colleges for women, Mount Holyoke Female Seminary in South Hadley, Mass., graduated its first students. (AP, 8/23/97) 1838 nend Aug, Some 12,000 Cherokee Indians in 13 ragtag parties followed the Trail of Tears on a 116-day journey west 800 miles to eastern Oklahoma. Estimates have placed the death toll in camps and in transit as high as 4,000. They followed the trail already set by the Choctaw out of Mississippi, the Creek from Alabama, the Chickasaw from Arkansas and Mississippi, and the Seminole from Florida. (NG, 5/95, p.82)(www.crystalinks.com/cherokee2.html) 1838 nend Sep 1, William Clark (68), 2nd lt. of Lewis and Clark Expedition, died. (MC, 9/1/02) 1838 nend Sep 2, Lydia Kamekeha Liliuokalani (d.1917), last sovereign before annexation of Hawaii by the United States, was born. Lili?uokalani, the last monarch of Hawaii (1891-1893). She composed Hawaii?s most famous song "Aloha Oe." (WSJ, 1/23/97, p.A12)(HN, 9/2/98) 1838 nend Sep 3, Frederick Douglass, American Negro abolitionist, escaped slavery disguised as a sailor. He would later write "The Narrative Life of Frederick Douglass," his memoirs about slave life. (HFA, ?96, p.38)(HN, 9/3/98) 1838 nend Sep 4, Henrietta d'Angeville (1794-1871) became the 1st woman to climb to the top of Mt. Blanc, France. In 1808 mountain guides had carried Marie Paradis, a local serving girl, to the top. (ON, 4/04, p.1) 1838 nend Sep 6, The steamship Foxfarshire with some 60 passengers and crew suffered engine failure and drifted onto Big Harkar Rock near the Longstone Lighthouse on the Farne Islands in northeast England. Over 40 people drowned. Grace Darling (22) rowed with her father (54), light keeper, to rescue survivors. (ON, 10/00, p.9) 1838 nend Sep 10, The opera "Benvenuto Cellini," by Hector Berlioz, premiered in Paris. It was based on Cellini's autobiography. (MC, 9/10/01)(WSJ, 12/16/03, p.D10) 1838 nend Sep 11, John Ireland, US archbishop of St. Paul, was born in Ireland. (MC, 9/11/01) 1838 nend Sep 16, James J. Hill, railroad builder, was born. (HN, 9/16/00) 1838 nend Sep 23, Victoria Chaflin Woodhull (d.1927), American presidential candidate (1872), was born into a family of charlatans in Ohio. Woodhull, a militant suffragist, advocated free love and was Wall Street's first female broker after attracting Cornelius Vanderbilt. She was the first woman to address Congress. Her story is documented in ?The Woman Who Ran for President: The Many Lives of Victoria Woodhull? by Lois Beachy Underhill. In 1998 Mary Gabriel published "Notorious Victoria: The Life of Victoria Woodhull, Uncensored. In 1998 Barbara Goldsmith published "Other Powers--The Age of Suffrage, Spiritualism and the Scandalous Victoria Woodhull." (WSJ, 7/25/95, p.A-10)(SFEC, 2/22/98, BR p.5)(SFEC, 3/8/98, Parp.14)(HNPD, 4/28/00) 1838 nend Oct 1, Lord Auckland, British governor general in India, issued the Simla Manifesto, setting forth the necessary reasons for British intervention in Afghanistan. This led to the 1st Anglo-Afghan War. (Econ, 10/7/06,p.18)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Anglo-Afghan_War) 1838 nend Oct 24, Joseph Lancaster (b.1778), English educator, was fatally injured by a runaway horsedrawn carriage in NYC. (http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/KRO_LAP/LANCASTER_JOSEPH_1778_1838_.html) 1838 nend Oct 25, Georges Alexandre-Cesar-Leopold Bizet, French composer (Carmen), was born. (HN, 10/25/98)(MC, 10/25/01) 1838 nend Oct 31, A mob of about 200 attacked a Mormon camp in Missouri, killing 20 men, women and children. In the massacre at Haun?s Mill in western Missouri 17 Mormon settlers were killed. Joseph Smith was arrested and the Mormons were driver from the state. (HN, 10/31/98)(NW, 9/10/01, p.48) 1838 nend Nov 8, Victor Hugo's "Ruy Blas," premiered in Paris. (MC, 11/8/01) 1838 nend Nov 13, Joseph F. Smith, 6th president of Mormon church, was born. (MC, 11/13/01) 1838 nend Nov 30, Mexico declared war on France. (HN, 11/30/98) 1838 nend Dec 13, Alexis Millardet, botanist who developed the first successful fungicide, was born. (HN, 12/13/00) 1838 nend Dec 16, Boers led by Andreas Pretorius defeated the Zulus in the Battle of Blood River and settled in Natal. The Afrikaners while escaping from British rule encountered resistance from the native black peoples. In the Battle of Blood River a few hundred Boers repelled an attack by more than 10,000 warriors of the Zulu king Dingaan. (EWH, 4th ed, p.885)(NG, Oct. 1988, p. 563) 1838 nend Dec, India?s British governor general dispatched to Kabul the Army of the Indus to protect British interests from growing Russian influence. (SSFC, 10/28/01,p.C8)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Anglo-Afghan_War) 1838 nend The Norwegian violinist Ole Bull visited Memphis but the local whites preferred the fiddling of the slave musicians. (WSJ, 8/14/97, p.A16) 1838 nend Charles Babbage published his paper on Time Reckoning by Tree Ring Counts. (RFH-MDHP, 1969, p.53) 1838 nend A raunchy tale of anarchy on the high seas was recorded by a junior officer, James Bell, aboard "The Planter" which sailed to Adelaide from Deptford in east London. In 2010 Bell?s 225-page diary went up for sale at auction in London after being bought in a market stall for a pittance. (Reuters, 2/24/10) 1838 nend Charlotte Bronte authored her novella "Stancliffe?s Hotel." It was published for the 1st time in 2003. (SFC, 3/15/03, p.A2) 1838 nend Edgar Allan Poe became assistant editor of Gentleman?s Magazine in Philadelphia. In 1998 Ronald Weber published "Hired Pens: Professional Writers in America?s Golden Age of Print," that covered professional writing in the US from Edgar Allen Poe to the present. (SFEC, 1/12/97, p.T5)(SFEC, 4/26/98, Par p.8) 1838 nend Gustav Schwab, German historian, authored his compendium "Die Sagen des Klassischen Altertums" (Stories from Classical Antiquity). The 1st English version was published in 1946. It was republished in 2001 as "Gods and Heroes of Ancient Greece." (WSJ, 11/7/01, p.A20) 1838 nend The first Braille Bible was published by the American Bible Society. (WSJ, 8/7/98, p.W13) 1838 nend Mammoth Cave in Kentucky was purchased by Franklin Gorin as a tourist attraction. Stephen L. Bishop, a slave of Gorin?s, explored and mapped the caves over the next two decades. His first comprehensive depiction was published in 1845. Bishop was freed in 1856 and using money earned in tips as tour guide he bought some adjoining land. Bishop died a year later and was buried near the cave?s original entrance. (NG, 5/95,Geographica) 1838 nend In New Harmony Indiana?s oldest public lending library was founded. The town was founded by the millennialist Harmonie Society and later bought by Robert Owen, a social reformer and educator. (WSJ, 7/22/98, p.A12) 1838 nend Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey escaped from slavery in Maryland and traveled to new England where he changed his name to Frederick Douglass. (AHD, 1971, p.394)(ON, 7/02, p.6) 1838 nend New York passed the Free Banking Act and the idea of state-chartered banks spread across the country. Each bank issued its own bills in various shapes and sizes. [see 1863, the National Bank Act] (WSJ,11/24/95, p.A-8) 1838 nend Amid rising debts and rumors of polygamy, the Mormons moved from Ohio to Far West, Mo., where they clashed violently with other settlers. [see 1839] (SFC, 4/9/96, A-7) c 1838 nend In North Atlanta the head of a buck was mounted on a post near a settler?s crossing. Now the intersection of Peachtree, Roswell and Paces Ferry Roads marks the heart of the Buckhead section of Atlanta. (Hem., 7/96, p.55) 1838 nend Francis Drexel founded a bank that later developed into Drexel Burnham Lambert Corp. His son, Joseph Drexel, later partnered with J.P. Morgan and in 1876 went on to serve as the director of the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art. (SFC, 3/24/00, p.W4) 1838 nend Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, German astronomer, made the first reliable parallax measurement for a star known as 61 Cygni. This gave a distance from the sun of 10.9 light-years. Thomas Henderson, Scottish astronomer, measured the parallax of Alpha Centauri whose distance is calculated to be 4.3 light-years from the Sun. (SCTS, p.137) 1838 nend In California Monterey became the state capital under Juan Bautista Alvarado. He named Mariano Vallejo commandante general. (SFEC, 3/1/98, p.W34) 1838 nend In California a major earthquake opened a huge fissure from SF to Santa Clara. (SFEC, 3/1/98, p.W34) 1838 nend The Buckeye Brewing Co. of Toledo, Ohio, began operations. Green Seal Select Beer was one of their early brands. The company continued until 1972. (SFC, 2/13/08, p.G8) 1838 nend In London the National Gallery opened on Trafalgar Square. It was designed by William Wilkins. A 10-year renovation was completed in 1999. (SFC, 9/22/99, p.E3) 1838 nend The London Prize Ring Rules were instituted with bare-knuckle rounds of unspecified length. Rounds ended when a fighter touched ground with a knee. The rules were based on those drafted by Britain's Jack Broughton in 1743, and governed the conduct of prizefighting/bare-knuckle boxing for over 100 years. They were later superseded by the Marquess of Queensberry rules (1865), the origins of the modern sport of Boxing. (AH, 2/06, p.32)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Prize_Ring_rules) 1838 nend In England William Ridgway, Son & Co. began using the "Humphrey clock" mark on its dishware. (SFC, 3/11/98, Z1 p.5) 1838 nend Gideon Barr of England borrowed money to buy an oceangoing schooner and sailed to Borneo, called Kalimantaan by the natives. He put down a rebellion against the sultan of Brunei and became the rajah of the territory. The 1998 novel "Kalimantaan" by C.S. Godshalk was based on these events. (SFEC, 3/22/98, BR p.6) 1838 nend France agreed to reduce Haiti's 1825 "debt" to 60 million fold francs to be paid over 30 years. The final payment was made in 1883. (WSJ, 1/2/04, p.A6) 1838 nend Frederic Chopin (1810-1849), Polish-born composer and pianist, began a volatile affair with French novelist George Sand. The relationship continued to 1847. (Econ, 2/6/10, p.91) 1838 nend Louis Daguerre caught an image of a man who appears to be getting his shoes or boots shined at a street corner in Paris. This was the first ever photo of a person. (http://tinyurl.com/37jtw74) 1838 nend Friedrich Bessel, director of the Konigsberg Observatory, calculated the distance to star 61 Cygni using parallax and magnitude. (NH, 4/1/04, p.45) 1838 nend In Ghana Asante King Nana Badu Bonsu II had his head cut off by Maj. Gen. Jan Verveer in retaliation for Bonsu's killing of two Dutch emissaries, whose heads were then displayed as trophies. In 2008 Dutch author Arthur Japin discovered Bonsu?s head in a jar of formaldehyde at Leiden Univ. Medical Center. In 2009 the Dutch government returned the head of Bonsu?s descendants. (SFC, 3/21/09, p.A2)(SFC, 7/24/09, p.A2) 1838 nend Greece made an attempt to restart the Olympics. (WSJ, 7/19/96, p.R16) 1838 nend In Hong Kong obscure oil paintings show a sophisticated irrigation system on the Island. (SFEC, 11/10/96, p.A18) 1838 1840 In Germany Architect Gottfried Semper, designer of the Dresden Semper Opera House, designed the Dresden Jewish synagogue that was built over this time. (SFC, 1/6/97, p.A10) 1838 1916 Ernst Mach, Austrian physicist, proposed that the inertia of every bit of matter resulted from the mutual interaction of all matter in the universe. In other words, a mass resists acceleration because of the influence on it of all the rest of the masses everywhere. He is also associated with the relationship of the velocity of aircraft with the velocity of sound. (TNG, Klein, p.147) 1838 1918 Henry Brooks Adams, American Historian and philosopher, son of Charles Francis Adams. "One friend in a lifetime is much; two are many; three are hardly possible." "A teacher affects eternity; he can never tell where his influence stops." (AHD, 1971, p.14)(AP, 3/21/97)(AP, 1/28/99) 1838 1923 John, Viscount Morley of Blackburn, English journalist: "The great business of life is to be, to do, to do without, and to depart." (AP, 8/13/98) 1838 1995 The Tirschenreuth Porcelain Factory operated in Tirschenreuth, Bavaria, during this period. In 1927 it was acquired by the L. Hutschenreuther Co. (SFC, 9/21/05, p.G3) 1839 nend Jan 2, French photographic pioneer Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre took the first photograph of the moon. Soon after his first photograph of people was a shoeshine scene on a Paris boulevard. (HN, 1/2/99)(SFEC, 1/16/00, Z1 p.2)(ON, 4/00, p.10) 1839 nend Jan 9, The Daguerreotype photo process was announced at the French Academy of Science. Louis Daguerre had the influential astronomer Dominique-Francois-Argo make an announcement at the Academy of Sciences in Paris of the daguerreotype, a photographic process using fumes of iodine to sensitize a silver plate, vapor of mercury to bring out the image, and common salt to fix the image. [See 1765-1833, Nicephore Niepce, French lithographer, and 1816]. no_source 9 nend /14/95, p.A-16)(ON, 10/08, p.9) no_source 1839 nend Jan 19, Paul Cezanne (d.1906), French painter, was born in Aix-en-Provence in southern France. He was considered a founding figure in 20th century art. He departed from the Impressionists in his desire to render perspective through color. His work had a profound influence on the Cubists. A catalogue of his work was made by John Rewald (1912-1994) and published posthumously as: "The Paintings of Paul Cezanne: A catalogue Raisonne." His work includes: "The Feast" (late 60s), "Portrait of Achille Emperaire" (1869-70), "Self-Portrait" (c1875), "Rocks at L?Estaque" (1879-82), "Flowerpots" (c1885), "Chestnut Trees at Jas de Bouffan" (1885-86), "The Kitchen Table" (1888-90), "Madame Cezanne in a Yellow Chair" (1893-95), "The Lac d?Annecy" (1896), "Pyramid of Skulls" (1898-1900), "Garden at Le Lauves" (c1906), "Large Bathers" (1906), "Mont Ste.-Victoire Seen from Les Lauves." He is best remembered for his works Card Players and L'Oeuvre. (SFC, 5/30/96, p.E1)(WSJ, 2/10/96, p.A16)(DPCP 1984)(HN, 1/19/99) 1839 nend Jan 20, Chile defeated a confederation of Peru and Bolivia in the Battle of Yungay. (AP, 1/20/98) 1839 nend Jan 24, Charles Darwin was elected member of Royal Society. (MC, 1/24/02) 1839 nend Jan 28, William Henry Fox Talbot (1800-1877), English inventor, presented his discoveries and methods of photography to the Royal Society of London. His callotype, a negative to positive process, allowed multiple reproductions of a single image for the 1st time. Talbot suggested a daguerreotype camera with extra parts to hold mercury. (ON, 4/00, p.10)(SFC, 6/12/96, Z1 p.5)(SFC, 12/26/02, p.E9) 1839 nend Jan 29, Charles Darwin married Emma Wedgwood. (MC, 1/29/02) 1839 nend Feb 7, Henry Clay declared in Senate "I had rather be right than president." (MC, 2/7/02) 1839 nend Feb 12, Aroostook War took place over a boundary dispute between Maine and New Brunswick. (MC, 2/12/02) 1839 nend Feb 20, Congress prohibited dueling in the District of Columbia. (AP, 2/20/98) 1839 nend Feb 24, A steam shovel was patented by William Otis, Philadelphia. (MC, 2/24/02) 1839 nend Mar 8, James Mason Crafts, US chemist (Friedel-Crafts-synthesis), was born. (MC, 3/8/02) 1839 nend Mar 9, Felix Huston Robertson (d.1928), Brig General (Confederate Army), was born. (MC, 3/9/02) 1839 nend Mar 9, Modest Petrovich Moussorgsky (Mussorgsky), Russian composer, was born (d.1881). His work included "Boris Godunov" and "Songs and Dances of Death." His work "Khovanshchina" was finished and orchestrated by Shostakovich. [see Mar 21] (WUD, 1994, p.936)(WSJ, 3/24/99, p.A25)(MC, 3/9/02) 1839 nend Mar 9, Prussian government limited the work week for children to 51 hours. (MC, 3/9/02) 1839 nend Mar 21, Modest Mussorgsky, composer (Boris Godunov, Night on Bald Mt), was born. [see Mar 9] (MC, 3/21/02) 1839 nend Mar 23, 1st recorded use of "OK" [oll korrect] was in Boston's Morning Post. (SS, 3/23/02) 1839 nend Mar 25, William Bell Wait, educator of the blind, was born. (HN, 3/24/98) 1839 nend Spring, In Japan a craze for costume dancing swept Kyoto for a few weeks. (WSJ, 12/1/98, p.A20) 1839 nend Apr 5, Robert Smalls, black congressman from South Carolina, 1875-87, was born. (HN, 5/5/97) 1839 nend Apr 11, John Galt (59), Scottish writer (Last of the Lairds), died. (MC, 4/11/02) 1839 nend Apr 17, Guatemala formed a republic. (MC, 4/17/02) 1839 nend Apr 20, Giuseppe Rossini, father of Italian composer Gioacchino Rossini, died. (MC, 4/20/02) 1839 nend May 1, Louis-Maire-Hilaire Bernigaud, French chemist, inventor of rayon, was born. (HN, 5/1/01) 1839 nend May 18, Carolina [Maria A] Bonaparte (57), countess of Lipona (anagram of Napoli), died and was buried in Bologna. (SC, 5/18/02)(http://gutenberg.net) 1839 nend May 25, John Eliot, English meteorologist, was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1839 nend Jun 7, Hawaiian Declaration of Rights was signed. (SC, 6/7/02) 1839 nend Jun 12, Baseball was said to have been invented. According to legend Abner Doubleday chased cows out of Elihu Phiney?s pasture and invented the game of baseball at Cooperstown, New York, later home of the National Baseball Hall of Fame and the Cooperstown Bat Company. In 1939 on the 100th anniversary of the day Abner Doubleday supposedly invented the sport, the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum was dedicated in Cooperstown, N.Y. Americans began playing baseball in the 1840s. It was derived from the British game called rounders. (SFE, 10/1/95, p.T-11)(AP, 6/12/97)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34)(WSJ,7/19/01, p.A20) 1839 nend Jun 27, The Spanish coasting vessel La Amistad (The Friendship) set sail from Cuba to Porta Prince with a load of African slaves. Cinque, originally Senghbe, and over 50 other Africans had been kidnapped in Sierra Leone and sold into slavery in Cuba. They were carried on a Spanish ship, the Tecora, to Cuba. Cinque and 49 other slaves and 4 children were placed on the ship La Amistad destined for Haiti. They revolted, killed the captain, and ordered the crew back to Africa but the ship sailed north and ran aground. It was captured by the US Navy on August 26. A legal battle ensued in New London, Conn., that went to the Supreme court where former Pres. John Quincy Adams argued for their freedom and won. An 1855 novella by Herman Melville, "Benito Cereno" looked at the rebellion through the eyes of an American interloper. Barbara Chase-Ribaud later wrote "Echo of Lions," a novel based on the Amistad. In 1996 Steven Spielberg announced plans to direct a film based on the incident titled "Amistad." The film was to be released in 1997. A 1997 opera production, "Amistad," by Anthony Davis premiered in Chicago. no_source 1839 nend Jul 2, African slaves, led by Joseph Cinque, killed Ramon Ferrer, and took possession of his ship, La Amistad. Cinque ordered the navigator to take them back to Africa but after 63 days at sea the ship was intercepted by Lieutenant Gedney, of the United States brig Washington, half a mile from the shore of Long Island. (www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/Scinque.htm) 1839 nend Jul 5, British naval forces bombarded Dingai on Zhoushan Island in China and occupy it. (HN, 7/5/98) 1839 nend Jul 8, John D. Rockefeller (d.1937), financier, philanthropist, founder of Standard Oil, was born on a farm in Richford, New York. He moved into the refining end of the oil business and gobbled up competitors. The 1890 Sherman Anti-Trust Act forced the breakup of his Standard Oil Co. Ron Chernow later published "Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller." His philanthropy totaled over $500 million and included the founding of the Univ. of Chicago and the Rockefeller Inst. For medical Research, later Rockefeller Univ. (HN, 7/8/98)(WSJ, 1/11/98, p.R18)(AP, 7/8/99) 1839 nend Jul 27, Chartist riots broke out in Birmingham, England. (MC, 7/27/02) 1839 nend Aug 19, At a meeting of the French Academy of Sciences in Paris a new photographic process was unveiled by Louis-Jacques-Mande Daguerre. He "was able to capture images directly onto small, silvered plates; and in England where William Henry Fox invented what he called "photogenic drawing." This process produced a negative image on paper from which positive images could be made... but it took more than an hour to take a picture and the fuzzy prints were difficult to see. The daguerreotype enabled the photographer to create a highly detailed image. The process consisted of polishing a copper plate, using iodine to sensitize it, and developing it over mercury after exposing it to light in a camera. Daguerreotypes became so popular in the United States that New York City boasted more than 70 daguerreotype studios by 1850. (Smith., 5/95, p.72)(HNQ, 10/28/98) 1839 nend Aug 23, The British captured Hong Kong from China. (MC, 8/23/02) 1839 nend Aug 26, The slave ship La Amistad was captured off Long Island. The USS Washington, an American Navy brig, seized the Amistad, and escorted it to New London, Connecticut. (http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/amistad/AMI_BCIN.HTM) 1839 nend Aug 28, William Smith, British geologist, died. In 1815 he made the 1st geological map of England and became impoverished in the process. In 2001 Simon Winchester authored "The Map That Changed the World." (RTH, 8/28/99)(WSJ, 8/17/01, p.W6) 1839 nend Sep 9, John Herschel (1792-1871), English astronomer, took the 1st glass plate photograph. (www.getty.edu) 1839 nend Sep 18, John Aitken, physician and meteorologist, was born. (HN, 9/18/00) 1839 nend Sep 28, Frances E.C. Willard, founder of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, was born in NY. (MC, 9/28/01) 1839 nend Oct 1, The British government decided to send a punitive naval expedition to China. (HN, 10/1/98) 1839 nend Oct 3, John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood departed NYC for Central America. They arrived in Guatemala 3 weeks later. (ON, 12/99, p.5) 1839 nend Oct 21, Georg von Siemens, founder of Deutsche Bank, was born. (MC, 10/21/01) 1839 nend Oct 30, Alfred Sisley (d.1899), impressionist artist, was born in Paris of English parents. He studied in London and then in Paris in the studio of Charles Gleyre. He painted landscapes almost exclusively. His work included "A Turn in the Road" (1873).. (DPCP 1984)(HN, 10/30/00) 1839 nend Oct, The London Treaty, in which all the European powers guaranteed Belgian neutrality, was signed. The final Dutch-Belgian separation treaty divided Luxembourg and Limburg between the Dutch and Belgian crowns, settled debt arrangements and guaranteed the neutrality of Belgium. (HNQ, 7/24/98)(http://tinyurl.com/3335jt) 1839 nend Nov 3, The first Opium War between China and Britain broke out in and around Guangzhou. Lin Zexu, a Qing official, started the Opium War when he ordered the dumping of 3 million pounds of Western-owned opium into the sea. 2 British frigates engaged several Chinese junks. (SFC, 6/10/97, p.D4)(AP, 11/3/97)(SSFC, 8/30/09, p.A21) 1839 nend Nov 16, Louis-Honore Frechette, Canadian poet, was born. (HN, 11/16/00) 1839 nend Nov 17, Catherwood and Stephens arrived at Copan, Honduras, and proceeded to explore the Mayan ruins in the area. (ON, 12/99, p.7) 1839 nend Nov 27, The American Statistical Association was founded in Boston. (AP, 11/27/97) 1839 nend Nov 30, John Lloyd Stephens left Copan for Guatemala City to locate the government of the United Provinces of Central America. (ON, 12/99, p.8) 1839 nend Nov, In India?s city Coringa a gigantic 40-foot tidal wave caused by an enormous cyclone wiped out the harbor city that was never entirely rebuilt; 20,000 vessels in the bay were destroyed and some 300,000 people died. (www.emergency-management.net/cyclone.htm) 1839 nend Dec 4, The Whig Party opened a national convention in Harrisburg, Pa., where delegates nominated William Henry Harrison for president. Soon after the Whigs constructed a 10-foot ball of twine, wood and tin, covered with Whig slogans, and rolled it from Cleveland to Columbus, Ohio, and across the country. This led to the expression "Keep the ball rolling." (AP, 12/4/99)(SSFC, 1/11/04, p.D6) 1839 nend Dec 5, George Armstrong Custer, Union cavalry leader who met his fate against Native Americans at the Battle of the Little Bighorn, was born. (HN, 12/5/98) c 1839 nend H. Biberstein created an allegorical portrait of Marquis de Sade. (SFEC, 7/25/99, BR p.3) 1839 nend J.M.W. Turner (1775-1851) painted "The Fighting Temeraire," a portrait of the ship, which had gained fame in the Battle of Trafalgar (1805), as it was towed for demolition. (WSJ, 8/21/03, p.D8) 1839 nend The original printing of John James Audubon?s ?Birds of America? was completed in Europe. Fewer than 200 subscribers ordered the complete set of 400 prints. (ON, 12/05, p.10) 1839 nend Cesar Otway wrote "Tour of Connacht." (SFEC, 4/12/98, p.T8) 1839 nend Stendhal, Marie-Henri Beyle, wrote his novel "Charterhouse of Parma" in 52 days. A 1st edition from the library of Marie Louise, 2nd wife of Napoleon, sold for $157,310 in 1999. (WSJ, 1/2/96, p. A-7)(WSJ, 3/25/97, p.A16) 1839 nend Cyrus Redding (1785-1870), English wine merchant and author, published ?Every Man His Own Butler.? This included the statement: ?claret fro a bishop, port for a rector, currant for a curate and gin for the clerk.? (Econ, 12/19/09, p.132)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_Redding) 1839 nend Giuseppe Verdi?s 1st opera, "Oberto, Conte de San Bonifaccio," was produced. (SFEM, 9/10/00, p.20) 1839 nend Felix Mendelssohn conducted the premier of the "C Major Symphony" by Franz Schubert (d.1828). (SFEM, 9/10/00, p.20) 1839 nend Jean Vioget laid out the 1st plan of Yerba Buena (San Francisco) and showed the later Union Square site as a future park. (SSFC, 7/21/02, p.F2) 1839 nend A granite structure was erected at Fort Trumbull in New London, Conn. The fort was later turned into a submarine base. (AH, 10/01, p.A10)(Econ, 2/19/05, p.31) 1839 nend In Washington DC the Gen?l. Post Office Building was constructed. In 1998 it was leased by the Kimpton Hotel and Restaurant Group for conversion into a 172-room luxury hotel. (SFC, 4/14/98, p.B2) 1839 nend The Republic of Texas issued the so-called Texas "redbacks." It printed over two million dollars in redbacks, which were initially worth about 37 cents to a US dollar. By 1842, the redbacks had become virtually worthless and had lost the power of legal tender. Once again Texans used bank notes from other states and shinplasters instead of the Texas money. (www.tsl.state.tx.us/treasures/republic/currency-01.html) 1839 nend John Neely Byron started a trading post on what later became known as the grassy knoll near Dealy Plaza in Dallas, Tx., near the site of JFK's 1963 assassination. (SSFC, 11/16/03, p.C8) 1839 nend In the US the Virginia Military Institute (VMI) for young men was founded in Lexington, Virginia. (WSJ, 6/27/96, p.B7)(SFEC, 7/20/97, p.A20) 1839 nend Richard Henry Dana, author, obtained a grant of 37,887 acres near San Luis Obispo, Ca., built an adobe house, and raised a family of 21 children. (SFEC,12/14/97, BR p.7) 1839 nend The Bernal Heights area of SF, Ca., began to be developed as part of a Mexican land grant belonging to Don Jose Cornelio Bernal. (SFC, 6/29/06, 96 Hours p.41) 1839 nend Capt. John Sutter (1803-1880), a Swiss who claimed to have been an officer in the French army arrived in California. Sutter was born in present-day Germany and lived much of his early years in Switzerland. He convinced the Mexican governor to grant him lands on the Sacramento River. He established a fort on a hill near the American River east of Sacramento Ca. A biography of Sutter was later written by Richard Dillon. (SFEC, 7/6/97, p.T3)(SFC, 12/28/98, p.A13)(HNQ, 11/18/00) 1839 nend Iowa?s Supreme Court ruled against slavery. (Econ, 4/11/09, p.31) 1839 nend New York Gov. William Seward (1801-1872) made his 1st inaugural address. (WSJ, 11/20/01, p.A16) 1839 nend The Cherokee Nation moved to Oklahoma. (www.crystalinks.com/cherokee2.html) 1839 nend Joseph Smith escaped from a Missouri prison and the Mormons left Far West, Mo., and started buying land for a new settlement in Nauvoo, Ill. [see1844] (SFC, 4/9/96, A-7)(NW, 9/10/01, p.48) 1839 nend William Knabe opened his own piano company in Baltimore. It later became part of Samick Musical Instruments. (SFC, 10/29/08, p.G2) 1839 nend Charles Goodyear (1800-1860) found the right formula for making rubber impervious to temperature, a combination of chemicals and heat that became know as vulcanization. (WSJ, 7/31/02, p.D10)(ON, 6/07, p.11) 1839 nend Photography first appeared in 1839 as something of a miracle. (SFE Mag., 2/12/95, p. 8) 1839 nend Erastus Bigelow invented the 1st power loom. It doubled carpet production within a year. (SFCM, 10/10/04, p.8) 1839 nend The photoelectric effect was 1st discovered by French physicist Alexandre Becquerel. He observed that light could generate an electric current between 2 metal electrodes immersed in a conductive fluid. (Econ, 3/10/07, TQ p.23) 1839 nend The basic idea for electrocombustion, the combination of oxygen and hydrogen to generate electricity and water, was discovered. This later provided the basis for fuel cell technology. (Wired, 10/96, p.128)(SFC, 9/28/01, p.B9) 1839 nend The annual Miner?s Circular, published by the USDI, listed the mining disasters of the previous year. 50 gas explosions and mine fires caused 200 deaths in the US. (NOHY, 3/90, p.135) 1839 nend Italian revolutionary Garibaldi arrived in Brazil to aid the rebels. (ON, 10/06, p.5) 1839 nend A British army marched to Kabul and replaced Dost Mohammad, the Amir of Afghanistan, with a more docile ruler. Britain had decided that Persian and Russian intrigues posed a threat to their control of India. (WSJ, 8/25/98, p.A14) 1839 nend Britisher Sir James Brooke arrived in an armed schooner to Sarawak, Malaysia, and helped the Sultan of neighboring Brunei subdue rebel, headhunting Iban (Dayak) tribes. As a reward he was made the Raja of Sarawak, and his heirs continued to rule until 1946. (Hem, 6/96, p.133) 1839 nend The British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society was founded. (SFEM, 8/16/98, p.13) 1839 nend The British & North America Royal Mail Steam Packet Co. formed. It later became Cunard and then a unit of Carnival Corp. (WSJ, 10/2/03, p.B4) 1839 nend The Elder Pottery in Cobridge, Staffordshire, began operating and continued to 1846. John and George Alcock created platters there. (SFC, 10/10/07, p.G3) 1839 nend Joseph Bourne began making salt glazed pottery at Denby, England. A line called Danesbury Ware was begun in the 1920s. It later became known as the Denby Pottery Co. (SFC, 10/29/08, p.G2) 1839 nend France began to mass produce women?s corsets about this time. See the discussion by Marilyn Yalom in her 1997 book: "History of the Breast." (SFEC, 2/9/97, z1 p.3) 1839 nend Parisian tailors revolted and destroyed the new sewing machines. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1839 nend John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood explored Copan. John L. Stephens attempted to purchase the Mayan city of Copan in Honduras. (RFH-MDHP, p.217)(NG, 12/97, p.80) 1839 nend In India a Sikh kingdom under Ranjit Singh ruled the Punjab until this time. (WSJ, 10/12/01, p.W17) 1839 nend Jews in Mashad, Iran, were forcibly converted to Shiite Islam following a pogrom. (SFC, 10/20/01, p.A10) 1839 nend In the Netherlands the locomotive named "De Arend" was the first and pulled a train from Amsterdam to Haarlem with a top speed of 23 mph. (SFC, 6/18/99, p.D4) 1839 nend Mikhail Lermontov (1814-1841), Russian writer, authored ?A Hero of Our Time.? It is an example of the superfluous man novel, noted for its compelling Byronic hero (or anti-hero) Pechorin and for the beautiful descriptions of the Caucasus. (Econ, 10/18/08, p.35)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Hero_of_Our_Time) 1839 nend In Seville, Spain, the Monasterio de Santa Maria de las Casas was purchased by a British businessman and turned into a ceramic tile factory. It had been badly run down during occupation by French troops (1808-1812). (SSFC, 8/15/10, p.M5) 1839 1840 The Liberals of the United Provinces of Central America under leader Francisco Morazan were defeated in a civil war led by Rafael Carrera. The confederation dissolved into its 4 component states: El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. (EWH, 1968, p.857) 1839 1842 First Anglo-Afghan War. After some resistance, Amir Dost Mohammad Khan surrendered to the British and was deported to India. In 1990 John H. Waller (1923-2004) authored ?Beyond the Khyber Pass: The Road to British Disaster in the First Afghan War.? (www.afghan, 5/25/98)(SSFC, 11/7/04, p.A23) 1839 1842 Shah Shuja was installed as Afghan "puppet king" by the British. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1839 1842 The Opium War between Britain and China started when Beijing tried to stop Western imports of the narcotic. The British won by steaming gunboats up the Yangtze River to the Grand Canal an then cutting off grain and other supplies to Beijing. (SFC, 6/10/97, p.D4)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R51) 1839 1843 The Erebus and Terror Expedition had aboard the botanist-surgeon J.D. Hooker, who described the diatoms of the sea. (NOHY, 3/90, p.158) 1839 1861 Abdul Meçid succeeded Mahmud II in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii) 1839 1897 Henry George, American economist. (V.D.-H.K.p.253) 1839 1902 Thomas B. Reed, American lawyer and legislator: "One, with God, is always a majority, but many a martyr has been burned at the stake while the votes were being counted." (AP, 7/27/99) 1839 1908 Joaquin Maria Machado de Assis, mulatto writer. His novels included "The Posthumous Memoirs of Bras Cubas," (1880) and "Dom Casmurro," (1899). The works were republished in 1998 by the Oxford Library of Latin America. (WSJ, 2/3/98, p.A20) 1839 1908 Ouida (Marie Louise de la Ramee), English writer, "queen of the romantic potboiler." "A cruel story runs on wheels, and every hand oils the wheels as they run." (WSJ, 11/15/96, p.A14)(AP, 2/7/01) 1839 1911 William Keith, American landscape painter. (SSFC, 2/4/01, DB p.65) 1839 1912 Frank Furness, American architect. His students included Louis Sullivan and George Howe. His work included the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts and the Univ. of Pennsylvania Library. In 2001 Michael J. Lewis authored "Frank Furness: Architecture and the Violent Mind." (WS, 6/26/01, p.A21) 1839 1925 Edward S. Morse, educator. He introduced modern ideas in archaeology and zoology to Japan at Tokyo Univ. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.34) 1840 nend Jan 16, Officers Henry Eld and William Reynolds sighted mountains on Antarctica from their ship, the Peacock. Their captain, William Hudson, did not bother to confirm the sighting. (ON, 3/00, p.7) 1840 nend Jan 18, "Electro-Magnetic Intelligencer", 1st US electrical journal, appeared. (MC, 1/18/02) 1840 nend Jan 19, Charles B. Wilkes, captain of the US flagship Vincennes, claimed the discovery of Antarctica. Wilkes Land was later named in his honor. The American explorer, born April 3, 1798, coasted along part of the Antarctic barrier from about 150 degrees east to 108 degrees east, the areas that were subsequently named Wilkes Land. Wilkes? officers disputed the Jan 19 sighting but acknowledged that land was sighted Jan 28 and Feb 15. (HNQ, 1/12/99)(ON, 3/00, p.8) 1840 nend Feb 5, Hiram Stevens Maxim (d.1916), inventor of the automatic single-barrel rifle, was born in Sangerville, Maine. He invented the hair-curling iron, and patented such items as a mousetrap, a locomotive headlight, a method of manufacturing carbon filaments for lamps, and an automatic sprinkling system. (V.D.-H.K.p.267)(MC, 2/5/02) 1840 nend Feb 5, In Damascus, Syria, Father Thomas, originally from Sardinia, and the superior of a Franciscan convent at Damascus, disappeared with his servant. 13 prominent Jews were falsely accused of the ritual murder of the Franciscan monk and his servant. The ?Damascus Affair? inspired international protests. In 2004 Ronald Florence authored ?Blood Libel: The Damascus Affair of 1840.? (SSFC, 6/28/09, p.A8)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus_affair) 1840 nend Feb 10, Britain?s Queen Victoria married Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. (HN, 2/10/97)(AP, 2/10/97) 1840 nend Feb 11, Gaetano Donizetti's Opera "La Fille du Regiment," premiered in Paris. (MC, 2/11/02) 1840 nend Mar 23, Draper took 1st successful photo of the Moon (daguerreotype). (SS, 3/23/02) 1840 nend Mar 30, "Beau" Brummell (b.1778), English dandy and former favorite of the prince regent, died of syphilis in a French lunatic asylum for paupers. In 2005 Ian Kelly authored the biography ?Beau Brummel: The Ultimate Dandy.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beau_Brummell)(WSJ, 5/7/06, p.P9) 1840 nend Mar 31, 1840, American President Martin Van Buren issued an executive order extending the "10-hour system" to all laborers and mechanics employed on federal public works. The movement for the 10-hour workday grew after Eastern city building trades workers and the municipal government of Philadelphia instituted it in the early 1830s. The average daily hours of factory workers in 1840 was estimated at 11.4. By 1860 the 10-hour day was standard among most skilled workers and laborers. (HNQ, 3/15/99) 1840 nend Apr 2, The Association of American Geologists held its first meeting in Philadelphia. (www.lib.uwaterloo.ca/society/history/1840aagn.html) 1840 nend Apr 2, Emile Zola (d.1902), French novelist, reporter (Nana) , was born. He tried to wake the consciousness of the fin de siecle. (HN, 4/2/98)(SFC, 12/29/00, p.C6)(V.D.-H.K.p.279) 1840 nend Apr 7, John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood left Guatemala City and traveled north into Mexico where they explored Palenque. (ON, 12/99, p.8) 1840 nend Apr 25, Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Russian composer (1812 Overture), was born. [see May 7] (SS, 4/25/02) 1840 nend Apr 27, Edward Whymper, first to climb the Matterhorn on the border of Switzerland and Italy, was born. (WUD, 1994, p.885)(HN, 4/27/98) 1840 nend May 1, The 1st adhesive postage stamps, the" Penny Blacks" from England, were issued. (MC, 5/1/02) 1840 nend May 5, Matthaus Fischer (76), composer, died. (MC, 5/5/02) 1840 nend May 6, Frederick William Stowe, was born He was the son of the famous Harriet Beecher Stowe and fighter in the Civil War for the Union. (HN, 5/6/99) 1840 nend May 7, Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky (d. Nov 6,1893) was born in Kamsko-Votinsk, the Ural region of Russia (d.1893). His family moved to St. Petersburg in 1850 and there he studied until he graduated from the school of Jurisprudence where he entered the Ministry of Justice as a clerk, first-class in 1859. He didn't start to study music seriously until he was 21 under Nicolai Zaremba, and enrolled into the St. Petersburg Conservatory when it opened in 1862. His work included the 1812 Overture. In 1985 Roland John Wiley wrote "Tchaikovsky?s Ballets." [see Apr 25] (LGC-HCS, p.354-355)(AP, 5/5/97)(WSJ, 11/18/97, p.A20)(HN, 5/7/99) 1840 nend May 7, A tornado struck Natchez, Miss., killing 317 people and causing over a million dollars in damage. (SFC, 5/7/09, p.D8) 1840 nend May 8, Alexander Wolcott patented a photographic process. (MC, 5/8/02) 1840 nend May 10, Mormon leader Joseph Smith moved his band of followers to Illinois to escape the hostilities they experienced in Missouri. (HN, 5/10/99) 1840 nend May 13, Alphonse Daudet, writer, was born. (MC, 5/13/02) 1840 nend May 14, English Lt. Richmond Shakespear left Herat (later Afghanistan) on a 700-mile mission to Khiva (later Uzbekistan) to persuade the ruling Khan to free all his Russian slaves. The Khan continued to hold a large number of Persian slaves. (ON, 4/00, p.7) 1840 nend May 21, The Treaty of Waitangi was signed by Maori chiefs of New Zealand and representatives of Queen Victoria. It granted sovereignty over all New Zealand to Queen Victoria, but only guaranteed the Maoris the land they wished to retain. The treaty remained a source of friction to the present day. (NG, Aug, 1974, p.197)(AP, 5/21/97)(SSFC, 11/14/04, p.F11) 1840 nend May 27, Nicolo Paganini (57), Italian legendary violinist, died in Nice. The local bishop refused to bury him in consecrated ground due to his scandal-ridden past. His remains were transferred to Parma in 1876. His 1742 violin, "the Canon," was put to rest in a museum in Genoa and later played annually by the winner of the Int'l. Paganini Competition. In 1980 John Sugden authored the biography "Nicolo Paganini: Supreme Violinist or Devil?s Fiddler" (SFC, 8/15/96, p.D5)(SFC, 11/12/98, p.E1)(SFC, 4/26/99, p.E2)(ON,3/02, p.7) 1840 nend May 29, Hans Makart, Austrian painter (Plague in Florenz), was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1840 nend Jun 2, Thomas Hardy, English novelist and poet, was born in Higher Bockhampton and almost given up for dead until an observant midwife noticed he was breathing. He was driven by a sense of somber doom by the failure of his readers to wake up to the dreary fraud of their beliefs, and he devoted the last half of his long life to writing poems that expressed his haunted vision. When Hardy died (1928) his heart was removed and buried in the churchyard of St. Michael?s in Stinsford in the grave of his first wife, Emma, and his second wife, Florence. His ashes were buried in the Poet?s Corner of Westminster Abbey in London. His work included "Tess of D'Ubervilles" and "Jude the Obscure." (SFC, 12/4/94, p. T-4)(V.D.-H.K.p.279)(HN, 6/2/99) 1840 nend Jun 20, Samuel F.B. Morse, a popular artist, patented his telegraph. (MC, 6/20/02) 1840 nend Jun 29, Lucien Bonaparte (65), prince of Canino, Musignano, died. (MC, 6/29/02) 1840 nend Jul 4, The Cunard Line took just over 14 days to make its first Atlantic crossing with the paddle steamer "Britannia", which embarked from Liverpool. (IB, Internet, 12/7/98) 1840 nend Jul 25, Flora Adams Darling, founded Daughters of American Revolution, was born. (SC, 7/25/02) 1840 nend Aug 13, Giovanni Verga, Italian writer (Eros), was born. (MC, 8/13/02) 1840 nend Aug 14, Baron Richard Freiherr von Krafft-Ebing, psychiatrist, was born. (MC, 8/14/02) 1840 nend Aug 15, English Lt. Richmond Shakespeare began a 500-mile trek with 416 freed Russian slaves from Khiva (Uzbekistan) to the Russian Fort Alexandrovsk on the Caspian Sea. (ON, 4/00, p.8) 1840 nend Aug 17, Wilfrid Scawen, writer (Irish Land League), was born in Blunt, England. (SC, 8/17/02) 1840 nend Sep 3, Jacob Fabricius, composer, was born. (MC, 9/3/01) 1840 nend Sep 12, Composer Robert Schumann married Clara Wieck. (MC, 9/12/01) 1840 nend Sep 27, Alfred T. Mahan, navy admiral who wrote "The Influence of Seapower on History" and other books that encouraged world leaders to build larger navies, was born. Although a brilliant naval historian and noted theorist on the importance of sea power to national defense, Alfred Thayer Mahan hated the sea and dreaded his duties as a ship?s captain. (HN, 9/27/98) 1840 nend Sep 27, Thomas Nast, caricaturist, was born. He created the Democratic donkey and the Republican elephant. (HN, 9/27/00) 1840 nend Oct 8, King William I of Holland abdicated. (HN, 10/8/98) 1840 nend Nov 3, English Lt. Richmond Shakespeare reached St. Petersburg, Russia, where Czar Nicholas thanked him for freeing Russian slaves from the Khan of Kiva. (ON, 4/00, p.8) 1840 nend Nov 5, Afghanistan surrendered to the British. (HN, 11/5/98) 1840 nend Nov 12, Auguste Rodin, French sculptor who created "The Kiss," was born. (HN, 11/12/98) 1840 nend Nov 14, Claude Monet (d.1926), French Impressionist painter, best known for his late work done at Giverney, northwest of Paris after 1890. He came up with the idea of series pictures, which feature a single subject shown again and again under varying conditions of light and weather. He studied in Paris with Charles Gleyre, a Swiss academic painter, and there met Frederic Bazille, Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Alfred Sisley. Together they developed open-air painting which came to be known as Impressionism. (WSJ, 7/25/95, p.A-10)(HN, 11/14/98) 1840 nend Dec 2, William Henry Harrison was elected president of US. Whig candidate William Henry Harrison, Old Buckeye, and his running mate John Tyler ran and won in a landslide against Democrat Pres. Martin Van Buren. Depression and financial panic had marked Van Buren?s term. Fans of the Harrison Party rolled huge balls of paper, rope and tin through Midwestern towns and into the Pennsylvania convention. "Hard cider" Whigs disrupted the Democratic gathering in Baltimore. (HFA, ?96, p.46)(Hem, 8/96, p.84)(WSJ, 8/15/00, p.A26)(MC, 12/2/01) 1840 nend Dec 2, Gaetano Donizetti's opera "La Favorita," premiered in Paris. (MC, 12/2/01) 1840 nend Dec 7, Hermann Goetz, composer, was born. (MC, 12/7/01) 1840 nend Francis William Edmonds painted "The City and the Country Beaux." (WSJ, 2/2/00, p.W2) 1840 nend John Martin (1789-1854), British artist, painted "Assuaging of the Waters." (SFEM, 5/11/97, p.6) 1840 nend J.M.W. Turner (1775-1851) painted "Rockets and Blue Lights (Close at Hand) to Warn Steamboats of Shoal Water." (WSJ, 8/21/03, p.D8) 1840 nend Richard Dana published his novel "Two Years Before the Mast." It was based on his voyage from Boston to California around Cape Horn. (WSJ, 2/10/98, p.A16) 1840 nend William Whewell wrote his treatise "The Philosophy of Inductive Sciences." (SFEC, 3/22/98, BR p.4) 1840 nend Niels Gade, Dutch composer, wrote the overture "Echoes of Ossian." (SFC, 3/24/00, p.B1) c 1840 nend The Boston rocker appeared about this time in New England. They had a rolled seat front, arms and rockers that extended in the back. The backs had 7-9 spindles often decorated with stencil designs. (SFC, 12/23/96, z-1 p.5) 1840 nend John Janey was chairman of the Whig Party Convention in Virginia that nominated W.H. Harrison for president. Janey and John Tyler were the nominees for the vice presidency. The convention vote was a tie and Janey voted for John Tyler, who became president when William Henry Harrison died in 1841. (SFC, 12/17/96, p.E8) 1840 nend In his re-election campaign Van Buren was attacked for "wallowing lasciviously in raspberries." (WSJ, 9/9/96, p.A16) 1840 nend William Wilson Corcoran and George Washington Riggs formed Corcoran Riggs, the predecessor to Riggs National Bank. Riggs supplied the gold for the 1868 purchase of Alaska. (WSJ, 4/7/04, p.A1)(WSJ, 7/16/04, p.A4) 1840 nend The US census categorized the population as "Free White persons, free Colored persons, and slaves." (SFC,12/26/97, p.A21) 1840 nend The US state of Georgia by this time had over 280,000 slaves with many working as field hands. By the start of Civil War slaves made up over 40% of the state?s population. (SFC, 1/4/11, p.E2) 1840 nend In South Carolina land was taken from the Catawba Indians. In 1993 they received a $50 million settlement. (SFC, 7/4/97, p.A10) c 1840 nend Railroads in the US began bringing milk to inland towns. (SFC, 10/12/96, p.E3) 1840 nend More than 2,000 ships were engaged full-time carrying timber from North America to the British Isles. Human cargo fills the ships on their return journey. (NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.51) c 1840 nend The word "tuberculosis" appeared in print for the first time. (WP, 1951, p.5) 1840 nend Louis Agassiz (1807-1873), Swiss naturalist, author and educator, advanced his theory that Earth had experienced an ice age. (DD-EVTT, p.129)(AHD,1971, p.24)(SFC, 1/22/00, p.B3) 1840 nend Wilhelm Beer of Germany drew the first full map of Mars. It included dark "seas" and light "continents." (SFC, 11/29/96, p.A16) 1840 nend An earthquake hit the island of Nevis and destroyed the birthplace of Alexander Hamilton. (Hem., 12/96, p.30) 1840 nend Fanny Burney (b.1752), English writer, died. Her books included "Evelina." In 1911 she underwent a mastectomy without anesthesia. In 2001 Claire Harman authored the biography: "Fanny Burney." (SSFC, 12/23/01, p.M5) 1840 nend Caspar David Friedrich (b.1774), German Romantic painter, died. (WSJ, 9/21/01, p.W2)(WSJ, 10/17/01, p.A24) 1840 nend In Australia Polish explorer Paul Strzelecki named the highest peak in honor of the Polish national hero Tadeusz Kosciusko. Early surveyors messed up the transcription and the peak was named Mt. Kosciusko. There was a move in 1996 to restore the missing z to the name. (SFEC, 11/24/96, T7) 1840 nend In London the World Anti-Slavery Convention was held. Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton were denied seats because of their sex. (SFEM, 6/28/98, p.30) 1840 nend Britain issued the world's first postage stamp, "penny black," with a picture of Queen Victoria. Up to this time postage was collected from the recipient. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1840 nend William Hislop established himself as a clockmaker in Biggar, England. (SFC, 3/16/05, p.G4) 1840 nend Zulu king Dingaan was defeated by his rival Umpanda, who accepted the rule of the Boers. (EWH, 4th ed, p.885) 1840 nend Zanzibar became the capital of Oman and the sultan ruled from Stone Town. (SFEC, 4/23/00, p.T6) 1840 nend s Oct 31-Nov 2, The Celts of Ireland, Great Britain and northern France celebrated Oct. 31 to Nov 2 as their New Year from around 1000-500BC. The pagan harvest event incorporated masks to ward off evil ones, as dead relatives were believed to visit families on the first evening. The Catholic holiday of All Saints' Day, set for Nov. 1, was instituted around 700 AD to supplant the Druid holiday. Halloween was transplanted to the US in the 1840s. (WSJ, 10/28/99, p.A24)(WSJ, 10/29/99, p.W17) 1840 nend s Stereographs were first developed as parlor entertainment, but did not enjoy widespread appeal until the 1860s. A stereograph is a pair of photographic images taken with lenses at slightly different angles. When viewed separately through a device called a stereoscope?one image for each eye?stereographs, like the one shown above, provide the illusion of normal depth perception and three-dimensional viewing. By the late 19th century, stereoscopes were common in middle-class drawing rooms, with educational, travel-oriented scenes being the most popular. (HNPD, 8/10/98) 1840 nend s Painters from the Hudson River School such as Frederic Church and Thomas Cole arrived on the Maine coastline at what is now Acadia Nat?l. Park. (SFC, 7/21/96, p.T6) 1840 nend s Julia Ward Howe wrote her ?Laurence Manuscript.? In 2004 it was edited by Gary Williams and published for the 1st time as ?The Hermaphrodite.? (SSFC, 10/17/04, p.M4) 1840 nend s A Spaniard shipped the first grapefruit trees to Florida. (SFC, 5/27/00, p.B3) 1840 nend s A New York merchant brought the first red bananas to the US from Cuba. (SFC, 5/27/00, p.B3) 1840 nend s Leprosy began to appear in Hawaii. (SFEC, 9/8/96, T3) 1840 nend s A native rebellion called the Caste War broke out in southern Mexico against the ruling hacienda class. The 22,000 square-foot palacio of Hacienda Tabi in the Yucatan was sacked. (Arch, 1/05, p.45) 1840 nend s In Portugal the National Theater was built in Lisbon. (SFEC, 2/1/98, p.T7) 1840 1860 The Fourierist system was a phenomena of the mid 19th century which called for the establishment of small communities-called phalanxes-of about 1,500 persons devoted to an agrarian-handicraft economy based on voluntarism. While private property and inheritance were not abolished, goods produced were the property of the phalanx. Inspired by French reformer Charles Fourier and promoted in the U.S. by Albert Brisbane, the Fourierist system was the most notable example of the Association movement. Some 40 phalanxes were established in America, beginning in the 1840s. All had disbanded by 1860. (HNQ, 9/9/99) 1840 1860 Slavery existed on the territory of present-day Romania from before the founding of the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia in 13th?14th century, until it was abolished in stages during the 1840s and 1850s. Most of the slaves were of Roma (Gypsy) ethnicity. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania) 1840 1870 In 2005 Liza Picard authored ?Victorian London: The Life of a City 1840-1870.? (Econ, 10/1/05, p.79) 1840 1876 Myles Keogh was born in County Carlow, Ireland. He was killed at the Battle of the Little Bighorn and fought in papal armies before joining the U.S. Army in 1862. He left Ireland for Italy in 1860 at the age of 20 to fight in the defense of Pope Pius IX as part of the Saint Patrick Battalion. He distinguished himself at the siege of Ancona, earning an appointment in the Papal Army. On St. Patrick?s Day, 1862, Keogh booked passage to the U.S. after being recruited into the Union Army. "Myles Keogh: The Life and Legend of an ?Irish Dragoon? in the Seventh Cavalry," edited by Langellier, Cox and Pohanka, published by Upton & Sons, El Segundo, CA,1991. (HNQ, 8/5/99) 1840 1889 Father Demien, a Belgian priest, worked with lepers on Molokai, Hawaii. (SFEC, 7/6/97, Par p.2) 1840 1897 Edward Drinker Cope, born in Philadelphia, competed with Dr. Marsh in search of fossils. He is best know for his work on Permian reptiles and Cenozoic mammals. He also discovered 56 new species of dinosaur. (T.E.-J.B. p.25) 1840 1900 The dense forests that covered most of New Zealand?s Banks Peninsula, east of Christchurch on the country?s east coast, were cut for timber and burned to make way for sheep grazing. (PacDis, Spring ?94, p.3) 1840 1902 German-born illustrator Thomas Nast, widely recognized as the father of political cartooning, is also responsible for our modern-day concept of Santa Claus. Nast, who came to the United States from Germany at age 6, received his art education at New York's National Academy of Design. At 15, he began working for Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper for $4 a week. During his long career, Nast illustrated major news stories for many periodicals, but he is perhaps best remembered for his imaginative Christmas drawings that first appeared in Harper's Weekly in 1862 and continued for 30 years. Inspired by Clement Moore's poem "Twas the Night Before Christmas," Nast pictured Santa Claus as a jolly, white-bearded elf who lived at the North Pole and brought gifts only to good children. His drawings also portrayed many modern symbols we associate with Christmas--holly, toys under the Christmas tree and the reindeer-drawn sleigh on a snowy roof. (WUD, 1994, p.951)(HNPD, 12/25/98) 1840 1910 William Graham Sumner, American sociologist and economist: "All history is only one long story to this effect: men have struggled for power over their fellow men in order that they might win the joys of earth at the expense of others, and might shift the burdens of life from their own shoulders upon those of others." (AP, 8/31/98) 1840 1911 Henry Broadhurst, English politician: "Praise undeserved is satire in disguise." (AP, 1/22/00) 1840 1916 Odilon Redon, French painter and etcher. (WUD, 1994, p.1203) 1841 nend Jan 14, Berthe Morisot (d.1895) French impressionist painter, was born in Bourges. (NMWA, 12/04, p.10) 1841 nend Jan 18, Alexis-Emmanuel Chabrier, French composer (Louise), was born. (MC, 1/18/02) 1841 nend Jan 20, The Convention of Chuenpi ceded the island of Hong Kong to Great Britain from China as part of the concessions from the Opium War. It became a capitalist bastion as opposed to the rest of China. The British won the first Opium War and forced China to open markets to foreign trade. Britain soon established a formal police force commanded mostly by British officers. Hong Kong returned to Chinese control in July 1997. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_of_Chuenpee)(WSJ, 10/26/95,p.A-1)(SFEC, 11/10/96, Par p.14)(SFC, 3/11/97, p.A12)(SFC, 7/1/97,p.A8)(AP, 1/20/98)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49)(WSJ, 2/2/04, p.A12) 1841 nend Jan 26, Britain formally occupied Hong Kong, which the Chinese had ceded to the British. (AP, 1/26/98) 1841 nend Jan 28, Henry Morton Stanley was born and christened John Rowland to an unwed and impoverished mother in Wales. A leading explorer and colonizer of Africa, Stanley is best known for locating the missing British missionary and explorer David Livingstone in Central Africa in 1871. He was on assignment for the New York Herald and immortalized the moment he found Livingstone on November 11, 1871, with the words: "Dr. Livingstone, I presume?" Stanley, who was adopted as a youth by Louisiana cotton merchant Henry Hope Stanley, served in both the Union and Confederate armies during the Civil War and became an American citizen in the 1860s. Stanley resumed his British citizenship in 1892, served in Parliament from 1895-1900, was knighted in 1899 and died in London on May 10, 1904. (HNQ, 6/4/98) 1841 nend Feb 10, Upper Canada and Lower Canada were proclaimed united under an Act of Union passed by the British Parliament. (AP, 2/10/07) 1841 nend Feb 18, The 1st continuous filibuster in US Senate began and lasting until March 11. (MC, 2/18/02) 1841 nend Feb 24, John Phillip Holland, inventor of the modern submarine, was born. [see Feb 29] (HN, 2/24/98) 1841 nend Feb 25, Pierre Auguste Renoir (d.1919), French painter, was born. He was an Impressionist painter, father of Jean Renoir, and founder of the French Impressionist movement. He was the son of a Paris tailor and began his career as a porcelain painter in the Sevres china factory. His paintings included "Luncheon of the Boating Party," "Self-portraits" (1875 & 1899) and "Sleeping Girl With a Cat" (1880). [see 1894, J. Renoir] (HFA, '96, p.22)(WSJ, 8/13/96, p.A9)(DPCP 1984)(HN, 2/25/99) 1841 nend Feb 27, [Eleanor] Agnes Lee, daughter of US general Robert E. Lee, was born. (MC, 2/27/02) 1841 nend Feb 29, John Philip Holland (b.1840), inventor of the modern submarine, was born in Liscannor, County Clare, into a family that had survived the Great Potato Famine. Following his immigration to America in 1873, Holland settled in Paterson, New Jersey where he taught school and, with financial backing from the Irish Fenian Society, began developing his first submarine. In 1881, Holland launched the Fenian Ram, a 31-foot-long submersible powered by a 15-horsepower internal combustion engine. With Holland at the controls, the Ram dived 64 feet beneath New York Harbor that summer, only to be seized by the Fenians when they lost interest in the project. In 1895, the J.P. Holland Torpedo Boat Company, won a contract from the U.S. Navy to build a submarine. After one discouraging failure, the second submarine, the Holland VI, passed her sea trials and was purchased by the U.S. Navy on April 11, 1900 for $150,000. [see Feb 24] (HN, 2/29/00) 1841 nend Mar 1, Blanche K. Bruce, senator of Mississippi 1875-1881, was born in Farmville, Va. (HN, 3/1/98)(SC, 3/1/02) 1841 nend Mar 1, John Quincy Adams (74), former US president, concluded his defense of "the Mendi people," a group of Africans who had rebelled and killed the crew of the slave ship Amistad, while enroute from Cuba to Haiti. They faced mutiny charges upon landing on Long Island, but Adams won their acquittal before the Supreme Court. In thanks they bestowed to him an 1838 English Bible. In 1996 the Bible was stolen from the Adams National Historic Site in Quincy, Mass. no_source 1 nend /3/97, p.A7) no_source 1841 nend Mar 4, Dion Boucicault's "London Assurance" premiered in London. (SC, 3/4/02) 1841 nend Mar 4, Longest presidential inauguration speech (8,443 words) to date was made by William Henry Harrison. (SC, 3/4/02) 1841 nend Mar 8, Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. (d.1935), 59th Supreme Court Justice (1902-1932), the "Great Dissenter," was born in Boston. "To have doubted one's own first principles, is the mark of a civilized man." (AP, 3/8/98)(HN, 3/8/98)(WSJ, 6/22/99, p.A22)(AP, 3/6/00) 1841 nend Mar 9, The rebel slaves who seized a Spanish slave ship, the Amistad, two years earlier were freed by the US Supreme Court despite Spanish demands for extradition. (WSJ, 1/3/97, p.A7)(HN, 3/9/99) 1841 nend Mar 20, Edgar Allen Poe's The Murders in the Rue Morgue, considered the first detective story, was published. [see April 14, 20, 1841] (HN, 3/20/01) 1841 nend Mar 22, Cornstarch was patented by Orlando Jones. (MC, 3/22/02) 1841 nend Mar 27, The first U.S. steam fire engine was tested in New York City. (HN, 3/27/98) 1841 nend Mar 31, 1st performance of Robert Schumann's 1st Symphony in B. (MC, 3/31/02) 1841 nend Apr 3, From Nassau, Bahamas, a British magistrate wrote that 193 shipwrecked African slaves from the ship Trouvadore were found naked on the shores of the East Caicos Island. The slaves were then quarantined in a jail and given food and clothing. The accident set free the slaves who became ancestors of many later residents of the islands. In 2004 the wreck was found and in 2008 marine archaeologists identified it as the remains of the slave ship. (AP, 8/21/04)(AP, 11/26/08) 1841 nend Apr 4, President William Henry Harrison (68), 9th President of the US, succumbed to pneumonia one month after his inaugural, becoming the first U.S. chief executive to die in office. VP. Tyler assumed office. (A&IP, ESM, p.59,96b)(AP, 4/4/97) 1841 nend Apr 6, Cornerstone was laid for 2nd Mormon temple at Nauvoo, Missouri. (MC, 4/6/02) 1841 nend Apr 10, The NY Tribune began publishing under editor Horace Greeley (1811-1872). The abolitionist newspaper editor founded The New York Tribune with support from powerful political friends. Under Greeley's direction, The Tribune took a strong stand against slavery, the South and slave owners in the years leading up to the Civil War. The Tribune and Greeley also crusaded against liquor, gambling, prostitution and capital punishment. One of the founders of the Republican Party, Greeley was also an eccentric who dabbled in many of the fads of his day. (HNPD, 2/3/99)(WSJ, 10/26/00, p.W12)(AP, 7/21/98)(MC, 4/10/02) 1841 nend Apr 14, Edgar Allen Poe's "Murders in the Rue Morgue," published. [see Mar 20, Apr 20] (MC, 4/14/02) 1841 nend Apr 20, Edgar Allen Poe?s first detective story, "Murders in Rue Morgue," was published. Poe published in this year 2 secret messages, as the work of W.B. Tyler, that were not deciphered until 1992 and 2000. [see Mar 20, Apr 14 1841] (HN, 4/20/98)(SFC, 12/1/00, p.A3)(MC, 4/20/02) 1841 nend May 1, The 1st emigrant wagon train left Independence, Missouri, for California. (MC, 5/1/02) 1841 nend Jun 14, The first Canadian parliament opened in Kingston. (AP, 6/14/97) 1841 nend Jun 28, The ballet "Giselle," also called Les Wilis, was premiered in Paris. It was the brain-child of Theophile Gautier, a leading voice of the Romantic Age. It told of a dance-loving peasant girl who dies of a broken heart when Albrecht, a philandering nobleman, betrays her. (SFEM, 3/28/99, p.12)(WSJ, 4/22/99, A20) 1841 nend Jul 5, Thomas Cook (1808-1892) opened the 1st travel agency as he arranged for the rail company to charge one shilling per person for rail tickets and food for a group of 540 temperance campaigners from Leicester Campbell Street station to a rally in Loughborough. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Cook) 1841 nend Jul 17, The British humor magazine Punch was first published. (AP, 7/17/97) 1841 nend Jul 27, Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov (b.1814), poet, novelist, died. (MC, 7/27/02) 1841 nend Aug 21, John Hampson of New Orleans patented the Venetian blind. (SC, 8/21/02) 1841 nend Fall, The 1st classes commenced at the Univ. of Michigan at Mason Hall, its only building. 30 students attended. (LSA, Spring/04, p.53) 1841 nend Aug 30, Robert Peel (1788-1850) became PM of Britain for a 2nd time. This was the 1st occasion in which Britain?s government was brought down by the votes of the electorate. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Peel) 1841 nend Sep 8, Antonin Dvorak (d.1904), Czech composer and violinist, was born in Nelahozeves. His work included the "New World Symphony." (WUD, 1994 p.444)(HN, 9/8/00)(MC, 9/8/01) 1841 nend Sep 9, The Great Lakes steamer "Erie" sank off Silver Creek, NY., and 300 people died. (MC, 9/9/01) 1841 nend Sep 19, The first railway to span a frontier was completed between Stousbourg and Basle, in Europe. (HN, 9/19/98) 1841 nend Sep 28, Georges Clemenceau, premier of France during World War I, was born. He served as premier from 1906-09 and 1917-1920. (HN, 9/28/98)(MC, 9/28/01) 1841 nend Sep 30, Samuel Slocum patented the stapler. (MC, 9/30/01) 1841 nend Nov 2, Following the British occupation of Kabul during the 1st Afghan War (1839-1842), Afghans revolted and murdered British envoy, Lt. Col. Sir Alexander Burnes (1805-1841) and some 23 others. By Jan 1842 the British army decided to withdraw with its 4,500 Anglo-Indian troops and 10,000 camp followers. The column was wiped out by Ghilzai tribesmen with their long-barreled rifles called jezails. (WSJ, 8/25/98, p.A14)(HN, 11/2/98)(www.indhistory.com/afghan-war-1.html) 1841 nend Nov 4, The 1st wagon train arrived in California. (MC, 11/4/01) 1841 nend Nov 9, Edward VII, King of England, was born. He succeeded his mother Victoria and served from 1901-1910. (HN, 11/9/00) 1841 nend Nov 16, Life preservers made of cork were patented by Napoleon Guerin in NYC. (MC, 11/16/01) 1841 nend Nov 18, Georg Chistoph Grosheim (77), composer, died. (MC, 11/18/01) 1841 nend Nov, Nancy Kelsey was the first American woman to walk into California. (Pac. Disc., summer, ?96, p.16) 1841 nend Nov, The first overland party of settlers arrived at the Rancho Los Meganos in present day Brentwood, Contra Costa, California. This makes the Rancho of Dr. John Marsh the first terminus of the California Trail. They were inspired to make this trip by letter from Dr. John Marsh the first American to settle in the San Joaquin Valley. His Stone House is now part of the newest State Park in the California system. (www.johnmarshhouse.com/marshnewsbio.htm) 1841 nend Nov, Freed African survivors of the slave ship Amistad returned to Sierra Leone, Africa. Abolitionists had raised money to help the freed slaves of the Amistad return home. When Cinque, the leader of the revolt, reached home, he found that his family had been captured and sold into slavery. no_source 1841 nend Dec 6, Robert Schumann's 4th Symphony in D, premiered. (MC, 12/6/01) 1841 nend Dec 31, Alabama became the 1st state to license dental surgeons. (MC, 12/31/01) 1841 nend Theodore Chasseriau (1819-1856), Dominican-born artist, created his portrait "Comtesse de LaTour-Mauberg." (WSJ, 11/26/02, p.D8) 1841 nend J.M.W. Turner painted his watercolor ?The Blue Rigi: Lake of Lucerne, Sunrise? following a visit to Switzerland. In 1942 it sold for 1,500 guineas (about $94,000 in 2006 money). In 2006 it sold at auction for $11 million. (SFC, 6/6/06, p.D4) 1841 nend Catharine Beecher wrote her "Treatise on Domestic Economy." (SFEM, 6/28/98, p.30) 1841 nend John Lloyd Stephens published "Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas and Yucatan" with illustrations by Frederick Catherwood. He tells of his plans to purchase the ruins of the great Maya cities of Quirigua and Palenque and transporting them to New York. (RFH-MDHP, p.217, illustrations)(ON, 12/99, p.8) 1841 nend Barend Cornelis Koekkoek, Dutch artist, authored "Thoughts and Recollections of a Landscape Artist." (WSJ, 12/10/99, p.W16) 1841 nend Charles Mackay published his work "Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds." The book described John Law?s early 18th century Mississippi Project, the South Sea Bubble, and the Tulip mania of the 17th century. It was republished in 1996 in paperback. (WSJ, 3/5/96, p. A-12) 1841 nend J.L. Stephens wrote in his book: "There is but one side to politics in Guatemala, both sides have a beautiful way of producing unanimity of opinion, by driving out of the country all who do not agree with them." (NG, 6/1988, p.798) 1841 nend The comedy "London Assurance" was written by 19-year-old Dion Boucicoult of Ireland. (WSJ, 5/1/97, p.A16) 1841 nend At Yale Univ. the Scroll and Key society was founded. (USAT, 1/15/97, p.6D) 1841 nend The state of Arkansas, facing financial difficulties, stopped paying interest on a $500,000 investment that was dedicated to finance the Smithsonian Institute. Under pressure from congressman J.Q. Adams, Congress repealed the bill that authorized the Smithson bequest in state bonds and ordered the US Treasury to take over interest payments. The principal was lost, but the interest was enough to endow the institute. From 1841-1842 8 states and the territory of Florida defaulted. This led states to set up strong constitutional barriers to debt accumulation. (ON, 2/06, p.6)(Econ, 6/19/10, p.31) 1841 nend In Indiana Mother Theodore Guerin (1798-1856), a French nun, established St. Mary-of-the-Woods College for women. In 2006 Pope Benedict XVI named her a saint. (SFC, 10/16/06, p.A2) 1841 nend In Philadelphia Volney B. Palmer began the first advertising agency. He sold newspaper space to out-of-town advertisers. (SFC, 7/5/97, p.E3) 1841 nend Thomas Fitzpatrick and Joe Meek led a band of settlers out of Independence, Missouri, heading west to the Oregon Territory. It was the beginning of a flood of emigration west. (HT, 3/97, p.37) 1841 nend John Sutter built a fort on the Sacramento River. (HNQ, 11/18/00) 1841 nend Capt. William A. Richardson moved to Sausalito from SF after the Mexican government gave him a 19,571-acre land grant from the Marin headlands to Stinson Beach. There he established Rancho del Sausalito. (SFC, 3/27/99, p.A23) 1841 nend William A. Leidesdorff, originally from the Virgin Islands, arrived in San Francisco. He became a prominent businessman, built the city?s first hotel, became a member of the first SF City Council and served as the city?s first treasurer. (SFC, 2/16/09, p.B2) 1841 nend The Russian fur traders sold Fort Ross, Bodega and all their ranches and livestock in California to John Sutter. They had made a settlement at Fort Ross (an archaic form of Russia) in order to develop a source of provisions for themselves and their Sitka, Alaska settlement. (WCG, p.58)(SFEC, 3/23/97, p.T15) 1841 nend The Bartleson-Bidwell Party made the trek to California. John Bidwell was on the 1st wagon train over the Sierra Nevada and later founded Chico. (SFC, 12/7/02, p.E4)(SSFC, 9/24/06, p.B3) 1841 nend Princess Helena, wife of the governor-general of Siberia and the Russian colonies on the Pacific Coast, christened the highest mountain, an extinct volcano, on Dr. Bale?s Rancho "Mount Saint Helena," reportedly after her patron saint, mother of Constantine the Great. (Article on Calistoga by Sybbil McCabe, 7/95) 1841 nend Dr. Edward Turner Bale was granted the lands between Rutherford and Calistoga, Ca. which he named Rancho Carne Humana. He later built the Bale Grist Mill. [see 1846] (WCG, 7/95, p.21) 1841 nend The valley stretching north from Sonoma, Ca. was referred to as "Valle de la Luna." (SFC, 5/5/96, p.T-3) 1841 nend William Whitfield, captain of the whaling ship John Howland, from Fairhaven, Mass., picked up 5 castaways from Japan?s Torishima Island, including a boy named Manjiro, who returned with Whitfield to Fairhaven. Manjiro later returned to Japan, and translated Nathaniel Bowditch?s ?The New American Navigator,? known to mariners as the ?seaman?s bible.? In 1854 Manjiro acted as interpreter with Commodore Perry and in 1860 joined the 1st Japanese embassy to America. (Econ, 12/22/07, p.66) 1841 nend In a letter to his cousin, William Darwin Fox, Charles Darwin wrote: "if your half-bred African Cat should die... I should be very much obliged for its carcase." (NH, 5/96, p.7) 1841 nend The compound dimethylmercury was first synthesized. It can pass through latex gloves and is deadly. (SFC, 6/13/97, p.A9) 1841 nend Lord Elgin died in Paris at age 75. In 1966 Judith Grant authored "A Pillage of Art." In 1985 Epaminondas Vranopoulos authored "The Parthenon and the Elgin Marbles." In 1998 William St. Claire authored "Lord Elgin and the Marbles." (ON, 11/99, p.4) 1841 nend In Austria the Salzburg Cathedral?s Music Society founded the Mozarteum to preserve the memory of Mozart and to promote the instruction and performance of music. (StuAus, April ?95, p.91) 1841 nend The Johann Maresch pottery company began operating in Aussig, Bohemia (later Usti nad Labem, Czech Rep.). At this time Bohemia was under Austrian rule and the firm used the mark ?JM Austria.? (SFC, 9/12/07, p.G7) 1841 nend In Metlach, Germany, the firm of Villeroy & Boch Pottery was founded. They made many types of wares, including the famous Mettlach steins and are still in business. (SFC, 5/22/96, Z1, p7) 1841 nend Italian revolutionary Garibaldi moved to Montevideo, Uruguay, with Anita Ribeiro. (ON, 10/06, p.5) 1841 nend Aker ASA was founded. By 2007 the industrial holding company was Norway?s largest private employer with some 35,000 employees. (WSJ, 12/10/07, p.B1) 1841 1845 John Tyler, elected as Vice-President under Harrison, became the 10th President of the US upon Harrison?s unexpected death. (A&IP, ESM, p.96b, photo) 1841 1846 The Mormon Temple at Nauvoo, Ill., was built. (SFEC, 8/29/99, p.T3) 1841 1846 Capt. Robert E. Lee, Army engineer, worked on strengthening the defenses of New York Harbor and Fort Hamilton. (AH, 2/06, p.20) 1841 1869 Approximately 400,000 settlers crossed the American West on the Oregon Trail during this period. The influx of settlers began after legendary mountain men Thomas Fitzpatrick and Joe Meek guided a small band of settlers out of Independence, Missouri, in 1841, heading west toward the Oregon Territory, 2,000 miles distant. The route they used, pieced together from Indian and trapper paths, would become known as the Oregon Trail. By the time the transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, some 400,000 settlers had traveled west on the Oregon Trail. (HNQ, 4/18/99) 1841 1870 Frederic Bazille, painter. He painted The Family Reunion. (AAP, 1964) 1841 1912 Gerard H. Hansen, Norwegian physician. He discovered the leprosy-causing Mycobacterium leprae (aka Hansen?s disease). (WUD, 1994, p.644) 1841 1921 Of the 11 U.S. presidents serving between 1841 and 1921, seven of them were born in Ohio. The presidents and their places of birth were: Ulysses S. Grant, Point Pleasant; Rutherford B. Hayes, Delaware; James A. Garfield, Orange; Benjamin Harrison, North Bend; William McKinley, Niles; William H. Taft, Cincinnati; Warren G. Harding, Morrow County. These were the only Ohio-born presidents. Three of them, Garfield, McKinley and Harding died in office. Four of the seven presidents hailing from Ohio died while in office. They were William Henry Harrison, the 9th president, who died one month after his inauguration in 1841; the 20th president, James Garfield, who was assassinated in 1881; William McKinley, the 25th president, who was assassinated in 1901; and Warren G. Harding, who died suddenly in 1923. (HNQ, 5/9/98)(HNQ, 6/7/99) 1842 nend cJan 1, Maj. Gen. William G.K. Elphinstone ordered a 90-mile retreat from Kabul through the snowy passes to Jalalabad. (SSFC, 10/28/01, p.C8) 1842 nend cJan 2-12, Akbar Khan, Afghan hero, was victorious against the British. Out of 4,500 (16,500) soldiers and 12,000 dependents only one survivor, of a mixed British-Indian garrison, reached the fort in Jalalabad, on a stumbling pony. The British retreated from Kabul to Jalalabad. The incident is the backdrop for George MacDonald Fraser?s novel "Flashman." [see Jan 13] (WSJ, 4/10/95, A-16)(www.afghan, 5/25/98)(WSJ, 9/20/01, p.A12) 1842 nend Jan 7, Gioacchino Rossini's "Stabat Mater" premiered in Paris. (MC, 1/7/02) 1842 nend Jan 13, Dr. William Brydon, badly wounded, reached Jalalabad as the only survivor of a 16,000 person retreat from Kabul. In the 1st British-Afghan War British troops retreating from Kabul were ambushed and nearly all slaughtered at the Khyber Pass, even though the Afghans had promised them safe passage during their withdrawal from the Afghan capital. [see Jan 2-12] (SSFC, 10/28/01, p.C8)(MC, 1/13/02) 1842 nend Feb 15, The 1st adhesive postage stamps in US were made available by a private delivery company in NYC. (440 Int?l., 2/15/99) 1842 nend Feb 21, 1st known sewing machine was patented in US by John Greenough in Wash, DC. [see 1830,1833] (MC, 2/21/02) 1842 nend Feb 24, Arrigio Enrico Boito, composer (Mefistofele), was born. (MC, 2/24/02) 1842 nend Feb 26, Camille Flammarion, Mars researcher and popularizer of astronomy, was born. (SC, 2/26/02) 1842 nend Mar 3, 1st performance of Felix Mendelssohn's 3rd "Scottish" Symphony. (SC, 3/3/02) 1842 nend Mar 3, 1st US child labor law regulating working hours was passed in Massachusetts. (SC, 3/3/02) 1842 nend Mar 9, Giuseppe Verdi's 3rd opera "Nabucco," premiered in Milan. It became his 1st big hit. (WSJ, 3/21/00, p.A20)(MC, 3/9/02) 1842 nend Mar 15, Maria Luigi Cherubini (81), Italian composer (Dies Irae), died. (MC, 3/15/02) 1842 nend Mar 18, Stephane Mallarme (d.1898), French essayist and symbolist poet, was born. "Every soul is a melody which needs renewing." (AP, 7/17/98)(HN, 3/18/01) 1842 nend Mar 22, Mykola Vytal'yevich Lysenko, composer, was born. (MC, 3/22/02) 1842 nend Mar 23, Stendhal [Marie-Henri Beyle], French author (b.1783), died at 59. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stendhal) 1842 nend Mar 30, Crawford Williamson Long (1815-1878) of Jefferson, Ga., utilized ether the first time to remove a tumor from the neck of his patient, Mr. James M. Venable. (AP, 3/30/97)(www.general-anaesthesia.com/images/crawford-long.html) 1842 nend Apr 3, Hermann Karl Vogel, German astronomer, was born. (HN, 4/3/01) 1842 nend Apr 29, Karl Millocker, conductor, composer (Beggar Student), was born in Austria. (MC, 4/29/02) 1842 nend May 5, Johann Nepomuk Fuchs, composer, was born. (MC, 5/5/02) 1842 nend May 5, City-wide fire burned for over 100 hours in Hamburg, Germany. (MC, 5/5/02) 1842 nend May 12, Jules Massenet Montaud (d.1912), French composer, was born. His work included "Manon," "Thais" and "Le Cid." (SC, Internet, 5/12/97)(WSJ, 11/9/00, p.A24) 1842 nend May 13, Composer Sir Arthur Sullivan was born in London. He collaborated with Sir William Gilbert in writing 14 comic operas that included "HMS Pinafore." (AP, 5/13/99)(HN, 5/13/99) 1842 nend May 14, 1st edition of London Illustrated News. (MC, 5/14/02) 1842 nend May 15, Emanuel ADMJ Count de las Cases (76), French historian (Napoleon), died. (MC, 5/15/02) 1842 nend Jun 24, Ambrose Bierce (d.1914), American writer, satirist, was born in Meigs County, Ohio. He wrote "The Friend's Delight" and "The Devil's Dictionary." (SFEC, 11/8/98, BR p.3)(AP, 6/24/99)(HN, 6/24/99) 1842 nend Aug 9, The United States and Canada signed the y-Ashburton Treaty, resolving a border dispute between Maine and Canada's New Brunswick. (AP, 8/9/97)(HN, 8/9/98)(HNQ, 9/30/99) 1842 nend Aug 14, Seminole War ended and the Indians were moved from Florida to Oklahoma. (MC, 8/14/02) 1842 nend Aug 29, Britain & China signed the Treaty of Nanking and ended the Opium war. The Treaty of Nanking opened the port of Shanghai to foreigners. The 1997 Chinese film "The Opium War" was directed by Xie Jin. It was about the events leading up to the Treaty of Nanking. The treaty of Nanking ceded Hong Kong Island to Britain in perpetuity. (AMNHDT, 5/98)(SFC, 5/20/98,p.E3)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanjing) 1842 nend Aug 31, US Naval Observatory was authorized by an act of Congress. (MC, 8/31/01) 1842 nend Aug 31, Micah Rugg patented a nuts & bolts machine. (MC, 8/31/01) 1842 nend Sep 2, A letter by Abraham Lincoln (31) in the Sangamon Journal satirized the Illinois State Auditor?s call for state taxes to be paid in silver or gold. This in part led auditor James Shields to challenge Lincoln to a duel. (ON, 11/02, p.11) 1842 nend Sep 4, Work on Cologne cathedral resumed after 284-year hiatus. (MC, 9/4/01) 1842 nend Sep 5, Jesse James, legendary outlaw of the American West, was born. [see 1847] (HN, 9/5/00) 1842 nend Sep 20, Lord James Dewar, physician who invented the vacuum flask and cordite, the first smokeless powder, was born. (HN, 9/20/98) 1842 nend Oct 15, Karl Marx became editor-in-chief of Rheinische Zeitung. (MC, 10/15/01) 1842 nend Oct 18, US Commodore Thomas ap Catesby Jones sailed into Monterey, the Mexican capital of California, on the mistaken belief that the US and Mexico had gone to war. (SFC, 1/9/04, p.D2) 1842 nend Oct 19, US Commodore Thomas ap Catesby Jones ordered the surrender of Mexican officials in Monterey, Ca., on the mistaken belief that the US and Mexico had gone to war. He soon learned of his error and returned Monterey to Mexican authority. (SFC, 1/9/04, p.D2) 1842 nend Nov 4, Abraham Lincoln married Mary Todd in Springfield, Ill. (AP, 11/4/97)(HN, 11/4/98) 1842 nend Nov 14, Walter Williams (d.1959), claimed to be last survivor of Civil War, was born. (MC, 11/14/01) 1842 nend Nov 17, A grim abolitionist meeting was held in Marlboro Chapel, Boston, after the imprisonment under the Fugitive Slave Bill (1793) of a mulatto named George Latimer, one of the first fugitive slaves to be apprehended in Massachusetts. Four hundred dollars was collected to buy his freedom, and plans to storm the jail were prepared as an alternative to secure his release. (HN, 11/17/98) 1842 nend Nov 17, Gaetano Donizetti's Opera "Linda di Chamounix" was produced (London). (MC, 11/17/01) 1842 nend Nov 22, Mount St Helen's in Washington state erupted. Mount St. Helens began 15 years of intermittent eruptions and then became relatively quiet for 123 years. (MC, 11/22/01)(SFEC, 8/16/98, p.A15) 1842 nend Dec 1, Midshipman Philip Spencer (18) on the brig-of-war Somers, the 1st US naval officer condemned for mutiny, was hanged. Spencer was the son of John Canfield Spencer, the Sec. of War under Pres. John Tyler. In 2003 Buckner F. Melton Jr. authored "A Hanging Offense," an account of the "Somers affair." (MC, 12/1/01)(WSJ, 4/25/03, W6) 1842 nend Dec 7, The New York Philharmonic gave its first concert. (AP, 12/7/97) 1842 nend Dec 9, Mikail Glinka's his epic opera "Russlan & Ludmilla," premiered in Petersburg. It was based on Pushkin's Russianized version of Ariosto's "Orlando Furioso." (WSJ, 9/21/95, p.A-20)(MC, 12/9/01) 1842 nend Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775-1851), English painter and printmaker, created his painting ?Snow Storm.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._M._W._Turner) 1842 nend Sidney Lanier (d.1881), poet, was born in Macon, Georgia. (WSJ, 3/13/00, p.A24) 1842 nend Walt Whitman (23) published his poem "A Sketch" in The New York New World. (SFC, 3/3/99, p.E4) 1842 nend Charles Dickens published his description of the Five Points district of New York City in "American Notes for General Circulation." (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.H) 1842 nend Nikolai V. Gogol (1809-1852), Ukrainian-born Russian writer, published his novel ?Dead Souls.? It appeared in Moscow under the title, imposed by the censorship, of ?The Adventures of Chichikov.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolai_Gogol)(WSJ, 4/14/09, p.D7) 1842 nend John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood returned to Mexico and later produced a 2nd book titled: Incidents of Travel in Yucatan," which described their discovery of 44 additional ruined cities in southeastern Mexico. (ON, 12/99, p.8) 1842 nend Around the World in 80 Days was written by Jules Verne. It featured the illustrious science-fiction adventurer Phileas Fogg. In 1956 it was made into a film. (Hem., 2/96, p.43)(TOH, 1982, p.1956) 1842 nend Verdi composed his 3rd opera, Nabucco, which became his 1st big hit. (WSJ, 3/21/00, p.A20) 1842 nend The governor?s mansion in Jackson, Miss., was built. (WSJ, 10/14/97, p.A22) 1842 nend The Maclay Bill in New York State barred all religious instruction from public schools and provided no state money to parochial schools. (WSJ, 3/17/97, p.A18) 1842 nend Hugh Hardman established the Hardman Piano Co. in NYC. Leopold Peck joined the company in 1880. The company?s name changed to Hardman, Peck & Co. when Peck became a partner in 1890. (SFC, 9/5/07, p.G5) 1842 nend The Wadsworth Athenium of Art was established in Hartford, Conn. It was America?s 1st public art museum. (WSJ, 2/2/99, p.A20)(WSJ, 6/1/06, p.D7) 1842 nend Christian Johann Doppler, mathematician at Prague, proposed the Doppler effect whereby a sound passing by a stationary observer will appear to change in pitch as it approaches and passes. (JST-TMC,1983, p.10) 1842 nend In Indiana Rev. Edward Sorin inherited 3 log cabins and envisioned the future development of Notre Dame. In 2001 Marvin R. O?Connell authored the biography "Edward Sorin." (WSJ, 11/8/01, p.A22) 1842 nend Richard Owen, British Paleontologist, coined the name "Dinosauria," (terrible reptiles) to describe the large fossil reptiles. (T.E.-J.B. p.24) 1842 nend John C. Fremont met Kit Carson on a Mexican river steamboat. (WSJ, 1/10/00, p.A24) 1842 nend John C. Fremont, on a mission for the Army Corps of Topographical Engineers, scaled a 13,570 foot Wyoming peak, later named after him, and claimed it was the highest in the Rockies. (SFEC, 2/13/00, BR p.5) 1842 nend Gold was found near South Pass, Wyoming, but the prospector was killed by Indians and the location stayed secret. (SFC, 8/18/98, p.A8) 1842 nend Mount St. Helens began 15 years of intermittent eruptions and then became relatively quiet for 123 years. (SFEC, 8/16/98, p.A15) 1842 nend The steamboat Lexington burned off Long Island Sound and 150 people were killed. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow missed the boat and lived to tell. The incident was covered in the 1996 book "The Sea Hunters" by Clive Cussler and Craig Dirgo. (SFC, 11/11/96, p.E2) 1842 nend Francisco Morazan (b.1799), Central American statesman and soldier, died. He served as the president of the United Provinces of Central America. (ON, 12/99, p.5) 1842 nend The British forced their way through the Khyber Pass. They recaptured Kabul and burned down the Great Bazaar in retribution before marching back to India. (WSJ, 8/25/98, p.A14) 1842 nend Xiamen, known to the British as Amoy, was one of the five Chinese treaty ports opened by the Treaty of Nanjing at the end of the First Opium War between Britain and China. As a result, it was an early entry point for Protestant missions in China. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiamen) 1842 nend Jardine, Matheson & Co., founded in Canton in 1832, built the first substantial house and established their head office on the recently acquired island of Hong Kong. This began an era of increased prosperity and expansion. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jardine_Matheson_Holdings) 1842 nend Italian revolutionary Garibaldi married Anita Ribeiro and joined the Uruguayan navy in a war against Argentina. They returned to Italy in 1848. (ON, 10/06, p.5) 1842 nend France claimed the Marquesas Islands. (SFEC, 8/25/96, p.T6) 1842 nend The French declared a protectorate over the Wallis and Futuna Islands. They had been discovered by the Dutch and the British in the 17th and 18th centuries. In 1959, the inhabitants of the islands voted to become a French overseas territory. (www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/wf.html) 1842 1843 John James Audubon made his last mammal-painting expedition up the Missouri River. He made sketches and collected specimens for his book: "The Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America." The work was later completed by his 2 sons and Rev. John Bachman. (WSJ, 11/27/95, p.A-1)(WSJ, 8/28/01, p.A12) 1842 1910 William James, US psychologist and philosopher. He and Charles Saunders Pierce first developed the ideas of pragmatism, the principle that the meaning of an idea was to be found in the examination of its consequences in action. This was later developed by John Dewey. His work included "The Will To Believe." James? brother, Henry, was a novelist and critic. "The art of being wise is the art of knowing what to overlook." "A great many people think they are thinking when they are merely rearranging their prejudice." In 1998 Linda Simon published "Genuine Reality: A Life of William James." (WUD, 1994, p.762)(AP, 5/10/97)(WSJ, 2/6/98, p.A20)(AP, 4/25/98) 1842 1912 Jules Massenet, French composer. He composed "Manon," "Herodiade" (1881), the oratorios "Marie Magdaleine" and "Eve," and a sequel to Mozart?s "Le Nozze di Figaro" entitled "Cherubin." (WSJ,3/13/95, p.A-12) 1842 1912 Karl May, German writer, specialized in stories about noble Indians struggling to survive against the advance of modern society. (SSFC, 3/11/01, DB p.35) 1842 1914 Ambrose Bierce, writer and newspaper columnist in San Francisco, author of the Devil?s Dictionary. He was born in Horse Cave Creek, Ohio, and disappeared in revolution torn Mexico. He was one of the first Union volunteers and fought at Shiloh and Chickamauga, and won a battlefield commission for carrying a wounded officer to safety under fire. (SF E&C, 1/15/1995, A-15)(WSJ, 1/30/96, p.A-16) 1842 1916 Clara Louise Kellogg, the first American prima donna of importance. She is discussed in the 1997 book "The American Opera Singer" by Peter G. Davis. (WSJ, 11/6/97, p.A20) 1842 1924 Alfred Marshall, English economist. He was the chief founder of the neoclassical school of economics. This school studies both human behavior and wealth to understand human choices. He introduced such concepts as consumer's surplus, quasi-rent, elasticity of demand and the representative firm. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R20) 1843 nend Jan 2, Wagner's opera "Der Fliegende Holländer" premiered in Dresden. (MC, 1/2/02) 1843 nend Jan 4, Gaetano Donizetti's opera "Don Pasquale," premiered in Paris. (MC, 1/4/02) 1843 nend Jan 11, Francis Scott Key (63), poet of "The Star-Spangled Banner," died in Baltimore. (HN, 1/11/99)(MC, 1/11/02) 1843 nend Jan 29, William McKinley, the 25th president of the United States (1897-1901), was born in Niles, Ohio. McKinley was the last Civil War veteran to serve as President of the United States. He had served with the 23rd Regiment, Ohio Volunteers, eventually rising to the rank of brevet major. He saw action at South Mountain, Antietam, Winchester and Cedar Creek. For a time he served on Rutherford B. Hayes' staff. McKinley was elected the 25th president in 1896. He led the country in the Spanish-American War. He died in Buffalo, New York, on September 14, 1901, after being shot by an anarchist assassin on September 6. (AP, 1/29/98)(HNQ, 11/13/98) 1843 nend Feb 11, Giuseppe Verdi's Opera "I Lombardi," premiered in Milan. (MC, 2/11/02) 1843 nend Feb 19, Adelina Patti, opera soprano (Lucio), was born in Madrid, Spain. (MC, 2/19/02) 1843 nend Mar 3, US Congress appropriated $30,000 "to test the practicability of establishing a system of electro-magnetic telegraphs." (SC, 3/3/02) 1843 nend Mar 21, Robert W. Southey (b.1774), British poet laureate and historian, died. In 2006 W. A. Speck authored the biography ?Robert Southey.? (WSJ, 8/12/06, p.P8)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Southey) 1843 nend Mar 25, Seventeen Texans, who picked black beans from a jar otherwise filled with white beans, were executed by a Mexican firing squad. After months of raiding, captivity and escapes in Northern Mexico, Mexican president Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna ordered the execution of one tenth of the 176 Texas freebooters of the Mier Expedition. The event was later depicted by artist Theodore Gentilz. (HNPD, 3/27/00) 1843 nend Mar 25, England?s Thames Tunnel opened 18 years after construction began. It was completed under engineer Isambard Brunel, the son of Marc Brunel, who began the project in 1824. (ON, 4/06,p.9)(www.bris.ac.uk/is/services/specialcollections/brunelchronology.html) 1843 nend Apr 3, A comet in the night sky led William Miller and his 50,000 New York religious cult, the Millerites, to proclaim the end of the world. They put on white robes and prepared to go to heaven from their rooftops. When nothing happened Miller concluded that he had made a mistake. (SFC, 3/28/97, p.A12) 1843 nend Apr 4, Hans Richter, composer, was born. (MC, 4/4/02) 1843 nend Apr 5, Queen Victoria proclaimed Hong Kong a British crown colony. (HN, 4/5/99) 1843 nend Apr 14, Joseph Franz Karl Lanner (42), Austria, composer, violist, died. (MC, 4/14/02) 1843 nend Apr 15, Henry James (d.1916), US novelist, writer and critic, was born in England. His older brother was William James, the psychologist and philosopher. Henry James Sr. in the 1850s dragged his 4 sons and daughter across Europe in search a ?sensual education.? Henry?s first 40 years are documented by Sheldon M. Novick in "Henry James: The Young Master." There is also a 5-vol. biography by William Edel. His novels included "The Princess Casamassima," a work about the folly of radical politics. "It takes a great deal of history to produce a little literature." In 2008 Paul Fisher authored ?House of Wits: An Intimate Portrait of the James Family.? (WSJ, 10/17/96, p.A20)(WSJ, 2/24/97, p.A20)(HN, 4/15/98)(AP,8/3/98)(WSJ, 6/17/08, p.A21) 1843 nend Apr, Eta Carinae, a star 120 times the size of the Sun and 8,000 light-years from Earth, briefly became the 2nd-brightest star in the night sky of the southern hemisphere. (NH, 10/1/04, p.72) 1843 nend May 9, Belle Boyd, Confederate spy, was born. She helped 'Stonewall' Jackson during his Valley campaign. (HN, 5/9/99) 1843 nend May 18, United Free Church of Scotland formed. (SC, 5/18/02) 1843 nend May 22, The 1st wagon train with over 1000 people departed Independence, Missouri for Oregon. Known as the "Great Emigration," the expedition came two years after the first modest party of settlers made the long, overland journey to Oregon. (MC, 5/22/02) 1843 nend May 28, Noah Webster (84), lexicographer (Webster's Dictionary), died. (MC, 5/28/02) 1843 nend May 29, Emile Pessard, composer, was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1843 nend Jun 1, Sojourner Truth left NY to beg in her career as antislavery activist. And dat?s the truth! (DTnet, 6/1/97) 1843 nend Jun 1, It snowed in Buffalo and Rochester N.Y., and also in Cleveland Ohio. (DTnet, 6/1/97) 1843 nend Jun 4, Charles C. Abbott, American naturalist, was born. He wrote "Days Out of Doors." (HN, 6/4/00) 1843 nend Jun 7, Susan Elizabeth Blow, US pioneer in kindergarten education, was born. (SC, 6/7/02) 1843 nend Jun 15, Edvard Grieg (d.1907), Norwegian composer, was born. He was best known for his "Peer Gynt" suite. In 1999 over 40 unknown pieces from 1858-1862 were found in Bergen, Germany. Grieg studied at Leipzig during this period. (WUD, 1994, p.622)(SFC, 2/23/99, p.B3)(HT, 6/15/00) 1843 nend Jun 17, The monument at Bunker Hill had its final dedication. It was begun in 1825. (HT, 3/97, p.33)(SFC, 4/2/97, Z1 p.6) 1843 nend Jun 21, In Britain the Royal College of Surgeons was founded from the original Barber-Surgeons Company. (Camelot, 6/21/99) 1843 nend Jun 26, Hong Kong was proclaimed a British Crown Colony. [see Apr 5] (MC, 6/26/02) 1843 nend Jul 2, Samuel Hahnemann (b.1755), German physician and founder of homeopathy, died in Paris. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Hahnemann) 1843 nend Jul 12, Mormon leader Joseph Smith said God encourages polygamy. (MC, 7/12/02) 1843 nend July 18, Virgil Earp was born in Kentucky. (MesWP) 1843 nend Aug 1, Robert Todd Lincoln (d.1926), son of Abraham Lincoln, Capt (Union volunteers), was born. (MC, 8/1/02) 1843 nend Aug 15, National black convention met in Buffalo, NY. (MC, 8/15/02) 1843 nend Aug 15, The Tivoli Gardens opened in Copenhagen. (SFEC, 2/20/00, p.T8)(MC, 8/15/02) 1843 nend Aug 26, Charles Thurber patented a typewriter. (MC, 8/26/02) 1843 nend Sep 19, Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis (b.1792), French engineer and mathematician, died. He showed that the laws of motion could be used in a rotating frame of reference if an extra force called the Coriolis acceleration is added to the equations of motion. (www.gap-system.org/~history/Mathematicians/Coriolis.html) 1843 nend Sep, James Wilson (1805-1860), a Scottish hat maker, founded ?The Economist? in London, England, a magazine devoted to free trade and laissez-faire principles from its very beginning. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Economist)(WSJ, 6/6/95,p.A-14)(Econ, 6/28/03, p.13) 1843 nend Oct 13, The Jewish organization B?nai B?rith was founded in New York City. (AP, 10/13/97) 1843 nend Oct 30, A. G. Henri Regnault, French water colors painter, was born. (MC, 10/30/01) 1843 nend Nov 13, Mt. Rainier in Washington State erupted. (MC, 11/13/01) 1843 nend Nov 27, Balfe's opera "Bohemian Girl" was produced in London. (MC, 11/27/01) 1843 nend Dec 4, Manila paper (made from sails, canvas & rope) was patented in Mass. (MC, 12/4/01) 1843 nend Dec 4, Robert Schumann's "Das Paradied und die Peri," premiered in Leipzig. (MC, 12/4/01) 1843 nend Dec 11, Robert Koch (d.1910), German physician, bacteriologist, and medical researcher, was born. He won the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1905. (http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1905/koch-bio.html) 1843 nend Dec 13, "A Christmas Carol" by Charles Dickens was published and 6,000 copies were sold. [see Dec 19] (MC, 12/13/01) 1843 nend Dec 19, British author Charles Dickens published A Christmas Carol, the delightful tale of miserly Ebenezer Scrooge and his miraculous Yuletide transformation. Although the story was conceived and written in only a few weeks because his growing family was in need of money, Dickens' tale of Tiny Tim, Bob Cratchit and the Spirit of Christmas established a literary genre and captivated readers. In a review, William Makepeace Thackeray called A Christmas Carol "...a national benefit, and to every man and woman who reads it a personal kindness." Dickens went on to write many more Christmas stories, but his first remains the favorite. [see Dec 13] (AP, 12/19/97)(HNPD, 12/19/98) 1843 nend Thomas Haliburton of Windsor, Nova Scotia, published a novel that described local boys playing hurley, an early form of hockey, behind Kings Edgehill School. (WSJ, 1/23/02, p.A1) 1843 nend William Hickling Prescott (1796-1859), American Historian, authored "History of the Conquest of Mexico." (ON, 10/00, p.5)(WSJ, 8/16/08, p.W6) 1843 nend Isabella Van Wagenen, abolitionist, renamed herself Sojourner Truth. She dictated her autobiography "The Narrative of Sojourner Truth" to Olive Gilbert, a white abolitionist. In 1996 Neil Irvin Painter wrote her biography "Sojourner Truth A Life, A Symbol." (SFEC, 12/1/96, BR p.5) 1843 nend Alonzo Blanchard of Albany, NY, patented a stove design called ?Washington.? It featured a cast-iron statue of George Washington on top. (SFC, 7/9/08, p.G5) 1843 nend The J.E. Stevens Co. was founded in Cromwell, Conn., by John and Elisa Stevens. The company became famous for its line of cast-iron toys. (SFC, 8/24/05, p.G6) 1843 nend The Fruitlands utopia in rural Massachusetts was begun by Bronson Alcott, his wife Abby, Englishman Charles Lane and others. Members called themselves the Consociate Family. It was marked by anti-materialistic credos, anti-hierarchical family structures, home-schooling and a vegan diet. Louisa May Alcott later recalled her experiences there in "Little Women." (SFC, 12/7/99, p.C1)(ON, 7/03, p.11) 1843 nend The Univ. of Michigan enrolled its 1st international student. A Canadian joined the body of 43 students. (LSA, Fall/03, p.38) 1843 nend Norbert Rillieux (1806-1894) received US patent # 3,237 for a double-effect evaporator, while overseeing the building of the device for plantation owner Theodore Packwood. (www.answers.com/topic/norbert-rillieux) 1843 nend In California a land grant established Rancho El Tejon. The area was named El Tejon (the badger) after Spanish soldiers under Lt. Francisco Ruiz discovered the species during an 1805 expedition. (SFC, 5/9/08, p.A1) 1843 nend In NYC the population grew to 350,000 and 16 day policemen kept order. (WSJ, 11/3/98, p.A20) 1843 nend Belgian police were the 1st to take mug shots of criminals. (SFEC, 10/22/00, Z1 p.2) 1843 nend In Canada James McDermott was convicted and hanged for the murder Dr. Thomas Kinnear and his lover, Nancy Montgomery. Kinnear?s servant, 16-year-old Grace Marks, was sentenced to life imprisonment for aiding and abetting her fellow servant, James McDermott, in the murder. In 1996 Margaret Atwood wrote a novel: "Alias Grace" based on the incident. (SFEC, 11/3/96, BR p.1)(WSJ, 11/15/96, p.A14) 1843 nend Heinrich Schwabe, German amateur astronomer, published his results of a 17 year study on the number of sun spots. His results showed that sunspot activity varied over a period of eleven and a half years. Sunspot activity recorded since this time indicates the period to average 11.2 years and to vary from 7.5 to 16 years. This activity correlates to agricultural activity and the price of wheat. (SCTS, p.103) 1843 nend In Iceland a nationalist movement re-established the Althing. (HNQ, 4/28/00) 1843 nend Gaspard G. Coriolus, French civil engineer, died. He had discovered the effect whereby bodies in free motion appear to rotate clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counter-clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. (PacDis, Fall/?96, p.10)(WUD, 1994, p.325) 1843 nend Charles Napier, the British conqueror of Sindh province (later part of Pakistan), marveled at the extent of the Bhutto holdings there. (Econ, 1/5/08, p.82) 1843 nend Sayyid Muhammad ibn Ali as-Senussi returned to North Africa from Mecca, settling in Jabal Akhdar in Cyrenaica (Libya). In the mountainous fastness of the area he founded a center of operations at al-Beida with the organization of the al-Sanusi Sufi lodge and built the Zawiya al-Baida (White Monastery). (http://tinyurl.com/5tkfked) 1843 nend Alexander Bain, Scottish inventor, received a British patent for ?improvements in producing and regulating electric currents and improvements in timepieces and in electric printing and signal telegraphs.? His fax machine evolved from the telegraph technology. (http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blfax.htm) 1843 1844 A prophecy of the Adventist movement known as Millerism, which was based on the preaching of William Miller, was the Second Coming of Christ between 1843-44. (HN, 9/29/99) 1843 1848 In France the Chateau de Boursault was built by the widow Clicquot. She contributed to the development of the champagne-making process. (Hem., 10/97, p.104) 1843 1901 President William McKinley: "I do not prize the word cheap. It is not a badge of honor ... it is a symbol of despair. Cheap prices make for cheap goods; cheap goods make for cheap men; and cheap men make for a cheap country!" Memorial platters were made with his final words: "It is God?s way, his will be done." (AP, 10/16/97)(SFC,11/26/97, Z1 p.7) 1844 nend Jan 15, The University of Notre Dame received its charter from the state of Indiana. (AP, 1/15/98) 1844 nend Jan 30, Richard Theodore Greener became the first African American to graduate from Harvard University. (HN, 1/30/99) 1844 nend Feb 17, Aaron Montgomery Ward, mail order business founder, was born. (HN, 2/17/98)(SFEC, 5/30/99, Z1 p.8) 1844 nend Feb 21, Charles-Marie Widor, composer, professor (Paris Conservatory), was born in Lyons, France. (MC, 2/21/02) 1844 nend Feb 27, Dominican Republic rebels, under the leadership of Francisco del Rosario Sanchez and Ramon Mella, launched their uprising and gained independence from Haiti (National Day). [see Nov 6] (www.onwar.com/aced/data/delta/dominican1844.htm) 1844 nend Feb 28, A 12-inch gun aboard the USS Princeton exploded, killing Secretary of State Abel P. Upshur, Navy Secretary Thomas W. Gilmer and several others. On the new warship, USS Princeton, the shipboard cannon called the "Peacemaker" exploded during a demonstration firing. Also aboard the ship was President John Tyler, additional cabinet members and hundreds of distinguished guests. The cannon weighed 27,000 pounds, had a 15-foot-long barrel and could hurl a 225-pound ball six miles. (AP, 2/28/98)(HNQ, 11/29/98) 1844 nend Mar 6, Nicolai Rimsky-Korsakov, orchestrator, composer, was born. His work included: Flight of the Bumble Bee, Sadko, Mlada, Capriccio Espagnol, The Tsar's Bride, Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh and the Maiden Fevronia. (MC, 3/6/02) 1844 nend Mar 7, Anthony Comstock, anti-vice "crusader," was born in New Canaan, Ct. (MC, 3/7/02) 1844 nend Mar 9, Giuseppe Verdi's opera "Ernani," premiered in Venice. (MC, 3/9/02) 1844 nend Mar 10, Pablo Martin M de Sarasate y Navascuez, composer (Spanish Dances), was born. (MC, 3/10/02) 1844 nend Mar 28, Jose Zorilla's "Don Juan Tenorio," premiered in Madrid. (MC, 3/28/02) 1844 nend Apr 4, Charles Bulfinch (80), 1st US professional architect (Mass State House), died. (MC, 4/4/02) 1844 nend Apr 6, Joseph Ludwig, composer, was born. (MC, 4/6/02) 1844 nend Apr 8, Ignaz Franz von Mosel (72), composer, died. (MC, 4/8/02) 1844 nend Apr 12, Texas became a US territory. (MC, 4/12/02) 1844 nend Apr 16, Anatole France (d.1924), French novelist and essayist, was born. He won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1921. His love for Madame de Caillavet, whose salon helped make him famous, formed the backdrop for his novel "Le Lys Rouge," (The Red Lily). "All the historical books which contain no lies are extremely tedious." (WSJ, 2/20/96, p.A-14)(AP, 10/11/98)(HN, 4/16/01) 1844 nend May 1, Whig convention nominated Henry Clay as presidential candidate. (MC, 5/1/02) 1844 nend May 1, Samuel Morse (1791-1872) sent the 1st telegraphic message as a demonstration between Washington, DC, and Baltimore [see Jan 6, 1838]. The line officially opened on May 24, 1844. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Morse) 1844 nend May 2, Elijah McCoy, black inventor, held over 50 patents, was born. (MC, 5/2/02) 1844 nend May 3, Richard D'Oyly Carte, opera impresario (Gilbert & Sullivan operas, Ivanhoe), was born in England. (MC, 5/3/02) 1844 nend May 21, Henri Rousseau (d.1910), French painter (Dream), was born in Laval. (HN, 5/21/01) 1844 nend May 22, Mary Cassatt, impressionist painter, was born in Alleghany City (later Pittsburgh). [see May 22, 1845] (HFA, ?96, p.30)(AHD, p.209)(HN, 5/22/98)(WSJ, 11/5/98, p.A20) 1844 nend May 24, Samuel F.B. Morse, before a crowd of dignitaries in the chambers of the Supreme Court, tapped out the message, "What hath God wrought?" to his partner in Baltimore, Alfred Vail. Congress had appropriated $30,000 for the experimental line built by Ezra Cornell between Washington and Baltimore. American portrait artist Samuel F.B. Morse developed the technology for electrical telegraphy in the 1830s, the first instantaneous form of communication. Using a key to hold open an electrical circuit for longer or shorter periods, an operator would tap out a message in a code composed of dots and dashes. Public demonstrations of the equipment were made in February 1838, but it was necessary for Morse to secure financial backing to build the first telegraph line to carry the signal over distance. In 1843, Congress appropriated the funds for a 37-mile line between Baltimore and Washington, D.C. After underground telegraph wires proved unsuccessful, Morse switched to pole wires. (AP, 5/24/97)(HN, 5/24/98)(HNPD, 2/6/99)(HNQ, 5/27/00) 1844 nend May 25, The first telegraphed news dispatch, sent from Washington, D.C., to Baltimore, appeared in the Baltimore "Patriot." (AP, 5/25/97) 1844 nend Jul 29, Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart (53), composer, died. (MC, 7/29/02) 1844 nend Jun 6, The Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) was founded in London by George Williams. (AP, 6/6/97)(www.ymca.int/index.php?id=15) 1844 nend Jun 15, Charles Goodyear (1800-1860) received patent #3633 for the vulcanization of rubber, his process to strengthen rubber. He had perfected the process in 1839 and never took out a European patent. (AP, 6/15/97)(www.patents4technologies.com/Historical.htm)(ON, 6/07,p.11) 1844 nend Jun 26, Julia Gardiner and President John Tyler were married in New York City. (HN, 6/26/98) 1844 nend Jun 27, Mormon Joseph Smith (38) and his brother, Hyram, were again imprisoned. A mob stormed the Carthage, Ill. prison and the brothers were killed. [see 1846] James Strang laid claim to being his rightful successor but Brigham Young soon took control of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Strang then began evangelizing in the Midwest and East with some success. His followers were later called "Strangites." (Smith., Aug. 1995, p.86)(SFC, 4/9/96, A-7)(AP, 6/27/97) 1844 nend Jul 3, Dankmar Adler, architect and engineer, was born. (HN, 7/3/01) 1844 nend Jul 3, Ambassador Caleb Cushing successfully negotiated a commercial treaty with China that opened five Chinese ports to U.S. merchants and protected the rights of American citizens in China. (HN, 7/3/98) 1844 nend Jul 22, William Archibald Spooner, Anglican clergyman whose slips of the tongue caused words and syllables to be transposed and gave rise to the term "spoonerisms," was born in London. (AP, 7/22/02) 1844 nend Jul 25, Thomas Eakins (d.1916), American painter, was born. (SFC, 5/6/97, p.E4)(WUD, 1994, p.447)(HN, 7/25/02) 1844 nend Jul 25, Louis Napoleon (b.1779), French king of the Netherlands (1806-10), died. (www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Louis-Napoleon-Bonaparte) 1844 nend Aug 8, Brigham Young was chosen to head the Mormon church following the killing of Joseph Smith in Illinois. (AP, 8/8/97)(HN, 8/8/98) 1844 nend cAug 17, Menelik II, King of Ethiopia (1896-1913), was born. (SC, 8/17/02) 1844 nend Sep 5, Iron ore was discovered in Minnesota's Mesabi Range. (MC, 9/5/01) 1844 nend Sep 23, Count Alexander von Benckendorff (b.1783), Russian Lieutenant General and statesman, died. He was Adjutant General of the Svita and a commander in Patriotic War of 1812 and is best remembered for having established the Gendarmes in Russia. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Benckendorff) 1844 nend Sep 25-1844 Sep 27, The first int?l. cricket match was played between the USA and Canada at the St George's Cricket Club, Bloomingdale Park, NY. Canada won by 23 runs. (Econ, 7/24/10,p.83)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v_Canada_%281844%29) 1844 nend Oct 11, Henry Heinz, manufacturer, founder of H.J. Heinz Co., was born. (HN, 10/11/00) 1844 nend Oct 12, George Washington Cable, writer and reformer, was born. (HN, 10/12/00) 1844 nend Oct 15, Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (d.1900), German philosopher, poet, and critic, was born. He wrote 13 books and was driven to madness by a number of factors, but one was the bland, dishonest complacency of his contemporaries, who ignored him while honoring writers who seem like comic book figures today... He shrilled against Christianity and its empty moral claims. In 1998 two biographies were published: "Nietzsche in Turin: An Intimate Biography" by Lesley Chamberlain; and "The Good European: Nietzsche?s Work Sites in word and Image" by David Farell Krell and Donald L. Bates. In 2000 Robert C. Solomon and Kathleen M. Higgins authored "What Nietzsche Really Said." "No one is such a liar as the indignant man." "In individuals, insanity is rare; but in groups, parties, nations and epochs, it is the rule." "The time for me hasn't come yet. Some are born posthumously." (V.D.-H.K.p.279)(SFEC, 2/8/98, BR p.9)(AP, 3/19/98)(HN,10/15/98)(AP,12/3/98) (SFEC, 4/23/00, BR p.4) 1844 nend Oct 22, The resurrected Christ failed to show up as anticipated by evangelist William Miller and his followers. Hiram Edson resolved the dilemma by saying the great event had taken place in heaven and that Jesus had begun an ?investigative judgement of the dead.? Thus was born the Church of Seventh Day Adventists. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.34) 1844 nend Oct 23, Sarah Bernhardt, French actress, was born. [see Oct 22] (HN, 10/23/00) 1844 nend Nov 6, The first constitution of the new Dominican Republic was signed in San Cristobal. Pedro Santana, fearing political instability, controlled revisions to the newly written constitution that allowed him to stay in power, and declared himself president of the nation, a post he would hold from 1844-1848, 1853-1856, and 1858-1861. Spain granted independence to the Dominican Republic. The Dominican Republic won independence from next door Haiti after 2 occupations. [see Feb 27] (http://dr1.com/articles/history_1.shtml)(SFC, 5/16/96, p.A-9)(Econ,2/20/10, p.35) 1844 nend Nov 23, Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein were declared independent from Denmark. (AP, 11/23/02) 1844 nend Nov 25, Carl Benz, pioneer of early motor cars, was born. (HN, 11/25/98) 1844 nend Nov, Commandante General Mariano G. Vallejo dismissed his soldiers at the Sonoma garrison in California claiming that he could not afford to pay them any longer. (SFEM, 6/9/96, p.24-28) 1844 nend Dec 4, James K. Polk was elected 11th president of US. His wife, Sarah, recognized that James was insufficiently impressive to draw attention on appearance and therefore began the tradition of having "Hail to the Chief" played when he made a public showing. (HFA, ?96, p.46)(SFC, 7/14/96, Z 1 p.2)(MC, 12/4/01) 1844 nend Dec 11, The 1st dental use of nitrous oxide was at Hartford, Ct. (MC, 12/11/01) 1844 nend Dec 18, Ludwig J. von Brentano, German economist, was born. (MC, 12/18/01) 1844 nend Edward Hicks began his painting "The Peaceable Kingdom." It was completed in 1846, Hicks painted the same scene over 100 times with major and minor variations. (WSJ, 11/16/99, p.A28) 1844 nend John Rubens Smith painted his watercolor: Southwest View of Sanderson?s Franklin House, Chestnut Street, Philadelphia. [see 1875-1844, Smith] (Civil., Jul-Aug., ?95, p.72) 1844 nend Robert Chambers, co-founder of the largest mass-circulation publishing house in Britain, anonymously authored "Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation." It was a history of the cosmos from the formation of the solar system to the development of life on Earth. In 2001 James A. Secord authored "Victorian Sensation," an analysis of Vestiges and its era. (SSFC, 3/11/01, BR p.5) 1844 nend Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881) authored his novel ?Coningsby.? Disraeli used his young friend George Smythe as the model for the novel?s scrupulously upright hero. (WSJ, 9/2/06, p.P9)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coningsby_%28novel%29) 1844 nend Friedrich Engels (1820-1895), English socialist, authored ?The Condition of the working Class in England.? (www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/condition-working-class/) 1844 nend Philip Hone (63) wrote: ?Railroads, steamers, packets, race against time and beat it hollow?Oh, for the good old days of heavy post coaches and speed at the rate of six miles and hour.? (WSJ, 9/23/04, p.D10) 1844 nend Englishman Alexander Kinglake (25) authored his travel book ?Eothen.? The name was from the Greek for ?from the east.? It told of his adventures traveling across the Ottoman Empire. (WSJ, 9/23/06, p.P8) 1844 nend John Middleton published a paper describing how a fluorine test could be used to determine the geologic age of fossil bones. (RFH-MDHP, 1969, p.30) 1844 nend Henry David Thoreau translated the Lotus Sutra from French to English and published it in the Transcendentalist journal Dial.. (SSFC, 7/8/01, p.B5) 1844 nend Robert Schumann published his Op. 48 which included Dichterliebe, a song of a poet?s love. Its original form dated back to 1840. (SFC, 5/9/96, p.E-1) 1844 nend The Cathedral of St. Michael the Archangel was built in Sitka, Alaska. It was destroyed by fire in 1966 and painstakingly rebuilt. (AH, 6/07, p.69) 1844 nend Edgar Allan Poe moved back to New York and took a job with the New York Evening Mirror. (SFEC, 1/12/97, p.T5) 1844 nend The Lincolns purchased a 1 1/2 story Greek Revival home at Eighth and Jackson in Springfield, Ill. Mary and Abraham Lincoln paid $1,200 in cash and land for the one-and-half-story, five-room, wood-clapboard structure. It was the only home the Lincolns ever owned. They spent the next 16 years enlarging and improving it. (SFEC, 3/22/98, p.T4)(HNQ, 5/6/01) 1844 nend The great auk, aka "penguin of the north," was hunted to extinction. (NH, 9/96, p.8) 1844 nend Bishop Dominique Lefevre, a Catholic missionary and French citizen, engaged in a plot with other priests to overthrow Thieu Tri, the emperor of Cochin China (later Vietnam). Lefevre was imprisoned and condemned to death. (AH, 12/02, p.25) 1844 nend The maharaja of Jammu purchased Kashmir from the East India Company. (SFEC,12/14/97, p.T4) 1844 nend In New Zealand beginning in this year the Ngai Tahu people lost 80% (86 million acres) of South Island. (SFC, 10/5/96, p.A10) 1844 1845 The marriage of Friedrich V of Germany to and English Princess Elizabeth in Heidelberg is the nominal subject of a Turner (1775-1851) oil painting. (WSJ, 1/15/96, p. A-10) 1844 1847 Britain experienced a ?railway mania? as Parliament during this period approved 9,500 miles of new railway lines. About a third never materialized. By 1847 railways soaked up investments of almost 7% of GDP. (Econ, 12/20/08, p.116) 1844 1885 Louis Riel, Canadian Metis leader, was born in Manitoba. (SFC, 1/22/98, p.B2) 1844 1906 Ludwig Boltzmann (d.1906), Austrian atomic physics engineer, was born. His Vienna tombstone read "Entropy is the logarithm of probability." [see 1838] (WUD, 1994, p.167)(WSJ, 7/28/98, p.A16) 1844 1913 August Bebel was an outstanding political figure in Western European Socialism and co-founder of the German Social Democratic Party. Bebel participated in the foundation of the Social Democratic Party in 1869 and was sentenced to prison for treason in 1872. As head of the Social Democrats he was chief opposition leader in the Reichstag in the 1890s and 1900s. (HNQ, 2/15/99) 1844 1914 Robert Jones Burdette, American clergyman and author: "There are two days in the week about which and upon which I never worry. Two carefree days, kept sacredly free from fear and apprehension. One of these days is Yesterday. ... And the other ... is Tomorrow." (AP, 12/20/00) 1844 1915 Anthony Comstock, self-appointed anti-vice crusader, devoted a lifetime to battling wickedness, to purify America and protect its youth from sin. [see 1870s] (HNPD, 2/5/99) 1844 1933 Celestine Chaumette from the French village of Chassignolles saved her personal letters. They were later found and published by British writer Gillian Tindall as "Voices from a French Village." (SFC, 6/16/96, BR p.4) 1845 nend Jan 23, US Congress decided all national elections would be held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The law was signed by Pres. John Tyler. (AP, 1/23/98)(WSJ, 3/13/00, p.A1) 1845 nend Jan 29, Edgar Allan Poe?s poem "The Raven" was first published, in the New York Evening Mirror. (AP, 1/29/98) 1845 nend Feb 14, Quinton Hogg, English philanthropist, was born. [see Feb 16] (HN, 2/14/01) 1845 nend Feb 15, William Parsons, Earl of Rosse, 1st used a 72" (183 cm) reflector. (440 Int?l., 2/15/99) 1845 nend Feb 16, Quinton Hogg, English philanthropist, was born. [see Feb 14] (HN, 2/16/01) 1845 nend Feb 18, John Chapman, aka Johnny Appleseed, died in Allen County, Indiana. In 1954 Robert Price authored Johnny Appleseed: Man and Myth.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Appleseed)(ON, 4/09, p.12) 1845 nend Feb 26, Alexander III, Russian tsar (1881-94), was born in St Petersburg. [see Mar 10] (SC, 2/26/02) 1845 nend Mar 1, President Tyler signed a congressional resolution to annex the Republic of Texas. Texas was annexed as a state of the US on Dec 29. (SFC, 4/28/97, p.A3)(AP, 3/1/98) 1845 nend Mar 3, Georg Cantor (d.1918), mathematician, was born in St. Petersburg, Russia. He grew up in Germany and developed the field of transfinite numbers. (http://encyclopedia.laborlawtalk.com/Georg_Cantor) 1845 nend Mar 3, For the first time, the U.S. Congress passed legislation on this day overriding a President's veto. President John Tyler was in office at the time. (HC, Internet, 3/3/98) 1845 nend Mar 3, Congress authorized ocean mail contracts for foreign mail delivery. (SC, 3/3/02) 1845 nend Mar 3, Florida became the 27th state. (AP, 3/3/98) 1845 nend Mar 4, James K. Polk was inaugurated as 11th President. (SC, 3/4/02) 1845 nend Mar 10, Hallie Quinn Brown, American educator, women's rights leader, was born. (HN, 3/10/01) 1845 nend Mar 10, Alexander III, Russian tsar, was born. [see Feb 26] (HN, 3/10/98) 1845 nend Mar 11, Seven hundred Maoris led by their chief, Hone-Heke, burned the small town of Kororareka in protest at the settlement of Maoriland by Europeans, in breach with the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi. (HN, 3/11/99) 1845 nend Mar 17, The rubber band was patented by Stephen Perry of London. [see May 17] (MC, 3/17/02) 1845 nend Mar 26, Joseph Francis patented a corrugated sheet-iron lifeboat in NYC. (SS, 3/26/02) 1845 nend Mar 26, Patent was awarded for adhesive medicated plaster, precursor of band aid. (SS, 3/26/02) 1845 nend Mar 27, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (d.1923), German scientist, was born. He discovered X-rays (Nobel-1901). (HN, 3/27/99)(MC, 3/27/02) 1845 nend Mar 28, Mexico dropped diplomatic relations with US. (MC, 3/28/02) 1845 nend Apr 2, H.L. Fizeau and J. Leon Foucault took the 1st photo of Sun. (MC, 4/2/02) 1845 nend Apr 10, Over 1,000 buildings were damaged by fire in Pittsburgh, Pa. (MC, 4/10/02) 1845 nend Apr 12, Henry M. Baron the Kock (65), officer, politician, died. (MC, 4/12/02) 1845 nend Apr 18, Wilhelm Gericke, composer, was born. (MC, 4/18/02) 1845 nend Apr, Elias Howe produced his 1st sewing machine. (ON, 11/00, p.8) 1845 nend May 10, During a celebrated round-the-world tour in 1844-46, the USS Constitution dropped anchor in the bay outside of Tourane, Cochin China (later part of Vietnam). While there, Bishop Dominique Lefevre, an imprisoned French missionary, requested the assistance of the ship's captain, "Mad Jack" Percival. The Americans attempted to negotiate with the Cochin Chinese, to no avail. Frustrated, they set sail from Cochin and continued on their course on May 26 without further word about or from the missionary, who was eventually retrieved by his own countrymen. (HNQ, 10/18/02)(AH, 12/02, p.25) 1845 nend May 12, Gabriel Urbain Faure, French composer, was born in Pamiers. His work included "Requiem" and "Ballade." (SC, Internet, 5/12/97)(MC, 5/12/02) 1845 nend May 12, August Wilhelm Schlegel (77), German poet, interpreter, critic, died. (MC, 5/12/02) 1845 nend May 17, The rubber band was patented. [see Mar 17] (MC, 5/17/02) 1845 nend May 22, Mary Cassatt (d.1926), American impressionist painter and printmaker, was born in Alleghany, Pa. Much of Cassatt?s early life was spent in Europe with her wealthy family. She attended the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts from 1861 to 1865 and worked briefly with Charles Joshua Chaplin in Paris, but preferred working her own way and copying old masters. She was a close friend of and greatly influenced by Edgar Degas. He admired her entry in the Salon of 1874, and at his invitation she joined the Impressionists and afterward showed her works at their exhibits. Degas? influence is apparent in Cassatt?s mastery of drawing and in her unposed, asymmetrical compositions. Initially, Cassatt was a figure painter whose subjects were groups of women drinking tea or on outings with friends. After the great exhibition of Japanese prints held in Paris in 1890, she brought out her series of 10 colored prints, such as "Woman Bathing," and "The Coiffure," in which the influence of the Japanese masters Utamaro and Toyokuni is apparent. Cassatt urged her wealthy American friends and relatives to buy Impressionist paintings, and in this way, more than through her own works, she exerted a lasting influence on American taste. She was largely responsible for selecting the works that make up the H.O. Havemeyer Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. (HFA, ?96, p.30)(AHD, p.209)(FAMSF, Mar, 98) 1845 nend May 28, A fire in Quebec Canada destroyed 1,500 houses. (MC, 5/28/02) 1845 nend May 19, The HMS Erebus and Terror sailed from England under Sir John Franklin to navigate through the Arctic and find the elusive Northwest passage. All 133 men in the expedition perished. By 1847 the British Admiralty had received no reports of Franklin. [see Franklin Jun 11, 1847] (WSJ, 2/10/95, p.A-7)(www.coolantarctica.com) 1845 nend Jun 1, A homing pigeon completed a 11,000 km trip (Namibia-London) in 55 days. (DTnet, 6/1/97) 1845 nend Jun 8, Andrew Jackson, 7th president of the US, died in Nashville, Tenn. His health had deteriorated over the last 30 years and in 1999 scientists cited lead poisoning from an 1813 wound as the primary cause of his health problems. In 1945 Arthur Schlesinger Jr. authored ?The Age of Jackson,? for which he won a Pulitzer Prize. Dr. Robert Remini later authored a 3-volume biography. In 2005 H.W. Brands authored ?Andrew Jackson: A Life and Times.? In 2008 Jon Meacham authored ?American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the white House.? (AP, 6/8/97)(SFC, 8/11/99, p.A2)(SSFC, 10/30/05, p.M3)(Econ,3/10/07, p.85)(SSFC, 12/7/08, Books p.1) 1845 nend Jun 23, The congress of the Republic of Texas voted to accept annexation by the US after 10 years as an independent republic. [see Jul 4, 1845] (MC, 6/23/02) 1845 nend Jul 4, American writer Henry David Thoreau began his 26 month experiment in simple living at Walden Pond, near Concord, Mass. He chose this day to move to a rustic hut in the peace and quiet of Walden Pond. He doubted that there was a spot in Massachusetts where one could not hear a train whistle. The Fitchburg trains passed Walden Pond about a hundred rods south of his cabin. He lived there until September 6, 1947. His writings about his thoughts and experiences there are still read and remembered by millions around the world. "I went to the woods because I wished to see if I could not learn what it [life] had to teach, and not, when I came to die, discover that I had not lived." (Civil., Jul-Aug., '95, p.76)(NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.53)(AP,7/4/97)(IB, 12/7/98) 1845 nend Jul 4, Texas Congress voted for annexation to US. [see Jun 23, 1845] (Maggio, 98) 1845 nend Jul 14, Fire in NYC destroyed 1,000 homes and killed many. (MC, 7/14/02) 1845 nend Jul 17, Earl Grey (b.1764), former British prime minister (1830-1834), died. A member of the Whig Party, he backed significant reform of the British government and was among the primary architects of the Reform Act of 1832. In addition to his political achievements, Earl Grey famously gives his name to an aromatic blend of tea. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Grey,_2nd_Earl_Grey) 1845 nend Jul 25, China granted Belgium equal trading rights with Britain, France and the United States. (HN, 7/25/98) 1845 nend Aug 25, Ludwig II (d.1886), King of Bavaria (1864-86), was born at Nymphenburg. He was also called the "Mad King" for his extravagant castles. (HN, 1/7/99)(SFEC, 4/9/00, p.T4)(MC, 8/25/02) 1845 nend Aug, The Irish potato crop was attacked by the Phytophthora infestans fungus. It was first noticed in County Fermanagh. it blackened the potato leaves and caused the tubers in the ground to putrefy. In this year 40% of the crop was infected. (WSJ, 11/13/96, p.A22)(USAT, 1/15/97, p.2D) 1845 nend Sep 7, Isabella Colbran, wife of Italian composer Gioacchino Rossini, died. (MC, 9/7/01) 1845 nend Sep 8, A French column surrendered at Sidi Brahim in the Algerian War. (HN, 9/8/98) 1845 nend Sep 10, Joseph Story (b.1779), US Supreme Court Justice, died after serving over 33 years. (AP, 7/24/98)(www.oyez.org/oyez/resource/legal_entity/18/) 1845 nend Sep, James Strang revealed his "Book of the Law of the Lord." He claimed to his followers to have unearthed three ancient-appearing brass plates of prophesy. (Smith., Aug. 1995, p.86) 1845 nend Oct 10, The U.S. Naval Academy opened in Annapolis, Md., with fifty midshipmen students and seven professors. (AP, 10/10/97)(HN, 10/10/98)(MC, 10/10/01) 1845 nend Oct 12, Elizabeth Fry (b.1780), English Quaker prisoner reform advocate, died. In 1827 she published a book called ?Observations, on the visiting superintendence and government of female prisoners.? Since 2002 she has been depicted on the Bank of England £5 note. no_source 1845 nend Oct 13, Texas voters ratified a state constitution. (AP, 10/13/97) 1845 nend Oct 19, Richard Wagner's opera "Tannhauser," premiered in Dresden. (MC, 10/19/01) 1845 nend Oct 22, Sarah Bernhardt (d.1923), legendary stage actress, was born in Paris. "Life begets life. Energy creates energy. It is by spending oneself that one becomes rich." [see Oct 23] (AP, 10/22/97)(AP, 2/20/00)(WUD, 1994 p.141) 1845 nend Nov 4, The 1st US nationally observed uniform election day was held. (MC, 11/4/01) 1845 nend Dec 2, Johannes Simon Mayr (82), composer, died. (MC, 12/2/01) 1845 nend Dec 27, Ether was 1st used in childbirth in US at Jefferson, Ga. (MC, 12/27/01) 1845 nend Dec 29, Texas (comprised of the present State of Texas and part of New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming) was admitted as the 28th state, with the provision that the area (389, 166 square miles) should be divided into no more than five states "of convenient size." Sam Houston insisted on maintaining control of offshore waters as a condition of joining the union. (HN, 12/29/98)(AP, 12/29/97)(Econ, 7/1/06, p.29) 1845 nend William Sidney Mount (1807-1868), American genre painter, created his work ?Eel Spearing at Setauket.? (WSJ, 1/13/06, p.P9) 1845 nend Benjamin Disraeli, future British prime minister, authored his novel ?Sybil,? a look at class through the lens of a romance between the daughter of a working class activist and the aristocratic hero. (WSJ, 1/10/08, p.W2) 1845 nend Frederick Douglass, African-American statesman, published ?The Narrative Life of Frederick Douglass.? He then traveled to Ireland where he received a hero?s welcome. Irish nationalist Daniel O?Connell saw common cause between Ireland?s quest for self-rule and the plight of American slaves. British admirers raised money to buy his freedom and he was officially manumitted after Hugh Auld, his alleged owner, received a payment of $711.66. (WSJ, 3/13/09, p.W2)(ON, 12/09, p.12) 1845 nend Der Struwwelpeter, a popular German children's book, was published by Heinrich Hoffmann. It comprises ten illustrated and rhymed stories, mostly about children. Each has a clear moral that demonstrates the disastrous consequences of misbehavior in an exaggerated way. The title of the first story provides the title of the whole book. Literally translated, Struwwel-Peter means Shaggy-Peter. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Struwwelpeter) 1845 nend Alexander von Humboldt, German explorer, authored ?Cosmos,? his 5-volume overview of the universe. (WSJ, 7/29/06, p.P8) 1845 nend The "Handbook for Travellers in Spain" was first published. It described Valencians as: "perfidious, vindictive, sullen, mistrustful, fickle, treacherous, smooth, empty of all good, snarling and biting like hyenas, and smiling as they murder." (SSFC, 11/30/02, p.C3) 1845 nend King Rene?s Daughter, a play by Danish playwright Henrik Hertz, was first performed. It was used as the basis for Tchaikovsky?s opera "Iolanthe." (WSJ, 7/16/96, p.A9) 1845 nend Prosper Merimee wrote his novella that later became the opera "Carmen" by Bizet. (SFC, 10/24/96, p.D1)(WSJ, 2/5/97, p.A16) 1845 nend Construction began on Fort Jefferson on the Dry Tortugas and work continued until 1875. After the Civil War the fort served as a federal prison for deserters and political prisoners. (NH, 4/97, p.38) 1845 nend The moat of the Tower of London, built by Edward I, was drained and filled. (Hem, 9/04, p.71) 1845 nend In Boston the Eastern Hotel became the first building heated by steam. Radiators were used. (SFEC,12/28/97, Z1 p.2) 1845 nend Boston outlawed bathing unless it was done under a doctor?s orders. (WSJ, 12/11/02, p.B1) 1845 nend In NYC a real police department was established. (WSJ, 11/3/98, p.A20) 1845 nend Richard Fox, an Irish immigrant, founded his National Police Gazette. (MT, Sum. ?98, p.10) 1845 nend John L. O?Sullivan, a New York newspaperman, first used the term "Manifest Destiny" to describe the US move to annex Texas. John L. O'Sullivan was the editor of the Democratic Review in 1845 when he wrote of "Our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions." (SFEM, 9/15/96, p.12)(SFEC, 10/20/96, Z 1 p.2)(HNQ, 4/3/01) 1845 nend Karl Marx, while working as a political journalist in Paris, was driven out and goes to Brussels, where he met Engels. (V.D.-H.K.p.258) 1845 nend The style of button-fly pants was introduced to the US "despite protests from the religious community, who saw the flap as a license to sin." (WSJ, 11/20/97, p.A20) 1845 nend The U.S. Naval Academy was founded at Fort Severn. (NG, Sept. 1939, J. Maloney p.391) 1845 nend New Braunfels, Texas, was founded by German settlers under the leadership of Prince Carl of Solm-Braunfels. (Sp., 5/96, p.56) 1845 nend Mosquito County in Florida changed its name to Orange County. (Hem, Mar. 95, p.27) 1845 nend Don Juan Forster, brother-in-law of the Mexican governor of California, bought the Mission of San Juan Capistrano for $710. (HT, 3/97, p.62) 1845 nend Henry Lehman, an immigrant from Germany, opened a dry goods store in Montgomery, Alabama. He was joined by his two brothers in 1850. The family often accepted raw cotton instead of cash for merchandise, which resulted in a successful cotton business on the side. In 1862, the brothers formed Lehman, Durr & Co. with cotton merchant John Durr, and in 1870, helped to form the New York Cotton Exchange. (www.publicbonds.org/major_players/lehman.htm) 1845 nend George Pray was a member of the first Univ. of Michigan graduating class. His diary was recently acquired. (MT, 3/96, p.14) 1845 nend Walter Potter, English taxidermist, opened his stuffed animal museum in Bramble, south of London. Admission was 2 cents. (SFC, 11/29/02, p.K8) 1845 nend Beriah Swift of Millbrook, N.Y., patented a coffee mill and built a factory to make the mills. He was joined by William and John Lane about 1880 and the company moved to Poughkeepsie. (SFC, 10/14/98, Z1 p.3) 1845 nend The first hypodermic syringe entered the market. (SFC, 4/13/98, p.A6) 1845 nend John C. Fremont led his 3rd surveying expedition through the central Great Basin of Nevada. He was accompanied by Thomas E. Breckenridge, a Missouri fur trapper. (BLM, 2001)(ON, 12/06, p.5) 1845 nend Christoph Buys, Dutch scientist, used a group of perfect pitch musicians as stationary observers and arranged for a group of trumpeters to pass by on a railway car to prove the Doppler effect. (JST-TMC,1983, p.10) 1845 nend An account of the murder of Joseph Smith, Mormon leader, was published at Nauvoo, Ill., by an eye-witness named William M. Daniels. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.18) 1845 nend Albert Tirrell was accused of murder in the Tirell-Bickkford case of this year and got an acquittal by his lawyer with the argument that the crimes were committed while his client was walking in his sleep. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.21) 1845 nend Emigrants, led by trapper Stephen Meek, took a disastrous shortcut from the Oregon Trail. Stephen H. L. Meek, trapper, mountain man and younger brother of famed Oregon pioneer Joseph Meek, led a group heading out to the Oregon Territory. However, by the time they reached Fort Laramie, Meek was told his services were no longer needed. He rode on ahead, speaking to the groups he found along the way, telling of a new route to the settlements in the Willamette Valley. It was shorter, he told them, and easier. For five dollars per wagon, he would guide them. By the time he reached Fort Boise on the Snake River, he?d managed to persuade around 200 families to take his cutoff. In 1967 Keith Clark and Lowell Tiller authored: "Terrible Trail: The Meek Cutoff, 1845" (Caxton Printers, Caldwell, Idaho, 1967). (HNQ, 5/20/01) 1845 nend John Henry Newman (1801-1890) gave up a brilliant academic career at Oxford University and the pulpit of the university church to convert to Catholicism, convinced that the truth that he had been searching for could no longer be found in the Church of England. In 1847 he was ordained as a Catholic priest. (AP, 9/19/10)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Henry_Newman) 1845 nend The Economist Magazine began tabulating a food price index. (Econ, 12/8/07, p.11) 1845 nend The SS Great Britain, designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, crossed the Atlantic in a record 14 days. Her protracted construction and high cost had left her owners in a difficult financial position, and they were forced out of business in 1846 after the ship was stranded by a navigational error. (Econ, 5/7/11, p.88)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Great_Britain) 1845 nend In Italy the Cantoni cotton mill opened in Castellanza. It closed in 1985. (Econ, 4/16/11, p.70) 1845 nend George Cato, the 1st mayor of Durban, South Africa, acquired almost 5,000 acres in an area that came to be called Cato Manor. (MT, Fall/99, p.10) 1845 1846 As Ireland?s potato crop was consumed by blight. The nation?s peasants, who relied on the potato as their primary food source, starved. The famine took as many as one million lives from hunger and disease and caused mass emigration. The British government responded to the calamity too late with too little aid, even though eyewitnesses reported the suffering in the press. (HNPD, 3/17/99) 1845 1848 John James Audubon (d.1851) completed his folio set titled "Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America." It is now kept at the Audubon Museum in Henderson, Kentucky. (WSJ, 11/27/95, p.A-1) 1845 1857 Mary E. Daly, Dublin, covered this period in her essay on Irish potato famine relief: "The Operations of Famine Relief." (WSJ, 11/13/96, p.A22) 1845 1849 James Knox Polk became President of the US. He offered Mexico $25 million for California, but the offer was declined. Polk then ordered General Zachary Taylor, known as Old Rough and Ready, to Texas with troops and an eye on expansion. (A&IP, ESM, p.96b, photo)(HFA, ?96, p.46) 1845 1850 A fungus of the genus Phytophtora caused the Irish potato famine. (SFC, 8/1/00, p.A13) 1845 1855 Some 1.5 million people left Ireland and many of them made New York City their home. The 2003 film "Gangs of New York" depicted their struggle. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.49) 1845 1871 William Stanley Jevons gathers several long-time series of weekly data on securities, deposits and reserves from 1845-1871 into monthly cross-sections to show typical seasonal pattern. Oct. asset liquidations are coupled by Jevons to natural rhythms such as the desire to purchase the produce of the harvest. (WSJ, 9/28/95, p.A-18) 1845 1879 W.K. Clifford, mathematician, investigated the idea of space. (V.D.-H.K.p.270) 1845 1932 Albert Goodwin, a brilliant watercolorist who traveled widely. (Hem., 3/97, p.94) 1845 1929 Wilhelm von Bode, German art historian. He supervised the construction of a museum that later bore his name. (WSJ, 7/29/98, p.A13) 1845 1998 This period is covered in the 3-part TV series "The Irish in America: Long Journey Home" by Thomas Lennon. (WSJ, 1/26/98, p.A16) 1846 nend Jan 13, President James Polk dispatched General Zachary Taylor and 4,000 troops to the Texas Border as war with Mexico loomed. At the outset of the Mexican-American War, the Mexican army numbered 32,000 and the American army consisted of 7,200 men. The American army had, since 1815, only fought against a few Indian tribes. Forty-two percent of the army was made up of recent German or Irish immigrants. In the course of the war, the total U.S. force employed reached 104,000. In 2008 Martin Dugard authored ?The Training Ground: Grant, Lee, Sherman, and Davis in the Mexican War, 1846-1848.? (HN, 1/13/99)(HNQ, 2/28/99)(WSJ, 5/16/08, p.W8) 1846 nend Jan 21, 1st edition of Charles Dickens' "Daily News." (MC, 1/21/02) 1846 nend Jan 25, The dreaded Corn Laws, which taxed imported oats, wheat and barley, were repealed by the British Parliament. (HN, 1/25/99) 1846 nend Feb 4, Brigham Young, Joseph Smith?s successor, led the Mormons overland from Nauvoo, Ill., to the Great Salt Lake Valley. Mormon pioneer Sam Brannon gathered some 250 Mormons aboard the ship, Brooklyn, and sailed from New York to San Francisco. [see 1847] (SFC, 4/9/96, A-7)(SFEC, 7/21/96, DB p.29) 1846 nend Feb 5, The first Pacific Coast newspaper, Oregon Spectator, was published. (HN, 2/5/99) 1846 nend Feb 9, Wilhelm Maybach, German engineer, was born. He designed the first Mercedes automobile. (HN, 2/9/97) 1846 nend Feb 10, Led by religious leader Brigham Young, members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, the Mormons, began an exodus from Nauvoo, Il., to Utah. (AP, 2/10/97)(AP, 2/10/99) 1846 nend Feb 10, British General Sir Hugh Gough decisively routed Tej Singh?s Sikhs in the Battle of Sobraon. (HN, 2/10/97) 1846 nend Feb 18, The US Dept. of the Navy ordered the US Navy to use the word ?port? rather than ?larboard? to refer to the left side of a ship. (AH, 2/06, p.15) 1846 nend Feb 19, The Texas state government was formally installed in Austin, with J. Pinckney Henderson taking the oath of office as governor. (AP, 2/19/07) 1846 nend Feb 21, Sarah G. Bagley became the first female telegrapher, taking charge at the newly opened telegraph office in Lowell, Mass. (AP, 2/21/00) 1846 nend Feb 23, The Liberty Bell in Philadelphia tolled for the last time, to mark George Washington?s birthday. A hairline fracture had developed since 1817 and a failed attempt to repair it resulted in the crack. In 2010 Tristram Riley-Smith authored ??The Cracked Bell: American and the Afflictions of Liberty.? (HN, 2/23/98)(SFEC, 8/16/98, p.T5)(Econ, 1/30/10, p.93) 1846 nend Feb 23, Polish revolutionaries marched on Cracow, but were defeated. (MC, 2/23/02) 1846 nend Feb 24, Luigi Denza, composer, was born. (MC, 2/24/02) 1846 nend Feb 26, William Frederick Cody, aka "Buffalo Bill," was born in LeClaire, Scott County, Iowa. He was a "Wild West" frontiersman-turned-showman. Three weeks after the disaster at the Little Bighorn, Buffalo Bill claimed he had taken ?the first scalp for Custer!? (HN, 2/26/98)(AP, 2/26/98)(MesWP) 1846 nend Mar 13, Friedrich Hebbel's "Maria Magdalena," premiered in Konigsberg. (MC, 3/13/02) 1846 nend Mar 16, Jurgis Bielinis, Lithuanian publisher and "king of the (underground) book carriers" was born in Purviskis. He died there Jan 18, 1918. This day was later declared "Book Carriers Day." (LHC, 3/16/03) 1846 nend Mar 17, Kate Greenway, painter and illustrator (Mother Goose), was born. (HN, 3/17/01) 1846 nend Mar 22, Randolph Caldecott, illustrator, was born. (HN, 3/22/01) 1846 nend Apr 15, The Donner family set out for California from Springfield, Ill. (SFC, 7/20/96, p.C1) 1846 nend Apr 16, Domenico Dragonetti (83), composer, died. (MC, 4/16/02) 1846 nend May 4, Michigan ended its death penalty. (MC, 5/4/02) 1846 nend May 5, Henryk Sienkiewicz (d.1916), author (Quo Vadis, Nobel 1905), was born in Poland: "The greater the philosopher, the harder it is for him to answer the questions of common people." (AP, 2/5/97)(MC, 5/5/02) 1846 nend May 8, News reached Washington DC that Mexican troops had attacked a US reconnaissance patrol near the Rio Grande and killed or captured some 40 men. That same afternoon Polk and his cabinet had decided to ask Congress for a declaration of war against Mexico. (AH, 6/07, p.44) 1846 nend May 8, The first major battle of the Mexican-American War was fought at Palo Alto, Texas; US forces led by General Zachary Taylor were able to beat back the invading Mexican forces. (AP, 5/8/07) 1846 nend May 9, US forced Mexico back to Rio Grande in the Battle of Resaca de la Palma. (MC, 5/9/02) 1846 nend May 9, Gen. Mariano Arista crossed the Rio Grande and killed a number of US soldiers in a surprise attack. Mexico believed that France and Britain would support it in a war against the US. (WP, 6/29/96, p.A15) 1846 nend May 13, The US under Pres. Polk declared war against Mexico, 2 months after fighting began. This was in response to an incident where the Mexican cavalry surrounded a scouting party of American dragoons. $10 million was appropriated for war expenses by Congress. 50, 000 volunteers responded to the war effort and Gen. Taylor used his forces to capture the Mexican town of Monterey [in California] and then moved south to defeat Santa Anna?s armies at the Battle of Buena Vista. (WCG, p.59)(HFA, ?96, p.48)(SS, Internet, 5/13/97) 1846 nend May 18, US troops attacked at the Rio Grande and occupied Matamoros. (SC, 5/18/02) 1846 nend May 24, General Zachary Taylor captured Monterey in the Mexican War. (HN, 5/24/98) 1846 nend May 29, Albert Gyorgy, earl Apponyi, Hungarian minister of Education, was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1846 nend May 30, Peter Carl Faberge (d.1920), Russian master jeweler and goldsmith was born (May 18 OS) in St. Petersburg. His work includes the Imperial Coronation Easter Egg (1896-1908), an enameled, diamond-studded golden egg about 5 inches long that opens to reveal a 3-inch-long replica of the carriage that took the czarina to her coronation in 1896; the rococo Imperial Catherine the Great Easter Egg (1908-1917) and the Rectangular Box with a monogram of tiny diamonds (1896-1908). (SFC, 5/23/96, p.D1,10)(www.britannica.com/ebi/article?tocId=9274244) 1846 nend May, Sarah Borginnis was very big--a red-haired behemoth anywhere from 6 to 7 feet tall, depending on whose account you read. She first appeared in history at the beginning of the Mexican War as she traveled with Zachary Taylor's army as a cook, laundress and occasional nurse. But it was in May 1846 during the siege of Fort Brown, Texas, that Sarah distinguished herself by calmly making coffee and bean soup in an open courtyard as Mexican explosive shells burst around her. In spite of receiving a "bullet through her bonnet and another through her bread tray," Sarah, who became known as "The Heroine of Fort Brown," made her rounds nursing soldiers and feeding the men. (HNQ, 5/17/99) 1846 nend Jun 13, Jose Noe, owner of a 4,000-acre ranch in the center of SF, was the last chief magistrate under Mexican rule. He became a city official when the Americans took over and is buried in Mission Dolores. (SFEC, 9/21/97, p.C7) 1846 nend Jun 14, Americans in Northern California rebelled against Mexican authorities in what is called the Bear Flag Revolt and proclaimed the Republic of California. Wagon master William B. Ide, leader of the Bear Flag Party, was urged to loot the Mexican stronghold but said: "Choose ye this day what you will be! We are robbers or we must be conquerors." Although the US had declared war against Mexico in May, word did not reach California until July. Commodore John Sloat raised the Stars and Stripes over the American Customs House in Monterey, and three days later it flew over the Sonoma Plaza. Ide was installed as president of the new republic. (WCG, p.59)(SFEM, 6/9/96, p.32)(AP, 6/14/97)(SFEC, 3/1/98, p.W36) 1846 nend Jun 14, William L. Todd, nephew of Mrs. Abraham Lincoln designed a flag for the Bear Flag Revolt with the words California Republic. With rusty nails and blackberry juice he painted a grizzly and a star on white cloth. The lower red border was said to come from the flannel petticoat of Nancy Kelsey, who sewed the flag. The Bear Flag Revolt got its name from the presence of a grizzly bear on the standard proposed for the independent California. (Pac. Disc., summer, ?96, p.16)(HN, 6/14/99) 1846 nend Jun 15, The United States and Britain signed a treaty settling a boundary dispute between Canada and the United States in the Pacific Northwest at the 49th parallel. Great Britain and the U.S. agreed on a joint occupation of Oregon Territory. President Polk agreed to a compromise border along the 49th parallel. The debate over the northwestern border of the United States. The campaign slogan "54-40 or fight" referred to the debate over the northwestern border of the United States. The slogan "54-40 or fight" refers to the north latitude degree and minute where many Americans wanted to place the border between the U.S. and then Great Britain in the Pacific Northwest. (AP, 6/15/97)(HN, 6/15/98)(SFC, 1/25/99, p.A3)(HNQ, 3/28/00) 1846 nend Jun 15, Washington diplomats established a straight line border between the US and Canada in the northwest and thus established Point Roberts, Wa. as the westernmost corner of the US. The enclave is 4.9 sq. miles. (SFC, 5/20/96, p.A-6) 1846 nend Jun 19, The New York Knickerbocker Club played the New York Club in the first baseball game at the Elysian Field, Hoboken, New Jersey. (HN, 6/19/98) 1846 nend Jun 27, New York City and Boston were linked by telegraph wires. (AP, 6/27/07) 1846 nend Jun 27, Charles Stewart Parnell (d.1891), Irish nationalist hero, was born. (HFA, ?96, p.32)(AHD, 1971, p.954)(HN, 6/27/98) 1846 nend Jun 28, Near San Rafael, Ca., a US military detachment was approached by 3 unarmed Mexicans, Jose de los Reyes Berryessa, Francisco de Haro and his twin brother Ramon. Captain Fremont was asked by trapper Kit Carson whether he should take the men as prisoners. Fremont responded that he had no room for prisoners and Carson shot the men dead and left their bodies to rot. (SFC, 6/5/98, p.A20)(SSFC, 6/25/06, p.E1) 1846 nend Jun, In the Mexican-American War during the first month of battle, Taylor sent Samuel Walker, commander of a regiment of rangers, to Baltimore on a recruiting mission. Walker looked up Sam Colt and together they worked out the design for a new pistol. With financial assistance from Eli Whitney, the first 1000 guns were ordered by Walker without government permission. The Walker-Colt was very effective in Mexico and was the ancestor to the late Colt peacemaker. (HFA, ?96, p.48) 1846 nend Jul 1, In Yerba Buena (later SF) Kit Carson helped Capt. John Fremont scale the walls on the site of Fort Point to claim the Presidio for the US. (SFEC, 3/8/98, p.W30) 1846 nend Jul 7, U.S. annexation of California was proclaimed at Monterey after Commodore Sloat reached Monterey and claimed California for the US. (HFA, ?96, p.48)(AP, 7/7/97) 1846 nend Jul 9, Captain J.B. Montgomery raised the American flag over San Francisco. Montgomery claimed Yerba Buena (SF) for the US. (SFEC, 3/1/98, p.W36)(www.bearflagmuseum.org/History.html) 1846 nend Jul 21, Mormons founded the 1st English settlement in the San Joaquin Valley of Calif. (MC, 7/21/02) 1846 nend Jul 31, San Francisco, known as Yerba Buena, had only 459 residents, and with the arrival of Sam Brannon and 230 Mormons became known as a Mormon town. [see 1848] Printer Brannon later published the first SF newspaper, the California Star. (SFC, 4/9/96, A-7)(SFEC, 7/21/96, DB p.29) 1846 nend Aug 10, President James Polk signed a measure establishing the Smithsonian Institution. The US Congress chartered the Smithsonian Institution, named after English scientist James Smithson (1765-1836), whose bequest of $500,000 made it possible. The Smithsonian Institute was born and Joseph Henry became its first secretary. (SFEC, 8/25/96, p.T6)(AP, 8/10/07) 1846 nend Aug 13, The American flag was raised for the first time in Los Angeles. (AP, 8/13/97) 1846 nend Aug 14, Henry David Thoreau was jailed for tax resistance. (MC, 8/14/02) 1846 nend Aug 15, The first California newspaper was the Californian of Monterey issued by Colton and Semple. It was written half in English and half in Spanish. (SFEC, 3/8/8, BR p.6)(CVG, Vol 16, p.10) 1846 nend Aug 16, Gioacchino Rossini married Olympe Pelissier in Paris and stopped composing operas. (MC, 8/16/02) 1846 nend Aug 17, US took Los Angeles. [see Aug 13] (SC, 8/17/02) 1846 nend Aug 18, U.S. forces led by Gen. Stephen W. Kearney captured Santa Fe, N.M. As commander of the Army of the West during the Mexican War, Brig. Gen. Stephen Watts Kearny captured Santa Fe without a shot being fired. Kearny (1794-1848) then served as military governor of New Mexico for a month. (AP, 8/18/97)(HNQ, 4/23/00) 1846 nend Aug 22, Gen. Stephen W. Kearny proclaimed all of New Mexico a territory of the United States. The US pledged to honor the land grants in northern New Mexico that were awarded by the Spanish and Mexican governors of the territory. (WSJ, 5/7/99, p.A6)(AP, 8/22/07) 1846 nend Aug 26, Felix Mendelssohn's "Elijah," premiered. (MC, 8/26/02) 1846 nend Aug, By the end of August the US Pacific Fleet with the help of General John C. Fremont, had occupied the entire state of California. (HFA, ?96, p.48) 1846 nend Sep 4, Daniel Burnham, US architect, city planner and builder of skyscrapers, was born. (HN, 9/4/00)(MC, 9/4/01) 1846 nend Sep 10, Elias Howe (d.1867) of Spencer, Mass., received a U.S. patent for his first workable lockstitch sewing machine. Howe, a Massachusetts machinist, developed his sewing machine in 1843-45 and patented it in 1846. Although Howe?s machine sewed only short, straight lines, tailors and seamstresses saw it as a threat to their jobs. Unable to market his machine in America, Howe took it to Britain where he sold the rights to an English manufacturer in 1847. Upon his return to the United States, Howe discovered that his patent had been infringed upon by other sewing machine manufacturers, such as Isaac Singer. After a lengthy court battle, Howe?s patent was upheld and royalties from sewing machine sales made him a wealthy man. (CFA, ?96, p.54)(AP, 9/10/97)(HNPD, 7/9/98)(HN, 9/10/98) 1846 nend Sep 19, Elizabeth Barrett and Robert Browning eloped. (SFEC, 2/1/98, p.T8)(MC, 9/19/01) 1846 nend Sep 23, The planet Neptune was discovered by German astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle. Neptune was discovered after John Couch Adams of England and Urbain Jean Leverrier of France independently figured out where it should be. (HFA, ?96, p.38)(AP, 9/23/97)(SFEC, 5/30/99, Par p.13)(ON, 9/01, p.9) 1846 nend Sep 25, American General Zachary Taylor?s forces captured Monterey, Mexico. (HN, 9/25/98) 1846 nend Sep 30, Dentist William Morton used ether as an anesthetic for the first time on a dental patient in Boston, (Charleston) Massachusetts. (AP, 9/30/97)(HN, 9/30/01) 1846 nend Oct 6, George Westinghouse (d.1914) was born. Inventor and manufacturer Westinghouse, a leader in the development of electric power, also developed a long-distance transmission system for natural gas. Westinghouse held more than 400 patents including shock absorbers, electric brakes for subway cars, air brakes and railroad signals. He promoted the development and construction of electric transformers, enabling the introduction of high-tension systems using single-phase alternating currents. (HNQ, 7/6/99)(HN, 10/6/00) 1847 nend Oct 6, Charlotte Bronte?s novel "Jane Eyre" was published in London. [see Oct 16] (SFEC, 12/8/96, p.C21)(HN, 10/6/00) 1846 nend Oct 10, Alexis the Tocqueville wrote about the "Algerian problem." (MC, 10/10/01) 1846 nend Oct 10, Neptune's moon Triton was discovered by William Lassell. [see Sep 23] (MC, 10/10/01) 1846 nend Oct 16, Sulphurous ether was first administered in public at the Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston by dentist Dr. William Thomas Green Morton during an operation performed by Dr. John Collins Warren. Morton was the 1st to take public credit for the use of ether in a medical procedure and applied for a patent on its use, which was later nullified. In 2001 Julie M. Fenster authored ?Ether Day,? an account of Dr. Morton and ether. [see Sep 30] (HN, 10/16/98)(WSJ, 8/21/01, p.A17) 1847 nend Oct 16, Charlotte Bronte's book "Jane Eyre" was published. [see Oct 6] (MC, 10/16/01) 1846 nend Oct 28, Auguste Escoffier, king of chefs and chef of kings, was born. (MC, 10/28/01) 1846 nend Oct 31, Heavy snows trapped the Donner party in the eastern Sierras near what is now Truckee. (SFC, 7/20/96, p.C1)(www.utahcrossroads.org/DonnerParty/Chronology.htm) 1846 nend Nov 4, Benjamin F. Palmer of Meredith N.H. received a patent on an artificial human leg. (SFEC, 3/29/98, Z1 p.8)(MC, 11/4/01) 1846 nend Nov 5, Robert Schumann's 2nd Symphony in C, premiered. (MC, 11/5/01) 1846 nend Nov 16, General Zachary Taylor took Saltillo, Mexico. General, cried Brig. Gen. John Wool in despair, we are whipped! I know it, replied Maj. Gen. Zachary Taylor, but the volunteers don't know it. Let them alone; we'll see what they do. (HN, 11/16/98) 1846 nend Nov 25, Carry Nation (d.1911) was born Carry Amelia Moore in Kentucky. After her first husband died a drunkard, she married David Nation and they moved to Medicine Lodge, Kansas. There, she was elected president of the local chapter of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union. Even though Kansas was technically a dry state, Medicine Lodge had seven saloons. When Carry Nation's appeals to close the saloons were ignored, she took matters into her own hands--she drove a buggy, full of bricks and stones she had wrapped in newspapers, up to a saloon, smashed its mirrors, glasses, bottles and windows, and said to the proprietor as she left, "I have finished. God be with you." Nation repeated her barroom attacks across the state and the country. One of her last actions was at Washington's Union Depot, where she used three hatchets that she called Faith, Hope and Charity. Nation was arrested about 30 times for her saloon rampages. (HNPD, 11/25/98) 1846 nend Dec 6, Hector Berlioz' opera "La Damnation de Faust" was produced in Paris. (MC, 12/6/01)(WSJ, 7/1/03, p.D8) 1846 nend Dec 10, Norbert Rillieux (1806-1894), African-American engineer, received a patent for the Rillieux Process for refining sugar. He won several patents for a way to refine sugar in a process that later came to be called multiple-effect distillation. (Econ, 6/7/08, p.24)(www.aalbc.com/books/black7.htm) 1846 nend Dec 11, A herd of wild cattle stampeded the rear companies of the Mormon Battalion near Tombstone, Arizona. As a result of what came to be known as the Battle of the Bulls, approximately 12 bulls were killed, two mules were gored, and three men were wounded, including future California governor, Lieutenant George Stoneman. (HNQ, 2/12/02) 1846 nend Dec 16, In desperation 10 men and 5 women of the Donner Party left on snowshoes to cross the Sierra Nevada. The 5 women and 2 men survived. All but one of the dead were eaten. Of the 89 members in the whole group 42 died. (SFC, 7/20/96, p.C1) 1846 nend Dec 28, Iowa became the 29th state to be admitted to the Union. (AP, 12/28/97) 1846 nend Dec, In California the town of Francesca (now Benicia) planned to change its name to San Francisco. William A. Bartlett, the first American alcalde, or mayor of Yerba Buena, led the town council to beat Francesca and approve a name change to San Francisco. (SFC, 1/30/97, p.A15) 1846 nend Edward Hicks completed his painting "The Peaceable Kingdom." [see 1844] He also did the portrait of "James Cornell's Prize Bull." (SFEM, 10/18/98, p.15)(WSJ, 11/16/99, p.A28) 1846 nend Barend Cornelis Koekkoek of Holland painted his "Portrait of a Young Lady." (WSJ, 12/10/99, p.W16) 1846 nend Charles Dickens authored "Pictures from Italy." (SSFC, 1/25/04, p.C8) 1846 nend The History of British Fossil Mammals and Birds by British anatomist Richard Owen was published. (NH, 8/96, p.20) 1846 nend The pier at Monterey, California was built for trading vessels bringing goods around Cape Horn. (SFEC, 11/3/96, DB p.71) 1846 nend The International Mission Board was created as part of the Southern Baptist Convention. (AP, 12/30/02) 1846 nend The Seventh-Day Adventists broke from the Adventist Church, stressing legalism and Sabbatarianism, with strong views on diet, health and medicine. (HNQ, 9/29/99) 1846 nend In Woodstock, Conn., Henry Chandler Bowen (d.1896) built a summertime retreat. He had made a fortune as a silk importer in Brooklyn. The 19-room cottage was designed by Joseph Collins Wells and furnished by Thomas Brooks, a New York cabinet maker. (HT, 4/97, p.36) 1846 nend Trinity Church, a Gothic Revival-style building, was constructed at Broadway and Wall St. in NYC. (SFEC, 6/21/98, p.T4) 1846 nend Cuthbert Burrel came to California and served under Gen?l. John C. Fremont. His grandson, lawyer Harry Haehl, served under Gen?l. Douglas MacArthur and assisted in the revival of the Japanese merchant marine after WW II. (SFC, 1/29/98, p.B2) 1846 nend Sarah Josepha Hale, editor of the influential Godey's Lady's Book, began a tireless campaign to establish a national Thanksgiving holiday in November. She was the editor and founder of the Ladies' Magazine in Boston. Her editorials in the magazine and letters to President Lincoln urging the formal establishment of a national holiday of Thanksgiving resulted in Lincoln?s proclamation in 1863, which designated the last Thursday of November as Thanksgiving Day. (HNPD, 11/26/98) 1846 nend In California Gen?l. Vallejo married Dr. Edward Turner Bale?s niece, and bestowed upon him a land grant. Its last remnant in 1998 was the Old Bale Mill, south of Calistoga. [see 1841] (SFEC, 2/22/98, p.T5)(AP, 3/5/98) 1846 nend Robert Semple, a Kentucky-born printer, dentist, lawyer, physician and riverboat pilot, helped lead the Bear Flag Revolt. He helped take Gen?l. Vallejo prisoner and with financier Thomas O. Larkin paid Vallejo $100 to become co-owner of 5 sq. miles around Benicia. Larkin was the American ambassador to California and had been sent by Pres. Polk to encourage the Californios to defect to the US. (SFEC, 3/1/98, p.W26)(SFEC, 3/1/98, p.W36)(SSFC, 6/25/06, p.E1) 1846 nend Lt. Harry Lumsden in the heat of India?s Punjab dyed his PJs a tawny color. They were made of cotton and called khaki in Hindi. (NH, 6/96, p.7) 1846 nend A US Treaty was signed with the Cherokee Nation in which the tribe gave up resistance to forced relocation. (WSJ, 11/21/95, p.A-12) 1846 nend US Army forces under the command of John C. Fremont conducted a murderous attack on Sacramento River Maidu Indian villages. (www.nativeamericancaucus.com/history.shtml) c 1846 nend General Winfield Scott called Robert E. Lee "the very best soldier I ever saw in the field" and suggested the U.S. government, in the event of war, insure his life for $5 million. Lee served on Scott?s staff in the Mexican War and inspired Scott?s praise with his reconnaissance skills and good judgement, which contributed significantly to his Mexican victories. In 1861 Scott offered Lee command of the Union army, but Lee declined, deciding to support the Confederacy. (HNPD, 8/15/99) 1846 nend Commander John Montgomery sent a 70-man detachment from the Portsmouth ashore at Yerba Buena, soon renamed San Francisco, and raised the American flag. (SFC, 5/7/97, p.A15) 1846 nend In Northern California Don Rafael Garcia gave a party for Joseph Revere, a newly arrived American military officer. The large ranch holders were called "Californios." The old families were named Peralta, Noe, Bernal, Castro, Berryessa, and all eventually lost their land. (SFC, 5/26/97, p.A11) 1846 nend The sons of Francisco de Haro, the first chief magistrate of Yerba Buena (later renamed San Francisco), were murdered by Americans under the command of Kit Carson. (SFEC, 9/21/97, p.C7) 1846 nend Texas was voluntarily annexed to the US. (WP, 6/29/96, p.A15) 1846 nend The Applegate Trail across northwest Nevada and northeast California was blazed as a southern approach to Oregon's Willamette Valley. (SFEC, 1/23/00, p.T7) 1846 nend Brigadier General Stephen W. Kearney commissioned a map of the New Mexico territory. (www.discoveryeditions.com/tpl)(LP, Spring 2006, p.44) c 1846 nend In Aroostook County, Maine, Scottish and Irish immigrants began planting potatoes. (WSJ, 11/13/96, p.A1) 1846 nend New York newspapers collaborated to share costs for reporting on the Mexican war. This collaboration led to the formation of the Associated Press in 1848. (Econ, 12/19/09, p.143) 1846 nend Alexander Turney Stewart (d.1876), Irish-born entrepreneur, opened the 1st US dept store in lower Manhattan. (www.lowermanhattan.info/history) 1846 nend Moses Gunn (23), a graduate of the Geneva Medical School in Upstate New York, began a course of lectures in anatomy at the Univ. of Michigan. In 1867 he moved to Rush medical College in Chicago. (MT, Fall/99, p.4) 1846 nend NYC abandoned the Lancastrian school system in favor of direct teacher to student instruction in its tax supported schools. (ON, 3/06, p.10) 1846 nend Henry Inman (b.1801), American artist, died. He copied portraits of American Indian leaders made by Charles Bird King. (WSJ, 3/15/06, p.D16) 1846 nend A British parliamentary commission decided on a national railway standard with rails separated by less than 5 feet. This was a cheaper option than the 7-foot spacing used by Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806-1859) for the Royal Albert railway bridge linking Cornwall and Devon. (Econ, 6/20/09, p.60) 1846 nend Britain passed the ?Public Baths and Wash Houses Act,? which gave local authorities the power to raise funds to keep the working classes clean and healthy. (Econ, 4/7/07, p.55) 1846 nend British firms began selling insurance policies in China. (Econ, 7/23/11, p.69) 1846 nend In Ireland people began starving to death due to the potato famine. (USAT, 1/15/97, p.2D) c 1846 nend In Mexico Santa Anna was recalled to serve as president and to lead the army. (WSJ, 5/29/98, p.W10) 1846 nend The Kot Massacre took place in Nepal. The Rana dynasty forced the Shah monarchy from power and then ruled until 1951. (SFC, 6/7/01, p.A12)(www.russojapanesewar.com/lewis-3.html) 1846 nend Scottish missionaries set up a school for Africans near Alice, South Africa. The Lovedale Bible College, a prep school for Blacks interested in going to seminary, soon followed. (MT, Fall/99, p.13) 1846 nend A major immigration of Swedes to the US began and by the 1920s brought in 1.2 million people. (FB, 9/12/96, p.A2) 1846 nend Ezequiel Zamora (1817-1860) spearheaded a peasant revolt in Venezuela. After a brief exile he returned to lead the Federal War (1859-1863) and founded the Venezuelan state of Barinas. (SSFC, 8/26/07, p.M2) 1846 1848 US troops invaded and captured Mexico City. (SFC, 12/10/96, p.A12) 1846 1848 Ireland experiences the terrible potato famine. About 1,200,000 people leave Ireland, mostly for the US. (Compuserve, Online Encyclopedia) 1846 1852 Lord John Russel was Prime Minister of England from 1846 to 1852 in his first term. (HN, 8/18/98) 1846 1854 Darwin devoted himself to the study of barnacles. (NH, 8/96, p.56) 1846 1859 Ownership of the San Juan Islands was not settled in the 1846 Oregon Treaty. The Pig War of 1859 forced an arbitration under Kaiser Wilhelm I of Germany. Six Royal Marines and 16 US soldiers died during the 13-year occupation from drownings, disease and suicides. (SFEC, 6/18/00, p.T8) 1846 1878 Pope Pius IX, Giovanni Mastai-Ferretti, allowed archeological excavations of the catacombs by G.B. de Rossi. Under Pius IX the child Edgardo Mortara was taken from the Jewish merchant, Momolo Mortara, in Bologna and raised as a foster son of the pope. The 6-year-old boy had been baptized by a Catholic servant and canonical law did not allow that he be raised by his Jewish parents. The story is told by David I. Kertzer in his 1997 book: "The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara." (ITV, 1/96, p.58)(SFEC, 8/31/97, BR p.9)(PTA, 1980, p.510) 1846 1911 Carry Nation, early leader of the American temperance movement, was famous for using a hatchet to destroy saloons in her home state of Kansas. (SFC, 1/7/98, Z1 p.6) 1846 1914 George Westinghouse, American inventor and manufacturer. He introduced the railroad airbrake in 1869. The device enabled the engineer to brake a train from the locomotive. (WUD, 1994, p.1623)(THC, 12/2/97) 1847 nend Jan 3, California town of Yerba Buena was renamed to San Francisco. [see Jan 30] (MC, 1/3/02) 1847 nend Jan 10, General Stephen Kearny and Commodore Robert Stockton retook Los Angeles in the last California battle of the Mexican War. (HN, 1/10/99) 1847 nend Jan 16, US Navy commodore Robert Stockton appointed John C. Fremont (1830-1890), the famed "Pathfinder" of Western exploration, as governor of California. Fremont, explorer, soldier and politician, earned his nickname "The Pathfinder" because of his explorations of the Pacific Northwest, California, and Nevada during the 1840s. (HN, 1/16/99)(HNQ, 3/11/00)(SSFC, 7/1/07, p.M4) 1847 nend Jan 19, New Mexico Governor Charles Bent was slain by Pueblo Indians in Taos. (HN, 1/19/99) 1847 nend Jan 24, 1,500 New Mexican Indians and Mexicans were defeated by US Col. Price. (MC, 1/24/02) 1847 nend Jan 30, The California Star, founded by Sam Brannon, published the official name change of Yerba Buena to San Francisco on this day. Mayor Washington Bartlett had the town council approve the change. [see Jan 3] (SFC, 1/30/97, p.A15)(SFC, 1/25/02, p.G6) 1847 nend Jan 30, Virginia Poe, wife and cousin of Edgar Allan Poe, died at age 24. (SFEC, 1/12/97, p.T5) 1847 nend Feb 3, Marie Duplessis (b.1824), French courtesan, died. She was mistress to a number of prominent and wealthy men, the inspiration for Marguerite Gautier, and the main character of La Dame aux Camelias by Alexandre Dumas the younger, one of her lovers. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Duplessis) 1847 nend Feb 11, American inventor Thomas Alva Edison was born in Milan, Ohio. He was the inventor of the first electric light bulb and pioneer of the motion picture industry. He also Invented at least 1,300 other items. (HN, 2/11/97)(AP, 2/11/97) 1847 nend Feb 14, Anna Howard Shaw, U.S. suffragette, was born. (HN, 2/14/98) 1847 nend Feb 16, Ludwig Philipp Scharwenka, German composer (Album Polonaise), was born. (MC, 2/16/02) 1847 nend Feb 19, The 1st rescuers finally reached the ill-fated Donner Party in the Sierras, where many resorted to cannibalism to survive. (HN, 2/19/99)(ON, SC, p.6) 1847 nend Feb 22, In the Battle of Buena Vista US troops beat Mexican army during the Mexican-American War. Mexican General Santa Anna (of Alamo infamy) surrounded the outnumbered forces of U.S. General Zachary Taylor ('Old Rough and Ready') at the Angostura Pass in Mexico and demanded an immediate surrender. Taylor refused, reported to reply, "Tell him to go to hell," and early the next morning Santa Anna dispatched some 15,000 troops to move against the 5,000 Americans. The superior US artillery was able to halt one of the two advancing Mexican divisions. By the afternoon Taylor had lived up to his word as the Mexicans began to withdraw. (MC, 2/22/02) 1847 nend Feb 23, U.S. troops under Gen. Zachary Taylor defeated Mexican Gen. Santa Anna at the Battle of Buena Vista in Mexico. The United States and Mexico had been at war over territorial disputes since May 1846. (AP, 2/23/98)(HN, 2/23/98) 1847 nend Feb 28, Colonel Alexander Doniphan and his ragtag Missouri Mounted Volunteers rode to victory at the Battle of Sacramento, during the Mexican War. (HN, 2/28/99) 1847 nend Mar 1, James Reed reached Donner Lake and found his two children alive along with 15 other survivors. (ON, SC, p.7) 1847 nend Mar 1, Michigan became the 1st English-speaking jurisdiction to abolish the death penalty (except for treason against the state). (SC, 3/1/02) 1847 nend Mar 3, The inventor of the telephone, Alexander Graham Bell (teacher of the deaf, inventor: telephone; founder of Bell Telephone Company), was born in Edinburgh, Scotland. For two generations the family of Alexander Graham Bell was recognized as leading authorities on elocution and speech correction. Graham's father, Alexander Melville Bell's Standard Elocutionist went through nearly 200 editions in English. (SFEM, 1/11/98, p.12)(AP, 3/3/98)(HC, Internet, 3/3/98)(HNQ, 12/20/98) 1847 nend Mar 3, Post Office Department was authorized to issue postage stamps. (SC, 3/3/02) 1847 nend Mar 7, U.S. General Scott occupied Veracruz, Mexico. Pres. Polk decided to attack the heart of Mexico. He sent Gen. Winfield Scott, who landed at Veracruz and with his troops hacked their way to Mexico City. [see Mar 9] (HFA, '96, p.48)(HN, 3/7/98) 1847 nend Mar 9, US forces under General Winfield Scott invaded Mexico (Mexican-American War) 3 miles south of Vera Cruz. Encountering almost no resistance from the Mexicans massed in the fortified city of Vera Cruz, by nightfall the last of Scott's 10,000 men came ashore without the loss of a single life. It was the largest amphibious landing in U.S. history until WW II. [see Mar 7] (MC, 3/9/02) 1847 nend Mar 29, Some 12,000 US forces led by General Winfield Scott occupied the city of Vera Cruz after Mexican defenders capitulated. (HFA, '96, p.26)(AP, 3/29/97)(MC, 3/29/02) 1847 nend Mar 31, Jarolslaw Zielinski, composer, was born. (MC, 3/31/02) 1847 nend Apr 10, American newspaper publisher Joseph Pulitzer (d.1911) was born in Mako, Hungary. "What is everybody?s business is nobody?s business?except the journalist?s." (CFA, ?96, p.44)(AP, 4/10/97)(AP, 8/30/98) 1847 nend Apr 18, U.S. forces defeated the Mexicans at Cerro Gordo in one of the bloodiest battle of the war. (HN, 4/18/99) 1847 nend Apr, A census in San Francisco, Ca., counted 462 residents. (SFC, 1/30/97, p.A15) 1847 nend Apr, A cattle market began in Seville, Spain, that changed over the years to a week long celebration of Holy Week. (Hem, 4/96, p.51) 1847 nend May 1, The cornerstone of the Smithsonian Institute was laid in Washington, DC. The building was designed by James Renwick Jr. (ON, 2/06, p.6) 1847 nend May 7, The American Medical Association was founded in Philadelphia. (AP, 5/7/97)(HN, 5/7/98) 1847 nend May 14, Fanny Cacilia Mendelssohn Hensel (41), German pianist, composer and sister of Felix Mendelssohn, died of a stroke. (ON, 6/07, p.8) 1847 nend May 20, Mary Lamb, writer, died. (MC, 5/20/02) 1847 nend May 25, Alphonse Goovaerts, composer, was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1847 nend May 25, John Alexander Dowie [Elijah the Restorer], US evangelist, was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1847 nend Jun 10, Chicago Tribune began publishing. (MC, 6/10/02) 1847 nend Jun 11, Dame Millicent Garrett Fawcett, leader of English women's movement, was born. (SC, 6/11/02) 1847 nend Jun 11, A written record was found in 1859, indicating that Sir John Franklin died on this day, and that Erebus and Terror were abandoned in April 1848. The crews' deaths have been attributed to either scurvy or lead poisoning originating from the solder on food tins. Both ships and the remains of most of the 129 crewmen have never been found. After commissioning three unsuccessful search expeditions, the British Admiralty posted a reward for anyone who could ascertain the fate of the crewmen of the HMS Erebus and Terror, who had sailed from England in May 1845 to navigate through the Arctic and find the elusive Northwest passage. Success was anticipated with Franklin commanding well-equipped crews and ships, but by 1847, the British Admiralty had received no reports of Franklin. Subsequent expeditions found evidence of the Franklin Expedition. Three graves dug into the permafrost were discovered in 1850, their headstones dated 1846. [see May 1845 and Franklin expedition 1850] (HNQ, 6/11/98)(HN, 6/11/99) 1847 nend Jun 22, The 1st doughnut with a hole in it was created. (SFC, 4/26/97, p.E4)(YarraNet, 6/22/00) 1847 nend Jul 1, The faces of founding fathers Benjamin Franklin and George Washington were pictured on the first U.S. government-sponsored postage stamps. Following a Congressional directive, the Post Office issued a Franklin five-cent stamp and a Washington 10-cent stamp. (HNQ, 5/16/98)(HN, 7/1/98) 1847 nend Jul 20, Max Liebermann, German impressionist painter, was born. (MC, 7/20/02) 1847 nend Jul 24, Mormon leader Brigham Young and his followers, the first members of Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormons), arrived in the valley of the Great Salt Lake in present-day Utah. (AP, 7/24/97)(HN, 7/24/98) 1847 nend Jul 26, Liberia became the first African colony to become an independent state. A mutual agreement between the settlers and the society created the republic of Liberia. More than 10,000 free blacks had moved there. Joseph Jenkins Roberts, the Virginia-born son of free blacks, was elected the first president of Liberia, an African nation that grew out of the efforts of the American Colonization Society. Roberts made a state visit to the United States in 1851. The American Colonization Society supported setting up a colony for freed slaves in Africa as an alternative to American integration. The first group of colonists landed in Liberia in 1822, and founded Monrovia, the colony?s capital city, named in honor of President James Monroe. [see Aug 26] (HNPD, 7/26/98)(HN, 7/26/98) 1847 nend Aug 2, William A. Leidesdorff launched the first steam boat in San Francisco Bay. (HN, 8/2/98) 1847 nend Aug 8, Lt. Col. William M. Graham was killed in action at the head of the U.S. 11th Infantry at the Battle of Molino del Rey. On Mar 13, 1865, Graham was given a brevet brigadier generalcy. (HNQ, 4/1/01) 1847 nend Aug 20, General Winfield Scott won the battle of Churubusco on his drive to Mexico City. The Mexican War gave future civil war generals their first taste of combat. (HN, 8/20/98) 1847 nend Aug 24, Charlotte Bronte, using the pseudonym Currer Bell, sent a manuscript of "Jane Eyre" to her publisher in London. (HN, 8/24/00) 1847 nend Aug 26, Liberia was proclaimed an independent republic. Freed American slaves founded Liberia. They modeled their constitution after that of the US, copied the US flag, and named their capital Monrovia, after James Monroe, who financed early settlers. Over the decades 16,400 former slaves made the voyage. They assumed that the 16 native tribes were there to be exploited. (AP, 8/26/97)(SFC, 4/10/96, p.A-4)(SFC, 4/16/96, p.A-9) 1847 nend Sep 5, Jesse Woodson James (Jesse James, d.1882) was born in Kearney, Mo, the son of a clergyman. At seventeen, James left his native Missouri to fight as a Confederate guerrilla in the Civil War. After the war, he returned to his home state to establish one of history?s most notorious outlaw gangs. With his younger brother Frank and several other ex-Confederates, including Cole Younger and his brothers, James robbed his way across the Western frontier targeting banks, trains, stagecoaches, and stores from Iowa to Texas. Eluding even the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, the gang escaped with thousands of dollars. (WUD, 1994 p.762)(USLC, 9/5/99)(MesWP) 1847 nend Sep 6, Henry David Thoreau left Walden Pond and moved back into town, to Concord, Massachusetts. (HN, 9/6/00) 1847 nend Sep 8, The US under Gen. Scott defeated Mexicans at Battle of Molino del Rey. (MC, 9/8/01) 1847 nend Sep 10, John Roy Lynch, first African-American to deliver the keynote address at a Republican National Convention, was born. (HN, 9/10/98) 1847 nend Sep 11, Stephen Foster?s "Oh! Susanna" was first performed in a saloon in Pittsburgh. (HN, 9/11/00) 1847 nend Sep 13, Milton Hershey, founder of the famous candy company, was born in central Pennsylvania. [see Sep 13, 1857] (HN, 9/13/00) 1847 nend Sep 13, US General Winfield Scott took Chapultepec, removing the last obstacle to his troops moving on Mexico City. Six teenage military cadets later became known as ?Los Ninos Heroes? for their defense of Chapultepec Castle. (HN, 9/13/98)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ni%C3%B1os_H%C3%A9roes) 1847 nend Sep 14, US forces under Gen. Winfield Scott took control of Mexico City (the "Halls of Montezuma"). The Mexican forces fled with their leader, Santa Anna. (HFA, '96, p.48)(AP, 9/14/97) 1847 nend Sep 25, Vinnie Ream, who sculpted President Abraham Lincoln from life shortly before he was assassinated, was born. (HN, 9/25/98) 1847 nend Oct 1, Maria Mitchell (29), American astronomer living on Nantucket Island, discovered a new comet that was named after herself. In 1848 she was elected to the American Academy of Arts, the first woman to be so honored. Frederick VI, the King of Denmark awarded her a gold medal for her discovery. (HN, 10/1/98)(ON, 2/07, p.9) 1847 nend Oct 2, Paul von Hindenburg, German Field Marshall during World War I whose brilliant victories on the Eastern Front promoted him to become the second president of the Weimar Republic, was born. (HN, 10/2/98) 1847 nend Oct 6, Charlotte Bronte?s novel "Jane Eyre" was published in London. (SFEC, 12/8/96, p.C21)(HN, 10/6/00) 1847 nend Oct 21, Giuseppe Giacosa (d.1906), Italian songwriter (libretti opera Puccini), was born. (MC, 10/21/01) 1847 nend Oct, financial pressures exert negative market influences as noted in a letter to the Economist in 1865. (WSJ, 9/28/95, p.A-18) 1847 nend Oct, The German company Siemens was founded. Johann Georg Halske and Werner von Siemens formed their own company, Telegraphen-Bauanstalt von Siemens & Halske to develop a new design for the Wheatstone telegraph. (WSJ, 1/31/07, p.A10)(http://tinyurl.com/26xq4a) 1847 nend Nov 4, Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (b.1809), German pianist and composer, died at age 38. His work included: "Overture to a Midsummer Night's Dream." (WUD, 1994 p.895)(LGC, 1970, p.201)(ON, 6/07, p.8) 1847 nend Nov 8, Bram Stoker, author, was born. His novels included "Dracula" (1897). [see Nov 24] (WUD, 1994 p.432)(HN, 11/8/00) 1847 nend Nov 21, Steamer "Phoenix" was lost on Lake Michigan. 200 people were killed. (MC, 11/21/01) 1847 nend Nov 22, In New York, the Astor Place Opera House, the city's first operatic theater, was opened. (HN, 11/22/98) 1847 nend Nov 24, Bram Stoker, Irish theater manager and author (Dracula), was born. [see Nov 8] (MC, 11/24/01) 1847 nend Nov 25, Friederich von Flotow's opera "Martha" was produced in Vienna. (MC, 11/25/01) 1847 nend Nov 26, Alfred de Musset's "Un Caprice," premiered in Paris. (MC, 11/26/01) 1847 nend Nov 28, In Bologna the church San Francisco dei Minori Conventuali opened with the premier of Rossini's "Tantum Ergo." (MC, 11/28/01) 1847 nend Nov 29, A small group of Cayuse Indians assaulted the Whitman Mission, Walla Walla, Washington, at the time sheltering 74 people, most of them emigrants. The attackers killed 13 people, including Marcus and Narcissa Whitman. It temporarily ended Protestant missionary efforts in the Oregon country. The Whitman Creek massacre set off the Cayuse War (1848). (www.legendsofamerica.com/wa-whitmanmassacre.html) 1847 nend Nov, In Ireland Dennis Mahon, mayor of Strokestown, was shot dead in an ambush. He had thrown thousands of poor farmers off the land during the famine and had paid to have some 1000 small farmers shipped to North America so he could establish larger farms. He was killed after it was learned that half of the shipped people died enroute. (USAT, 1/15/97, p.2D) 1847 nend Dec 1, Julia Moore, poet, was born. (HN, 12/1/00) 1847 nend Dec 3, Frederick Douglass and Martin R. Delaney established the North Star, an anti-slavery paper. (HN, 12/3/98) 1847 nend Dec 16, Mary Catherwood (d.1901), American novelist, was born in Luray, Ohio. "Next to the slanderer, we detest the bearer of the slander to our ears." (http://ntweb1.cpl.org/ocb/index.php?q=node/11&id=149)(AP, 6/9/97) 1847 nend Dec 30, John Peter Altgeld, US Gov-Ill, was born in Germany. He pardoned some of the Haymarket anarchists. (MC, 12/30/01) 1847 nend Nemesia Valle (d.1916) was born in Italy. She became a nun of the Congregation of the Sisters of Charity of Saint Giovanna Antida Thouret and was beatified in 2004. (AP, 4/25/04) 1847 nend Felix-Joseph Barrias created his painting "Gallic Soldier and his Daughter Imprisoned in Rome." (WSJ, 9/9/03, p.D6) 1847 nend Thomas Cole created his painting "Prometheus Unbound." (SFC, 1/1/01, p.A1) 1847 nend George Bush, a professor of Hebrew at New York Univ., authored ?The Valley of Vision,? in which he called on the US government to militarily wrench Palestine from the Turks and return it to the Jews. (WSJ, 6/2/07, p.P8) 1847 nend In the US the cookbook "The Carolina Housewife" by Sarah Rutledge was published. (SFC, 8/14/96, zz-1 p.1) 1847 nend Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte was published. (SFEC, 12/8/96, p.C21) 1847 nend Anthony Trollope (1815-1882), British writer, published his first novel. (WSJ, 12/11/98, p.W10) 1847 nend The Mormon Tabernacle Choir was founded in Utah. In 2003 the 360-member group received a National Medal for the Humanities. (SFC, 11/14/03, p.I10) 1847 nend Fratelli d?Italia, a song written to commemorate the bloody unification of Italy. It was chosen as the Italian National Anthem in 1946. (WSJ, 11/1/94, p. B1) 1847 nend The Verdi opera "Jerusalem" premiered at the Paris Opera. (WSJ, 1/27/98, p.A20) 1847 nend Swedish-born Jenny Lind (1820-1887), the greatest operatic and concert soprano of her age, was already the toast of Europe when she was approached by American showman P.T. Barnum in 1847. Even before hearing her voice, Barnum signed the "Swedish Nightingale" for 150 American concerts at the enormous sum of $150,000. With the help of Barnum's matchless marketing, Jenny Lind mania swept America, with crowds of the rich and famous and ordinary music lovers alike falling at her feet. (HN, 5/9/99) 1847 nend Miners of Don Miguel Peralta discovered gold about this time in the Superstition Mountains of Arizona. His family abandoned the claim after their mining party was massacred by Apache Indians. (AHHT, 10/02, p.16)(AH, 10/02,p.16)(www.ghostradiox.com/qfg/legend_peralta.asp) 1847 nend Jasper O?Farrell, surveyor-general of Northern California, laid out the streets of San Francisco. He designated the sand dune called O?Farrel?s Mountain as a public square (later Union Square). (SFEC, 2/9/97, p.W4)(SSFC, 7/21/02, p.F2) 1847 nend Richard Mitchell (1811-1899) and Frederick Rammelsberg (1814-1863) founded Mitchell & Rammelsberg to manufacture furniture in Cincinnati, Ohio. (SFC, 12/19/07,p.G5)(http://witherells.com/inventory/popup/hatrack1.htm) 1847 nend In New Hampshire the North Conway railroad depot was established. (SFEC,11/16/97, p.T7) 1847 nend The American Medical Association was started. (SFC, 4/26/97, p.E4) 1847 nend Sweet chocolate made its debut. (NH, 6/03, p.74) 1847 nend Dr. Thomas Savage, American doctor and missionary, brought back to the US partial skeletons of gorillas, and gave them the scientific name Troglodytes gorilla. (ON, 11/04, p.11) 1847 nend The non-Indian population of California grew to some 15,000. (SFEC, 9/20/98, Z1 p.4) 1847 nend In Palo Alto (tall tree) a tamped-earth adobe home was built on the 4,400 acre Rancho Purisima Concepcion of the Briones family. In 1954 California declared the site a historic landmark. In 1987 Palo Alto declared the home on Old Adobe Road a historic landmark. In 2011 the California Supreme Court cleared the way for demolition of the home. (SFC, 3/22/99, p.A18)(SFC, 2/25/11, p.C3) 1847 nend The population of Chicago numbered about 20,000 people. (Econ, 3/18/06, Survey p.4) 1847 nend Hungarian doctor Ignac (Ignaz) Semmelweis (1818-1865) told his fellow doctors to start washing their hands. (SFEC, 12/8/96, Z 1 p.2)(Econ, 3/13/10, p.57) 1847 nend In Belgium Europe's oldest shopping center, the St. Hubertus Royal Galleries, opened in Brussels. (SFEC, 1/23/00, p.T14) 1847 nend John Edwards began operating a pottery in Longton and later Fenton, Staffordshire, England. Operations continued to 1900. (SFC, 12/5/07, p.G2) 1847 nend Britain passed a Vagrancy Act to combat begging as famine swept Ireland. (AP, 11/25/08) 1847 nend Marx and Engels founded the Communist League in Brussels. An archive of international worker?s organizations from this year on is located at the link. (HNQ, 1/26/00)(http://marxists.architexturez.net/history/index.htm) 1847 nend In France Cartier jewelers opened in Paris. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1847 nend In Ireland the potato harvest was only 10% of normal and some 3 million people (40% of the populace) lined up for free food and soup. (USAT, 1/15/97, p.2D) 1847 nend In Ireland a new British Poor Law dumped the cost of relief on the already strapped Irish landlords. (WSJ, 1/26/98, p.A1) 1847 nend Mauritius, a British ruled island nation, issued the two-pence ?Post Office? Blue Mauritius postage stamp along with a similar one penny orange stamp. They became very rare and in 1904 Britain?s King George V acquired a Blue Mauritius for £1,450. In 2008 Helen Morgan authored ?Blue Mauritius: The Hunt for the World?s Most Valuable Stamps.? (WSJ, 8/9/08, p.W9) 1847 nend The Dutchy of Parma was governed until this year by Marie-Louise of Hapsburg. (SFEC, 9/15/96, p.T6) 1847 nend A religious quarrel led to a short Swiss civil war. (Econ, 2/14/04, Survey p.6) 1847 1852 Durfee?s Knickerbocker root beer was bottled in Rochester, New York, during this period. Durfee used a 12-sided bottle in Ohio and New York. In 2008 the bottles were valued at about $125. (SFC, 3/26/08, p.G3) 1847 1901 The Caste War of Yucatan extended over this period. it began with the revolt of the native Maya people against the population of European descent (called Yucatecos) in political and economic control. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste_War_of_Yucat%C3%A1n) 1847 1911 In Portugal Queen Maria Pia lived. (WSJ, 2/10/98, p.A16) 1847 1919 Ralph Blakelock, artist. He suffered a breakdown and created a set of miniatures in watercolors on cardboard and paper while hospitalized in Middletown, N.Y. (WSJ, 3/19/97, p.A16) 1847 1931 Thomas Edison, American inventor, was born in Milan, Ohio. He obtained 1,100 [actually 1,093] patents in such fields as telegraphy, phonography, electric lighting, and photography. The Edison National Historic Site is located in west Orange, N.J. (AHD, 1971, p.414)(WSJ, 10/25/95, p.A-1)(WSJ, 1/17/97, p.A1) 1847 1935 Max Lieberman, a Berlin artist, was influenced but not smothered by the Impressionists. (WSJ, 10/8/98, p.A16) 1848 nend Jan 9, A people's uprising took place in Palermo, Sicily. (MC, 1/9/02) 1848 nend Jan 24, Gold was discovered by carpenter James Wilson Marshall at his partner Johann August Sutter's sawmill on the South Fork of the American River, near Coloma, California. John [James Wilson] Marshall, while inspecting the construction of a mill on the American River, being built for Capt. John Sutter, spotted a gold nugget. Marshall, Sutter and their workers tried to keep the discovery quiet but gold-seekers quickly began pouring into California, raising the state's non-Indian population to about 20,000 in 1848, 100,000 in 1849 and twice that amount by 1852. (HFA,'96,p.22)(SFC, 5/19/96,City Guide, p.16)(SFEC, 11/3/96, DBp.71)(SFC, 1/25/97, p.A17)(SFEC, 7/6/97, p.T3)(SFEC, 1/4/98, Z1p.4)(HN,1/24/99)(HNPD, 1/24/99) 1848 nend Jan 26, Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862) of Massachusetts presented an essay at the Concord Lyceum that explained his motives for refusing to pay taxes. In 1849 it was published as ?Resistance to Civil Government.? (ON, 10/09, p.12) 1848 nend Jan, John Sutter got a "lease" for the land around the gold site from the Culumah Indians in exchange for "some shirts, hats, handkerchiefs, flour and other articles of no great value." He then tried to get the lease recorded with General Mason, the American military governor of California at Monterey. His messenger, Charles Bennett, stopped in Benicia on the way and displayed the gold after scoffing at talk of coal discoveries in Contra Costa County. No title was available because a treaty with Mexico was not yet signed. (SFEC, 6/21/98, Z1 p.1) 1848 nend Feb 2, US and Mexico signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Mexico ceded one-third of its territory to the US including California, agreed to the Rio Grande as the boundary between Texas and Mexico and was awarded $15 million. 25,000 Mexicans and 12,000 Americans lost their lives in the 17-month old conflict. (HFA, ?96, p.48)(SFC, 6/13/96, p.A17)(HN, 2/2/99) 1848 nend Feb 2, The 1st ship load of Chinese arrived in SF. (MC, 2/2/02) 1848 nend Feb 5, Belle Starr, Western outlaw, was born. (HN, 2/5/99) 1848 nend Feb 14, James Polk became the first U.S. President to be photographed in office by Matthew Brady. (HN, 2/14/98) 1848 nend Feb 15, Sarah Roberts was barred from a white school in Boston. (440 Int?l., 2/15/99) 1848 nend Feb 18, Louis Comfort Tiffany (d.1933), American painter, stained-glass artist, and glass manufacturer, was born. He was the son of Charles Lewis Tiffany (1812-1902), founder of the Tiffany & Co. jewelry business (1837). (HFA, ?96, p.22)(AHD, p.1344)(HN, 2/18/98)(WSJ, 8/4/98, p.A13) 1848 nend Feb 23, John Quincy Adams, the sixth president of the United States (1825-1829), died of a stroke at age 80. Samuel Flagg Bemis wrote a biography. In 1997 Paul C. Nagel published a biography. (AP, 2/23/98)(WSJ, 10/22/97, p.A20)(MC, 2/23/02) 1848 nend Feb 24, King Louis-Philippe abdicated and the 2nd French republic was declared. [see Feb 26] (MC, 2/24/02) 1848 nend Feb 26, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels published "The Communist Manifesto". (HN, 2/26/98) 1848 nend Feb 26, The Second French Republic was proclaimed. (AP, 2/26/98) 1848 nend Feb 27, Charles Hubert H. Parry, musicologist, composer (Jerusalem), was born in England. (MC, 2/27/02) 1848 nend Mar 1, Augustus Saint-Gaudens, US sculptor and designer of the 1907 $20 gold piece, was born. (SC, 3/1/02) 1848 nend Mar 4, Sardinia-Piemonte got a new Constitution. (SC, 3/4/02) 1848 nend Mar 9, Martin Pierre Joseph Marsick, composer, was born. (MC, 3/9/02) 1848 nend Mar 10, The US Senate ratified the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, ending the war with Mexico. (AP, 3/10/98)(HN, 3/10/98) 1848 nend Mar 15, In Hungary an uprising against Habsburg rule began in front of the national museum in Budapest. (Reuters, 3/15/07) 1848 nend Mar 19, Wyatt Earp (Wyatt Berry Stapp Earp), later U.S. Marshal, was born the son of a Sheriff in Monmouth, Illinois. He fought at the Gunfight at the OK Corral and Paula Mitchell Marks later wrote "And Die in the West," an account of the incident. (HN, 3/19/98)(SFEC, 4/12/98, BR p.7)(CHA, 1/2001) 1848 nend Mar 20, King Ludwig I of Bavaria abdicated to marry dancer Lola Montez. (MC, 3/20/02) 1848 nend Mar 23, Hungary proclaimed its independence of Austria. (HN, 3/23/99) 1848 nend Mar 29, Aleksei Kuropatkin, Russian general, minister of War, was born (March 17 in the old style calendar). (www.russojapanesewar.com/kuro.html) 1848 nend Mar 29-1848 Mar 31, Niagara Falls slowed to a trickle for about 30 hours due to an ice jam from Lake Erie in the Niagara River. (ON, 12/05, p.10)(SSFC, 3/29/09, p.C10) 1848 nend Mar 29, John Jacob Astor (b.1763), America?s richest man, died. The fur and real estate magnate had a value in 1999 dollars totaled $78 billion. In 2001 Axel Madsen authored "John Jacob Astor: America?s First Multimillionaire. (HN, 7/17/98)(WSJ, 1/11/98, p.R18)(SFEC, 5/23/99, Par p.7)(WSJ,3/2/00, p.W10)(MC, 3/29/02) 1848 nend Mar, Italian nationalists celebrated as Austrian forces fled Milan. (WSJ, 3/13/09, p.A9) 1848 nend Apr 1, The SF-based California Star reported the discovery of a rich silver vein in San Jose valley. The discovery of rich beds of copper were also reported near Clear Lake. (SFC, 12/10/04, p.E4) 1848 nend Apr 6, Jews of Prussia were granted equality. (MC, 4/6/02) 1848 nend Apr 8, Domenico Gaetano Maria Donizetti (50), Italian composer, died. (MC, 4/8/02) 1848 nend Apr 22, The SF-based California Star reported the discovery of a rich gold mine towards the head of the American Fork in the Sacramento Valley. (SFC, 12/10/04, p.E4) 1848 nend Apr 25, A. Graham discovered asteroid #9: Metis. (SS, 4/25/02) 1848 nend Apr 27, Slave trade was abolished in the French colonies. (AFP, 3/24/10) 1848 nend Apr 28, The last slaves in French colonies were freed. (MC, 4/28/02) 1848 nend Apr, The ships Erebus and Terror of the Franklin Expedition to the Arctic were abandoned. [see Franklin expedition 1850] (HNQ, 6/11/98) 1848 nend May 5, Adalbert von Goldschmidt, composer, was born. (MC, 5/5/02) 1848 nend May 12, Sam Brannon, an elder of the Mormon Church in SF, announced the discovery of gold on the American River. He had just opened a store near the goldfields stocked with shovels and mining tools. He and members of the Mormon battalion were the first to profit in San Francisco from the Gold Rush. (SFC, 4/9/96, A-7)(SFEC, 1/4/98, Z1p.4)(SFEC, 6/21/98, Z1 p.4) 1848 nend Mar 19, Wyatt Berry Stapp Earp was born in Monmouth, IL. (MesWP) 1848 nend May 19, Texas was awarded to the U.S.A. by Mexico thus ending the war. (DTnet, 5/19/97) 1848 nend May 20, The California Star reported that a fleet of launches had left the SF bound up the Sacramento River due to ?Gold Fever.? (SFC, 12/10/04, p.E4) 1848 nend May 23, Helmuth J.L. von Moltke, German general, chief of staff (WW I), was born. (MC, 5/23/02) 1848 nend May 27, The SF-based California Star complained that everybody in the state was under the spell of gold fever. (SFC, 12/10/04, p.E4) 1848 nend May 29, The Californian newspaper complained that everybody in the state was under the spell of gold fever and announced suspension of publication because the staff was heading out to participate. The Californian and the California Star were based in SF. (SFEC, 1/11/98, DB p.40)(SFEC, 6/21/98, Z1 p.1)(PI, 8/8/98, p.5) 1848 nend May 29, Wisconsin became the 30th state of the union. (AP, 5/29/97)(HN, 5/29/98) 1848 nend May 29, Battle at Curtazone: Austrians beat Sardinia-Piemonte. (SC, 5/29/02) 1848 nend May 30, William Young patented the ice cream freezer. (HN, 5/30/98) 1848 nend May 30, Mexico ratified the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo giving US: New Mexico, California and parts of Nevada, Utah, Arizona & Colorado in return for $15 million. (MC, 5/30/02) 1848 nend May, A Frenchman found gold in a ravine north of Coloma, Ca., and in a week the town of Rich Dry Diggings was founded. It later was renamed Auburn. (SFEC, 6/21/98, Z1 p.4) 1848 nend May, The Associated Press was formed in NYC. (www.historybuff.com/library/refap.html) 1848 nend Jun 5, Army officer John C. Fremont submitted his "Geographical Memoir" to the US Senate where the SF Bay entrance was called Chrysopylae (Golden Gate). He had in mind the Chrysoceras (Golden Horn) of Constantinople, and suggested that the SF Bay would be advantageous for commerce. (SFC, 6/5/98, p.A20) 1848 nend Jun 7, Paul Gauguin, French post-impressionist painter, was born in Paris. He abandoned his family to focus on his work. (AP, 6/7/97)(HN, 6/7/99) 1848 nend Jun 10, The 1st telegraph link between NYC & Chicago was established. (MC, 6/10/02) 1848 nend Jun 17, Austrian General Alfred Windischgratz crushed a Czech uprising in Prague. (HN, 6/17/98) 1848 nend Jun 14, The California Star newspaper in SF locked its doors due to the gold strike and lack of working men. (PI, 8/8/98, p.5)(SFC, 12/17/04, p.E6) 1848 nend Jun 23, A bloody insurrection of workers in Paris erupted to protest inflation, unemployment and corruption. The insurrection was ruthlessly suppressed by Gen. Cavaignac. (HN, 6/23/98)(SFEC, 6/28/98, p.T9)(WSJ, 3/13/09, p.A9) 1848 nend Jun 24, Brooks Adams, American historian and son of Charles Francis Adams, was born. He wrote "The Law of Civilization and Decay." (HN, 6/24/99) 1848 nend Jul 1, Ranald MacDonald (1824-1894), a Chinook-Scottish sailor, separated from an American whaling ship and arrived at Rishiri Island off Hokkaido, Japan. He was imprisoned for virtually his whole 10-month stay. In 2003 Frederik L. Schodt authored "Native American in the Land of the Shogun: Ranald MacDonald and the Opening of Japan." (SSFC, 7/12/03, p.M3)(Econ, 12/22/07, p.63) 1848 nend Jul 3, Gen. Peter Von Scholten, faced with the likely destruction of towns and plantations by a slave revolt, declared the slaves of the Danish West Indies (later US Virgin Islands) to be freed. (SSFC, 7/5/09, p.A3) 1848 nend Jul 4, The Communist Manifesto was published. Marx and Engels predicted that capitalism would lead to revolution where the workers would take over the means of production and develop an ideal classless society. "Workers of the world, unite. You have nothing to lose but your chains." (IB, Internet, 12/7/98)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R20) 1848 nend Jul 4, The Cornerstone of the Washington Monument in Washington, D.C. was laid by President Polk. Each state of the union was invited to donate a memorial stone. The white marble obelisk, which is 555 feet tall and 55 fee square at the base, was not completed until 1884. The public was admitted to the monument on October 9, 1888. Architect Robert Mills (1781-1855) designed the monument. (ON, 3/00, p.9)(WSJ, 2/16/08, p.W18) 1848 nend Jul 4, Vicomte Francois-Rene de Chateaubriand (b.1768), French writer and statesman, 79, died in Paris. (WUD, 1994, p.250) 1848 nend Jul 18, W.G. Grace (d.1915), British cricket player, was born in Bristol. He has been widely acknowledged as the greatest cricket player of all time. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._G._Grace) 1848 nend Jul 19, The first women?s rights convention convened in Seneca Falls, New York. Organized by Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, the two-day convention discussed such topics as voting, property rights and divorce. It launched the women?s suffrage movement. The convention issued a "Declaration of Sentiments" based on the Declaration of Independence. "The ideal newspaper woman has the keen zest for life of a child, the cool courage of a man and the subtlety of a woman." Elizabeth Cady Stanton made her first public speech at the Woman's Rights Convention. After Cady Stanton was denied participation in an anti-slavery convention and was told that women were "constitutionally unfit for public and business meetings," she and four other women, including abolitionist Lucretia Coffin Mott, planned a convention to challenge that notion. They drafted a "Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions," 11 resolutions calling for equal rights for women, including the right to vote. After lengthy debate, the document was amended and signed by 68 women and 32 men of the approximately 300 attendees, setting the American women's rights movement in motion. Susan B. Anthony joined the movement in 1852. (HNPD, 7/19/98)(SFEC, 7/20/97, Par p.8)(SFEM, 6/28/98, p.30)(SFC,7/6/98, p.D8) 1848 nend Jul 25, Arthur James Balfour (d.1930), the First Earl of Balfour and prime Minister of Great Britain (1902-1905), was born: "A religion that is small enough for our understanding would not be large enough for our needs." (AP, 11/14/97)(HN, 7/25/98) 1848 nend Jul 26, Charles Ellet Jr., engineer, completed a light suspension bridge over the Niagara River. A boy?s kite was used to transfer the 1st line across. (ON, 7/02, p.8) 1848 nend Jul 26, The French army suppressed the Paris uprising. (HN, 7/26/98) 1848 nend Jul 29, An Irish rebellion against British rule was put down in a cabbage patch in Tipperary, Ireland. Irish Nationalists under William Smith O'Brien were overcome and arrested. (HN, 7/29/98)(MC, 7/29/02) 1848 nend Jul, By this time 4,000 people were out hunting gold in California. (SFEC, 6/21/98, Z1 p.4) 1848 nend Aug 9, The Barnburners (anti-slavery) party merged with the Free Soil Party and nominated Martin Van Buren for president at its convention in Buffalo, N.Y. The Hunkers and the Barnburners were two factions within the Democratic Party of New York split over the slavery issue in 1848. They injected the issue into the Democratic National Convention held in Baltimore in 1848 when they both sent delegations. The Barnburners (who were also known as the "Softs" while the Hunkers were called the "Hards") were firm supporters of the Wilmot Proviso of 1846 that sought to restrict the spread of slavery to newly acquired territory. (AP, 8/9/97)(HNQ, 11/28/98)(MC, 8/9/02) 1848 nend Aug 12, George Stephenson, locomotive engineer, died. (MC, 8/12/02) 1848 nend Aug 14, The Oregon Territory was established. (AP, 8/14/97) 1848 nend Aug 15, M. Waldo Hanchett patented a dental chair. (MC, 8/15/02) 1848 nend Aug 19, The New York Herald reported the discovery of gold in California. (AP, 8/19/97) 1848 nend Aug, Henry Walter Bates, British naturalist, traveled the rain forest of the Amazon estuary. (NH, 6/97, p.30) 1848 nend Aug, Julia Dent married Ulysses S. Grant: "Never shall I forget... that hot August night." (SFEM, 1/25/98, p.29) 1848 nend Sep 11, Henri-Philippe Gerard, composer, died at 87. (MC, 9/11/01) 1848 nend Sep 13, Dr. John Martyn Harlow treated Phinneas Gage in Vermont for a head injury from a tamping iron that had pierced the man?s skull during a blasting accident. Gage survived until 1860, but with definite personality changes that Dr. Harlow tracked. (ON, 10/02, p.9)(Econ, 12/23/06, Survey p.3) 1848 nend Sep 19, Hyperion, a moon of Saturn, was discovered by Bond (US) & Lassell (England). (MC, 9/19/01) 1848 nend Sep 20, The American Association for the Advancement of Science was founded to replace the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. The Association of American Geologists had been founded in 1840 and in 1842 it became the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. (Econ, 1/9/10, p.57)(www.lib.uwaterloo.ca/society/history/1848aaas.html) 1848 nend Sep 24, Branwell Bronte, brother of the Bronte sisters and the model for Hindley Earnshaw in Emily's novel "Wuthering Heights," died of tuberculosis. (www.bronte.info/brontes/Patrick_Branwell_Bronte.asp) 1848 nend Oct 16, The 1st US homeopathic medical college opened in Pennsylvania. (MC, 10/16/01) 1848 nend Oct 19, John "The Pathfinder" Fremont moved out from near Westport, Missouri, on his fourth Western expedition with 33 volunteers. The goal was to find a railroad route across the Rocky Mountains. His failed attempt to open a trail across the Rocky Mountains along the 38th parallel ended with some of his men cannibalizing their comrades. (HN, 10/19/98)(SFEC, 2/13/00, BR p.6)(ON, 12/06, p.5) 1848 nend Nov 7, General Zachary Taylor was elected president of US. Millard Fillmore was vice-president. With the exception of South Carolina, who left the selection of electors to its legislature, the election of 1848 marked the first time in which every state in the union voted for President and Vice President on the same day: Taylor won election over Cass, capturing 163 of the 290 electoral votes cast. Zachary Taylor, a Southerner, a slaveholder and the hero of the Mexican War, had been nominated by the Party as a candidate for president of the US. He was an inoffensive candidate in the anxious years leading up to the Civil War because he had never taken a position on a political issue or even cast a vote in his life. During his 16 months as president, Congress addressed the explosive issue of slavery?s expansion to the west with the Compromise of 1850, but Taylor himself never had the opportunity to act on this issue. no_source 7 nend /11/98) no_source 1848 nend Nov 9, The first U.S. Post Office in California opened in San Francisco at Clay and Pike streets. At that time there were only about 15,000 European settlers living in the state. (HN, 11/9/98) 1848 nend Nov 21, The John C. Fremont expedition, in search of a railraod route across the Rocky Mountains, reached Pueblo, Colorado. There Fremont hired Bill Williams (61), a mountaineer with 40 years experience. (ON, 12/06, p.5) 1848 nend Nov 21, Alfred de Musset's "Andre del Sarto," premiered in Paris. (MC, 11/21/01) 1848 nend Nov 23, The Female Medical Educational Society was established in Boston, Mass., the same year the all-male American Medical Association formed. (AP, 11/23/02) 1848 nend Nov 23, Alfred Julius Becher (45), composer, died. (MC, 11/23/01) 1848 nend Nov 24, Lilli Lehmann, opera singer, was born. (MC, 11/24/01) 1848 nend Nov, Emperor Ferdinand abdicated in favor of Franz Joseph. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Josef_of_Austria) 1848 nend Dec 5, President Polk triggered the Gold Rush of '49 by confirming that gold had been discovered in California. Paula Mitchell Marks later wrote "Precious Dust," an account of the gold rush. In 2002 H.W. Brands authored "The Age of Gold: The California Gold Rush and the New American Dream." (AP, 12/5/97)(SFEC, 4/12/98, BR p.7)(SSFC, 8/18/02, p.M1) 1848 nend Dec 9, Joel Chandler Harris, writer, was born. He created the Uncle Remus tales. (HN, 12/9/00) 1848 nend Dec 10, Napoleon III, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte), was elected president of France. In 1852 he dismantled the Republic and replaced it with the Second Empire of France, with himself as emperor. (PC, 1992 ed, p.446)(WUD, 1994, p.950) 1848 nend Dec 21, William Craft and his wife Ellen, slaves to separate masters, escaped under disguise from Macon, Georgia, and made there way to Philadelphia. In 1860 Craft authored ?Running a Thousand Miles for Freedom.? (ON, 10/04, p.10) 1848 nend Dec 26, The 1st California-bound gold seekers arrived in Panama enroute to SF. (MC, 12/26/01) 1848 nend Dec 28, A 4-man emergency relief party from the Fremont expedition reached the valley of the Rio Grande. On Jan 17 three remaining men met with 4 horsemen including John Fremont, who had found help from Ute Indians. (ON, 12/06, p.7) 1848 nend Dec 29, Gas lights were 1st installed at White House during Polk's administration. (MC, 12/29/01) 1848 nend Hugh Bolton Jones (d1927), American artist, was born. (SFC, 4/11/01, p.E8) c 1848 nend Ellen Terry (d.1928), one of the great English actresses of the 19th century, was born. Her parents, Ben and Sarah Terry, lived on the edge of poverty, earning meager wages as strolling theatrical players who traveled from town to town. Ellen was their second child; six more children survived. All the Terry children expected to follow their parents on to the stage and by the age of nine, Ellen appeared on the London stage as Mamillius, the son of King Leontes in Shakespeare?s The Winter?s Tale. (WUD, 1994 p.1466)(HNQ, 8/31/01) 1848 nend Alexandre Cabanel painted his erotic portrait ?Albayde.? (SFC, 1/22/05, p.E1) 1848 nend Delacroix painted ?Women of Algiers in Their Apartment.? (SFC, 1/22/05, p.E1) 1848 nend Charles B. Gillespie (~1821-1907) traveled to California from Pennsylvania during the gold rush and made a number of sketches, including depictions of Sutter?s Mill, some of which he turned into paintings upon returning to Freeport in 1851. In 2008 119 pen-and-ink sketches and 5 oil paintings were put up for auction. (SSFC, 11/23/08, p.B9) 1848 nend Edouard Manet (1832-1883) at age 16 failed the French naval exam and after 3 months at sea became convinced that he would rather be a painter. (WSJ, 12/3/03, p.D12) 1848 nend The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was founded. A group of artists led by William Holman Hunt, John Everett Millais, and Dante Gabriel Rosetti, fought against corrupt academic art based on the work of the Renaissance. (WSJ, 2/19/97, p.A15)(Econ, 9/20/03, p.82) 1848 nend Edward Hicks (b.1780) painted "An Indian Summer View of the Farm & Stock of James C. Cornell." (WSJ, 11/16/99, p.A28) 1848 nend Anne Bronte wrote her novel "The Tenant of Wildfell Hall." (WSJ, 10/16/97, p.A20) 1848 nend Titian Ramsey Peale published "Mammalia and Ornithology." It was based on his collections and observations from a South Seas expedition. It was suppressed by Charles Wilkes, leader of the expedition, due to adverse criticism by government authorities. (NH, 5/96, p.75) 1848 nend Elizabeth Ellet authored her 2-volume work: "Women of the American Revolution." (ON, 11/01, p.9) 1848 nend Turgenev authored his comedy "A Poor Gentleman." A 2002 Broadway production of the play was called "Fortune?s Fool." (WSJ, 4/3/02, p.A20) 1848 nend The Brilliant Future of Cuzco was published. (NH, 11/96, p.94) 1848 nend Fort Kearny was built in Nebraska. It was named after Stephen Watts Kearny, a US Army hero of the Mexican War. (SFC, 8/11/98, p.A7) 1848 nend In Savannah, Ga., the Andrew Low House was built on Abercorn St. of stuccoed brick, elaborate iron-caste railings and shuttered piazzas. (SFEC,11/30/97, p.T5) 1848 nend Spiritualism dates from the strange rappings that the Fox sisters heard in Hydesville, N.Y. (WSJ, 10/29/96, p.A21) 1848 nend John Humphrey Noyes (b.1811) founded the Oneida Community in upstate New York. The Perfectionists were organized around communal property and a complex marriage that wed all members to each other. In 1993 Spencer Klaw (d.2004) authored ?Without Sin: The Life and Death of the Oneida Community.? (MC, 9/3/01)(SSFC, 12/29/02, p.A6)(SFC, 6/21/04, p.B5) 1848 nend The Associated Press (AP) was founded. (SFC, 7/25/98, p.B5) 1848 nend Henry Chandler Bowen, New York silk merchant, founded the New York Independent, a Congregationalist journal that became one of the most influential anti-slavery newspapers in the country. (HT, 4/97, p.38) 1848 nend George Caleb Bingham (1811-1879), artist, won a seat as a Missouri legislator and served a single term. (WSJ, 11/3/07, p.W16)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Caleb_Bingham) 1848 nend The Lazard brothers, Alexandre Lazard, Simon Lazard, and Elie Lazard, moved to the United States from Lorraine, France, and formed Lazard Freres & Co. as a dry goods business in New Orleans, Louisiana, with a combined contribution of $ 9,000. They moved to SF a year later with their cousin, Alexander Weill. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazard)(SFC, 12/11/96, p.D1)(WSJ,6/7/99, p.C1) 1848 nend In Brooklyn NY Antoine Zegera set up the 1st macaroni factory in the US. (SFC, 7/31/99, p.C3) 1848 nend The W.C. Davis Co. was founded in Cincinnati, Ohio, to manufacture cast-iron stoves and cookware. In 1880 the factory was enlarged and the name was changed to Favorite Stove Works. A new owner, William King Boal, moved the firm to Piqua in 1889. In 1934 the company went out of business and sold the Favorite cookware line to Chicago Hardware Foundry Co. (SFC, 1/10/07, p.G3) 1848 nend Andrew Carnegie came to America from Scotland as a teenager. He worked in a variety of jobs that paid modestly, but prepared him well for future ventures. A few years after being hired by the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1852, he began to invest in railroads, receiving huge dividends. When a new steel-making process made cheap steel possible, Carnegie built his own plant. (HNPD, 8/11/98) 1848 nend John Curtis produced the first commercial chewing gum in his home kitchen in Maine. In 1850 he established the world?s first chewing gum factory in Portland. (Econ, 10/29/11, p.100) 1848 nend Up to this time golfers used balls that were leather lumps packed with feathers. In this year the solid center ball molded from white gum of the Malayan gutta-percha tree was introduced. (SFC, 6/21/97, p.E4) 1848 nend In Florida a female slave was executed for killing her owner. (SFC, 3/28/98, p.A6) 1848 nend The Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) began trading grain futures. [see Jun 10,1848] (Econ, 9/20/03, p.68) 1848 nend A canal was completed that linked the Chicago River to the Illinois River. (Econ, 3/18/06, Survey p.4) 1848 nend Pacific Mail Steamship Co. was incorporated. It carried people, goods and mail from San Francisco to Asia and South America. It was taken over by the US government in 1932 so as to continue doing government work. The government renamed it American President Lines and held it until 1952. (WSJ, 5/28/96, p.R46)(SFC, 4/8/03, p.B5) 1848 nend Henry P. Angel set up shop on the banks of the what is today Angel?s Creek, Ca. This site was the focus for the growth of Angels Camp. (SFC, 4/28/96, p.T-11) 1848 nend Pierson B. Reading discovered gold in northern California?s Trinity River. (SSFC, 8/1/04, p.D5) 1848 nend The San Francisco City Council passed a resolution regarding gambling and heavy fines were assessed on parties arrested for gambling. The resolution was soon repealed. (GTP, 1973, p.53) 1848 nend William Alexander Leidesdorff, ship captain, merchant and the first treasurer of SF, died. He was half Dutch and half black and was buried inside Mission Dolores. He started the City Hotel, the 1st hotel in SF at Kearny and Clay. (SFC, 5/19/98, p.B8)(SFC, 1/31/02, p.D1)(SFL) 1848 nend Of the 165,000 people in California, only 15,000 were of European descent, and half of these were Mexican citizens who called themselves Californios. (SFEC, 6/21/98, Z1 p.1) 1848 nend The population of San Francisco numbered about 850. (SFC, 10/11/10, p.A9) 1848 nend One third of the 10,000 Americans in Oregon left by the fall to find gold in California. This included Peter Burnett who became the first governor of Ca. (1849-1851). (SFEC, 6/21/98, Z1 p.4) 1848 nend Joseph Hall founded Hall?s Safe & Lock Co. in Cincinnati, Ohio. (SFC, 8/16/06, p.G7) 1848 nend The Memnon locomotive was built with a long horizontal boiler resting on 4 pairs of wheels. It was built to haul coal and was one of the first locomotives to use coal. (SFEC, 4/25/99, p.T6) 1848 nend A new rail line linked Greenwich, Connecticut, to Manhattan. (WSJ, 4/12/08, p.A6) 1848 nend The Smithsonian?s Board of Regents granted director Joseph Henry a budget of $1000 to establish ?a system of extended meteorological observations for solving the problem of American storms.? (ON, 2/06, p.6) 1848 nend H.E. Strickland was the senior author of the classic monograph on the dodo bird. (NH, 11/96, p.26) 1848 nend Samuel Gregory, a pioneer in medical education for women, founded the Boston Female Medical School. The school opened with an enrolment of 12 students. The establishment merged 26 years later with the Boston University School of Medicine, to form one of the first coed medical schools in the world. (HNQ, 12/27/02) 1848 nend The Girard College (a secondary school) was opened with funds from philanthropist Stephen Girard. In 1984 girls were admitted. Since its founding more than 20,000 indigent boys and hundreds of girls have passed through. (WSJ, 1/2/97, p.6) 1848 nend It was discovered that palm oil, a native of West Africa, grew well in the Far East. By 2010 Indonesia and Malaysia produced 90% of the world?s palm oil. (Econ, 6/26/10, p.71) 1848 nend Dolly Madison, wife of former Pres. James Madison, died. (ON, 9/02, p.4) 1848 nend The Austro-Italian insurance company Assicurazioni Generali Austro-Italiche began placing a picture of the winged lion of St. Mark on policies. (www.generali.ro/eng_despre_noi/istorie.htm) 1848 nend Britain introduced khaki uniforms for British colonial troops in India. (WSJ, 5/28/02, p.B1) 1848 nend England passed a Public Health Act to improve the lot of the working classes. (Econ, 5/1/04, p.59) 1848 nend A new cholera epidemic struck in London. (ON, 5/05, p.8) 1848 nend France abolished slavery. Victor Schoelcher was a major force in the abolition of slavery in France. (WSJ, 2/26/02, p.A22) 1848 nend In Germany a major revolt occurred. The revolution prompted Marx to write the "Communist Manifesto." (V.D.-H.K.p.257,260) 1848 nend The painter-poet Josef Victor von Scheffel published cynical poems with titles as 'Biedermann's Evening socializing' and 'Bummelmaier's Complaint' in the Viennese satirical magazine 'Fliegende Blätter' (Flying Leaves). These names were combined into the pseudonym 'Gottlieb Biedermaier' by Ludwig Eichrodt, who together with Adolf Kussmaul published poems by the schoolmaster Samuel Friedrich Sauter under this name. The spelling finally changed into 'Biedermeier' in 1869 when Eichrodt published 'Biedermeier's Liederlust'. no_source 1848 nend In Ireland a group of writers, poets and orators, collectively known as Young Ireland, attempted to spark the Irish people into rebelling against Britain. They included Thomas D?Arcy McGee (1825-1868), who had returned to Ireland from the US to support the cause. A warrant for his arrest forced him to return to the US. (WSJ, 5/15/08, p.A15)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_D'Arcy_McGee) 1848 nend Mexico was forced to sell most of the territory that is now Arizona to the United States following its defeat in the Mexican-American war. (AP, 5/20/10) 1848 nend A railroad line was built along the coast of Barcelona, Spain that separates the city from its waterfront. It is finally relocated underground. (Hem., Oct. ?95, p.17) 1848 nend A Swiss constitution was enacted that included a mandate for neutrality. It copied almost wholesale the American constitution. It was revised in 1874. A new one was adopted in 1999. (SFC, 7/6/99, p.C6)(SFC, 7/18/02, p.A15)(Econ, 2/14/04, Surveyp.7)(Econ, 4/23/11, SR p.6) 1848 1849 In 2009 Mike Rapport authored ?1848 Year of Revolution.? (WSJ, 3/13/09, p.A9) 1848 1854 The non-Indian population of California exploded from an estimated 13,000 to 300,000. (SFEC, 1/25/98, Z1 p.6) 1848 1870 The native American population in California dropped from 175,000 to fewer than 30,000, mostly due to diseases that they had no immunity to. (SFEC, 1/25/98, Z1 p.6) 1848 1887 Richard Jefferies, English author: "The very idea that there is another idea is something gained." (AP, 9/21/98) 1848 1892 William Michael Harnett, American painter. He painted "After the Hunt." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.647) 1848 1894 Gustave Caillebotte, French impressionist painter, he was a Jewish lawyer turned painter with a crisp, almost photographic style. He is best know for "Paris Street: Rainy Day" done in 1877. (WSJ, 2/23/95, p.A-10) 1848 1903 Paul Gauguin, French painter. He painted "Still Life." (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.587) 1848 1924 Kate Claxton, American actress. She was famous for her portrayal of Louise, a blind girl, in the 1874 play: "The Two Orphans." (SFC, 4/21/99, Z1 p.6) 1848 1933 Richard R. Bowker, American publisher: "It's all right to have a train of thoughts, if you have a terminal." (AP, 11/12/98) 1849 nend Jan 23, English-born Elizabeth Blackwell, the 1st woman to receive medical degree, graduated at the top of her class from the medical school of Hobart College in Geneva, N.Y. (http://campus.hws.edu/his/blackwell/biography.html)(ON, 4/03, p.2) 1849 nend Jan, In Placerville, Ca., a mob ran down 3 men who reportedly tried to rob a local gambler. The men were flogged and hanged on Main St. Later the Placerville tavern, The Hangman?s Tree, was built over the site of the hanging tree. (SFC, 11/30/96, p.A20) 1849 nend Feb 13, Lord Randolph Churchill, was born. He was an English politician, Winston Churchill's father and member of Parliament. (HN, 2/13/99) 1849 nend Jan, A relief party from Taos, New Mexico, rescued the remaining members of the John C. Fremont expedition in the Colorado Mountains. Ten men died from cold and starvation before the rescue. (ON, 12/06, p.7) 1849 nend Feb 21, In the Second Sikh War, Sir Hugh Gough?s well placed guns won a victory over a Sikh force twice the size of his at Gujerat on the Chenab River, assuring British control of the Punjab for years to come. (HN, 2/21/98) 1849 nend Feb 28, The steamer California, sounding the first steamship whistle on the SF Bay, arrived in SF with San Francisco postmaster John W. Geary on board carrying mail for the Pacific coast. Steamboat service began from Panama City to SF. Pacific Mail Steamship Co. sent the side-wheel steamship California to SF with American gold-seekers and 50 Peruvian miners. Also onboard were preacher Osgood C. Wheeler (32) and his wife Elizabeth. (www.maritimeheritage.org/PassLists/ca022849.htm)(SSFC, 3/1/09, DBp.50)(AP, 2/28/98)(SFEC, 1/11/98, DB p.40) 1849 nend Feb, Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881), Scottish essayist, anonymously authored the article: "Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question," in which he 1st used the phrase "the dismal science" to describe political economics: It is ?not a gay science? no, a dreary, desolate, and indeed quite abject and distressing one; what we might call, by way of eminence, the dismal science." Carlyle himself argued in this essay for the reintroduction of slavery into the West Indies. In 2001 David M. Levy authored "How the Dismal Science Got Its Name." (WSJ, 12/10/01,p.A15)(http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/texts/carlyle/carlodnq.htm) 1849 nend Mar 3, The US Home Department, forerunner of the Interior Department, was established. (AP, 3/3/98) 1849 nend Mar 3, US Congress created the Minnesota Territory. (AP, 3/3/99) 1849 nend Mar 3, The US Gold Coinage Act authorized the $20 Double Eagle gold coin. (SC, 3/3/02) 1849 nend Mar 4, The US had no President. Pres. James K. Polk officially stepped down as the 11th US president and President Zachary Taylor refused to be sworn-in on a Sunday. US Sen. Some say David Rice Atchison (1807-1886) of Missouri then technically held office as president until Zachary Taylor took his oath the next day. However Atchison?s term as president pro tempore of the Senate had also expired, and his new term did not begin until March 5. (AH, 2/03, p.18) 1849 nend Mar 5, Zachary Taylor took the oath of office at his presidential inauguration. (AP, 3/5/99) 1849 nend Mar 7, Luther Burbank (d.1926) American Horticulturist was born in Lancaster, Mass. "For those who do not think, it is best at least to rearrange their prejudices once in a while." (AP, 3/7/98)(AP, 4/26/98) 1849 nend Mar 7, The Austrian Reichstag was dissolved. (HN, 3/7/99) 1849 nend Mar 19, Alfred von Tirpitz, Prussian admiral, was born. He commanded the German fleet in early World War I. (HN, 3/19/99) 1849 nend Mar 23, Battle of Novara (King Charles Albert of Sardinia vs. Italian republic). Austria?s Gen. Radetzky (83) crushed the Piedmontese forces. Charles Albert abdicated and was succeeded by his son, Victor Emmanuel II, who reigned until 1861. (PCh, 1992, p.449)(SS, 3/23/02) 1849 nend Mar 27, Joseph Couch patented a steam-powered percussion rock drill. (MC, 3/27/02) 1849 nend Apr 6, Giacomo Meyerbeer's opera "Le Prophete," premiered in Paris. [see Apr 16] (MC, 4/6/02) 1849 nend Apr 10, Walter Hunt, a mechanic, patented the safety pin in NYC. He sold rights for $100. Hunt?s other inventions included a new stove, paper collar, ice-breaking boat, fountain pen and nail-making machine. (SFC, 7/14/99, p.3)(SFC, 4/1/00, p.B4)(MC, 4/10/02) 1849 nend Apr 16, Giacomo Meyerbeer's Opera "Le Prophete," premiered in Paris. [see Apr 6] (MC, 4/16/02) 1849 nend Apr 21, Oskar Hertwig, embryologist, discovered fertilization, was born. (HN, 4/21/98) 1849 nend Apr 27, Italian revolutionary Garibaldi took control of the defenses of Rome. He and his family had returned to Italy from Uruguay in 1848 to fight on behalf of the newly declared Republic of Rome, which had taken control of Rome and expelled Pope Pius IX, who opposed the goals of Italian nationalism. (ON, 10/06, p.5) 1849 nend Apr 30, Giuseppe Garibaldi, Italian republican patriot and guerrilla leader, repulsed a French attack on Rome. (HN, 4/30/98)(ON, 10/06, p.5) 1849 nend May 3, Jacob Riis (d.1914), American reporter and reformer (How the Other Half Lives), was born in Denmark. (HN, 5/3/01)(www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAriis.htm) 1849 nend May 6, Wyatt Eaton, artist, was born. (MC, 5/6/02) 1849 nend May 10, A mob destroyed Astor Place opera house in NYC and 22 people were killed. Edward Z.C. Judson (Ned Buntline) was convicted of leading the riot and was sentenced to a year in prison. In 2007 Nigel Cliff authored ?The Shakespeare Riots: Revenge, Drama, and Death in Nineteenth-Century America.? (PCh, 1992, p.450)(WSJ, 4/28/07, p.P8) 1849 nend May 15, Neapolitan troops entered Palermo, and were in possession of all of Sicily. (HN, 5/15/98) 1849 nend May 17, A fire in St. Louis, Mo., destroyed more than 400 buildings and two dozen steamships. (AP, 5/17/99) 1849 nend May 25, Andreas Michiels (52), Dutch Military Governor of West Sumatra, died in battle. (SC, 5/25/02) 1849 nend May 28, Anne Bronte, novelist, died. (MC, 5/28/02) 1849 nend May 29, A patent for lifting vessels was granted to Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln said: "You can fool some of the people all of the time, & some of the people some of time, but you can't fool all of the people all of time" (HN, 5/29/98)(SC, 5/29/02) 1849 nend Jun 12, The gas mask was patented by L. P. Haslett. (HN, 6/12/98) 1849 nend Jun 15, James Polk, the 11th president of the United States, died of cholera in Nashville, Tenn. Following a visit to New Orleans. In 2008 Walter R. Borneman authored ?Polk: The Man Who Transformed the Presidency and America.? (AP, 6/15/97)(WSJ, 5/16/08, p.W8)(Econ, 7/30/11, p.55) 1849 nend Jun 17, Russian troops invaded Hungary. (PC, 1992 ed, p.448) 1749 nend Jun 25, Massachusetts residents were asked to fast due to a severe drought. (SFC, 6/25/09, p.D8) 1849 nend Jul 5, The sailing ship Niantic arrived in SF, Ca, and anchored in Yerba Buena Cove. The ship?s owners soon converted her to a storage and auction house for imported goods and built a hotel on her deck. (SFC, 5/9/03, p.E5)(SFC, 2/4/05, p.E16) 1849 nend Jul 12, William Osler (d.1919), physician, author (circulatory system), was born in Canada. "The philosophies of one age have become the absurdities of the next, and the foolishness of yesterday has become the wisdom of tomorrow." (AP, 10/15/98)(MC, 7/12/02) 1849 nend Jul 19, F.A. Alphonse Aulard, French historian, was born. (MC, 7/19/02) 1849 nend Jul 22, Emma Lazarus, American poet, was born of Sephardic Jewish parents in NYC. Her poem, "The New Colossus," is inscribed on the base of the Statue of Liberty. (HN, 7/22/98)(SFEC, 4/30/00, BR p.2) 1849 nend Jul 23, German rebels in Baden capitulated to the Prussians. (HN, 7/23/98) 1849 nend Jul 28, Memmon became the 1st clipper to reach SF after 120 days out of NY. (SC, 7/28/02) 1849 nend Jul 31, Benjamin Chambers patented a breech loading cannon. (MC, 7/31/02) 1849 nend Jul 31, Garibaldi asked San Marino for asylum from Austrian forces. San Marino brokered for Garibaldi?s surrender to Austrian forces. Garibaldi and his wife escaped, and made their way to Ravenna. Anita Garibaldi died enroute. Garibaldi managed to reach safety in the Kingdom of Sardinia. (ON, 10/06, p.7) 1849 nend Aug 11, Lajos Kossuth, president of Hungary, abdicated in favor of Gen. Gorgey as Russia intervened in the Hungarian revolution. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lajos_Kossuth) 1849 nend Aug 13, Hungary?s Gen. Gorgey surrendered to the Russian forces. Russia gave Hungary back to Austria. (PC, 1992 ed, p.448)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lajos_Kossuth) 1849 nend Aug 18, Benjamin Louis Paul Godard, composer, was born in Paris. (MC, 8/18/02) 1849 nend Aug 28, Venice, under Daniele Manin, surrendered to Austrians under Count Radetsky, following a siege since July 20 after proclaiming independence. (HTNet, 8/28/99)(MC, 8/28/01) 1849 nend Sep 1, Elizabeth Harrison, US educator (Natal Congress of Parents and Teachers), was born. (SC, 9/1/02) 1849 nend Sep 1, California Constitutional Convention was held in Monterey. (SC, 9/1/02) 1849 nend Sep 3, Sarah Orne Jewett, author of "Tales of New England," was born. (HN, 9/3/98) 1849 nend Sep 10, US actor Edwin Booth (b.1833), brother of Lincoln Assassinator John Wilkes Booth, made his 1st performance in Richard III. (MC, 9/10/01) 1849 nend Sep 14(OS), Ivan Pavlov (d.1936), Russian physiologist who studied dogs' responses to food suggestions, was born. He won a Nobel Prize in 1904. (HN, 9/14/98)(www.crystalinks.com/pavlov1.html) 1849 nend Sep 17-18, Lt. J.H. Simpson and R.H. Kern, Philadelphia artist, visited El Morro in New Mexico during an exploration trip of new US territory. They copied many of the inscription there. (SSFC, 4/10/05, p.F9) 1849 nend Sep 19, The 1st commercial laundry was established, in Oakland, California. (MC, 9/19/01) 1849 nend Sep 23, Mikhail Mikhaylovich Ivanov, composer, was born. (MC, 9/23/01) 1849 nend Sep 25, Johann Baptist Strauss, elder, composer (Radetzky March), died at 45. (MC, 9/25/01) 1849 nend Oct 7, James Whitcomb Riley, poet, was born. (HN, 10/7/00) 1849 nend Oct 7, Author Edgar Allan Poe died in Baltimore, Md., at age 40. Never able to overcome his drinking habits, he was found in a delirious condition outside a saloon that was used as a voting place. The artist James Carling later illustrated his poem "The Raven." In 1996 a case was made in the Sept. issue of the Maryland Med. Journal that his symptoms indicated that he died of encephalitic rabies. In 1999 John Evangelist Walsh published "Midnight Dreary: The Mysterious Death of Edgar Allan Poe." (FB, 9/12/96, p.A7)(SFEC, 1/12/97, p.T5)(AP, 10/7/97)(HN,10/7/98)(SFEC, 1/31/99, Par p.15) 1849 nend Oct 13, The California state constitution, which prohibited slavery, was signed in Monterey. (HN, 10/13/98) 1849 nend Oct 16, George Washington Williams, historian, clergyman and politician, was born. (HN, 10/16/00) 1849 nend Oct 17, Frederic Chopin (b.1810), Polish-born composer and pianist, died in Paris of tuberculosis at the age of 39. The 1945 film "A Song to Remember" was about Chopin." In 2010 Adam Zamoyski authored ?Chopin: Prince of the Romantics.? (HN, 10/17/00)(SFC, 11/25/02, p.A15)(Econ, 2/6/10, p.91) 1849 nend Nov 8, Edward Julius Biedermann, composer, was born. (MC, 11/8/01) 1849 nend Nov 13, Voters approved the California state constitution 12,061 to 811. The original Constitution was drafted and signed on 19 hand-written pages of an animal-skin document. At the constitutional convention 48 delegates met in San Jose. This was criticized by the state?s first daily newspaper, the Alta California, as a location among the coyotes. The "Legislature of a thousand drinks" established a code of laws and a judicial system, elected 2 senators and voted to relocate to Vallejo. The constitution abolished slavery but barred blacks from voting, holding public office and testifying in court against whites. John Bidwell was elected to the state Senate. (WSJ, 6/11/97, p.CA1)(SFEC, 1/11/98, DB p.41)(SFEC, 3/1/98,p.W26)(SFEC, 9/20/98, Z1 p.4)(SFC, 10/14/99, p.A27)(SFC, 4/21/07, p.B5) 1849 nend Nov 23, Harvard chemistry Prof. John Webster murdered Dr. George Parkman. In 1991 Simon Schama authored ?Dead Certainties,? which chronicled the murder and trial, in which Webster was convicted and sentenced to hanging. Dental identification played a key role in the trial. (WSJ, 11/10/07,p.W8)(http://jimfisher.edinboro.edu/forensics/webster1.html) 1849 nend Nov 24, Frances Hodgson Burnett, author, was born. Her work includes "Little Lord Fauntleroy" and "The Secret Garden." (HN, 11/24/00) 1849 nend Nov 29, Ambrose Fleming, inventor of the diode, was born. (MC, 11/29/01) 1849 nend Dec 3, California asked to be admitted into the Union as a free state. (SFC, 2/21/97, p.A25) 1849 nend Dec 3, Jesuit Fr. John Nobili and Fr. Michael Accolti (1807-1878) arrived in San Francisco. (GenIV, Winter 04/05) 1849 nend Dec 6, Harriet Tubman escaped from slavery in Maryland. (MC, 12/6/01) 1849 nend Dec 8, Giuseppe Verdi's opera "Luisa Miller," premiered in Naples. (MC, 12/8/01) 1849 nend Dec 12, Marc Brunel (b.1769), the initiating engineer of England?s Thames Tunnel, died. (ON, 4/06,p.9)(www.bris.ac.uk/is/services/specialcollections/brunelchronology.html) 1849 nend Dec 15, California's first legislature convened in San Jose. (SFC, 9/2/99, p.A12)(SFC, 1/16/04, p.A23) 1849 nend Dec 19, Henry Clay Frick (d.1919), coal and steel magnate, was born in West Overton, Penn. (www.netstate.com/states/peop/people/pa_hcf.htm) 1849 nend Dec 20, Peter Burnett (1807-1895), the 1st governor of California, gave his inaugural address. Burnett was elected governor of California before it had even become a state. He abruptly resigned from office in 1851. Burnett, who wrote a book about his passionate conversion to Catholicism, is honored with a memorial in the church at Mission Santa Clara. While in office Burnett, a native of Tennessee, proposed that blacks, whether slave or free, be banned from the state by statute. He also saw the necessity for exterminating the state?s Indians if California were to grow. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Hardeman_Burnett)(SFC, 4/14/98,p.E5)(SFC, 5/19/11, p.C1) 1849 nend Dec 28, M. Jolly-Bellin discovered dry-cleaning. He accidentally upset a lamp containing turpentine and oil on his filthy clothing and saw a cleaning effect. (MC, 12/28/01) 1849 nend Dec 29, Gas light was installed in the White House. (HN, 12/29/98) 1849 nend Johan August Strindberg (d.1912), novelist, dramatist, essayist and photographer, was born. In 1985 Michael Meyer authored a Strindberg biography. (WUD, 1994 p.1407)(SFC, 8/10/00, p.D2)(WSJ, 12/11/01, p.A17) 1849 nend Gustave Boulanger (1824-1888), French artist, painted ?Ulysses Recognized by Eeurycleia.? (WSJ, 12/28/05, p.D8) 1849 nend Asher B. Durand of the Hudson River School created his painting ?Kindred Spirits.? In 2005 Alice B. Walton, Wal-Mart heiress, purchased it from the NY Public Library for $35 million. (WSJ, 12/26/06, p.D8) 1849 nend Louisa May Alcott at the age of 18 wrote her first novel "The Inheritance." (SFC, 4/30/96, p. B-3) 1849 nend In Canada Josiah Henson (b.1789), former Maryland slave, authored his autobiography. It became the model for Harriet Beecher Stowe?s 1852 novel ?Uncle Tom?s Cabin.? (SSFC, 12/18/05, p.A31) 1849 nend Alphonse Karr authored the novel ?Les Guepes.? It included the classic line: ?The more things change, the more they stay the same.? (SSFC, 2/20/05, p.C1) 1849 nend John Snow (1813-1858), English obstetrician, authored his 39-page pamphlet ?On the Mode of Communication of Cholera.? He presented evidence that the disease was spread through contaminated water. (ON, 5/05, p.8)(www.johnsnowsociety.org/johnsnow/facts.html) 1849 nend Henry David Thoreau published ?A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers.? It described a camping trip made with his brother in 1839. no_source 1849 nend El Dorado, 24 panels depicting the native vegetation and architecture of Africa, Asia, Europe and America, was printed. (WSJ, 8/28/01, p.A12) 1849 nend In New Orleans the Baroness Micaela Pontalba began the construction of the Pontalba apartment buildings. (Hem., 1/97, p.64) 1849 nend By this time Maunsel White, a New Orleans plantation owner, was growing peppers that had originated in Mexico?s state of Tabasco. He devised a sauce using the pepper. (WSJ, 10/9/07, p.D11) 1849 nend The High Bridge was built as an aqueduct to carry water to Manhattan. (USAT, 1/16/04, p.10A) 1849 nend In Nevada the first white settlement was by Mormons at Genoa near Carson City, then called Mormon Station. (LVRJ, 11/1/97, p.1B) 1849 nend Elizabeth Farnham, a matron of New York?s Sing Sing prison, formed the California Association of American Women to bring young women west to civilize the frontier. The plan failed but Farnham did emigrate to the Santa Cruz area and later oversaw the Stockton Insane Asylum. In 2004 JoAnn Levy authored ?Unsettling the West: Eliza Farnham and Georgiana Bruce Kirby in Frontier California. (SSFC, 5/16/04, p.M4) 1849 nend A US Swamp Land Act authorized Louisiana to create a system of levee districts. The sale of donated federal land financed levee construction and land reclamation. (NH, 2/05, p.45) 1849 nend Peter Lassen pioneered a new route to California that bypassed the 40 Mile Desert in Nevada. The trail led from Nevada to Oregon and was combined with another trail that led past his ranch and trading post near Chico. The trail however led across more desert and came to be called "The Death Route." (SFC, 8/22/98, p.A13)(SFC, 8/25/98, p.A1,9) 1849 nend In Missouri Henry Shaw, a British immigrant, established the St. Louis Botanical Garden. (SSFC, 7/5/09, p.M5) 1849 nend Fort Worth, Texas, was founded in honor of Major Gen?l. William Jenkins Worth, who never saw the place. It sat on the bluffs overlooking the Trinity River. (HT, 4/97, p.45) 1849 nend In an address before the American Peace Society in 1849 Charles Sumner urged for the creation of a "Congress of Nations." (HNQ, 11/17/98) 1849 nend The original California Constitution was drafted and signed on 19 hand-written pages of an animal-skin document. (WSJ, 6/11/97, p.CA1) 1849 nend The first church at the site of St. Francis of Assisi in North Beach, SF, was built by Catholics who disliked the 3.5 mile walk to Mission Dolores. (SFEC, 3/2/97, z1 p.6)(SFL) 1849 nend The Jewish Congregation Sherith Israel was founded in SF. (SFC, 3/12/05, p.E1) 1849 nend By this time the San Francisco Board of Supervisors (ayuntamiento) had grown to 16 members from 8 districts. (SSFC, 2/28/10, p.E2) 1849 nend The Tadich Grill opened in SF. It began as the new World Coffee Stand on the edge of what is now Commercial St. (Hem., 5/97, p.24)(SFC, 10/8/97, Z1 p.7) 1849 nend The James Clair Flood, a former saloon keeper from NY arrived in SF and made a fortune in the 1859 Nevada Comstock silver mine. (SFEC, 7/12/98, p.B12)(SFC, 7/4/03, p.E1) 1849 nend Lazard Freres with a brother and cousin moved their New Orleans dry goods company to San Francisco. They opened a Paris office in 1852, a London office in 1877 and operations in New York in 1880. (SFC, 12/11/96, p.D1)(WSJ, 6/7/99, p.C1) 1849 nend Englishman George Gordon arrived in SF. He pursued ventures as a lumber dealer, builder of wharves, head of an iron foundry and a sugar refinery. (SFC, 7/21/00, p.WBb3) 1849 nend Joshua Norton, a financier from the Cape of Good Hope, arrived in San Francisco with $40,000 from trade deals in Africa and South America. Within five years he amassed $250,000 and invested it all in rice with the hope of cornering the market. His scheme failed when three ships arrived from the Orient loaded with rice. (HFA, '96, p.64) 1849 nend Oscar Backus (19) arrived in SF aboard the steamer California, believed to be the first steam powered ship to pass through the Golden Gate. He brought 750 copies of a New York newspaper that he?d bought for $5 and sold them for $1 apiece. He then began a successful career in mining and plumbing. (SFC, 7/3/97, p.A24) 1849 nend The first stage coach line from SF to San Jose was begun by John Whistman. The 9-hour trip in an old French omnibus driven by Henry Ward cost $32 each way. (Ind, 10/31/98, p.5A) 1849 nend A Peruvian consulate was established in SF with Carlos Varea as the first consul. (Ind, 8/3/99, p.3A) 1849 nend A Market Street doctor funded the 1st "city physician" practice with gambling winnings. This was later considered as the beginning of SF General Hospital. In 2000 F. William Blaisdell and Moses Grossman published "Catastrophes, Epidemics, and Neglected Diseases" San Francisco General Hospital and the Evolution of Public Health. (SFEC, 2/27/00, BR p.6)(SFL) 1849 nend August Helbing, a SF Jewish pioneer, rescued an ailing Jewish man who had just arrive by boat. Helbing went on to help others and created the Eureka Benevolent Society (1850), which later transformed to the Jewish Family and Children?s Services organization. (SFC, 12/30/00, p.A15)(SFL) 1849 nend Some 23,000 people arrive in SF by land and 62,000 by sea as the population grew to some 30,000. First Street was at the edge of the Bay and the area was called Happy Valley. (SFEC, 3/14/99, Z1 p.6)(SSFC, 4/24/11, DB p.46) 1849 nend Josiah Gregg and a band of gold miners explored the north coast of California and settled around Humboldt Bay. (Hem., 12/96, p.127) 1849 nend The Dunham, Carrigan and Hayden company supplied picks and shovels to the miners of the Gold Rush. (SFC, 9/30/97, p.A21) 1849 nend A mass meeting of miners working the California Yuba River passed a resolution stating that "no slave or negro should own claims or even work in the mines." (SFEC, 1/11/98, DB p.40) 1849 nend James Strang settled with 250 followers on Big Beaver Island in northern Lake Michigan. (Smith., Aug. 1995, p.86) 1849 nend A party from Kansas, headed for the California Gold Rush, called themselves the Jayhawkers. Another party from Missouri named themselves the Bugsmashers. Both groups left Salt Lake to late to cross the Sierra and took the southern route. The stumbled into the Death Valley region around Christmas. Historian Leroy Johnson later wrote of their experiences in "Escape From Death Valley." (SFC, 1/28/99, p.A15) 1849 nend William Slusher, a farmer from the East Coast, built a cabin on Nuts Creek (later Walnut Creek, Ca.) and became the first American settler in the area. (SFC, 7/17/06, p.B5) c 1849 nend Numerous Tennesseans went to California for the gold rush. In 1998 Tennessee historian Walter T. Durham wrote "Volunteer Forty-Niners," an account of the Tennesseans experiences in California. (SFC, 4/14/98, p.E5) 1849 nend A party of 10 African Americans, an American Indian, a Cook Island native and a Scotsman named William Downie struck gold in the California Sierra. (SSFC, 4/29/01, p.T9) 1849 nend Downieville in Sierra County was renamed from The Forks, after the 2 rivers that converge there. Early settlers called the area "Tin Cup Diggings" from legends that a man could capture a tin cup full of gold from the Yuba River. Many of the first minors arrived with "Major" William Downie. Within a few years it became the 5th largest town in California. (SFEC, 12/22/96, p.T5)(SFEC, 5/30/99, p.T6)(SSFC, 9/1/02, p.C1) 1849 nend Miners from Sonora, Mexico, found gold at Woods Hole Creek, Ca. The mining camp of Sonora was soon assembled and grew into the town of Sonora. (SSFC, 9/19/10, p.M6) 1849 nend Prospectors William Manly and John Rogers stumbled into Death Valley seeking a shortcut to the gold fields. (SFC, 4/9/96, C1) 1849 nend Some 23,000 people arrive in SF by land and 62,000 by sea. (SFEC, 3/14/99, Z1 p.6) 1849 nend The Pfizer drug company was founded by Charles Pfizer and cousin Charles Erhart in Brooklyn. (SFEC, 8/27/00, p.B4) 1849 nend Paul Julius von Reuter (1816-1899) invested in carrier pigeons to close the gap in the telegraph system between Brussels and Aachen. (Econ, 11/1/03, p.81) 1849 nend A Frenchman built a successful concrete rowboat. (Ind, 11/25/00, 5A) 1849 nend Victor Hugo addressed an appeal for European unity to Germany, France and Russia. (Econ, 5/7/05, p.50) 1849 nend Edward Hicks (b.1780), American Quaker painter, died. (WSJ, 11/16/99, p.A28) 1849 nend Katsushika Hokusai (b.1760), Japanese printmaker, died. (SFC, 9/24/98, p.E3)(WSJ, 11/3/98, p.A20)(HN, 10/21/00) 1849 nend Water-borne cholera killed some 14,000 people in London. (Hem., 12/96, p.127) 1849 nend In Vienna, Austria, balloonists dropped bombs to break up a revolt. (SFEC, 4/11/99, Z1 p.8) 1849 nend Britain annexed the Punjab, the vast territories of what later became known as eastern Pakistan and northern western India. This put them on the edge of the tribal territories, mostly claimed by Afghanistan, and forced them to launch military campaigns almost every year for the next half century to keep the tribes at bay. (Econ, 1/2/10, p.18) 1849 nend The church at Arorangi, Rarotonga, in the Cook Islands was built. It has the graveyard of Papeiha, the Christianized Tahitian missionary who first preached the Gospel to the islanders. (SFEC, 1/5/97, p.T7) 1849 nend In Egypt the reign of Ottoman viceroy Muhammad Ali Pasha ended. (PCh, 1992, p.373) 1849 nend Joseph Naudet, director France?s L?Enfer library, which started in the 1830s, described the library as a hiding place to lock up books that were very bad. The collection hid books and other documents from the public that were deemed dangerous for public morality. (SFC, 12/7/07, p.E9) 1849 nend French brothers Adolphe and Edouard-Jean Cointreau created a brand of liqueur called Cointreau and soon founded their own distillery in Angers. The liqueur was a secret blend of orange peels and pure sugar-beet alcohol. (SFC, 11/1/06, p.G2) 1849 nend French officer Claude-Etienne Minie invented a bullet that changed the face of warfare. The Minie ball was shot from a grooved bore, i.e. a rifle, and expanded when shot to clean out the grooves of the bore. The bullet was adopted by most of the European armies?as well as both sides during the American Civil War. Minié went on to serve as a military instructor and also a manager for the Remington Arms Company in the U.S. (WSJ, 7/24/98, p.W10)(HNQ, 12/23/00) 1849 nend Auguste Comte of France proposed to discontinue the calendar of months in favor of a seven day calendar. (K.I.-365D, p.110) 1849 nend Hungary proclaimed independence from the Great Church in Debrecen, temporarily ending 150 years of Hapsburg rule. (Hem., 6/98, p.125) 1849 nend The Anglican Church of Christ was built in Jerusalem by the British. (SFEC, 5/21/00, p.T7) 1849 1850 Zacharay Taylor was the12th President of the US but died of a stroke after 16 months in office. He was considered the 5th worst president by a rating cited in the Congressional Quarterly?s Guide to the Presidency. (A&IP, ESM, p.71,96b, photo)(SFC, 9/26/96, p.E10) 1849 1853 Fort Worth, Texas, served as an Army post. (SFC,11/8/97, p.E4) 1849 1869 In 1997 Ida Rae Egli edited the book: "No Room of Their Own: Women Writers of Early California." (SFEC,11/9/97, BR p.9) 1849 1875 Some 100,000 Chinese coolies arrived as laborers in Peru during this period. (Econ, 8/15/09, p.21) 1849 1878 Buenaventura Baez served five terms as president of the Dominican Republic. He sought to have his country annexed by the United States twice, in 1850 and 1868. In 1878 he was forced out of office and into permanent exile in Puerto Rico. Baez helped lead the revolt that established the republic's independence from Haiti in 1843. Baez is remembered as a thoroughly corrupt tyrant, having no regard for his people or their property. (HNQ, 2/1/99) 1849 1891 George Washington Williams was born. He was the son of a Pennsylvania laborer, and worked as a preacher, lawyer and Civil War soldier, but is best known for his work on African-American history. At age 14, he enlisted in the U.S. Army in time to fight in the Civil War. In 1868, he left he army and trained at the Newton Theological Institution, becoming an ordained minister in 1874. While a pastor at several different churches, he became interested in history. In 1882, after a brief stint in the Ohio state legislature (1879-1881), he published his History of the Negro Race in America from 1619 to 1880. His following work, A History of the Negro Troops in the War of the Rebellion (1888) was the result of years of research collecting oral histories from black troops as well as gathering numerous newspaper clippings of the events. During the 1880s, Washington?s interests turned more towards his books, lecturing on related topics and practicing law. He died in 1891 in England while publicizing human rights abuses in the Belgian Congo. (HNQ, 2/9/01) 1849 1909 Sarah Orne Jewett, American author: "Tact is, after all, a kind of mind-reading." "A lean sorrow is hardest to bear." (AP, 5/22/98)(AP, 1/18/99) 1849 1917 William Meritt Chase, American painter. (MT, Fall. ?97, p.24) 1849 1922 Frederick Langbridge, English clergyman and author: "Some seek bread; and some seek wealth and ease; and some seek fame, but all are seeking rest." (AP, 6/7/00) 1849 1999 In 1999 Niall Ferguson published his 2nd volume on "The House of Rothschild: The World's Banker 1849-1999." (WSJ, 11/9/99, p.A24) 1850 nend Jan 6, Franz Xaver Scharwenka, German pianist and composer (Mataswintha), was born. (MC, 1/6/02) 1850 nend Jan 27, Samuel Gompers (d.1924) was born in London. Gompers, labor leader and first president of the American Federation of Labor (AFL), apprenticed as a cigar maker in, London. At the age of 13, Gompers arrived in America, joined the Cigarmakers' Union in 1864 and became the union's president in 1877. In 1881 Gompers was among the founders of the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions of the U.S. and Canada, which was reorganized as the American Federation of Labor in 1886. He served as president of the AFL every year from its inception (except 1895) until his death. As the acknowledged leader of America?s labor movement, Gompers stressed practical demands of hours and wages and opposed theorists and radicals. (HN, 1/27/99)(HNQ, 2/24/00) 1850 nend Jan 29, Lawrence Hargrave, inventor of the box kite, was born. (MC, 1/29/02) 1850 nend Jan 29, Ebenezer Howard, pioneer of garden cities, was born in London. (MC, 1/29/02) 1850 nend Jan 29, Henry Clay introduced in the Senate a compromise bill on slavery that included the admission of California into the Union as a free state. (AP, 1/29/98) 1850 nend Jan 29, Luigi Sabatelli (b.1772), Italian artist, died in Milan. (www.artnet.com/library/07/0748/T074823.asp) c 1850 nend Jan 30, Charles Steingraff (50), a bachelor farmhand, was hanged in Ohio for the murder of a deaf and blind, 12-year-old girl. An estimated 25,000 spectators watched the execution. (ON, 10/02, p.3) 1850 nend Feb 12, Washington's original Farewell Address manuscript sold for $2,300. (MC, 2/12/02) 1850 nend Feb 18, The California state legislature created the original 18 counties including the city of San Francisco. (SFEC, 1/11/98, DB p.41)(www.sfgov.org/site/visitor_index.asp?id=8091) 1850 nend Feb 27, Henry Edwards Huntington, US railroad exec, was born. (MC, 2/27/02) 1850 nend Mar 7, Tomas Masaryk, Pres. of Czech (1918-35), was born to a Slovak father and Czech-German mother in the small town of Hodonin in South Moravia, very close to what is now the border with Slovakia. (http://archiv.radio.cz/english/czechs/5-1-00.html) 1850 nend Mar 7, In a three-hour speech to the U.S. Senate, Daniel Webster endorsed the Compromise of 1850 as a means of preserving the Union. (AP, 3/7/98) 1850 nend Mar 9, Alexandre Luigini, composer, was born. (MC, 3/9/02) 1850 nend Mar 11, Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania opened as the 1st female medical school. [see 1848, Oct 12, 1850] (MC, 3/12/02) 1850 nend Mar 16, Nathaniel Hawthorne?s "The Scarlet Letter" was first published. (AP, 3/16/97) 1850 nend Mar 18, Henry Wells & William Fargo formed American Express in Buffalo. [see Mar 18, 1852] (HN, 3/18/98)(MC, 3/18/02) 1850 nend Mar 26, Edward Bellamy (d.1898), writer, was born. His work included the utopian novel "Looking Backward, 2000-1887," which forecast what America might look like if people worked together for the common good. (WSJ, 12/10/99, p.W17)(HN, 3/26/01) 1850 nend Mar 27, The party of Dr. Thadeus Hildreth found a 22-pound gold nugget in Tuolemne County, Ca. The place was initially named Hildreth?s Diggings, then changed to New Camp, then American Camp and finally Columbia. The population soon swelled to 15,000. (SFEC, 1/5/97, p.T5)(SFEC, 3/19/00, p.T6)(CVG, Vol 16, p.1) 1850 nend Mar 29, Ireland's SS Royal Adelaide sank in storm and 200 people died. (MC, 3/29/02) 1850 nend Mar 30, Charles Dickens published the first issue of his magazine ?Household Words.? (Econ, 9/10/11, p.95)(www.victorianweb.org/periodicals/hw.html) 1850 nend Mar 31, The US population hit 23,191,876, with the Black population at 3,638,808 (15.7%). (MC, 3/31/02) 1850 nend Mar 31, John Calhoun (b.1782), US vice-president (1825-1832), died while a senator from South Carolina. He was elected vice president under two presidents, John Quincy Adams in 1824 and Andrew Jackson in 1828. (WUD, 1994 p.210)(HNQ, 8/19/99)(MC, 3/31/02) 1850 nend Apr 1, The San Francisco County government was established. (www.sfgov.org/site/visitor_index.asp?id=8091) 1850 nend Apr 4, The city of Los Angeles was incorporated. (AP, 4/4/97) 1850 nend Apr 8, William Henry Welch, US pathologist (founded John Hopkins), was born. (MC, 4/8/02) 1850 nend Apr 15, The city of San Francisco was incorporated. (AP, 4/15/97)(www.sfgov.org/site/visitor_index.asp?id=8091) 1850 nend Apr 16, Thomas Sidney Gilchrist, British metallurgist and inventor, was born. (HN, 4/16/01) 1850 nend Apr 16, Marie [Gresholtz] Tussaud (89), Swiss-born maker of wax figures, died. (MC, 4/16/02) 1850 nend Apr 20, Daniel Chester French (d.1931), sculptor of the Concord Minuteman, was born at Exeter, New Hampshire. He had his estate in Stockbridge, Mass. His work also included the Lincoln Memorial. His Chesterwood estate became a museum with an annual 6-month summer season. [Ph. 413-298-3579] (HN, 4/20/98)(WSJ, 5/4/99, p.A20) 1850 nend Apr 23, William Wordsworth (b.1770), English poet, died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wordsworth) 1850 nend Apr 24, Louis Alexandre Piccinni (70), composer, died. (MC, 4/24/02) 1850 nend Apr, During the debate on the Compromise of 1850, Senator Henry Foote, a unionist and supporter of the compromise, drew a pistol on Senator Thomas Hart Benton, an opponent of the deal. Other senators intervened before Foote could fire. (SFC, 7/25/98, p.A6) 1850 nend Apr, The side-wheel steamship General Anthony Wayne sank in 50 feet of water in lake Erie about eight miles north of Vermilion, Ohio. 38 of the 93 passengers and crew on board died. The wreckage was discovered in 2007. (AP, 6/21/07) 1850 nend May 10, Thomas Johnstone Lipton, yachtsman, tea magnate (Lipton Tea), was born in Glasgow. (MC, 5/10/02) 1850 nend May 16, Johannes von Mikulica-Radecki, Polish surgical pioneer, was born. (HN, 5/16/01) 1850 nend May 18, Oliver Heaviside, physicist who predicted existence of ionosphere, was born. (SC, 5/18/02) 1850 nend Jun 4, A self deodorizing fertilizer was patented in England. (MC, 6/4/02) 1850 nend Jun 11, Cardinal Franzoni told Rev. Joseph Sadoc Alemany, a Dominican missionary who had worked in the Midwest frontier, that he was appointed the new bishop of Monterey, Ca. (SSFC, 7/27/03, p.A22) 1850 nend Jun 16, Pope Pius IX persuaded Rev. Joseph Sadoc Alemany to return to the US and to go to California. (SSFC, 7/27/03, p.A22) 1850 nend Summer, James Strang announced that he was divinely directed to become a king arranged for his coronation at St. James on Big Beaver Island in Lake Michigan. (Smith., Aug. 1995, p.86) 1850 nend Jun 27, Lafcadio Hearn, US journalist, author (Chita), was born. (SC, 6/27/02) 1850 nend Jun 27, Ivan Vazov, poet, novelist, playwright (Under the Yoke), was born in Bulgaria. (SC, 6/27/02) 1850 nend Jul 2, Prussia agreed to pull out of Schleswig and Holstein, Germany. (HN, 7/2/98) 1850 nend Jul 2, Sir Robert Peel (b.1788), former British prime minister (1834-35 and 1841-46), died. He founded the Conservative Party and the London Police Force whose officers were called "bobbies." In 2007 Douglas Hurd authored ?Robert Peel: A Biography.? (HN, 2/5/99)(Econ, 6/30/07, p.93) 1850 nend Jul 4, President Zachary Taylor stood hatless in the sun for hours listening to long-winded speeches. He returned to the White House and attempted to cool off by eating cherries, cucumbers and drinking iced milk. Severe stomach cramps followed and it is likely that Taylor's own physicians inadvertently killed him with a whole series of debilitating treatments. [see Jul 9] (HN, 7/11/99) 1850 nend Jul 9, Zachary Taylor (b.1784), the 12th president of the United States, died of cholera at the age of 65 after serving only 16 months. He was succeeded by Millard Fillmore. Taylor was a Southerner, a slaveholder and the hero of the Mexican War in 1848 when he was nominated by the Whig Party as a candidate for president of the United States. He was an inoffensive candidate in the anxious years leading up to the Civil War because he had never taken a position on a political issue or even cast a vote in his life. During his 16 months as president, Congress addressed the explosive issue of slavery's expansion to the west with the Compromise of 1850, but Taylor himself never had the opportunity to act on this issue. (WUD,1994,p.1679)(SFC, 9/26/96, p.E10)(AP, 7/9/97)(HN, 7/9/98)(HN,7/11/99) 1850 nend Jul 9, Bb, Bahi prophet, was executed in Tabriz, Iran. (MC, 7/9/02) 1850 nend Jul 10, Millard Fillmore (Whig) was sworn in as the 13th president following the death of Zachary Taylor. (SFC, 2/21/97, p.A25) (AP, 7/10/97)(HN, 7/10/98) 1850 nend Jul 14, The 1st public demonstration of ice made by refrigeration took place. James Harrison of Australia designed an ice-making machine. It was an improvement on one invented by Jacob Perkins in 1834. (MC, 7/14/02)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1850 nend Jul 15, Mother Francis Xavier Cabrini, the first American canonized saint, was born. (HN, 7/15/98) 1850 nend Jul 17, Statesman Daniel Webster said: "I was born an American; I will live an American; I shall die an American." (HNQ, 2/15/02) 1850 nend Jul 17, Astronomer William Cranch Bond and photographer John Adams Whipple focused on Vega and produced the 1st photograph of a star. (NH, 7/00, p.16) 1850 nend Jul 20, John Graves Shedd, president of Marshall Field and Company, was born. He was the first Chicago merchant to give his employees a half-day off on Saturdays. (HN, 7/20/98) 1850 nend Jul 25, Gold was discovered in the Rogue River in Oregon, extending the quest for gold up the Pacific coast. (HN, 7/25/98) 1850 nend Jul 25, The clipper ship Frolic, enroute from Hong Kong to SF, wrecked on a reef at the north edge of what is now California?s Preserve off Point Cabrillo Light Station. It had run opium from India to China to trade for silver and merchandise. The crew escaped in small boats and though all trade goods were lost the area became recognized as ideal for a redwood sawmill. (SSFC, 2/11/07,p.G10)(www.pointcabrillo.org/frolic-history.htm)(WSJ, 12/15/07, p.W10) 1850 nend Jul 26, The final design for London?s Great Council Exhibition, the first-ever World?s Fair, was officially approved. The structure of the glass and iron building, designed by Joseph Paxton, was essentially completed by Jan 1, 1851. The Exhibition opened May 1. (WSJ, 1/26/98, p.A16)(ON, 7/04, p.12) 1850 nend Aug 5, Guy de Maupassant, short story writer and author of "The Necklace," was born. (HN, 8/5/98) 1850 nend Aug 17, Jose Francisco de San Martin (b.1778), Argentine-born South American revolutionary hero, died in France. (SC, 8/17/02)(Internet) 1850 nend Aug 18, Honore de Balzac (b.1799), French novelist, died at age 51. (WUD, 1994, p.115)(MC, 8/18/02) 1850 nend Aug 22, Nikolaus Lenau (48) (pseudonym of Nikolaus Franz Niembsch), Hungarian-born poet and writer, died in Austria. (MC, 8/22/02)(Internet) 1850 nend Aug 23, The 1st national women's rights convention convened in Worcester, Mass. (MC, 8/23/02) 1850 nend Aug 26, Charles Richet, French physiologist (anaphylaxis-Nobel 1913), was born. (MC, 8/26/02) 1850 nend Aug 28, Richard Wagner's opera "Lohengrin'' was premiered at Weimar, Germany, under the direction of Franz Liszt. (WSJ, 3/16/98, p.A20)(RTH, 8/28/99) 1850 nend Sep 2, Eugene Field, author, poet and journalist, was born. His work included "Little Boy Blue." (HN, 9/2/00)(MC, 9/2/01) 1850 nend Sep 9, California was admitted as the 31st state of the US. (INV, 7/95, p.12)(SFC, 6/13/96, p.A17)(SFC, 1/25/97, p.A17)(AP, 9/9/97) 1850 nend Sep 9, Territories of New Mexico and Utah were created. (MC, 9/9/01) 1850 nend Sep 11, Jenny Lind, the "Swedish Nightingale," gave her first concert in the United States, at Castle Garden in New York. (AP, 9/11/00) 1850 nend Sep 18, Congress passed the second Fugitive Slave Bill into law (the first was enacted in 1793) as part of Compromise of 1850. It allowed slave owners to reclaim slaves who had escaped to other states. Dedicated Massachusetts abolitionist Silas Soule ironically gave his life for the red man, not the black. The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 set fines up to $1,000 for facilitating a slave?s flight. (AP, 9/18/97)(HN, 9/18/98)(MC, 9/18/01)(WSJ, 1/30/03, p.D8) 1850 nend Sep 20, The slave trade in Washington, D.C., was abolished as a provision of Henry Clay?s Compromise of 1850. Because each state had its own slavery code when the District of Columbia was founded in 1800, Washington had adopted Maryland?s laws. Although the 1850 legislation made the slave trade illegal, slavery itself was still legal. Nevertheless, Washington became a haven for free blacks. By 1860, free blacks outnumbered slaves almost four-to-one. President Abraham Lincoln put an end to Washington?s slavery altogether in 1862, freeing about 2,989 African Americans who were then slaves according to the slavery code. (HNPD, 9/20/98)(HN, 9/20/98) 1850 nend Sep 22, An earthquake in Sichuan, China, killed some 300,000 people. (www.geohaz.org/member/news/signif.htm) 1850 nend Sep 28, Flogging was abolished as a form of punishment in the U.S. Navy. (AP, 9/28/97) 1850 nend Sep 29, Pres. Millard Fillmore named Mormon leader Brigham Young as the first governor of the Utah Territory. (HN, 9/29/98)(SFC, 10/23/02, p.H4) 1850 nend Oct 3, The Univ. of Mich. Medical School received its first students. (MT, Fall/99, p.3) 1850 nend Oct 12, The 1st women's medical school, the Women's Medical College of Pennsylvania, opened. [see 1848, Mar 11, 1850] (MC, 10/12/01) 1850 nend Oct 19, Annie Smith Peck (d.1935), one of the world?s renowned mountain climbers, was born in Providence, Rhode Island. (www.ric.edu/rpotter/smithpeck.html) 1850 nend Nov 6, The San Francisco Bay Yerba Buena and Angel islands were reserved for military use. (MC, 11/6/01) 1850 nend Nov 9, Lewis Lewin, German toxicologist and father of psycho-pharmacology, was born. (MC, 11/9/01) 1850 nend Nov 13, Robert Lewis Stevenson (d.1894), novelist, was born in Scotland. His books included: "Treasure Island" and "The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde." In 1996 R.C. Terry edited and published ?Robert Louis Stevenson: Interviews and Recollections." (Smith., 8/95, p.54)(SFC, 9/1/96, Par. p.12)(HN, 11/13/98) 1850 nend Nov 19, Lord Tennyson became the British poet laureate. (MC, 11/19/01) 1850 nend Dec 24, Frederic Bastiat (b.1801), French free-market economist, died in Rome of tuberculosis. (WSJ, 7/5/01, p.A12)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederic_Bastiat) 1850 nend Dec 28, Rangoon, Burma, was destroyed by fire. (MC, 12/28/01) 1850 nend Dec, The Taiping rebellion began against the ruling Manchu-led Qing Dynasty and continued to 1864. It was led by heterodox Christian convert Hong Xiuquan, who having received visions, maintained that he was the younger brother of Jesus Christ. About 20 million people died, mainly civilians, in one of the deadliest military conflicts in history. (Econ, 8/6/11, p.74)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion) 1850 nend Gustave Courbet (1819-1877), French artist, painted "Burial at Ornans." (WSJ, 11/28/06, p.D8) 1850 nend Benson J. Lossing, journalist and engraver, published his 2-volume "Pictorial Field Book of the Revolution." (AH, 10/01, HT p.23) 1850 nend Donald Grant Mitchell wrote his best-selling novel "Reveries of a Bachelor," under the pen name Ik Marvel. (SFEM, 6/28/98, p.30) 1850 nend Bayard Taylor authored "El Dorado," a reporter?s account of the California gold rush. In 2001 it was reprinted as "Eldorado: Adventures in the Path of Empire." (SSFC, 2/4/01, BR p.5) 1850 nend Books prior to this year were printed on alkaline paper and tended to survive. Books printed after this date were on acidic paper and began to crumble with age. (SFEC, 1/18/98, Z1 p.8) 1850 nend Ivan Turgenev, Russian writer, produced his greatest play: "A Month in the Country." (WSJ, 4/26/95, p.A-14) 1850 nend A building census in Norfolk, Virginia indicated that there were 10,000 18th and early 19th century structures. Of these only a handful survive. (Hem. 1/95, p. 69) 1850 nend Allan Pinkerton (1819-1884) partnered with Chicago attorney Edward Rucker in forming the North-Western Police Agency, later known as the Pinkerton Agency. "We never sleep" was their motto. The company?s emblem?a wide open eye?inspired the term "private eye. In 1999 the agency was sold to a Swedish company, Securitas AB. (http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/aug25.html)(HNQ, 8/7/98)(SFC,2/23/99, p.C4) 1850 nend US President Millard Fillmore issued an executive order that designated the southern point of the Marin Headlands a military reservation later called Lime Point Military Reservation. Fillmore also reserved Alcatraz Island for military use. (The Park, Summer 1995)(SFEC, 8/1/99, p.B4)(OAH, 2/05, p.A1) 1850 nend Pres. Fillmore signed and enforced the Fugitive Slave Act that authorized the return of slaves seeking sanctuary back to their masters. (SFC, 2/10/97, p.A1) 1850 nend Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky introduced the 8 provisions of the Great Compromise Bill. The provisions of the Great Compromise bill were reduced to 5 and passed one by one. They were in sum: 1) the admission of California as a free state; 2) slavery in the territories of Utah and New Mexico would be resolved by popular sovereignty; 3) slavery would be ended in the District of Columbia; 4) the federal government would assume a $10 million debt by Texas; 5) the federal government would be responsible for the return of runaway slaves. New York Sen. W.F. Seward stated: "The unity of our empire hangs on the decision of this day." (SFC, 2/21/97, p.A25) 1850 nend The US Supreme Court opined that an invention had to be something more than the work of a skilled mechanic to qualify for a patent. (Econ, 5/5/07, p.78) 1850 nend Laws in California were passed that allowed the enslavement of Indians. (SFEC, 9/20/98, Z1 p.4) 1850 nend California passed anti-sodomy legislation in its ?crime against nature? law. (SSFC, 5/11/08, Books p.4) 1850 nend Ygnacio, the grandson of Dona Juana Sanchez de Pacheco, built the first homestead in the Walnut Creek area of northern California. (SFC, 7/17/06, p.B5) 1850 nend Col. John Geary, the first mayor of San Francisco, donated land for a square to be held in perpetuity for park use. It later became Union Square. He owned the surrounding property and looked to increase its value. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.W27)(SSFC, 7/21/02, p.F2) 1850 nend Nevada City, Ca., was named. (SFC, 4/14/96, T-3) 1850 nend Ferry commuting began on the SF Bay. (SFC, 4/21/97, p.A11) 1850 nend Suisun City, Calif. was founded. Suisun means "West Wind" in the language of the Patwan Indians who lived in this area. (Hem., Nov.?95, p.91,95) 1850 nend Residents of the northern California town of Rough and Ready rebelled against taxes and began a secession movement from the US. It last just 3 months in part because nearby saloonkeepers refused to sell liquor to the ?foreigners.? (SSFC, 8/10/08, p.E8) 1850 nend The Arapaho Indians issued a $5 bill. (SFEC, 1/25/98, Z1 p.8) 1850 nend The Mormons applied unsuccessfully for Utah statehood. Debates with the federal government ensued over political issues and polygamy. (NW, 9/10/01, p.48) 1850 nend Erasmus Corning founded the New York Central Railroad. He later built a banking network along its route that nurtured the growth of new communities. (WSJ, 5/8/95, p.A-14) 1850 nend Marshall Field (16) started working a dry goods clerk in Pittsfield, Mass. In 1855 he moved to Chicago. In 1947 John Tebbel authored "The Marshall Fields: A Study in Wealth." In 2002 Axel Madsen authored "The Marshall Fields: The Evolution of an American Business Dynasty." (WSJ, 10/9/02, p.D8) 1850 nend The Willard family acquired a 4-story hotel in Washington DC and turned it into the 100-room Willard Hotel at 1401 Pennsylvania Ave. In 1901 it was replaced by an opulent 389-room Beaux-Arts building. In 1968 it was closed and scheduled for demolition. In 1986 it re-opened following a $73 million restoration. (SFC, 1/5/06, p.E4) 1850 nend Directors of the Brooklyn released 8 pair of sparrows imported from England. They did not thrive and director Nicolas Pike acquired 50 more pair and released them in Brooklyn?s Greenwood Cemetery 1853. (AH, 6/02, p.39) 1850 nend Woodsmen marched west from New York clearing forests of white pine, yellow birch, hemlock, maple, and oak. (NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.51) 1850 nend Heinrich Schliemann, German businessman, moved to California and made a fortune in banking. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.45) 1850 nend In California Gregorio Briones, a soldier of the Spanish and then Mexican army, claimed title to 13,320 acres of west Marin land. (SFC, 5/26/97, p.A10) 1850 nend Cincinnati, the largest meat-packing center in the United States at that time, earned the name Porkopolis. (HNQ, 10/15/00) 1850 nend Brigham Young was appointed governor of the Utah territory. (SFC, 4/9/96, A-7) 1850 nend The Ansonia Clock Co. was founded in Derby, Conn., by Anson G. Phelps. After 2 fires and reorganizations the company moved to NY in 1880. (SFC, 12/15/98, Z1 p.6) 1850 nend James Folger (18), a native of Massachusetts, began roasting beans in SF. Folger?s Coffee established itself on the Barbary Coast and was the first major coffee company in SF. Jim Folger eventually traveled to the gold country to sell coffee to miners. (SFC, 6/28/97, p.D2)(SSFC, 8/5/01, p.A1)(SFC, 6/5/08, p.C2) 1850 nend George Jones of London built a hexagonal ended instrument using a diatonic German concertina fingering system to which he added another row of accidental notes making the instrument chromatic. It became known as the Anglo-chromatic or Anglo system concertina. (BAAC, 8/96, p.6) 1850 nend Baking Powder was invented. (SFC, 1/11/97, p.B7) no_source 1850 nend The US census showed a black population of 3,639,000 people of whom 90% were born in America. The mulatto count was 406,000. (SFC, 5/3/96, p.A-25) 1850 nend An estimated 50,000 Irish prostitutes worked in New York City. (WSJ, 3/17/97, p.A18) 1850 nend The population of Chicago approached 30,000. (Econ, 3/18/06, Survey p.12) 1850 nend Only 2% of the American population lived past 65. (SFEM, 6/28/98, p.40) 1850 nend Sally Thomas (b.1787), quasi-slave, died. She had grown up as a Virginia slave and was relocated to Tennessee. She had 3 mixed-race sons by 2 white men, one a Virginian plantation owner, the other John Catron, became a member of the US Supreme Court. In 2005 John Hope Franklin and Loren Schweninger authored ?In Search of the Promised Land: A Slave Family in the Old South.? (SSFC, 8/28/05, p.C2) 1850 nend Expeditions to the Arctic found evidence of the Franklin Expedition. Three graves dug into the permafrost were discovered in 1850, their headstones dated 1846. A written record was found in 1859, indicating that Franklin died on June 11, 1847, and that Erebus and Terror were abandoned in April 1848. The crews? deaths have been attributed to either scurvy or lead poisoning originating from the solder on food tins. Both ships and the remains of most of the 129 crewmen have never been found. (HNQ, 6/11/98) 1850 nend Rabbits were introduced to Australia about this time and soon became pests. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.16) 1850 nend The Granny Smith apple originated about this time in Australia. According to Morgan and Richards The Book of Apples: A Mrs. Smith, born in England in 1800, emigrated to Australia in 1838. In 1860s she found some seedlings growing in a creek where she had tipped out some apples brought back from Sydney. Tree was propagated and later family increased their orchards and marketed fruit in Sydney. (www.newint.org/issue212/simply.htm)(http://tinyurl.com/32lr8c) 1850 nend The Wenlock Olympian Games were set up by Dr. William Penny Brookes in Much Wenlock, England. A typical program of events featured running and leaping competitions and throwing a cricket ball, as well as non-athletic pursuits such as choir singing and awards for reading, arithmetic, knitting and sewing. (AP, 7/1/11) 1850 nend England established its 1st public libraries. (Econ, 5/1/04, p.59) 1850 nend French priest Jean-Baptiste Lamy was dispatched by Rome to bring order and discipline to the New Mexican territory. (WSJ, 9/13/06, p.D10) 1850 nend A mob in Athens burned down the home of a British citizen. In response Viscount Palmerston, Britain?s foreign secretary, called for a blockade of Greece. (Econ, 7/15/06, p.56) c 1850 nend A Mongolian national consciousness emerged in the mid-19th century. (www.gobiexpeditions.com) 1850 nend On the Orkney mainland Skara Brae was rediscovered by William Watt, the laird of Skaill, after a fierce storm stripped the grass from a high sand dune. (SFEC, 3/23/97, p.T3) 1850 nend Panama?s city of Colon was founded as the isthmus of Panama became a route for the California gold rush. (Econ, 5/17/08, p.47) 1850 nend In Vienna F. Walther re-arranged the reeds of a 3-row diatonic accordion to play a 46 note chromatic scale and created the chromatic button accordion. (BAAC, 8/96, p.6) 1850 1853 Millard Fillmore is the 13th President of the US. (A&IP, ESM, p.96b, photo) 1850 1854 Of the 1200 murders in San Francisco in this period, only one results in a legal execution. (SFC, 11/15/95, p.B-1) 1850 1859 The Lehigh Valley town of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, became an iron-making center in the 1850s thanks to discoveries of coal and iron ore nearby. (WSJ, 10/8/08, p.A15) 1850 nend s In Cincinnati abolitionist Nicholas Longworth hired Robert Scott Duncanson to paint 8 large murals in his home. The murals were covered by wallpaper by 1869 and not uncovered until 1931. The house and a large art collection were given to the city by Charles and Anna Taft around 1928. (WSJ, 8/8/00, p.A20) 1850 nend s In New York City the African-American community of Seneca Village was razed to make way for Central Park. The village had 264 frame houses, 3 churches, 2 cemeteries and a school. (AM, May/Jun 97 p.62) 1850 nend s The US Navy established its repair facility on Mare Island. (SFEC, 2/9/97, p.W4) 1850 nend s In California John C. Fremont occupied Fremont?s Ranch in Bear Valley, north of Mariposa, a Mexican land-grant of 44,000 acres. He later became the state?s first US Senator and the first Republican candidate for president. He also became a Civil War general and a governor of the Arizona territory. In 2000 David Roberts authored "A Newer World: Kit Carson, John C. Fremont, and the Claiming of the American West. (SFEC, 4/12/98, p.T6)(SFC, 6/5/98, p.A20)(SFC, 6/5/98, p.A20)(WSJ,1/10/00, p.A24) c 1850 nend s Mormon settlers began moving to Lana?i, Hawaii, with the idea of establishing a "City of Joseph" under their leader William Gibson. Gibson placed title to all the community land under his own name and even under threat of excommunication refused to give up the deed. Gibson registered the land under his own name and refused to hand the deeds over to the Mormon Church. He went on to become a friend, advisor and cabinet minister to King Kalakaua. (SFEM, 10/13/96, p.24)(SSFC, 8/26/01, p.T10) 1850 nend s The political organization called the American Party, which flourished in the 1850s, is better known as the Know-Nothing Party. Originally a clandestine organization, members were instructed to say that they "know nothing" when asked about the party, hence the name. Primarily, the party was anti-immigrant and stood in opposition to whatever political power immigrant groups happened to have in Northern cities. In 1854 the American Party won significant elections in seven state governments. The party?s national platform in 1856 included anti-Catholic and anti-alien planks. (HNQ, 8/27/98) 1850 nend s John Augustus of Boston persuaded the courts to release young offenders into his custody instead of sending them to prison. This was the start of the practice of probation. (SFEC, 11/21/99, Z1p.2) 1850 nend s Elizabeth Ware Packard led successful struggles in 13 states to obtain due process of law for women, who previously could be committed to mental institutions simply on the word of their husbands. (SFC, 3/25/98, p.A22) 1850 nend s Publishers switched to cheaper paper based on wood pulp instead of rags and linen. The new material contained an acid residue to ate the wood fibers and destroyed books in as little as 30 years. (WSJ, 7/10/97, p.A6) 1850 nend s English inventor Alexander Parkes is credited with being the first to make plastic in the 1850s. Parkes? plastic was a cellulosic made by treating a mixture of cotton and nitric acid with camphor. In the United States, John and Isaiah Hyatt developed a similar plastic in 1869 as a substitute for ivory in the manufacture of billiard balls, which they called celluloid. The first completely synthetic plastic, Bakelite, was invented in 1907 and produced in 1909 by Dr. Leo H. Baekeland. Parkes mixed chloroform and castor oil to make the first plastic which he called Parkesine. (HNQ, 5/8/98)(WSJ, 1/11/98, p.R18) c 1850 nend s Staffordshire potters in England made many different Shakespeare figurines. (SFC, 9/4/96, z1 p.5) 1850 1854 About this time English adopted the form filibuster, from Spanish filibustero. It was applied to certain adventurers who committed unsanctioned activities in the West Indies and Central America. [See William Walker Sep 12, 1860] (www.wordsources.info/words-mod-filibuster.html) 1850 1870 A major wave of Italians immigrated to California. The majority came from Liguria and Tuscany. A 2nd wave began in 1880. (SSFC, 7/10/05, p.D5) 1850 1891 Sophia Kovalevsky, mathematician. In 1983 her biography by Don H. Kennedy was published: "Little Sparrow: A Portrait of Sophia Kovalevsky." (NH, 6/96, p.20) 1850 1900 The Hawaii of this period is described in the 1997 novel "A Map of Paradise" by Linda Ching Sledge. (SFEC, 8/17/97, BR p.3) 1850 1910 This period is covered in the book Railroad Crossing: Californians and the Railroad 1850-1910 by William Deverall. (SFC, 7/8/96, p.D2) 1850 1910 Margaret Collier Graham, American writer: "People need joy quite as much as clothing. Some of them need it far more." (AP, 6/16/99) 1850 1919 Ella Wheeler Wilcox, American poet: "The only folks who give us pain are those we love the best." (AP, 6/5/98) 1850 1925 Emma Carleton, American journalist: "Reputation is a bubble which a man bursts when he tries to blow it for himself." (AP, 6/4/97) 1850 1930 In 2005 Richard J. Orsi authored ?Sunset Limited: The Southern Pacific Railroad and the Development of the American West.? (SSFC, 5/8/05, p.B1) 1850 1933 Augustine Birrell, English author and statesman: "History is a pageant and not a philosopher." (AP, 9/10/97) 1850 1956 The Empire Mine in Grass Valley, Ca., produced over 5.8 million ounces of gold. It had 365 miles of tunnels and was later turned into a 784-acre state park. (SFEC, 4/12/98, p.T7) 1850 1990 The world human population tripled in this period. (NOHY, 3/1990, p.52) 1851 nend Jan 6, Leon Foucault (d.1868), French scientist, watched a pendulum swing and shift its plane of motion. This he realized was due to the rotation of the Earth. In 2003 Amir D. Aczel authored "Pendulum: Leon Foucault and the Triumph of Science." (WSJ, 8/28/03, p.D18) 1851 nend Jan 25, Sojourner Truth addressed the 1st Black Women's Rights Convention in Akron. [see May 28, 1851] (MC, 1/25/02) 1851 nend Jan 27, John James Audubon (b.1785), wildlife painter and conservationist (Audubon Society), died. He was buried in NYC. In 2004 Duff Hart-Davis authored "Audubon's Elephant," an account of his 12 year sojourn to Europe to oversee the production of "Birds of America." In 2004 William Souder authored ?Under a Wild Sky: John James Audubon and the Making of the Birds of America.? In 2004 Richard Rhodes authored ?John James Audubon: The Making of an American.? (WSJ, 3/26/04, p.W6)(SSFC, 6/20/04, p.M6)(SSFC, 10/17/04, p.M6)(AH,10/04, p.75) 1851 nend Jan 28, Northwestern University, near Chicago, was chartered. (MC, 1/28/02) 1851 nend Jan 31, Gail Borden announced the invention of evaporated milk. (MC, 1/31/02) 1851 nend Feb 1, Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley (53), novelist (Frankenstein), died. (MC, 2/1/02) 1851 nend Feb 6, Robert Schumann's 3rd Symphony "Rhenish," premiered in Dusseldorf. (MC, 2/6/02) 1851 nend Feb 8, Kate (Katherine O'Flaherty ) Chopin (d.1904), American novelist, short story writer, was born. Her work included "The Awakening." She wrote tales of love and passion that presented women testing the boundaries of social convention. "There are some people who leave impressions not so lasting as the imprint of an oar upon the water." (AP, 3/11/99)(SFEC, 11/14/99, BR p.5)(HN, 2/8/01) 1851 nend Feb 15, Black abolitionists invaded a Boston courtroom to rescue a fugitive slave. (440 Int?l., 2/15/99) 1851 nend Mar 3, Congress authorized the smallest US silver coin, a 3¢ piece. The trine obverse side depicted a shield over a six-pointed star. (SC, 3/3/02)(WSJ, 12/12/03, p.W15) 1851 nend Mar 21, Yosemite Valley was discovered (by non-natives) in California. The 58 men of the Mariposa Battalion under Major James D. Savage were the first whites to enter Yosemite Valley. Their first view of the valley was from the plateau later named Mount Beatitude. They expelled Chief Tenaya and his band of Ahwahneechee Indians. Dr. Bunnell, a physician in the battalion, named the valley Yosemite to honor the local Indians. He did not realize that the word "yohemeti" meant "some of them are killers" and was an insult against the valley people. (SFEC, 5/18/97, Z1 p.4)(SFEC,12/28/97, Z1 p.1)(MC, 3/21/02) 1851 nend Mar 21, Emperor Tu Duc ordered that Christian priests be put to death. (HN, 3/21/99) 1851 nend Mar 27, Paul-Marie-Theodore-Vincent d'Indy, composer (Symphonie Cevenole), was born in Paris. (MC, 3/27/02) 1851 nend Apr 12, Emil Liebling, composer, was born. (MC, 4/12/02) 1851 nend Apr 14, Morgan Earp was born in Marian County, IA. (MesWP) 1851 nend Apr. 23, The first Canadian postage stamp was issued. (CFA, ?96, p.44) 1851 nend May 1, The Great Council Exhibition, the first-ever World?s Fair, opened in London?s Hyde Park. Some 6 million people came to see the new glass and iron Crystal Palace, designed by Joseph Paxton (1823-1865). Paxton used roof ventilators and underground air-cooling chambers to regulate indoor temperature. (WSJ, 1/26/98, p.A16)(ON, 7/04, p.12)(Econ, 12/4/04, TQ p.17) 1851 nend May 4, The Sydney Ducks set fire to a store on San Francisco?s Portsmouth Square. Most of the dwellings on Telegraph Hill were destroyed. The heart SF was destroyed and some 2000 buildings burned down. This led to the formation of the secret Committee of Vigilance, which hung several criminals and drove others out of the city. Remnants from Hoff's store, built on a wharf over the bay, were found in 1986 during excavations for the Embarcadero West 33-story high-rise. (SFC, 12/24/99, p.A24)(SFC, 11/27/00, p.A18) 1851 nend May 4, The 1840-ship General Harrison burned to the water line. It was salvaged for parts, buried and not seen again until 2001 when construction at Battery and Clay revealed its remains. The whaling ship Niantic, already converted to a waterfront hotel, burned and sank into the bay. In 1977 new construction uncovered the Niantic?s burned remains. (SFC, 9/8/01, p.A11)(SFC, 2/4/05, p.E16) 1851 nend May 6, Dr. John Gorrie patented a "refrigeration machine." (MC, 5/6/02) 1851 nend May 6, Linus Yale patented his Yale lock. (MC, 5/6/02) 1851 nend May 12, A treaty was signed on the south bank of the Kaweah River, the site of John Wood's grave. Woods was killed by Yokut Indians. The California Tule River War ended. (HN, 4/28/00)(WW, 6/99)(HN, 5/12/01) 1851 nend May 18, The Amsterdam-Nieuwediep telegraph connection linked. (SC, 5/18/02) 1851 nend May 20, Emile Berliner, inventor of the flat phonograph record, was born in Germany. (MC, 5/20/02) 1851 nend May 20, Rose Hawthorne Lathrop, US nun, daughter of Nathaniel Hawthorne, was born. (MC, 5/20/02) 1851 nend May 25, Jose Justo de Urquiza of Argentina led a rebellion against his former ally, the absolute ruler Juan Manuel de Rosas. (HN, 5/25/99) 1851 nend May 28, Freed slave and abolitionist Sojourner Truth attended a national women's convention in Akron, Ohio, where the female delegates were heckled by men in the audience who claimed that men were superior to women. Frances Gage, president of the convention, recorded Sojourner Truth's words that day. "Dat man ober dar say dat women needs to be helped into carriages and lifted ober ditches, and to hab de best place everywhar. Nobody eber helps me into carriages, or ober mud-puddles, or gibs me any best place! And ain't I a woman! Look at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed, and planted and gathered into barns, and no man could head me! And ain't I a woman? I could work as much and eat as much as a man--when I could get it--and bear de lash as well! And ain't I a woman? I have borne thirteen chilern, and seen 'em mos' all sold into slavery, and when I cried out with my mother's grief, none but Jesus heard me! And ain't I a woman?" Sojourner Truth's words, according to Gage, "turned the sneers and jeers of an excited crowd into notes of respect and admiration." (SFC, 3/30/97, Z1 p.6)(HN, 7/13/99)(MC, 5/28/02) 1851 nend May 29, Leon Bourgeois, French premier (1895-96, Nobel 1920), was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1851 nend Jun 2, Maine became the first state to enact a law prohibiting alcohol. By the Civil War 13 Northern states had bans on alcohol sales. In 1998 Thomas R. Pegram authored "Battling Demon Rum," a history of anti-alcohol movements in the US. (AP, 6/2/97)(WSJ, 10/5/98, p.A28) 1851 nend Jun 5, Harriet Beecher Stow published the first installment of Uncle Tom?s Cabin in The National Era. (HN, 6/5/99) 1851 nend Jun 15, Jacob Fussell, Baltimore dairyman, set up the 1st ice-cream factory. (MC, 6/15/02) 1851 nend Jun 21, Daniel Carter Beard, organized the first [US] boy scout troop, was born. (HN, 6/21/98) 1851 nend Jul 8, Sir Arthur John Evans, English archaeologist who excavated Knossos, Crete, was born. (MC, 7/8/02) 1851 nend Jul 10, Louis-Jacques-Mand Daguerre, French painter (daguerreotype), died. (MC, 7/10/02) 1851 nend Jul 23, Sioux Indians and US signed the Treaty of Traverse des Sioux. (MC, 7/23/02) 1851 nend Jul 28, A total solar eclipse was captured on a daguerreotype photograph. (SC, 7/28/02) 1851 nend Aug 3, Lady Isabella Caroline Somerset, temperance leader, was born. (SC, 8/3/02) 1851 nend Aug 12, Isaac Singer was granted a patent on his sewing machine. (AP, 8/12/97) 1851 nend Aug 13, John Lincoln Clem (d.1937), Drummer (last survivor of Union Volunteers), was born. (MC, 8/13/02) 1851 nend Aug 14, Doc Holliday was born in Griffin, GA. (MesWP) 1851 nend Aug 22, The Schooner America outraced the Aurora in the Solent, a stretch of sea separating the Isle of Wight from England proper, to win a trophy that became known as the America?s Cup. For 132 years the New York Yacht Club defeated all challengers to retain the prestigious America?s Cup, the record for the longest winning streak in sports history. The Liberty lost it to the Australia II in 1983. (AP, 8/22/97)(SFEC, 10/1/00, p.T4)(SSFC, 4/15/07, p.G4) 1851 nend Sep 11, African Americans skirmished with a band of slave bounty hunters intent on capturing any fugitive slaves hidden in the abolitionist town, Christiana, Pennsylvania. This was one year after the second fugitive slave law (first law was on February 12, 1793) was passed by Congress, requiring the return of all escaped slaves to their owners in the South. One bounty hunter was killed and 1 wounded during the skirmish. (MC, 9/11/01) 1851 nend Sep 13, Walter Reed (d.1902), U.S. Army doctor, was born in Gloucester County, Va. In 1900 he went to Cuba and verified that yellow fever was caused by a mosquito. (HN, 9/13/98)(WSJ, 10/22/99, p.B1)(AP, 9/13/02) 1851 nend Sep 14, James Fenimore Cooper (b.1789), writer, died at Cooperstown, NY. (www.online-literature.com) 1851 nend Sep 18, The first edition of The New York Times was published as the New-York Daily Times. It was founded by Henry J. Raymond, Republican Speaker of the NY State Assembly, and banker George Jones as a conservative counterpoint to Horace Greeley's Tribune. (AP, 9/18/97)(SFEM, 1/16/00,p.17)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times) 1851 nend Oct 2, Ferdinand Foch, French Allied commander in WW I, was born. (MC, 10/2/01) 1851 nend Oct 19, Marie-Therese-Charlotte (72), daughter of Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette died. (MC, 10/19/01) 1851 nend Nov 2, Louis Napoleon staged a coup and took power in France as Napoleon III of the Second Empire. (WSJ, 2/10/98, p.A16)(DoW, 1999, p182) 1851 nend Nov 6, Charles Henry Dow, American financial journalist, was born. He (with Edward D. Jones) inaugurated the 'Dow-Jones' averages. (HN, 11/6/99) 1851 nend Nov 11, Alvan Clark of Cambridge, Massachusetts, patented a telescope. Clark, a portrait painter interested in astronomy, had made several small lenses and mirrors as a hobby. The fact that he could detect the small residual errors in one of the best lenses Europe could offer convinced him that he could make them as well. After he gained a reputation in Europe the American orders started to come in. The Alvin Clark Company became one of the foremost producers of some of the largest lenses for telescopes in the 1800's. (www.todayinsci.com/) 1851 nend Nov 13, The London-to-Paris telegraph opened. (HN, 11/13/98) 1851 nend Nov 14, Herman Melville?s novel "Moby Dick" was published in the US. The 1st publication was in London on October 18. (AP, 11/14/97)(www.mobylives.com/Happy_Birthday_Moby.html) 1851 nend Dec 4, Pres. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte forces crushed a coup d'etat in France. (MC, 12/4/01) 1851 nend Dec 10, Melvil Dewey, creator of the Dewey Decimal System, was born. (HN, 12/10/98) 1851 nend Dec 19, Joseph Mallord William Turner, English painter and printmaker, died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._M._W._Turner) 1851 nend Dec 24, Fire devastated the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., destroying about 35,000 volumes. (AP, 12/24/97) 1851 nend Dec 29, The first American Young Men?s Christian Assn. was organized, in Boston. (AP, 12/29/97) 1851 nend Dec 30, Asa Griggs Candler, developer of Coca-Cola, was born. (MC, 12/30/01) 1851 nend Thomas Wilmer Dewing (d.1938), American artist, was born. (SFC, 4/11/01, p.E1) 1851 nend Cabanel created his painting "The Death of Moses." (WSJ, 9/9/03, p.D6) 1851 nend Matthew Coates Wyatt created his dog sculpture of the Earl of Dudley?s Newfoundland Bashaw. It was a star exhibit at the British Great Exhibition. (WSJ, 12/6/01, p.A19) 1851 nend Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze (b.1816) painted "Washington Crossing the Delaware." It was later acquired by the NY Metropolitan Museum of Art. (SFC, 9/30/97, p.A7)(WSJ, 4/9/99, p.W16) 1851 nend John Everett Millais began to paint his work "Ophelia," completed in 1852. (WSJ, 2/19/97, p.A15) 1851 nend Eugene Scribe, French playwright, wrote "When Ladies Battle" (Bataille de Dames) with Ernest Legouve. Scribe is known for writing the "well made play." The setting is Lyon, France in Oct. 1817. (WSJ, 1/2/96, p. A-7) 1851 nend A lighthouse was built at Point Loma near San Diego, Ca. (AAM, 3/96, p.46) 1851 nend Mormon pioneers founded San Bernadino in southern California. (SFC, 4/9/96, A-7) 1851 nend Books Inc. first opened as an independent bookseller in San Francisco. (Hem., Nov.?95, p.134) 1851 nend The New-York Times was founded by Henry J. Raymond, Republican Speaker of the NY State Assembly, and banker George Jones as a conservative counterpoint to Horace Greeley's Tribune. (SFEM, 1/16/00, p.17) 1851 nend La Vielle Russie was opened in Manhattan by the family of Peter Schaffer and featured Russian antiquities. (SFEM, 6/9/96, p.20) 1851 nend John Kiehl opened an apothecary at Third Ave. and 13th Street in Manhattan to sell potions, lotions and remedies such as to cure baldness and enhance virility. He also sold a get-rich essence called Money Drawing Oil. In 1999 the firm did some $40 million in business with just freebies and word of mouth advertising. (F, 10/7/96, p.76)(WSJ, 12/29/99, p.B1) 1851 nend President Fillmore sent the USS Michigan, the Navy?s first iron-hulled warship, to Beaver Island to arrest James Strang. Strang was put on trial in Detroit and was declared innocent of all charges. Strang then effectively detached his kingdom from the US but maintained voting rights. (Smith., Aug. 1995, p.88) 1851 nend The Fort Laramie Treaty was signed between the US government and the Sioux Indians. The Sioux pledged not to harass the wagon trains traveling the Oregon Trail in exchange for a $50,000 annuity. The treaty did not last long. Some 12,000 American Indians gathered at Fort Laramie for a peace council with the US. The government agreed that 12 million acres of the Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara Indians would remain free of settlement (eastern Montana, northeastern Wyoming and western North Dakota). In 1949 Congress authorized a forced relocation to build the Garrison Dam in North Dakota. In 1986 Martin Cross won a settlement of $149.2 million for the unjust taking of reservation land. In 2004 Paul VanDevelder authored ?Coyote Warrior: One Man, Three Tribes, and the Trial that Forged a Nation.? (HT, 3/97, p.43)(SSFC, 8/29/04, p.M5) 1851 nend California Governor Peter Burnett said that unless the Indians were sent east of the Sierras, "a war of extermination would continue to be waged until the Indian race should become extinct." (HN, 4/29/00)(WW, 6/99) 1851 nend In Minnesota Chief Shakopee and the Dakota Indians were pressured into selling 24 million acres for pennies an acre. Food and money from the federal government was to be distributed to the Indians as part of the treaty. (WSJ, 2/5/98, p.A1,6) 1851 nend Amory Houghton, a Boston entrepreneur, bought an interest in a predecessor of Union Glass in Somerville. The operation became Corning Inc. and by 2000 transformed itself into a major player in the fiber optic business. (SFC, 6/19/00, p.G7) 1851 nend Andrew Jackson Pope and Frederic Talbot of Maine built their 1st sawmill on Puget Sound, Wa. Pope & Talbot were soon shipping lumber around the world. (Ind, 6/7/03, p.5A) 1851 nend Western Union was founded as the New York and Mississippi Valley Printing Telegraph Co. (SFC, 2/2/06, p.A13) 1851 nend Simon Lazarus, a rabbinical scholar from Germany, opened a dry-goods store in Columbus, Ohio. The operation grew to become F&R Lazarus, after the names of his sons, who in 1929 created the Federated Dept. Store chain. The downtown Columbus store closed in 2004. (WSJ, 5/19/07, p.A6)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Lazarus) 1851 nend Dr. John Gorrie (1803-1855) patented an ice-making machine to cool hospital rooms. (www.bookrags.com/sciences/sciencehistory/refrigeration-woi.html) 1851 nend Photography had a major breakthrough with the development of a new emulsion called collodion, which caused photosensitive salts to adhere to a sheet of glass. (Smith., 5/95, p.75) 1851 nend Fewer than 100,000 Indians remained in California. (SFEC, 9/20/98, Z1 p.4) 1851 nend The Beckwourth Trail, discovered by James P. Beckwourth (1798-1866), an African American explorer, opened to pioneers. It is the lowest pass (5,221 ft) over the Sierras. Beckwourth was a freed slave and mountain man. (SSFC, 4/29/01, p.T9) 1851 nend Rawlinson unlocked the Persian cuneiform script. The key to unlocking these scripts was found in the names of great rulers. (RFH-MDHP, p.193) 1851 nend Australia?s first gold rush began. (SFEC, 9/10/00, p.T9) 1851 nend Francisco Guerrero, Mexican official in Alta California, was struck in the back of the head by a slingshot and died. His murder was believed to have kept him from testifying in a murder trial. (SFEC, 9/21/97, p.C7) 1851 nend By this year more than half the population of Great Britain was living in towns, and country-house owners found it increasingly hard to dominate politics or protect their own positions. (NG, Nov. 1985, p.689) 1851 nend Big Ben, the tower clock of the House of Parliament in London, was designed by Edmund Beckett Denison. He was assisted by clockmaker Edward John Dent and Sir George Airy, the royal astronomer. Originally the name "Big Ben" referred only to the clock?s huge bell. (SFC, 9/30/98, Z1 p.3) 1851 nend Victor Hugo sought refuge on the Channel island of Guernsey where he wrote "Les Miserables" and other works. (WSJ, 2/10/98, p.A16) 1851 nend Paul Julius Reuter (1816-1899), a German-born immigrant, began transmitting stock-market quotes between London and Paris over the new Dover-Calais submarine telegraph cable. no_source 1851 nend The Chateau Pichon-Longueville was built in the Bordeaux region of France. (USAT, 5/9/03, p.2D) 1851 nend Mt. Pelee volcano on the French Island of Martinique erupted. It left the city of St. Pierre unscathed. (NH, 10/02, p.76) 1851 nend Rama IV (d.1868) began his rule over Siam and played off European powers against each other. (Econ, 1/10/04, p.76) 1851 1920 Mrs. Humphrey Ward, an erudite anti-suffragist, wrote novels on major issues of her day. (WSJ, 11/15/96, p.A14) 1851 1962 In California the Benicia Arsenal was active. It was the 1st ordnance supply depot in the West. (SFEC, 8/29/99, p.A14) 1851 1873 The US minted a 3-cent piece called a trine. (SFC, 4/8/00, p.B4) 1852 nend Jan 3, The 1st Chinese arrive in Hawaii. (MC, 1/3/02) 1852 nend Jan 6, Louis Braille (43) died of tuberculosis in France. He had been blinded by an accident during childhood and spent years developing a system to read by touch. In 1997 Russell Freedman wrote "Out of Darkness: The Story of Louis Braille." (SFEC, 7/6/97, BR p.10)(ON, 10/04, p.9)(http://www.brailler.com/braillehx.htm) 1852 nend Jan 17, At the Sand River Convention, the British recognized the independence of the Transvaal Board. (HN, 1/17/99) 1852 nend Feb 2, Alexandre Dumas Jr.?s "Le Dame aux Camelias," premiered in Paris. (MC, 2/2/02) 1852 nend Feb 11, The 1st British public female toilet opened at Bedford Street in London. (MC, 2/11/02) 1852 nend Feb 16, Charles Taze Russell (d.1916) was born. He founded the International Bible Students Association. In the 1870?s Russell abandoned the Adventist movement and formed his own, which was later named Jehovah?s Witnesses. (HN, 2/16/02) 1852 nend Feb 17, The Imperial Museum, the 5th and last building of what became known as the New Hermitage, opened to the public (Feb 2 OS) in St. Petersburg, Russia. It was commissioned by Nicholas I and designed by Leo van Klenze of Germany. (www.photofora.com/eugene/centralsquares/newhermitage.htm)(MT,Winter/03, p.13) 1852 nend Feb 21, Nikolai Gogol, Russian playwright (Dead Souls), died. [see Mar 4] (MC, 2/21/02) 1852 nend Feb 26, Dr. John Harvey Kellogg (d.1943) was born. He was 24 years old when he became staff physician at the Battle Creek Sanitarium--a position he held for 62 years. Dr. Kellogg, a respected abdominal surgeon, ran "the San" as a health institute where the wealthy could rejuvenate themselves with Kellogg's offbeat cures. Illness was caused, Kellogg believed, by poor eating habits that left poisons in the intestinal tract. Among Kellogg's solutions to the dietary dilemma were "fletcherizing," or chewing food hundreds of times before swallowing, and a vegetarian diet high in bran. It was the bowels, however, that received Kellogg's undivided attention. Patients at the San were subjected to regimens of "cleansing enemas" that cured "ulcers, diabetes, schizophrenia, acne...and premature old age." In 1895, Kellogg's search for the perfect food led to the development of breakfast food flakes made of wheat called Granose. Will Keith Kellogg, John's brother, improved on the Granose idea and founded the W.K. Kellogg Company. http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Oracle/9840/kellogg.html (HNPD, 2/26/99) 1852 nend Feb 26, The British frigate Birkenhead sank off South Africa and 458 died. (SC, 2/26/02) 1852 nend Mar 4, Lady (Isabella Augusta) Gregory, Irish playwright, was born. She helped found the Abbey Theatre. (HN, 3/4/01) 1852 nend Mar 4, Nikolai Gogol, Russian writer (43), died. [see Feb 21] (SC, 3/4/02) 1852 nend Mar 13, A familiar symbol of the United States, Uncle Sam, made his debut as a cartoon character in the New York Lantern. (AP, 3/13/97) 1852 nend Mar 18, Henry C. Wells founded Wells, Fargo & Co. with William C. Fargo in San Francisco as a Western equivalent to their east coast American Express. It evolved into Wells Fargo Bank, headquartered in San Francisco and now one of the largest financial institutions in the U.S. In 2002 Philip L. Fradkin authored "Stagecoach: Wells Fargo and the American West" for the company?s 150th anniversary. [see Mar 18, 1850] (SFEC, 1/4/98, Z1p.4)(SFC, 6/9/98, p.A10)(HNQ, 11/20/98)(SFC,2/6/02, p.D1) 1852 nend Mar 20, Harriet Beecher Stowe's (1811-1896) "Uncle Tom's Cabin" was first published in book form after being serialized. It was based on the theme that slavery is incompatible with Christianity. In 2011 David S. Reynolds authored ?Mightier Than the Sword: Uncle Tom?s Cabin and the Battle for America.? (SFC, 3/30/97, Z1. p.6)(AP, 3/20/08)(SSFC, 7/3/11, p.G4) 1852 nend Mar 29, Ohio made it illegal for children under 18 and women to work more than 10 hours a day. (MC, 3/29/02) 1852 nend Apr 1, Edward Austin Abbey, US, painter (Quest of the Holy Grail), was born. (MC, 4/1/02) 1852 nend Apr 12, [Carl L] Ferdinand von Lindemann, German mathematician, was born. (MC, 4/12/02) 1852 nend Apr 13, Frank W. Woolworth (d.1919), founder of the retail chain of 5&10 cent stores, was born on a farm near Watertown New York. (SFC,10/20/97, p.B2)(HN, 4/13/98) 1852 nend Apr 23, Edwin Markham, US poet and 1st winner of Amer Acad of Poets Award in 1937, ("Man with a Hoe"), was born. (MC, 4/23/02) 1852 nend Apr 29, The first edition of Peter Mark Roget?s Thesaurus was published. Roget (1779-1869) was a London physician of French-Swiss ancestry who began to collect and organize English words to improve his public speaking. (HN, 4/29/98)(WSJ, 9/3/98, p.B1) 1852 nend Apr 30, Anton Rubinstein?s opera "Dmitri Donskoi," premiered in St Petersburg. (MC, 4/30/02) 1852 nend May 1, Calamity [Martha] Jane [Burke], frontier adventurer, Indian fighter, was born. (MC, 5/1/02) 1852 nend May 18, Massachusetts ruled that all school-age children must attend school. (SC, 5/18/02) 1852 nend May 25, Louis Franchet d'Espèrey [Desperate Frankey], French marshal (WWI), was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1852 nend May 29, Jindrich z Albestu Kaan, composer, was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1852 nend May 30, George Chinnery (b.1774), painter of Asian scenes, died in Macau. The English painter spent most of his life in Asia, especially India and southern China. (Econ, 6/18/11, p.91) 1852 nend Jun 21, Friedrich Frobel (b.1782), founder of the Play and Activity Institute (1837) in Germany, died. In 1840 he created the word kindergarten to describe the institute. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_August_Froebel) 1852 nend Jun 25, Antoni Gaudi (d.1926), Spanish modernist architect (Sagrada Familia, Barcelona), was born. (MC, 6/25/02)(SFEM, 10/8/00, p.61) 1852 nend Jun 26, Tzu Hsi (17), aka Orchid or Lady Yehonala, married Ch'ing Emperor Hsien Feng. She had competed to become one of his 7 official wives or 3,000 concubines. (SSFC, 2/1/04, p.M6) 1852 nend Jun 29, Statesman Henry Clay (75) of Kentucky died. He was a master politician in the era preceding the Civil War. Born in 1777, Clay was a lawyer by trade. He began his lengthy political career in the Kentucky legislature and made three unsuccessful bids as the Whig Party's presidential candidate. By the time of his death, Clay had served his country as secretary of state under John Quincy Adams, U.S. Senator and Speaker of the House of Representatives. Clay was the chief architect of the Compromise of 1850, a contribution that earned him the nickname "The Great Compromiser." (HNPD, 6/29/99)(MC, 6/29/02) 1852 nend Jul 4, Frederick Douglass delivered the keynote speech for the Independence Day celebration in Rochester, NY. In 2006 James A. Colaiaco authored Frederick Douglass and the Fourth of July.? (WSJ, 7/1/06, p.P6) 1852 nend Jul 5, Johann Baptist Weigl (69), composer, died. (MC, 7/5/02) 1852 nend Jul 12, Dr. John Hudson Wayman camped at the City of Rocks in Idaho and called it ?one of the finest places of its kind in the world.? US Congress named the area a national reserve in 1988. (SFC, 7/6/06, p.E2) 1852 nend Jul 27, George Foster Peabody, philanthropist and namesake of the Peabody awards for excellence in broadcasting, was born. (HN, 7/27/98) 1852 nend Aug 3, In the 1st intercollegiate rowing race, Harvard beats Yale by 4 lengths. (SC, 8/3/02) 1852 nend Sep 14, Augustus Pugin (b.1812), English Gothic architect and designer, died. In 2007 Rosemary Hill authored ?God?s Architect: Pugin and the Building of Romantic Britain. (Econ, 8/11/07, p.74)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_Pugin) 1852 nend Aug 20, The steamer "Atlantic" collided on Lake Erie with the fishing boat Ogdensburg, and sank. An estimated 150-250 people were drowned. (MC, 8/20/02)(Internet) 1852 nend Sep 3, Anti Jewish riots broke out in Stockholm. (MC, 9/3/01) 1852 nend Sep 14, Arthur Wellesley (b.1769), General and Duke of Wellington, died at 83. (http://en.wikipedia.org) 1852 nend Sep 14, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin (b.1812), English artist and architect, died. (www.visitcumbria.com/awnpugin.htm) 1852 nend Sep 23, William Stewart Halsted, was born. He established the 1st US surgical school. (MC, 9/23/01) 1852 nend Sep 24, Henri Giffard, a French engineer, flew over Paris in the 1st dirigible flight. (www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/AVgifford.htm) 1852 nend Sep 27, "Uncle Tom's Cabin," premiered in Troy, NY. (MC, 9/27/01) 1852 nend Sep 30, Charles Villiers Stanford, Irish organist and composer, was born. (MC, 9/30/01) 1852 nend Oct 24, Daniel Webster (70), lawyer, speaker and senator from Massachusetts, died. In 1997 Robert V. Remini wrote his biography: "Daniel Webster." (WSJ, 9/30/97, p.A20)(MC, 10/24/01) 1852 nend Nov 2, Franklin Pierce was elected US president over Gen?l. Winfield Scott, who ran as a Whig. In 1852, the U.S. Congress passed a resolution giving Scott the pay and rank of a lieutenant general. Scott, not Ulysses S. Grant, was the first to hold this rank since George Washington. William R. King was elected vice-president. (SFC, 10/22/96, p.E8)(http://tinyurl.com/8ku7j) 1852 nend Nov 10, Dr. Gideon Mantell (b.1790), obstetrician and English fossil hunter, died from an overdose of opium. (ON, 7/06, p.4)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gideon_Mantell) 1852 nend Nov 21, Duke Univ., founded in 1838 as Union Institute in NC, was chartered as Normal College. (MC, 11/21/01) 1852 nend Nov 27, Ada Lovelace (b.1815), Lord Byron?s daughter and the inventor of computer language, was bled to death by physicians at age 36. She had helped Charles Babbage develop his "Analytical Engine," that performed mathematical calculations through the use of punched cards. Her last years were spent in a netherworld of addiction, gambling and adultery and she died of cancer. In 2001 Benjamin Wooley authored her biography: "The Bride of Science." (SFC, 1/22/98, p.D7)(SFC, 4/30/98, p.E1)(WSJ, 1/19/00, p.W9) 1852 nend Dec 2, Louis Napoleon, the little nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, established the Second Empire in France (1852-1870) and called himself Napoleon III. He married the Spanish beauty Eugenie and ran a semi-liberal autocracy for 18 years. (WUD, 1994, p.950)(WSJ, 3/14/95, p.A16)(MC, 12/2/01) 1852 nend Dec 24, The race between the B&O railroad and the C&O Canal to reach the Ohio River, that began in 1828, ended with the railroad victorious. (SFEC, 4/25/99, p.T6) 1852 nend Dec 29, Emma Snodgrass was arrested in Boston for wearing pants. (MC, 12/29/01) 1852 nend Dec 30, Future U.S. president Rutherford B. Hayes married Lucy Ware Webb in Cincinnati. (AP, 12/30/02) 1852 nend Dec 31, The richest year of the gold rush ended, with $81.3 million in gold produced. (HN, 12/31/98) 1852 nend Eugene Delacroix painted "Desdemona Cursed by Her Father." (WSJ, 9/24/98, p.A16) 1852 nend A lighthouse was built on Alcatraz island in the San Francisco Bay. (SFC, 2/22/07, p.A13) 1852 nend The first piano accordion appeared in Paris. (BAAC, 8/96, p.6) 1852 nend Seattle, USA, began as a sawmill. (WSJ, 9/19/95, p.A-1) 1852 nend The Mission of the Holy Rosary in the town of Truchas was built. It is the youngest and simplest of the 6 adobe missions scattered along the western shoulder of the Sangre de Cristo mountains between Taos and Santa Fe, New Mexico. (SFC, 5/12/96, p.T-5) 1852 nend John Neumann, Catholic missionary, became the bishop of Philadelphia. he was later made a saint. (SFEC, 9/14/97, p.A18) 1852 nend The Mormons conceded for the first time that they practiced polygamy, or "plural marriage." (SFC, 4/9/96, A-7) 1852 nend Maria Vernet Worth, a Parisian shop clerk, became the 1st professional model when her husband found that he sold more dresses when she helped. (SFEC, 2/6/00, Z1 p.2) 1852 nend The US Senate rejected treaties with 18 California tribes that included some of the Yosemite band. (SFEC, 5/18/97, Z1 p.4) 1852 nend The Hopi people of northern Arizona arranged for a diplomatic packet to reach Pres. Fillmore via a delegation of 5 prominent men from the Tewas of Tesuque Pueblo in New Mexico, who sought legal protection from Anglo and Hispanic settlers. (NH, 11/1/04, p.26) 1852 nend John Kennedy invented dog tags and tried without success to sell them to the Union Army, but numerous soldiers bought them individually. (SFC, 3/8/96, p.E3) 1852 nend James Strang, king of Big Beaver Island, announced and won election as a state representative in Michigan. (Smith., Aug. 1995, p.88) 1852 nend Meriden Britannia Co. of Meriden, Connecticut, began operating as a silver plate maker. In 1898 it joined other silver companies to form the Int?l. Silver Co. (SFC, 10/22/08, p.G3) 1852 nend Smith & Wesson founded its business in Springfield, Mass. Horace Smith, a toolmaker, and Daniel Wesson, a former apprenticed gunsmith, combined their skills to produce a revolutionary handgun. (WSJ, 9/12/97, p.A20)(SSFC, 1/28/07, p.F3) 1852 nend Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Co. was formed as Sewanee Mining Co. (WSJ, 5/28/96, R45) 1852 nend The first Holstein cow was shipped to North America on a Dutch ship whose sailors requested milk. (SFC, 3/24/00, p.B3) 1852 nend The California legislature convened in Vallejo. (SFEC, 3/1/98, p.W26) 1852 nend The state passed a fugitive slave law that allowed slave masters to reside indefinitely despite the state?s prohibition on slavery. (SFC, 7/18/98, p.A15,18) 1852 nend Heinrich Schliemann, German businessman, moved from California to Russia and made another fortune selling indigo and potassium nitrate to the Russian army. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.46) 1852 nend White Sulphur Springs in St. Helena opened as the 1st spa in California. (SSFC, 7/20/03, p.C5) 1852 nend The Vallecito Stage Station was built on the San Diego-San Antonio line called the "jackass route." (SSFC, 11/17/02, p.C1) 1852 nend The San Francisco Gas Co. was founded by 3 brothers. In 1905 it merged with California electric Light to form PG&E. (SFC, 4/7/01, p.A5) 1852 nend In San Francisco half-brothers George and Samuel Shreve opened Shreve & Co., their 1st jewelry near what later became Union Square. It remained a retail store until 1881 when George (d.1893) opened a jewelry-making factory. (SSFC, 7/21/02, p.F3)(SFC, 9/19/07, p.G6) 1852 nend Sam Brannan, San Francisco newspaperman, arrived in Calistoga, Ca. and began plans for a health spa to rival the famed Saratoga Hot Springs in New York State. [see 1848] (Article on Calistoga by Sybil McCabe, 7/95) 1852 nend Moses Dinkelspiel opened his Dinkelspiel Store in Vallecito, Calaveras County. (SFC, 11/17/98, p.B2) 1852 nend Almaden Vineyards was begun by Etienne Thee, an émigré from France, who settled near Los Gatos, Ca. (SFC, 1/24/08, p.C3) 1852 nend Miners found caves in Amador County, Ca., near Volcano. They were named the Black Chasm caves. (SSFC, 4/8/01, p.T5) 1852 nend Capt. Charles Melville Scammon, a whaler, discovered the spawning area of the Pacific grey whales in the lagoons of Magdalena Bay off the Baha coast. (SFEM, 5/7/00, p.9) 1852 nend There was heavy flooding on the Red River in North Dakota and Manitoba. (SFC, 5/3/97, p.A11) 1852 nend Mr. Formwalt, the first mayor of Atlanta, Georgia, was stabbed to death by a ruffian. (WSJ, 4/9/96, p.A-1) 1852 nend More than 20,000 Chinese immigrants arrived to the US. They were fleeing floods, droughts, famines and revolutions and some 20,000 went to California. A foreign miner's tax was enacted in California and enforced largely against the Chinese. Other states passed similar taxes. The number of Chinese in California reached 25,000, about one-tenth of the non-Indian population. (SFC, 7/8/96, p.D2)(SFEC, 2/6/00, Rp.10)(SFEC, 9/20/98, Z1 p.4) 1852 nend In England the Victoria and Albert Museum was founded by Henry Cole as the South Kensington Museum and later named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. It was the first museum to collect and exhibit photography. Charles Thurston Thompson was the first "superintendent of photography." (WSJ, 11/4/97, p.A20)(WSJ, 3/24/98, p.A20) 1852 nend Lady Charlotte Guest took over the helm of Dowlais Iron Co. in Wales after her husband died. [see 1759] (SFC, 3/16/04, p.A1) 1852 nend In Dublin John Henry Newman delivered a series of lectures that were meant to establish the principles of the new Catholic University of which he was the first rector. The collected work was published in 1996 by Yale Univ. Press as "The Idea of a University. " (WSJ, 9/16/96, p.A14) 1852 nend France established its penal colony at Devil?s Island. It was one of 3 islands called the Iles du Salut (Islands of Salvation). Some 70,000 convicts were sent there until 1946. (SSFC, 12/15/02, p.L5) 1852 nend A new lighthouse was built at the tip of Grand Turk island, at the bottom of the Bahamas chain, as the area thrived from the salt trade. (SSFC, 1/7/07, p.G6) 1852 nend In Iran Mirza Hoseyn 'Ali Nuri (Baha' Ullah, b.1817), founder of the Baha?i Faith, became aware of his mission as a messenger of God while in the notorious Teheran prison known as the Black Pit for involvement in the unsuccessful attempt in 1852 on the life the shah of Persia, Naser od-Din. Released and exiled to Baghdad in 1853, Baha? Allah revived the Babi faith that had sprung from Shi?ah Islam in the 1840s. He went on to found the Baha?i movement that subsequently spread throughout the world. (HNQ, 4/6/99)(HN, 11/12/00) 1852 nend In Poland Ignacy Lukasiewicz, a druggist, found oil seeping from the ground and in an attempt to make vodka distilled it to produce the first kerosene. (SFEC, 8/3/97, Z1 p.2) 1852 nend James Young (1811-1883), Scottish chemist, took out a US patent for the production of paraffin oil by distillation of coal. Both the US and UK patents were subsequently upheld in both countries in a series of lawsuits and other producers were obliged to pay him royalties. (WSJ, 12/6/08, p.A10)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Young) 1852 1853 Leo Tolstoy served as a young artillery officer in Chechnya. He wrote his short story "The Raid" in 1853 based on his experiences there. (WSJ, 5/10/00, p.A1) 1852 1870 In France Napoleon III, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte I, served as emperor. (WUD, 1994, p.950) 1852 1892 The Salt Lake Temple on Temple Square in Salt lake City was constructed over this period. (THM, 4/27/97, p.N2) 1852 1911 Edwin Austin Abbey, American illustrator and muralist. (AHD, 1971, p.2) 1852 1929 James Brander Matthews, American author and educator: "A highbrow is a person educated beyond his intelligence." (AP, 4/8/97) 1852 1932 Grace King, American author: "Patience! Patience! Patience is the invention of dullards and sluggards. In a well-regulated world there should be no need of such a thing as patience." (AP, 6/1/97) 1852 1933 Henry van Dyke, American clergyman: "Self is the only prison that can ever bind the soul." (AP, 11/26/97) 1852 1935 Paul Bourget, French author: "We had better live as we think, otherwise we shall end up by thinking as we have lived." (AP, 2/11/00) 1853 nend Jan 8, 1st US bronze equestrian statue of Andrew Jackson was unveiled in Wash. DC. [see Mar 8] (MC, 1/8/02) 1853 nend Jan 16, Andre Michelin, French industrialist and tire manufacturer (Michelin), was born. (MC, 1/16/02) 1853 nend Jan 19, Giuseppi Verdi's opera "Il Trovatore" premiered in Rome. (AP, 1/19/98) 1853 nend Jan 19, Napoleon III married Eugenie de Montijo. (MC, 1/19/02) 1853 nend Jan 28, Cuban revolutionary Jose Marti was born in Havana. (AP, 1/28/98) 1853 nend Mar 2, The Territory of Washington was organized after separating from Oregon Territory. (HN, 3/2/99)(SC, 3/2/02) 1853 nend Mar 3, A transcontinental railroad survey was authorized by Congress. (SC, 3/3/02) 1853 nend Mar 3, US Assay Office in NYC was authorized. (SC, 3/3/02) 1853 nend Mar 4, Pope Pius IX recovered Catholic hierarchy in Netherlands. (SC, 3/4/02) 1853 nend Mar 4, William Rufus de Vane King (D) was sworn in as 13th US Vice President. (SC, 3/4/02) 1853 nend Mar 5, Arthur W. Foote, organist, composer (Suite for Strings in E), was born in Salem, Mass. (MC, 3/5/02) 1853 nend Mar 5, Howard Pyle, writer and illustrator (The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood), was born. (HN, 3/5/01) 1853 nend Mar 6, Giuseppe Verdi's Opera, "La Traviata," premiered in Venice. (AP, 3/6/98)(MC, 3/6/02) 1853 nend Mar 8, The first bronze statue of Andrew Jackson was unveiled in Washington, D.C. [see Jan 8] (HN, 3/8/98) 1853 nend Mar 30, Vincent Van Gogh (d.1890), Dutch artist, was born in Zundert, Neth. His work included "The Drawbridge and Sunflowers in a Vase," and "Harvest in Prevance," which was done both in oil and as a watercolor. The watercolor sold in 1997 for $14.7 mil. He produced an estimated 900 paintings and 1200 drawings but sold virtually none of them. In 1997 it was reported that more than 100 of his paintings and drawings might be fakes. 300 of his canvasses were painted in the last 15 months of his life. (AAP,1964)(WUD,1994, p.606)(SFC, 6/26/97, p.A21)(SFC, 7/5/97,p.A8)(SFEC, 1/4/98, Z1p.8)(HN, 3/30/98)(MC, 3/30/02) 1853 nend Apr 1, Cincinnati, Ohio, established a fire department made up of paid city employees. (AP, 4/1/07) 1853 nend Apr 7, Dr. John Snow administered chloroform to Queen Victoria at the birth of her 8th child, Prince Leopold. (ON, 5/05, p.9) 1853 nend Apr 14, Harriet Tubman began her Underground Railroad, helping slaves to escape. (MC, 4/14/02) 1853 nend Apr 15, Johann Leopold Fuchs (67), composer, died. (MC, 4/15/02) 1853 nend Apr 16, India's 1st steam locomotive pulled 14 cars and 400 people 34 km. from Bombay to Thane. (NG, 5/95, p.140)(Econ, 12/6/03, p.61) 1853 nend Apr 18, The first train in Asia began running (Bombay to Tanna, 36 km). (HN, 4/18/98)(MC, 4/18/02) 1853 nend May 6, The 1st major US rail disaster killed 46 at Norwalk, Connecticut. (MC, 5/6/02) 1853 nend May 11, Baron Nathaniel de Rothschild of England purchased Chateau Mouton in Bordeaux, France, for 1,125,000 gold francs. (www.pageaday.com) 1853 nend May 14, Gail Borden applied for a patent for condensed milk. (HN, 5/14/98) 1853 nend May 26, John Wesley Hardin was born in Bonham, Texas. The 19th-century Western outlaw John Wesley Hardin was named after John Wesley, who began the Methodist movement in 1738. (HNQ, 4/1/00) 1853 nend Jun 6, The ship Carrier Pigeon, a merchant sailing vessel, struck a reef off of Whale Point (later Pigeon Point) on its way from Boston to SF. The wreck helped prompt the erection of the Pigeon Point lighthouse in San Mateo Ct. (SFEC, 5/25/97, p.T3)(SFEC,11/16/97, p.B8)(Ind, 8/10/02, 5A) 1853 nend Jun 29, Napoleon III met with Georges-Eugene Haussmann to outline plans for the ?strategic beautification? of Paris and assigned him to modernize the city. For the next 17 years Haussman, as prefect of the Seine, transformed Paris. He is responsible for the tree lined grand boulevards, the Bois de Boulogne, several railroad stations, the aqueducts, and a tourist friendly sewer system. Haussmann employed one Parisian in five and financed his projects using private capital raised with bonds. The project forced some 200,000 residents from their homes. He used surpluses in his operational budget to cover deficits in his capital budgets. The debts paralyzed the city until the Gaullist era. (WSJ, 1/17/1995, p.A-16)(SFEC, 6/28/98, p.T9)(WSJ, 12/9/98,p.A20)(ON, 9/06, p.9) 1853 nend Jul 4, Moses A. Gunst, millionaire cigar retailer and SF police commissioner, was born in NY and raised in Atlanta. (Ind, 3/2/02, 5A) 1853 nend Jul 5, Cecil John Rhodes (d.1902), politician, diamond merchant, was born in South Africa. He discovered a vast lode of diamonds at Kimberley and founded the De Beers Mining Co. He ran for Cape parliament in 1881 and was prime minister of the Cape Colony from 1890-1896. He founded Rhodesia (later Zimbabwe) for mineral speculation and endowed the Rhodes scholarships upon his death with £3 million. (WSJ, 1/11/98, p.R18)(MC, 7/5/02) 1853 nend Jul 8, An expedition led by Commodore Matthew Perry arrived in Edo Bay, Uraga, Japan, on a mission to seek diplomatic and trade relations with the Japanese. Perry sailed his flagship USS Susquehanna into Edo Bay. He soon forced Japan to open its ports with his big gunboats, the steam-powered ?Black Ships.? (AP, 7/8/97)(SFEC, 1/25/98, Z1 p.2)(ON, 11/04, p.9) 1853 nend Jul 14, Pres. Franklin Pierce opened the 1st industrial exposition in NY. Some 4,000 exhibitors gathered for a trade show at the New York Crystal Palace (later Bryant Park). (WSJ, 9/14/00, p.A24)(MC, 7/14/02) 1853 nend Jul 14, Commodore Matthew Perry met with Prince Toda and Prince Ido at ceremony at Kurihama, Japan, and presented a letter from former Pres. Fillmore to Emperor Osahito requesting trade relations. Fillmore's term of office had already expired by the time the letter was delivered. (ON, 11/04, p.12)(AP, 7/14/07) 1853 nend Jul 25, David Belasco, actor, playwright and producer, was born. (HN, 7/25/02) 1853 nend Jul 29, Pope Pius IX established the archdiocese of San Francisco, Ca. (SSFC, 7/27/03, p.A22) 1853 nend Aug 21, Henry Wellcome (d.1936) was born in Wisconsin. In 1880 Henry went to London to join Silas Burroughs and set up a successful pharmaceutical firm called Burroughs, Wellcome & Co. (www.swan.ac.uk/egypt/infosheet/Wellcome.htm) 1853 nend Aug 24, The 1st potato chips were prepared by Chef George Crum at Saratoga Springs, NY. (MC, 8/24/02) 1853 nend Sep 14, The Allies landed at Eupatoria on the west coast of Crimea. (HN, 9/14/98) 1853 nend Sep 20, The Allies defeated the Russians at the battle of Alma on the Crimean Peninsula. (HN, 9/20/98) 1853 nend Sep 30, Johannes Brahms met Robert and Clara Schumann. In this year Brahms composed his Sonata in C major and his famous Liebestreu. In this year Brahms also meets Joseph Joachim, Konzertmeister of the King of Hanover, while traveling with the Hungarian violinist, Eduard Remenyi. (BLW, Geiringer, 1963 ed., p.36 ) 1853 nend Oct 2, Austrian law forbade Jews from owning land. (MC, 10/2/01) 1853 nend Oct 13, Lillie Langtry (d.1929), British actress, was born. "The sentimentalist ages far more quickly than the person who loves his work and enjoys new challenges." She started the California Guenoc and Langtry Estate wineries. (AP, 7/27/98)(HN, 10/13/00)(SSFC, 6/9/02, p.C8) 1853 nend Oct 26, R.H. Kern, American artist, was killed by Indians in Utah. (SSFC, 4/10/05, p.F9) 1853 nend Oct 29, Pierre Joseph Guillaume Zimmermann (68), composer, died. (MC, 10/29/01) 1853 nend Oct 30, Pietro Raimondi (66), Italian composer (Potifar, Giacobbe), died. (MC, 10/30/01) 1853 nend Oct, Henry Bessemer (1813-1898), English mechanical engineer, invented a new type of artillery shell. He presented it to the War Department for use in the Crimean War, but they were not interested. He then offered it to France?s Napoleon III, who agreed to test the shells. The larger shells demanded a new type of cannon made of stronger metal, which led to his experiments in making iron. (ON, 9/06, p.4) 1853 nend Nov 9, Stanford White, architect, was born. His designs include Madison Square Garden and Washington Arch. (HN, 11/9/00) 1853 nend Nov 24, William Masterson (Bat Masterson), journalist, gambler, frontier lawman, was born in Henryville, Quebec. He died at his desk as a NYC sports reporter. [see Nov 24, 1856] (SFC, 8/2/97, p.E3)(MC, 11/24/01) 1853 nend Nov 28, Olympia was established as capital of the Washington Territory. (DTnet, 11/28/97) 1853 nend Dec 23, Maria Teresa Carreno, composer, was born. (MC, 12/23/01) 1853 nend Dec 30, The United States bought some 45,000 square miles of land from Mexico in a deal known as the Gadsden Purchase. It included parts of Arizona and New Mexico (29,640 sq. miles) south of the Gila River. The purchase was ratified by Congress on April 25, 1854. (AWAM, Dec. 94, p.31)(HFA, ?96, p.28)(AHD, p.537)(AP, 12/30/97) 1853 nend Jean Ingres painted his portrait: "Princesse Albert de Broglie." (WSJ, 5/28/99, p.W12) 1853 nend Rembrandt Peale painted a portrait of Martha Washington based on a 1795 portrait done by his father, Charles Vincent Peale. (SFEC, 7/27/97, DB p.35) 1853 nend Charles Dickens (1812-1870) authored his novel ?Bleak House,? which castigated the insufferable delays of the legal process in Britain. (WSJ, 2/24/07, p.P10) 1853 nend Solomon Northrup and Henry W. Derbu authored "Twelve Years a Slave, Narrative of Solomon Northrup, a Citizen of New York, Kidnapped in Washington in 1841, and Rescued in 1853 from a Cotton Plantation Near the Red River in Louisiana." (ON, 11/99, p.7) 1853 nend Elizabeth Schermerhorn James, the aunt of Edith Wharton, built the Wyndclyffe mansion in Rhinebeck, NY. (WSJ, 9/29/03, p.A1) 1853 nend The California state prison at San Quentin was completed. It was built to house 50 inmates. An associated housing development on the prison grounds was included. (SFEC, 3/1/98, p.W26)(SSFCM, 8/19/01, p.11)(SFCM, 4/4/04, p.8) 1853 nend In California a Morse telegraph was station was erected on the SF hill now known as Telegraph Hill. (HT, 5/97, p.12) 1853 nend Charles Loring Brace founded the Children?s Aid Society. Its goal was to build character. (WSJ, 2/120/00, p.A24) 1853 nend Silas Coombs, lumberman from Maine, moved to the Mendocino coast of California and lived at what is now the Little River Inn. (SFEC, 4/13/97, p.T9) 1853 nend In Boston Sarah Parker Remond was thrown out of a theater for refusing to be seated in an area reserved for blacks. She fell and filed suit and was awarded monetary compensation. The theater was later desegregated. (SFEC, 4/5/98, BR p.5) 1853 nend Heinrich Steinweg founded his piano dynasty three years after arriving to the US from Germany. His story is told in "The Steinway Saga: An American Dynasty" by D.W. Fostle. He later designed a piano with a heavier internal mechanism that needed to be balanced by fatter keys and thus set the standard 48-inch wide keyboard. (WSJ, 6/2/95, p.A-9)(WSJ, 11/4/97, p.A1) c 1853 nend Senator William Gwin, a leader of pro-slavery interests in California, proposed to divide California to create a pro-slavery southern half. He was opposed by David C. Broderick. (SFEC, 3/1/98, p.W26) 1853 nend The US government fortified the 22-acre island of Alcatraz to protect SF from attack. (SFEC, 3/8/98, p.W38) 1853 nend Elias Howe settled law suits with 7 rivals of Singer Sewing Company. Singer settled with Howe in 1854. (ON, 11/00, p.9) 1853 nend James Strang, king of Big Beaver Island, declared that his female subjects should dress in loose, knee-length smocks worn over modest pantaloons similar to those popularized by Amelia Bloomer, an earlier new York feminist. (Smith., Aug. 1995, p.90) 1853 nend Levi Strauss and Co. got its start peddling tough pants to California gold miners. The first pair sold for $13.50 a dozen. Strauss acquired the idea and patent from Jacob Davis, who first produced canvas pants with rivets for miners. (SFC, 1/23/96, p.C4)(SFC, 1/9/99, p.D3)(CHA, 1/2001) 1853 nend The New Haven Clock Co. was founded. It made inexpensive brass movements until it bought a clock manufacturing company in 1856. In 1946 it changed its name to the New haven Clock and Watch Co., and went out of business in 1959. (SFC, 3/19/97, z1 p.3) 1853 nend The hypodermic needle was invented for morphine injection. It was believed that addiction would be prevented if the digestive system was bypassed. (SFEC, 11/10/96, zone 1 p.2) 1853 nend Charles Frederic Gerhardt first synthesized acetylsalicylic acid, but he failed to understand its molecular structure and its potential importance to humanity. (www.chemheritage.org) 1853 nend The low pressure steam engine was developed and reduced the low frequency noise of the single-cylinder steam engines on riverboats, which could be heard for miles. (SFEC, 1/23/00, Z1 p.2) 1852 nend Elisha Graves Otis invented a safety elevator in Yonkers, NY. Otis invented the safety elevator to brake the car to a halt if the supporting cable broke. Otis Steam Elevator Works made its 1st sale in 1854 to P.T. Barnum for display at the New York?s World Fair. In 1889 (the same year Eiffel built his Tower) the elevator met electricity. United Technologies acquired Otis in 1976. In 2001 Jason Goodwin authored "Otis, Giving Rise to the Modern City." (HT, 5/97, p.23)(HNQ, 4/21/01)(WSJ, 10/9/01, p.A20)(ON, 5/05, p.12) 1853 nend John C. Fremont began his 5th expedition west, his 2nd into the Colorado Mountains, and traveled across Kansas, southern Colorado and Utah in search of a railroad route over the Central Rockies. The group reached Mormon settlements in Utah. Fremont brought along photographer Solomon Nunes Carvalho, who took hundreds of daguerreotypes. Many of the images were lost in an 1881 NYC warehouse fire. In 1994 Robert Shlaer set out to recreate the images and in 2000 published "Sights Once Seen: Daguerreotyping Fremont?s Last Expedition Through the Rockies." (SFEC, 7/9/00, BR p.12)(ON, 12/06, p.7) 1853 nend Hormuzd Rassam (1826-1910), Mosul-born Assyrian, and Sir Austen Henry Layard (1817-1894), British archeologist, uncovered ancient Assyrian tablets at Nineveh (Iraq). Layard published his paper on Assyrian-Egyptian Cross-Dating. By using seal-impressions of rulers occurring on the same piece of clay, Layard was able to assign a date to the Assyrian dynasty because the Egyptian ruler?s reign was firmly dated. (RFH-MDHP, 1969, p.59)(ON, 11/07,p.4)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormuzd_Rassam) 1853 nend In California the steam freighter Tennessee was wrecked off the Marin headlands in heavy fog. Everyone escaped safely. Tennessee Point and Tennessee Cove were named after the freighter. The event spurred Congress to fund a lighthouse at Point Bonita. (WSJ, 9/17/96, p.A12)(G, Winter 96/97, p.3)(SSFC, 11/4/01, p.T5) 1853 nend In SF the Laurel Hill Cemetery was established. Residents were moved to Colma in 1939-1940 and the site was used for housing. (SFC, 5/7/08, p.G6) 1853 nend A smallpox epidemic hit Hawaii and 5-6000 people died. (SFC, 10/19/01, p.A17) 1853 nend William Beaumont (67), a US Army assistant surgeon and author of "Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice and the Physiology of Digestion" (1833), died. [see 1822] (ON, 1/02, p.6) 1853 nend Chief Tenaya of the Yosemite Ahwahneechee was killed by a Paiute chief near Mono Lake. (SFEC, 5/18/97, Z1 p.4) 1853 nend The Croatian lighthouse Sveti Ivan Na Pucini was built on the northern Adriatic Sea. (SSFC, 6/20/04, p.D9) 1853 nend French wines were first ranked at the order of Napoleon. The top grades were selected on the basis of price, not taste. (SFEC, 2/1/98, p.T4) 1853 nend German physicist Heinrich Magnus (1802-1870) first described the phenomenon, which came to be called the Magnus effect, whereby a spinning object flying in a fluid creates a whirlpool of fluid around itself, and experiences a force perpendicular to the line of motion and away from the direction of spin. According to author James Gleick (b.1954) Isaac Newton described it and correctly theorized the cause 180 years earlier, after observing tennis players in his Cambridge college. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnus_effect) 1853 nend Vilmos Zsolnay founded a pottery in Pecs, Hungary, that became renowned for its colored tile. The Zsolnay factory used a 5-tower mark from about 1878, which symbolized the 5 medieval churches in Pecs. (SFC, 8/31/05, p.G3) 1853 nend In Mexico Benito Juarez, patriot and reformer, was locked up for 11 days in the dungeon of the fortress of San Juan de Ulua in Veracruz. (SFEC, 5/17/98, p.T12) 1853 nend The island of New Caledonia was made a French possession. It served as a penal colony for four decades after 1864. Agitation for independence during the 1980s and early 1990s has dissipated. (www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/nc.html) 1853 nend In the Ottoman Empire the Sultan moved from Topkapi to Dolmabahce Palace in Constantinople. (Sky, 4/97, p.58) 1853 1857 Franklin Pierce, 14th President of the US, acquired land from Mexico and supported the nation?s 1st trade agreement with Japan. Jefferson Davis served as his secretary of war. (A&IP, ESM, p.96b, photo)(WSJ, 2/11/03, p.A10) 1853 1857 The 1st perforated postage stamps were made under the administration of Pres. Franklin Pierce. (WSJ, 2/11/03, p.A10) 1853 1864 The Taiping army Of Hong Xiuquan took the city of Nanjing as its heavenly capital in the Taiping Rebellion. He claimed to be Jesus' brother and ruled there until 1864. Imperial troops crushed his movement and tens of millions died. (WSJ, 1/5/96, p.A-8)(WSJ, 4/26/99, p.A6) 1853 1890 Theo Van Gogh, the younger brother of Vincent Van Gogh. Theo's widow, Johanna Van Gogh-Bonger, inherited the paintings of Vincent that had been in Theo's hands. (SFC, 1/18/99, p.B2) 1853 1902 John Twachtman, American impressionist painter. He was born in Cincinnati, lived and painted in Munich and Paris, and founded an informal art school in Cos Cob, Conn. (WSJ, 4/10/00, p.A44) 1853 1927 Hudson Maxim, brother of Hiram, invented high quality smokeless powders used in cannon projectiles and torpedoes. (V.D.-H.K.p.268) 1853 1927 Joao Capistrano de Abreu, Brazilian historian. He later wrote "Chapters of Brazil Colonial History, 1500-1800," first published in 1907. The Oxford Library of Latin America published a new edition in 1998. (WSJ, 2/3/98, p.A20) 1854 nend Jan 5, The steamship San Francisco wrecked and 300 died. (MC, 1/5/02) 1854 nend Jan 13, Anthony Foss patented an accordion. [see 1850, 1852] (MC, 1/13/02) 1854 nend Jan 18, Thomas A. Watson, inventor and assistant Alexander Bell (Telephone), was born. (MC, 1/18/02) 1854 nend Feb 6, Composer Robert Schumann was saved from a depression-induced suicide attempt of walking into the Rhine. (MC, 2/6/02) 1854 nend Feb 11, Major streets were lit by coal gas for 1st time. (MC, 2/11/02) 1854 nend Feb 11, Commodore Matthew Perry pulled into Edo Bay, Japan, 12 months early with 9 warships to begin talks for a treaty. (ON, 11/04, p.12) 1854 nend Feb 16, Franz Liszt's symphony "Orpheus," premiered. (MC, 2/16/02) 1854 nend Feb 17, Friedrich A. Krupp, German arms manufacturer, was born. (MC, 2/17/02) 1854 nend Feb 23, Great Britain officially recognized the independence of the Orange Free State. (HN, 2/23/99) 1854 nend Feb 27, Composer Robert Schumann was saved from a suicide attempt in Rhine. (MC, 2/27/02) 1854 nend Feb 28, Some 50 slavery opponents met in Ripon, Wis., to call for creation of a new political group, which became the Republican Party. [see Mar 20, Jul 6] (AP, 2/28/00) 1854 nend Mar 1, The SS City of Glasgow, a steamship of the Inman Line, left Liverpool harbor with 480 passengers and was never seen again. (SC, 3/1/02)(WSJ, 7/1/03, p.D8) 1854 nend Mar 7, Charles Miller patented the 1st US sewing machine to stitch buttonholes. (MC, 3/7/02) 1854 nend Mar 8, US Commodore Matthew C. Perry landed at Yokohama on his 2nd trip to Japan. Within a month, he concluded a treaty with the Japanese. In 2003 Christopher Benfey authored "The Great Wave: Gilded Age Misfits, Japanese Eccentrics and the Opening of Old Japan." (AP, 3/8/98)(SSFC, 5/18/03, p.M6) 1854 nend Mar 14, Thomas Riley Marshall, 28th U.S. Vice President (Woodrow Wilson), was born. (HN, 3/14/98) 1854 nend Mar 15, Emil von Behring, first recipient of the Nobel Prize for medicine in 1901, was born. (HN, 3/15/99) 1854 nend Mar 20, The Republican Party was founded when former members of the Whig political party met to establish a new political party that would oppose the spread of slavery into the western territories. [see Feb 28, Jul 6] (MC, 3/20/02) 1854 nend Mar 28, During the Crimean War, Britain and France declared war on Russia. (AP, 3/28/97) 1854 nend Mar 31, Sir Dugald Clerk, inventor of the two-stroke motorcycle engine, was born. (HN, 3/31/98) 1854 nend Mar 31, Chief Shogun Iyesada, following negotiations with Commodore Perry, approved the Treaty of Kanagawa on behalf of Emperor Osahito. This forced Japan to open its ports to foreign trade. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215)(ON, 11/04, p.12) 1854 nend Mar, A stone, donated by Pope Pius IX, was stolen from the Washington Monument. Members of the Know-Nothing Party were suspected. (ON, 3/00, p.9) no_source 1854 nend Apr 3, The SF Mint opened at 608 Commercial St. It issued $4 million in gold coins this year. An Indian princess appeared on gold dollars. (SFC, 8/21/01, p.A12)(SSFC, 1/28/03, p.E1)(WSJ, 12/12/03,p.W15)(SFC, 4/2/04, p.F3) 1854 nend Apr 15, The immigrant steamer ship "Powchattan" (Powhattan) struck Brigantine Shoals and sank off Long Beach, NY. Over 300 people died. (www.maritimeheritage.org/PassLists/js051854.html) 1854 nend Apr 16, Franz Liszt's "Mazeppa," premiered. (MC, 4/16/02) 1854 nend Apr 16, San Salvador was destroyed by an earthquake. (HN, 4/16/98) 1854 nend Apr 25, Congress ratifies the Gadsden Purchase. [see 1853, Gadsden] (HFA, ?96, p.28) 1854 nend Apr 29, Henri Poincare (1912), French mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, was born. He investigated the idea of space and led to the notion that space is too complex for mathematics. Rather space is an assumption, and it can be described and controlled only so far as we assume it. In other words there is no such thing as space. Instead, there are as many spaces as there are people... for every person can assume an indefinite number of different spaces. (V.D.-H.K.p.272)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9) 1854 nend May 3, William Beale (70), composer, died. (MC, 5/3/02) 1854 nend May 5, English pirate Plumridge robbed along pro-English Finnish coast. (MC, 5/5/02) 1854 nend May 24, Louis Mountbatten, admiral (WW I), was born. (MC, 5/24/02) 1854 nend May 30, The Kansas-Nebraska Act, designed by Sen. Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, was passed by the US Congress. It allowed people in the territories of Kansas and Nebraska to decide for themselves whether or not to allow slavery within their borders. The governor of the Kansas Territory was James William Denver. Pres. Pierce kept appointing proslavery governors. The Kansas-Nebraska Act repealed the Missouri Compromise and opened the north to slavery. This period of Kansas history was incorporated into the 1998 novel "The All-True Travels and Adventures of Lidie Newton," by Jane Smiley. (AP, 5/30/97)(WSJ, 2/11/03,p.A10)(www.historyplace.com/lincoln/kansas.htm)(ON, 4/08, p.1) 1854 nend May 30, Vermont native Elisha Graves Otis (1811-1861) unveiled his invention, the safety elevator at the New York World's Fair. Audiences gasped as Otis, riding on the hoist's platform, dramatically ordered the lifting rope cut. Instead of falling, the car locked safely into the elevator shaft. Prior to the 1850s there was no existing market for passenger elevators because there was no safety mechanism in the event of a cable break. In 1852 Otis was a master mechanic working at a bedstead factory in Yonkers, N.Y., when he built a hoisting machine with two sets of metal teeth at the car's sides. If the lifting rope broke, the teeth would lock into place, preventing the car from falling. Otis never realized the potential of his invention. His sons built the Otis Elevator Company, enabling the skylines of cities throughout the world to be transformed with skyscrapers. (HNPD, 5/30/99)(ON, 5/05, p.12) 1854 nend Jun 10, The U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, held its first graduation. (HN, 6/10/98) 1854 nend Jun 17, The Red Turban revolt broke out in Guangdong, . (HN, 6/17/98) 1854 nend Jun 18, E.W. Scripps (d.1926) was born in Rushville, Ill. He founded the Scripps-Howard newspaper chain and the UP wire service. (www.eh.net/bookreviews/library/0184.shtml) 1854 nend Jun 21, The first Victoria Cross was awarded to Charles Lucas, an Irishman and mate aboard the HMS Hecla for conspicuous gallantry at Bomarsrund in the Baltic. The medal was made from metal from a cannon captured at Sebastopol. (Camelot, 6/21/99) 1854 nend Jul 1, The Singer Sewing Company settled a sewing machine patent suit with Elias Howe and paid him $15,000. (ON, 11/00, p.9) 1854 nend Jul 6, The Republican Party was officially organized in Jackson, Michigan. The Republican Party was formed in Ripon, Wisconsin, by a group of anti-slavery politicians at the Little White Schoolhouse. [see Feb 28, Mar 20] (Hem., 7/96, p.28)(HN, 7/6/98) 1854 nend Jul 12, George Eastman (d.1932), inventor of the Kodak camera, was born in Waterville, N.Y. (AP, 7/12/99) 1854 nend Jul 13, US forces shelled and burned San Juan del Norte, Nicaragua. (MC, 7/13/02) 1854 nend Aug 8, Smith and Wesson patented metal bullet cartridges. (MC, 8/8/02) 1854 nend Aug 9, Henry David Thoreau published "Walden," in which he described his experiences while living near Walden Pond on Cape Cod in Massachusetts. (Hem, Dec. 94, p.44)(AP, 8/9/97) 1854 nend Aug 16, Duncan Phyfe (86), NYC furniture maker, died. (MC, 8/16/02) 1854 nend Aug 29, Daniel Halladay patented a self-governing windmill. (MC, 8/29/01) 1854 nend Sep 27, The first great disaster involving an ocean liner in the Atlantic occurred when the steamship Arctic sank off the coast of Newfoundland with 300 people aboard. (AP, 9/27/97)(Arch, 7/02, p.7) 1854 nend Aug 30, John Fremont issued a proclamation freeing the slaves of Missouri rebels. (MC, 8/30/01) 1854 nend Sep 1, Engelbert Humperdinck, German opera composer (Hansel & Gretel), was born. (MC, 9/1/02) 1854 nend Sep 14, Allied armies, including those of Britain & France, landed in Crimea. (MC, 9/14/01) 1854 nend Sep 19, Henry Meyer patented a sleeping rail car. (MC, 9/19/01) 1854 nend Oct 3, William Crawford Gorgas (d.1920), US Surgeon-Gen, was born. He helped cure yellow fever. He served as the chief sanitary officer of the Panama Canal (1904-1913). (WUD, 1994 p.610)(MC, 10/3/01) 1854 nend Oct 4, Abraham Lincoln made his 1st political speech at Illinois State Fair. (MC, 10/4/01) 1854 nend Oct 16, Abraham Lincoln delivered a speech in Peoria, Ill., part of a series against legislation proposed by Sen. Stephen Douglas that would allow settlers to decide the status of slavery in Kansas and Nebraska. In 2008 Lewis E. Lehrman authored ?Lincoln at Peoria: The Turning Point.? (WSJ, 7/26/08, p.W9) 1854 nend Oct 16, Oscar Wilde (born as Fingal O'Flahertie Wills, d.1900), dramatist, poet, novelist and critic, was born in Dublin. His work included "The Picture of Dorian Gray." "Anybody can make history. Only a great man can write it." [see 1856-1900] (HN, 10/16/98)(AP, 2/16/99) 1854 nend Oct 17, James Simpson, a Baltimore inventor, received a patent for a multi-walled ice pitcher. (SFC, 12/30/98, Z1 p.2) 1854 nend Oct 20, Arthur Rimbaud (d.1891), French poet (Illuminations), was born in Charlesville. (HN, 10/20/00)(MC, 10/20/01)(SFC, 2/12/02, p.D3) 1854 nend Oct 25, During the Crimean War, a brigade of British light infantry was destroyed by Russian artillery as they charged down a narrow corridor in full view of the Russians. The Crimean War is largely remembered for the Charge of the Light Brigade, a hopeless but gallant British cavalry charge against a heavily defended Russian force. The battle began when the Russians attacked the British-French supply depot at Balaclava, some eight miles from Sevastopol, on the Black Sea Crimean Peninsula. Taken by surprise, the British counterattacked but failed to follow up. Through a staff error, Gen. Lord Cardigan's Light Brigade of 673 horsemen was ordered to charge the Russian position through a mile-long valley and prevent them from carrying away some captured cannon. The Light Brigade advanced up the valley, taking casualties all the way, and reached the guns. But once there, they could not hold their position and were forced to retreat. Of the 673 men who took part in the senseless charge, only 195 were present at roll call that night. The Charge of the Light Brigade ended the battle, but Balaclava remained in the hands of the British-French Allies. The event was described in a poem by Tennyson. French General Bosquet remarked "It is magnificent, but it is not war." (AP, 10/25/97)(HNPD, 10/25/98)(HN, 10/25/98)(MC, 10/25/01) 1854 nend Oct 26, Charles William Post, food manufacturer, was born. He created "Grape Nuts" and "Post Toasties." [see Oct 26, 1855] (HN, 10/26/00) 1854 nend Nov 4, The first lighthouse on the West Coast was built at Alcatraz Island. (SFC, 5/19/96,City Guide, p.7)(MC, 11/4/01) 1854 nend Nov 4, Florence Nightingale (d.1910) and 38 nurses arrived at the Barrack Hospital in Scutari following the outbreak of the Crimean War. She was appointed to oversee female nurses to be dispatched to military hospitals in Turkey to help with increasing casualties. She had been trained as a nurse--against the belief that nursing was not a suitable profession for women--before serving as Superintendent of the Establishment for Gentlewomen during Illness in London in 1853. At Scutari, soldiers appreciated her kindness and devotion as a nurse. Among other things, she later became known for her ideas about hospital reform and for creating reading rooms in hospitals. In 1907, she was the first woman to be awarded the Order of Merit. She died at the age of 90, at home in London. In 1951 Cecil Woodham-Smith authored "Florence Nightingale." (HNPD, 11/4/98)(HN, 11/4/98)(ON, SC, p.12) 1854 nend Nov 5, The British and French defeated the Russians at Inkerman, Crimea. (HN, 11/5/98) 1854 nend Nov 6, John Philip Sousa, "The March Master," American bandmaster, composer and the king of American march music, was born in Washington, D.C. He later wrote 5 novels. Among his 140 marches are "Stars and Stripes Forever" and "Semper Fidelis." (AP, 11/6/97)(SFEC, 2/8/98, Z1 p.8)(HN, 11/6/00) 1854 nend Nov 9, Franz Liszt's "Fest-Long," premiered. (MC, 11/9/01) 1854 nend Nov 13, George Whitfield Chadwick, composer, was born in Lowell Mass. (MC, 11/13/01) 1854 nend Nov 13, "New Era" sank off New Jersey coast with loss of 300. (MC, 11/13/01) 1854 nend Nov, A wooden boat called Mystery set sail from Cornwall, bound for Australia with seven Cornishmen hoping to escape their lives of poverty and dig for gold Down Under, a trip that eventually took 116 days. (AFP, 10/21/08) 1854 nend Dec 8, Pope Pius IX proclaimed the dogma of the Immaculate Conception. In an encyclical he stated that: "The Blessed Virgin Mary was, from the first moment of her conception, by a singular grace and privilege of almighty God? Preserved immune from all stain of original sin. Ineffabilis Deus." (AP, 12/8/97)(PTA, 1980, p.510)(WSJ, 6/3/99, p.A27) 1854 nend Dec 9, Alfred, Lord Tennyson?s poem, "The Charge of the Light Brigade," was published in England. (AP, 12/9/97) 1854 nend Dec 26, Wood pulp paper was 1st exhibited in Buffalo. (MC, 12/26/01) 1854 nend Gustave Courbet painted "The Meeting [Bonjour, Monsieur Courbet!]." It depicted a meeting with his patron, art collector Alfred Bruyas (1821-1877). (SFC, 1/22/05, p.E1) 1854 nend Eugene Delacroix painted "Arabs Stalking a Lion." (WSJ, 9/24/98, p.A16) 1854 nend Franz Xaver Winterhalter painted a portrait of Empress Eugenie, wife of Napoleon III. (WSJ, 4/3/03, p.D8) 1854 nend A lighthouse, the first on the West Coast, was completed on Alcatraz. (SFEC, 3/8/98, p.W38) 1854 nend The National Hotel was built in Nevada City, Ca. In 2006 it was California?s oldest continuously operating hotel. (SSFC, 2/5/06, p.F9) 1854 nend The Detroit Observatory, the second oldest building of the Univ. of Michigan was initiated by Henry P. Tappan, first pres. of the U of M. (LSA, Spring 1995, p.39) 1854 nend Dr. George W. L. Bickley, a Virginian who had moved to Ohio, organized the first "castle," or local branch, of the Knights of the Golden Circle in Cincinnati and soon took the order to the South, where it was enthusiastically received. Its principal object was to provide a force to colonize the northern part of Mexico and thus extend proslavery interests, and the Knights became especially active in Texas. The Knights of the Golden Circle was a secret society organized in the 1850s in the American Midwest that promoted the extension of slavery. During the American Civil War the society sympathized with the Confederacy, encouraged desertion in the Union Army, resisted enlistment and interfered with the draft. At its peak there were some 200,000 members. It changed its name to the Order of American Knights in 1863 and in 1864 to the Sons of Liberty. Northern authorities arrested many members in 1864 and sentenced to death three of its leaders. The death sentences were later suspended, the leaders ordered released in 1866 by the Supreme Court. http://www.dev.infoplease.com/ce5/CE028675.html (HNQ, 8/2/99) 1854 nend Lola Montez, international performer famed for her ?Spider Dance,? retired to Grass Valley, Ca., and taught her neighbor, Lotta Crabtree, how to sing and dance. (CVG, Vol 16, p.11) 1854 nend The Royal and Ancient Club of the Old Course at St. Andrews was established. It oversaw the rules of the game of golf which was played as early as ~1473. (SFC, 6/25/95, p.T-9) 1854 nend US Congress passed a resolution that declared: The great and conservative element in our system is the belief of our people in the pure doctrines and divine truths of the gospel of Jesus Christ. (WSJ, 6/26/01, p.A23) 1854 nend The New England Emigrant Aid Society was created to colonize Kansas with Northern abolitionists. The Massachusetts Emigrant Aid Society, founded by Eli Thayer of Worcester, Massachusetts, promoted the settlement of anti-slavery groups in Kansas, with the ultimate objective of making it a free state. Adhering to the cause of "popular sovereignty," the organization-which was reincorporated in February, 1855 as the New England Emigrant Aid Company-founded the town of Lawrence and other Free State communities. Active into 1857, it helped settle some 2,000 people in Kansas. (WSJ, 3/27/98, p.W10)(HNQ, 10/5/99) 1854 nend The California Legislature defined a public grave-yard as a place where the bodies of six or more persons are buried. (WSJ, 12/16/98, p.CA1) 1854 nend Yosemite Valley was granted to California as a public trust. (SFEC, 5/18/97, Z1 p.4) 1854 nend Ulysses S. Grant was stationed at Fort Humboldt in northern California. (SFEC, 4/13/97, p.T5) 1854 nend The US Navy bought Mare Island near Vallejo for $83,491. Commander David Glasgow Farragut arrived to transform the island into a productive shipyard. He later became the Navy?s first admiral. (SFC, 5/7/97, p.A15)(SSFC, 8/11/02, p.C5) 1854 nend The Mariposa County courthouse was built. The county initially covered a third of the state. The Mariposa Gazette began operations. In 2003 Mariposa County ranked 53rd among the state's 58 counties in terms of population and income. (SFC, 5/29/03, p.A14)(SSFC, 7/1/07, p.W8) 1854 nend The Union Democrat newspaper of Sonora, Ca., began publishing. (SFC, 1/3/98, p.A19) 1854 nend A newspaper began publishing in Eureka, Ca. By 2006 Times-Standard operated with a paid circulation of 20,000 and was managed by Dean Singleton of the Denver-based MediaNews Group. (SFCM, 8/13/06, p.10) 1854 nend Seth Shaw built his family home in Ferndale, Ca. The town later became a California historic landmark and the Shaw House an Inn listed on the National Register of Historic Places. (SSFC, 6/10/07, p.G8) 1854 nend In SF the city?s original International Hotel was built on Jackson Street. (SSFC, 8/19/07, p.B1) 1854 nend St. Paul, Minn., was founded. (USAT, 3/5/04, p.9A) 1854 nend Washington State became a US territory. (HT, 3/97, p.8) 1854 nend In Keshena Falls, Wisconsin, the Menomonee (people of the wild rice) Chiefs Oshkosh and Keshena met with federal Indian agents and agreed to retain only 275,000 acres from their original 9 œ million acres. As part of the settlement the chiefs and their followers were promised eternal government protection. In 1954 Congress voted to withdraw that support. (NG, Aug., 1974, p.235) 1854 nend The Bradley & Hubbard Manufacturing Co. was founded in Meriden, Conn. The company made clocks, tables, frames, irons, chandeliers and other metal objects. Their lamps are prized by collectors. (SFC, 8/6/97, Z1 p.6) 1854 nend Stephen Hedges of NYC patented his convertible chair, a half round table hinged to a half round chair. (SFC, 7/8/98, Z1 p.3) 1854 nend Bernard Riemann conjectured that the universe as a whole might be non-Euclidean in nature, curving into a "hypersphere". (WSJ, 2/17/95, p.A-10) 1854 nend Archeologist G.B. de Rossi, while excavating the Christian catacombs in Rome discovered a marble-pillared chamber filled with rubble and fragments of inscriptions suggesting the burial of several early Popes. (ITV, 1/96, p.60) 1854 nend White settlers in Del Norte County, Ca., ambushed and killed 30 Tolowa Indians at the Etculet village on Lake Earl. (SFEC, 7/16/00, p.B1) 1854 nend In Australia Chartist ideas influenced the miners of Eureka Stockade in 1854 in Victoria where they adopted all of Chartism's six points including the secret ballot. Chartism was a movement for political and social reform in the United Kingdom during the mid-19th century, between 1838 and 1850. It takes its name from the People's Charter of 1838. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secret_ballot) 1854 nend Elisabeth of Bavaria (16) married the Habsburg Emp. Franz Josef II (23). (WSJ, 12/8/97, p.A13) 1854 nend Daniel Florence O?Leary (53), Irish-born personal secretary to Simon Bolivar, died in Bogota. After Bolivar?s death (1830) O?Leary served in a diplomatic capacity for the Venezuelan and British governments in Bogota. In 1879 his memoirs were published by his son. (ON, 3/05, p.2) 1854 nend In England the Crystal Palace, a glass and steel structure built for the Great Exhibition of 1851 was moved to the park at Sydenham, south London. The grounds at the suggestion of Prince Albert were landscaped with statues of extinct animals by the sculptor Water-house Hawkins. (T.E.-J.B. p.20) 1854 nend Charles Wheatstone, British cryptologist, invented cipher to be used by diplomats, but a government official worried that it was too complicated. In 2006 Stephen Pincock authored ?Codebreaker? a tale of codes and ciphers as well as their creators and crackers. (WSJ, 10/7/06, p.P12) 1854 nend Phillip Morris began making cigarettes in London. (SFC, 9/27/97, p.E3) 1854 nend Cholera broke out in London again. Dr. John Snow traced it to cesspool near a public water pump on Broad Street. (ON, 5/05, p.9) 1854 nend Italian anatomist Fillipo Pacini discovered the cholera bacillus, but did not prove that it caused cholera. His work remained obscure and was not translated to English. (ON, 5/05, p.10) 1854 nend Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) nursed wounded soldiers at Scutari Hospital in Turkey during the Crimean War. (HNQ, 4/29/01) 1854 nend Alfred Russel Wallace began his historic study of Malay flora and fauna in and around Bukit Timah hill in Singapore. (NH, 4/1/04, p.56) 1854 nend In northern Russia Solovki monks fought off a British naval siege. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.83) 1854 nend Richard Owen, founder of London?s Natural History Museum discovered fossils in South Africa of a plant-eating prosauropod named Massospondylus (bulky vertebrae). Owen is the man who coined the term dinosaur. (SFC, 7/29/05, p.A2) c 1854 1856 George Robinson Fardon (1807-1886), British photographer, took pictures of SF for his "San Francisco Album 1854-1856," believed to be the first camera survey of an American city. (SFC, 6/19/99, p.B3) 1854 1857 David Kerr charted more than 100 sq. miles of the San Francisco Bay Area marshland for the US Coast Survey, the first federal mapping agency. (SFC, 10/25/96, p.A10)(http://tinyurl.com/2uwjs3) 1854 1860 The six golden years of French photographer Felix Nadar, representing the best of his portrait photography. (Smith., 5/95, p.72) 1854 1923 Bourke Cockran, American politician and orator: "You simply cannot hang a millionaire in America." (AP, 11/18/97) 1854 1928 Leos Janacek, Czech composer. His work included the opera "Makropulos" (1926), The Dostoevsky based "From the House of the Dead" and "Katya Kabanova." (WSJ, 1/3/96, p.A-7)(WSJ, 8/20/96, p.A8)(WUD, 1994, p.763)(SFC,1/27/97, p.A20)(WSJ, 6/03/97, p.A20) 1854 1932 George Eastman, American inventor, industrialist, and philanthropist. (AHD, 1971, p.411) 1854 1937 Frances Brundage, artist and illustrator. She did paintings of Victorian children and illustrated over 240 books along with calendars, postcards, cloth dolls and prints. (SFC, 8/4/99, Z1 p.5) 1855 nend Jan 5, King Camp Gillette, inventor (safety razor), was born. (MC, 1/5/02) 1855 nend Jan 9, The clipper ship Guiding Star disappeared in Atlantic and 480 died. (MC, 1/9/02) 1855 nend Jan 21, John M. Browning, US weapons manufacturer, was born. (MC, 1/21/02) 1855 nend Feb 5, Viscount Palmerston (70) became Britain's prime minister and served until his death in 1865. (PC, 1992, p.273) 1855 nend Feb 10, US citizenship laws were amended to include all children of US parents born abroad. (MC, 2/10/02) 1855 nend Feb 11, Josephine Marshall Jewell Dodge, American educator, pioneer in the concept of day nurseries for children, was born. (HN, 2/11/01) 1855 nend Feb 19, Nicholas I Pavlovich (58), tsar of Russia (1825-55), died. Alexander II became tsar of Russia. (www2.sptimes.com/Treasures/TC.2.3.17.html) 1855 nend Feb 22, In Washington DC the Know-Nothing Party seized control of the Washington Monument Association and kept control for 3 years. (ON, 3/00, p.10) 1855 nend Feb 24, US Court of Claims was formed for cases against the government. (MC, 2/24/02) 1855 nend Feb, There was a run on the California bank in Columbia and rumors of a failure caused a run throughout the state. (SFEC, 1/5/97, p.T9) 1855 nend Mar 3, Congress approved $30,000 to test camels for military use. Sec. of War Jefferson Davis sent agents to northern Africa to purchase a small herd of camels and sent them to New Mexico to transport goods to California (SC, 3/3/02)(SFC, 2/20/04, p.A22) 1855 nend Mar 3, Registration of letters was authorized by Congress. (SC, 3/3/02) 1855 nend Mar 3, Architect Robert Mills (b.1781) designer of the Washington Monument in Washington, D.C., died. The structure, begun in 1848, was not completed until 1884. (WSJ, 2/16/08,p.W18)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mills_(architect)) 1855 nend Mar 8, The first train crossed Niagara Falls on a suspension bridge. (HN, 3/8/98) 1855 nend Mar 13, Percival Lowell (d.1916), astronomer, was born. He predicted the discovery of the planet Pluto. He also wrote "The Soul of the Far East" and "Occult Japan." He predicted the existence of a planet beyond Neptune before Pluto was discovered by Tombaugh in 1930. (NH, 12/96, p.22)(HN, 3/13/99) 1855 nend Mar 15, Louisiana established the 1st health board to regulate quarantine. (MC, 3/15/02) 1855 nend Mar 24, Andrew Mellon, U.S. financier and philanthropist, was born. He developed interests in coal, railroads, steel and water power. He also donated his entire collection of paintings to the National Gallery of Art. (HN, 3/24/00) 1855 nend Mar 24, Manhattan, Kansas, was founded as New Boston, Kansas. (MC, 3/24/02) 1855 nend Mar 27, Abraham Gesner patented kerosene. (HN, 3/27/98) 1855 nend Mar 30, First election in Territorial Kansas. Some 5,000 "Border Ruffians" invaded the territory from western Missouri and forced the election of a pro-slavery legislature. (MC, 3/30/02) 1855 nend Mar 31, Charlotte Bronte (b.1816), English author (Jane Eyre), died. (MC, 3/31/02) 1855 nend Apr 18, Jean-Baptiste Isabey, painter, died. (MC, 4/18/02) 1855 nend Apr 21, The 1st train crossed the Mississippi River's 1st bridge. (MC, 4/21/02) 1855 nend Apr 26, Composer Gioacchino Rossini left Italy. (MC, 4/26/02) 1855 nend Apr 29, Anatol K. Liadov, Russian composer (Bewitched Lake) [OS], was born. (MC, 4/29/02) 1855 nend May 3, Macon B. Allen became the first African American to be admitted to the Bar in Massachusetts. (HN, 5/3/99) 1855 nend May 4, Camille Pleyel (66), Austrian piano builder, composer, died. (MC, 5/4/02) 1855 nend May 5, NYC regained Castle Clinton. It would be used for immigration. (MC, 5/5/02) 1855 nend May 10, Anatoli Liadov, composer (Enchanted Lake), was born in St Petersburg, Russia. (MC, 5/10/02) 1855 nend Jun 1, William Walker (1824-1860), US adventurer, stormed into Granada, Nicaragua. On July 12, 1857, he declared himself president. Walker reestablished slavery and planned an 18-mile canal from Lake Nicaragua to the Pacific. (SSFC, 4/10/05, p.F4)(www.sfmuseum.org/hist1/walker.html) no_source 1855 nend Jun 5, The anti-foreign, anti-Roman Catholic Know-Nothing Party held its 1st convention. (MC, 6/5/02) 1855 nend Jun 13, Verdi's opera "Les Vepres Sicilenne" was produced (Paris). (MC, 6/13/02) 1855 nend Jun 14, Robert Marion "Fighting Bob" La Follette, reform movement leader, Governor of Wisconsin, U.S. Senator, Progressive Party presidential candidate, was born. (HN, 6/14/98) 1855 nend Jun 15, Stamp duty on British newspapers was abolished. (HT, 6/15/00) 1855 nend Jun 17, Heavy French-British shelling of Sebastopol killed over 2000. (MC, 6/17/02) 1855 nend Jul 4, One of America's greatest poets -- Walt Whitman -- published the first edition of his famous "Leaves of Grass", a collection of 12 poems. Whitman published the edition himself and had about 1,000 copies printed. He later recalled about the publication, "I don't think one copy was sold, not a copy." The book was published in Philadelphia after the Boston district attorney cited 22 passages as violating a state law against obscenity. The book revealed the poet?s homosexuality in coded verse. (SFEC, 9/14/97, BR p.7)(IB, Internet, 12/7/98)(SFC, 3/3/99, Z1 p.9) 1855 nend Jul 4, The Whaling ship Candace, built in Boston in 1818, entered SF Bay and never left. In 2005 it was found at a SF construction site at Folsom and Spear streets. (SFC, 1/28/06, p.A1) 1855 nend Jul 18, In Philadelphia William Still, a leader in the Underground Railroad, liberated Jane Johnson and her 2 sons from Col. John H. Wheeler, the recently appointed US Minister to Nicaragua. Still was tried and acquitted. "The Underground Railroad" by William Still was published in 1871. (ON, 10/01, p.5) 1855 nend Jul 30, Wilhelm von Siemens, German industrialist, was born. (MC, 7/30/02) 1855 nend Aug 4, John Bartlett, a Cambridge bookseller, published the 1st edition of "Bartlett?s Familiar Quotations." (WSJ, 10/18/02, p.W17)(MC, 8/4/02) 1855 nend Sep 3, General William Harney defeated Little Thunder?s Brule Sioux at the Battle of Blue Water in Nebraska. (HN, 9/3/98) 1855 nend Sep 6, Ferdinand B. Hummel, composer, was born. (MC, 9/6/01) 1855 nend Sep 10, Sevastopol, under siege for nearly a year, capitulated to the Allies in the Crimean war. (HN, 9/10/98) 1855 nend Sep 27, George F. Bristow's "Rip Van Winkle," 2nd American opera, opened in NYC. (MC, 9/27/01) 1855 nend Oct 9, Isaac Singer patented sewing machine motor. (MC, 10/9/01) 1855 nend Oct 9, Joshua Stoddard of Worcester, Mass., patented the 1st calliope. (MC, 10/9/01) 1855 nend Oct 12, Arthur Nikisch, later conductor of the Berlin Philharmonic, was born in Szent-Miklos, Hungary. (MC, 10/12/01) 1855 nend Oct 13, Gottfried Rieger, composer, died at 91. (MC, 10/13/01) 1855 nend Oct 17, The Bessemer steel making process was patented. (MC, 10/17/01) 1855 nend Oct 18, Franz Liszt's "Prometheus," premiered. (MC, 10/18/01) 1855 nend Oct 26, Charles Post, creator of breakfast cereals (Post Cereals), was born. [see Oct 25, 1854] (MC, 10/26/01) 1855 nend Nov 5, Eugene V. Debs, American socialist leader and first president of the American Railway Union, was born. (HN, 11/5/98) 1855 nend Nov 11, The 6.9 Ansei Edo earthquake hit near Edo (Tokyo), Japan. Some 8,000 casualties resulted with about 14,000 structures destroyed. no_source 7 nend /4/09, p.39) 1855 Nov 11, Soren A. Kierkegaard (b.1813), Danish philosopher and theologian, died. In 2005 Joakim Garff authored ?Søren A. Kierkegaard: A Biography.? (www.connect.net/ron/kierkegaard.html)(WSJ, 2/3/05, p.D8) 1855 nend Nov 21, Franklin Colman, a pro-slavery Missourian, gunned down Charles Dow, a Free Stater from Ohio, near Lawrence, Kansas. (HN, 11/22/02) 1855 nend Nov 26, Several thousand people staged a parade and banquet at South Park, SF, to celebrate the Allied victory over the Russians in the Crimean War, the capture of the Malakoff fortress in Sevastopol. (SFC, 7/21/00, p.WBb3) 1855 nend Dec 12, Jean de Charpentier (b.1786), a German-Swiss geologist, died in Bex, Switzerland. (ON, 10/08, p.12)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_de_Charpentier) 1855 nend Dec 14, Ice hockey was played by 2 military teams in Canada. [see 1875] (CFA, ?96, p.60)(WSJ, 1/11/99,p.R34)(http://library.thinkquest.org/10480/hockey.html) 1855 nend Dec 27, Paul Ehrenreich, German ethnologist and mythologist, was born. (MC, 12/27/01) c 1855 nend Alexandre Marie Colin painted a portrait of Napoleon III. (WSJ, 4/3/03, p.D8) 1855 nend Eugene Delacroix painted "The Riding Lesson." (WSJ, 9/24/98, p.A16) 1855 nend Camille Pissarro (1830-1903), French impressionist, moved to France from his native St. Thomas in the Virgin Islands. (WSJ, 1/14/97, p.A16)(Hem., 1/97, p.124)(WUD, 1994, p.1097) 1855 nend James McNeill Whistler, American painter and etcher, moved to France and England. (WUD, 1994, p.1628) 1855 nend P.T. Barnum wrote "The Life of P.T. Barnum, Written by Himself." (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R40) 1855 nend Alexander Herzen, the father of Russian socialism, published "My Past and Thoughts." In 1998 Aileen M. Kelly published "Toward Another Shore," a collection of writings on the Russian Revolutionary tradition. (WSJ, 8/24/98, p.A10) 1855 nend Henry Wadsworth Longfellow composed his poem "Hiawatha." (NH, 5/97, p.34) 1855 nend A novella by Herman Melville, "Benito Cereno" looked at the 1839 rebellion of the Amistad slave ship through the eyes of an American interloper. (WSJ, 12/5/97, p.A16) 1855 nend The 800 plus-page "The Annals of San Francisco" was published. (SFEC, 2/9/97, p.W4,5) 1855 nend The Point Bonita Lighthouse was built for ships approaching the Golden Gate of San Francisco. (G, Summer ?97, p.5) 1855 nend The Hoyt House, overlooking the Hudson River in Dutchess County, N.Y., was designed by Calvert Vaux. It was acquired by the state in 1962 for $300,000. It became an orphan property of the state and in 1998 was offered to private benefactors on a 40-year lease. (SFC, 3/11/98, Z1 p.9) 1855 nend The Lawler House in Suisun City, Ca. was built at 718 Main St. (Hem., Nov.?95, p.91) 1855 nend The Point Pinos Lighthouse on the Monterey Peninsula began operation. (Hem., 1/96, p.26) 1855 nend Dwight L. Moody, Biblicist and later founder of the Moody Bible Institute in Chicago, embraced Jesus as his personal savior in a Boston shoe store. (WSJ, 7/7/99, p.A1) c 1855 nend Black cast iron furniture moved indoors. (SFC, 7/17/96, z-1, p.7) 1855 nend Marshall Field (21) moved to Chicago from Pittsfield, Mass. Potter Palmer, owner of a retail and wholesale operation, later sold his business to Marshall Field and bookkeeper Levi Z. Leiter. In 1947 John Tebbel authored "The Marshall Fields: A Study in Wealth." In 2002 Axel Madsen authored "The Marshall Fields: The Evolution of an American Business Dynasty." (WSJ, 10/9/02, p.D8) 1855 nend The first white man, surveyor Henry Washington, arrived in the area of Twenty-Nine Palms of Southern California. (Sp., 5/96, p.123) 1855 nend John Brown moved to Kansas to join the escalating fight between pro and anti slavery factions. (ON, 7/02, p.6) 1855 nend In Oregon some 400 pioneers arrived via the Oregon Trail and established the first Christian communal society west of the Mississippi at Aurora. (SFEC, 10/18/98, p.T6) 1855 nend In the summer the first tourists visited Yosemite Valley. (SFEC,12/28/97, Z1 p.1) 1855 nend Millard Fillmore, the 13th president of the United States, declined to accept an honorary degree from the University of Oxford, proclaiming, "I had not the advantage of a classical education, and no man should, in my judgment, accept a degree he cannot read." (HNQ, 2/17/99) 1855 nend The US government signed a treaty with some American Indians that gave them permanent rights to their existing lands. The Makah tribe of Washington secured a right to hunt whales in exchange for ceding title to their land. In 1972 the Marine Mammals Protection Act prohibited the slaughter of whales without a permit. (SFEC, 6/15/97, Par. p.5)(SFC,10/24/97, p.A9)(SSFC, 7/13/08, p.E4) 1855 nend Nez Perce elders agreed to sell most of their land to the US government. They retained some 10 thousand square miles as a reservation in the area where Washington, Oregon and Idaho meet. Gold was soon discovered in the area and in 1863 the US government called for a new deal. (ON, 3/04, p.1) 1855 nend In northern California tensions between the Wintu Indians and miners brewed into the Battle of Castel Crags. This became one of several triggers for the Modoc War (1872-1873). (SSFC, 5/14/06, p.G8) 1855 nend The US built the Panama Railroad. (SSFC, 5/14/06, p.G4) 1855 nend George Calvert Yount (1794-1865) founded a town he named Sebastopol in Napa Valley, Ca. Another town already had that name and in 1867 it was renamed Yountville. (http://www.westsong.com/yountville/)(SSFC, 12/5/04, Par p.8) 1855 nend A depression slowed progress in San Francisco when the money supply dwindled after banks had overextended in loans to unprofitable ventures. (SFC, 5/19/96,City Guide, p.16) 1855 nend George Hunzinger (d.1898) moved to New York from Germany and established himself as a cabinet maker. He patents included a material made by weaving flat wire covered with woven textile used for furniture seating. His family continued the business to 1925. (SFC, 2/4/98, Z1 p.6) 1855 nend In Connecticut Thomas Day purchased the Hartford Courant newspaper. He wrote in one editorial: "We believe the Caucasian variety of the human species superior to the Negro variety; and we would breed the best stock." In 2000 the Courant apologized for running ads for the sale of slaves up to 1823. (SFC, 7/6/00, p.C2) 1855 nend Anderson Preserve Co. incorporated. It sold Boston Market Catsup throughout the US. (SFC, 8/27/03, p.E4) 1855 nend Chicago Gas was incorporated. (WSJ, 5/28/96, p. R-45) 1855 nend Organic chemist Benjamin Stillman laid the foundations for the Pennsylvania oil rush by his discovery that petroleum could be distilled into lubricants and kerosene for cooking and illumination. Suddenly there was a use for the crude oil that seeped to the surface, annoying farmers by ruining the land and polluting the water supply. (HNPD, 10/4/98) 1855 nend Conical innersprings came into use in furniture seats. (SFC, 7/14/99, p.4) 1855 nend Dr. Philip Cammann of NYC improved the design of the Laennec stethoscope by adding rubber ear pieces and rubber tubing to conduct the sound. [see 1826] (ON, 9/00, p.11) 1855 nend Yellow Fever broke out in Norfolk, Va., after a steamship carrying mosquitoes in its cisterns docked from the West Indies. (SSFC, 5/22/05, Par p.4) 1855 nend Sotos Ochado proposed an artificial language in which words for related subjects began with the same letter, e.g. words beginning with a would refer to inorganic objects, b the liberal arts etc. (Wired, 8/96, p.86) 1855 nend Palaeoscincus, one of the armored dinosaurs, was discovered by Dr. Ferdinand Vandiveer Hayden in the United States. (T.E.-J.B. p.24) 1855 nend Some 240 cases of archeological material was lost when transport rafts were attacked and sunk by Arab brigands at Kurnah, where the Tigris and Euphrates join to form the Shatt-al-Arab. (RFH-MDHP, p.218) 1855 nend The English Commons voted for an inquiry into the conduct of the Crimean campaign. (Econ, 11/4/06, p.67) 1855 nend In England Edward Agar led the Great Bullion Robbery of a mail train with a railroad guard as an accomplice. In 1998 Donald Thomas published "The Victorian Underworld," on the emergence of the urban criminal class in Britain. (SFEC, 1/3/99, BR p.8) 1855 nend The third pandemic of plague erupted in China. (NG, 5/88, p.682) 1855 nend Napoleon III ordered up a list of the best wines of Bordeaux and ranked the best according to quality and price. Those at the top became known as the first growths and included Châteaux Haut-Brion, Lafite Rothschild, Latour, and Margaux. Mouton Rothschild was elevated in 1973. (WSJ, 4/23/04, p.A1)(SFC, 10/1/04, p.W6) 1855 nend Paris held the Exposition Universelle. A series of photographs of Charles Deburau as the mime Pierrot won a gold medal. (Smith., 5/95, p.79-80) 1855 nend The World Alliance of the YMCA was established at the first International Conference held in Paris. Jean Henri Dunant (1828-1910), Swiss Calvinist, founded the Geneva branch of the YMCA in 1852. In 1855 he took part in the Paris meeting devoted to the founding of its international organization. no_source 1855 nend David Livingstone, English physician and explorer, first saw the 328-foot waterfall on the Zambezi River. Livingstone named the falls, which straddled the Zambia and Zimbabwe border, Victoria Falls. The local name is Musi-oa-Tunya (the smoke that thunders). (SSFC, 5/29/05, p.F2)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Falls) 1855 1875 The "raising of Chicago" took place. The town, built on mud, had begun to sink and forced new foundations and new drainage lines. The work was hailed as one of the wonders of the 19th century. (SFEC, 6/11/00, Z1 p.2) 1855 1880 Edward "Ned" Kelly was an outlaw folk hero who was hung for his crimes. Inspired by tales of the American ironclad, the Monitor, Kelly wore an 80-pound suit of armor during his final crimes. In 2000 Peter Carey authored the novel "True History of the Kelly Gang." (SFC, 5/3/97, p.E4)(WSJ, 1/05/00, p.W8)(SSFC, 1/14/01, BR p.1) 1855 1905 Fiona MacLeod (William Sharp), Scottish author and poet: "My heart is a lonely hunter that hunts on a lonely hill." (AP, 9/15/98) 1855 1916 Josiah Royce, American philosopher: "Love is never merely an amiable tolerance of whatever form human frailty and folly may take." (AP, 11/3/99) 1855 1920 Olive Schreiner, South African author and feminist: "My feeling is that there is nothing in life but refraining from hurting others, and comforting those that are sad." (AP, 7/24/98) 1855 1926 Eugene V. Debs, American socialist leader: "No man ever made a great speech on a mean subject." (AP, 3/1/99) 1855 1930 George Edward Woodberry, American poet, critic and educator: "To feel that one has a place in life solves half the problem of contentment." (AP, 8/15/97) 1856 nend Jan 5, Pierre J. David (67), [David d'Angers], French sculptor, died. (MC, 1/5/02) 1856 nend Jan 8, Dr. John A. Veatch discovered borax in Tuscan Springs, Calif. (MC, 1/8/02) 1856 nend Jan 12, John Singer Sargent (d.1925), American Gilded Age portrait painter (Wyndham Sisters), was born. (SFC, 4/11/01, p.E1)(MC, 1/12/02) 1856 nend Jan 18, Daniel Nathan Hale Williams, surgeon (1st open heart operation), was born. (MC, 1/18/02) 1856 nend Feb 5, John Muir wrote about sawmills encroaching on Redwood forests and the problem of "sheep-men?s" fires in this day?s issue of the Sacramento Daily Union. (SFEM, 5/18/97, p.28) 1856 nend Feb 14, Frank Harris, journalist, writer (My Life & Loves), was born in England. (MC, 2/14/02) 1856 nend Feb 17, Heinrich Heine (b.1797), German journalist and poet, died in Paris. His prose work included a series of travel memoirs that began in 1826 with ?The Harz Journey.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Heine) 1856 nend Feb 18, The American (Know-Nothing) Party abolished secrecy. (MC, 2/18/02) 1856 nend Feb 19, Tin-type camera was patented by Hamilton Smith in Gambier, Ohio. (MC, 2/19/02) 1856 nend Feb 25, Charles Lang Freer (1854-1919), U.S. art collector, was born. (HN, 2/25/98)(WSJ, 11/6/98, p.W10) 1856 nend Feb 29, Hostilities in Russo-Turkish war ceased. (HN, 2/29/00) 1856 nend Mar 5, Covent Garden Opera House was destroyed in a fire. (MC, 3/5/02) 1856 nend Mar 25, A.E. Burnside patented the Burnside carbine. (MC, 3/25/02) 1856 nend Mar 30, Russia signed Peace of Paris ending the Crimean War. (MC, 3/30/02) 1856 nend Apr 3, Gunpowder in church exploded killing 4,000 in Rhodes. (MC, 4/3/02) 1856 nend Apr 5, Booker T. Washington, Black American educator, was born in Franklin County, Va. The former slave later founded the Tuskegee Institute. Booker Taliaferro Washington later became the 1st black on US stamp. (AP, 5/5/97)(HN, 4/5/99)(MC, 4/5/02) 1856 nend Apr 11, Battle of Rivas; Costa Rica beat William Walker's invading Nicaraguans. (MC, 4/11/02) 1856 nend Apr 18, Eureka, Ca., was founded in Humboldt County. (SSFC, 4/2/06, p.F10) 1856 nend Apr 23, Free Stater J.N. Mace in Westport, Kansas shot pro-slavery sheriff Samuel Jones in the back. (HN, 4/23/99) 1856 nend Apr 24, Henri Philippe Pétain, French Marshall, was born. He was known as the 'hero of Verdun' but collaborated with the Nazis after the fall of France in 1940 and convicted of treason in 1945. Petain was executed in 1951. (HN, 4/24/99)(Econ, 5/21/05, p.84) 1856 nend Apr 26, Some 20 settlers of Honey Lake Valley, California, met at the cabin of Isaac Roop and formed "the independent Territory of Nataqua." They named the cabin Fort Defiance, chose Peter Lassen as their surveyor and selected Susanville, named after Roop's daughter, as the territorial capital. (SFC, 2/27/04, p.D4) 1856 nend Apr 28, Yokut Indians repelled an attack on their land by 100 would-be Indian fighters in California. (HN, 4/28/00) 1856 nend Apr 29, A peace treaty between England and Russia was signed. (HN, 4/29/98) 1856 nend May 3, Adolphe Charles Adam (52), French composer, critic (Giselle), died. (MC, 5/3/02) 1856 nend May 6, Robert Peary, arctic explorer, was born. He reached the North Pole in 1909. [see 1909 &1856-1920, Peary] (HFA, ?96, p.30)(AHD, p.964)(HN, 5/6/98) 1856 nend May 6, Sigmund Freud (d.1939), father of psychology and the Viennese physician who discovered the unconscious, was born. He treated his hysterical patients by encouraging them to associate freely. He insisted that sexual desires and fears lay just beneath the surface of everyone?s mind. A biography of Freud was later written by Peter Gay. (V.D.-H.K.p.281-282)(SFEC, 1/11/98, BR p.9)(HN, 5/6/98) 1856 nend May 6, U.S. Army troops from Fort Tejon and Fort Miller prepare to ride out to protect Keyesville, California, from Yokut Indian attack. (HN, 5/6/00) 1856 nend May 13, Peter Henry Emerson, 1st to promote photography as an independent art, was born. (MC, 5/13/02) 1856 nend May 14, James P. Casey, editor of the SF Times, shot James King, proprietor of the rival Evening Bulletin. King died 6 days later. A ?Vigilance Committee? of 2,600 later marched up Sacramento St. and broke into the jail where Casey was held. He was lynched with his unfortunate cell mate. (SFEC, 3/8/98, BR p.1) 1856 nend May 15, Lyman Frank Baum (d.1919) was born in Chittenango, NY. He had been a failed storekeeper, a reporter and, when his first children's book was published in 1897, a traveling china salesman. Two years later, Baum teamed with poster artist William Wallace Denslow to produce ?Father Goose, His Book,? the best-selling children's book of the year. ?The Wonderful Wizard of Oz? in 1900 was the second collaboration for Baum and Denslow. This color woodcut, "You ought to be ashamed of yourself!" is one of 24 full-page color plates that illustrated the first edition of the beloved children's classic [see 1891]. (HNPD, 5/14/99)(AP, 5/15/07) 1856 nend May 19, Senator Charles Sumner spoke out against slavery. (HN, 5/19/98) 1856 nend May 20, Henri E. Cross (d.1910), French painter, was born. His real surname was Delacroix but was changed in 1881. (MC, 5/20/02) 1856 nend May 20, Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner (1811-1874), an outspoken antagonist against slavery, gave the "Crime Against Kansas" speech. [see May 22] Sumner helped form the Republican Party. (HNQ, 7/7/99) 1856 nend May 20, James King, editor of the Evening Bulletin, died from wounds suffered on May 14. His death brought about the rising of vigilantes and the take over of the SF government. (PI, 8/8/98, p.5)(http://elane.stanford.edu/wilson/Text/11b.html) 1856 nend May 21, Grace Hoadley Dodge, philanthropist, helped organize the YWCA, was born. (HN, 5/21/01) 1856 nend May 21, Lawrence, Kansas, was captured and sacked by pro-slavery forces. (HN, 5/21/98) 1856 nend May 22, Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner was assaulted on the Senate floor by South Carolina?s Preston Brooks. Representative Brooks, a pro-slavery Democrat from South Carolina, used a cane to attack Senator Charles Sumner, a Republican abolitionist from Mass. Sumner was beaten unconscious and was unable to resume duties for 3 years. Brooks resigned from his seat but was re-elected. Sumner's injuries in the attack compelled his absence from the Senate until December, 1859. (SFC, 7/25/98, p.A6)(HNQ, 7/7/99) 1856 nend May 24, The Potawatomi Massacre took place in Kansas. John Brown, American abolitionist and horse thief, presided over the hacking to death with machetes of five unarmed pro-slavery Border Ruffians in Potawatomi, Kansas. (WSJ, 4/10/95, A-16)(WSJ, 3/16/98, p.A20)(MC, 5/24/02) 1856 nend May 26, George Templeton Strong, composer, essayist, was born. (MC, 5/26/02) 1856 nend Jun 5, U.S. Army troops in the Four creeks region of California, headed back to quarters, officially ending the Tule River War. Fighting, however, continued for a few more years. (HN, 6/5/00) 1856 nend Jun 8, The British resettled 194 people from Pitcairn Island onto Norfolk Island. (SFEM, 3/12/00, p.66) 1856 nend Jun 16, James Strang, king of Big Beaver Island, Mich., was ambushed by Thomas Bedford and Alexander Wentworth. They shot him three times and then pistol-whipped him and fled to Mackinac on the USS Michigan. Bedford and Wentworth were brought before a justice of the peace and after a brief hearing were fined $1.25 for court costs and released as public heroes. Soon after, 75 vigilantes sailed to Beaver Island and cleared out the Strangite adherents. (Smith., Aug. 1995, p.88) 1856 nend Jun 17, In Philadelphia, the Republican Party opened its first national convention. John C. Fremont (1830-1890), American explorer, was the 1st Republican presidential candidate. He platform pledged to end polygamy and slavery. He lost to James Buchanan by about 500,000 votes. Fremont went on to serve as territorial governor of Arizona from 1878 to 1883. In 2003 Lewis L. Gould authored "Grand Old Party: A History of the Republicans." (AP, 6/17/97)(HN, 6/17/98)(SFEC, 2/13/00, BR p.5)(HNQ, 3/11/00)(WSJ,9/7/01, p.W17)(SSFC, 11/23/03, p.M1) 1856 nend Jun 19, Elbert Hubbard (d.1915), US, editor, publisher, author (Message to Garcia), was born. "The love we give away is the only love we keep." "If you want work well done, select a busy man -- the other kind has not time." "To escape criticism -- do nothing, say nothing, be nothing." (AP, 7/22/97)(AP, 9/29/97)(AP, 12/12/98)(MC, 6/19/02) 1856 nend Jul 9, Nikola Tesla, electrical engineer, inventor (Tesla Coil), was born in Croatia. (MC, 7/9/02) 1856 nend Jul 12, William Walker, an American, declared himself president of Nicaragua. His execution a few years later in Honduras was rumored to have been staged. (SFC, 7/7/96, BRp.4)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Walker_(soldier)) 1856 nend Jul 26, George Bernard Shaw (d.1950), Irish-born, English dramatist, critic and social reformer (Pygmalion-Nobel 1925), was born in Dublin. "The worst sin toward our fellow creatures is not to hate them, but to be indifferent to them; that's the essence of inhumanity." (V.D.-H.K.p.237)(HN, 7/26/98)(AP, 3/15/00) 1856 nend Jul 29, Robert Schumann (46), German composer, died. He had starved himself to death in a madhouse. The 1947 film "Song of Love" was based on the Robert and Clara Schuman. In 2000 J.D. Landis authored "Longing" a novel based on the love affair between Robert Schuman and Clara Wieck. (BLW, 1963 ed. p.49)(WSJ, 9/22/00, p.W12) 1856 nend Aug 11, A band of rampaging settlers in California killed four Yokut Indians. The settlers had heard unproven rumors of Yokut atrocities. (HN, 8/11/99) 1856 nend Aug 12, Anthony Fass patented an accordion. (MC, 8/12/02) 1856 nend Aug 18, In SF thousands of armed men paraded through the streets and then formally dissolved the second Committee of Vigilance. They had run SF for nearly 4 months much to the distress of Mayor James Van Ness and militia officer William T. Sherman. (SFC, 8/18/06, p.B1) 1856 nend Aug 19, Gail Borden (1801-1874) received a patent for condensed milk and opened a small factory for its production in Walcottville, Conn. At this time milk in NYC sold for 6-7 cents a quart. (ON, 5/04, p.5)(AP, 8/19/06) 1856 nend Aug, Henry Bessemer, English mechanical engineer, presented a paper titled ?The Manufacture of Iron Without Fuel.? In 1860 he established the Bessemer Steel Works in Sheffield. His Bessemer conversion process revolutionized the steel industry. (ON, 9/06, p.6) 1856 nend Aug, Paul Du Chaillu, French-American journalist and hunter, hired a large number of men and women from the Mbondemo tribe to hunt for gorillas in Gabon. (ON, 11/04, p.11) 1856 nend Sep 2, Paul Du Chaillu (1831-1903), French-American journalist and hunter, shot and killed his 1st gorilla in Gabon. Over the next 3 years he killed 31 gorillas. In 1861 he published ?Explorations & Adventures in Equatorial Africa.? (ON, 11/04, p.12) 1856 nend Sep 3, Louis H. Sullivan, architect who gained fame for his design of the Chicago Auditorium Theater, was born in Boston, Mass. The leading figure in the so-called Chicago style of architecture, Louis Sullivan is regarded as the spiritual father of modern U.S. architecture and is particularly identified with the aesthetics of skyscraper design. Born in 1856, Sullivan attended MIT and was among the first to stress the vertical lines of steel skeleton construction. (HN, 9/3/98)(HNQ, 6/11/99)(MC, 9/3/01) 1856 nend Sep 14, At the Battle of San Jacinto, Nicaragua defeated invaders. General José Dolores Estrada led his men against the powerful forces of William Walker and his filibusters, who sought to take over Nicaragua and all of Central America. (http://www.guideofnicaragua.com/0102/MatagalpaEN.html) 1856 nend Sep 24, John Marsh, Harvard graduate and pioneer California settler, was murdered on the road between Pacheco and Martinez while traveling to SF. Marsh was the 1st non-Hispanic to live in Contra Costa County. He had made a fortune attracting settlers to Contra Costa and selling them land. His new 7,000 stone mansion in Brentwood was later made the center-piece of the John Marsh/Cowell Ranch State Park. (SSFC, 9/24/06, p.B3) 1856 nend Oct 1, The first installment of Gustav Flaubert?s novel Madame Bovary (Emma Bovary) appeared in the Revue de Paris after the publisher refused to print a passage in which the character Emma has a tryst in the back seat of a carriage. It was later considered as the first novel of a liberated woman in modern literature. In 1998 Dacia Maraini published "Searching for Emma." A TV version for Masterpiece Theater was shown in 2000. (HN, 10/1/00)(SFEC, 6/28/98, Par p.18)(WSJ, 2/4/00, p.W6) 1856 nend Oct 7, Cyrus Chambers Jr. patented a folding machine that folded books and newspapers. (MC, 10/7/01) 1856 nend Oct 8, Chinese police boarded the British vessel Arrow, arrested 12 Chinese crewmen on suspicion of piracy and lowered the British flag. This began the 2nd Anglo-Chinese War. (EWH, 4th ed, p.911)(MC, 10/8/01) 1856 nend Oct, Migrants to Utah pulling handcarts encountered a blizzard and were rescued by a mule train sent by Brigham Young. More than 200 Mormons died near Martin?s Cove, Wyo., as they migrated West using handcarts. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormon_handcart_pioneers)(SFC,8/13/98, p.A9)(Econ, 12/22/07, p.39) 1856 nend Nov 4, Democrat James Buchanan was elected US president. The American or Know-Nothing Party had nominated Zachary Taylor over Millard Fillmore. The Know-Nothing Party was an anti-foreigner, anti-Catholic political organization. Buchanan easily won the presidential election, gaining 174 electoral votes to Republican John C. Fremont?s 141, and Fillmore?s eight. Fremont failed to carry California after Jasper O?Farrell testified against him in the 1846 murder of 3 Californios. (http://tinyurl.com/8ku7j)(SFC, 9/26/96, p.E10)(SFC, 2/21/97,p.A25)(HNQ, 6/17/01)(SSFC, 6/25/06, p.E1) 1856 nend Nov 13, Louis Brandeis, was born. He became the first Jew to sit on the U.S. Supreme Court. (HN, 11/13/00) 1856 nend Nov 15, The clipper ship Neptune?s Car arrived in SF after sailing 136 days from NYC. Mary Ann Patten (1837-1861), the pregnant 19-year-old wife of Captain Joshua Patten (d.1857), commanded the ship for much of its voyage after the captain fell ill. (AH, 2/05, p.60) 1856 nend Nov 24, Bat Masterson was born in Quebec, Canada. [see Nov 24, 1853] (MesWP) 1856 nend Dec 18, Joseph John Thomson, English physicist, was born. He discovered the electron and won a Nobel Prize in 1906. (MC, 12/18/01) 1856 nend Dec 22, Frank Kellogg, Secretary of State (1925-29) who tried to outlaw war with the Kellogg-Briand Pact, was born. He won a Nobel Prize in 1929. (HN, 12/22/98)(MC, 12/22/01) 1856 nend Dec 28, Woodrow Wilson, 28th president of the United States (1912-1921), who brought the country into World War I, was born in Staunton, Va. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1919. "The American Revolution was a beginning, not a consummation." (AP, 12/28/97)(HN, 12/28/98)(AP, 7/2/99)(MC, 12/28/01) 1856 nend Dec 29, Snow fell in San Francisco and accumulated to 2-3 inches. (SFEM, 12/22/96, p.20) 1856 nend Francois Flameng (d.1923), French painter, was born. He painted imagined scenes from the domestic life of Napoleon Bonaparte. (MT, Fall/03, p.13) 1856 nend James Pierson Beckwourth (1798-1866, a mountain man born as a slave, authored his autobiography: ?The Life and Adventures of James P. Beckwourth, Mountaineer, Scout, and Pioneer, and Chief of the Crow Nation of Indians.? (SSFC, 7/18/04, p.14)(www.beckwourth.org/) 1856 nend The ballet "Le Corsaire" (The Corsair) was first performed in Paris to a score by Adolph Adam. It was based on a work by Lord Byron. (SFC, 12/20/99, p.E1) 1856 nend The 1st theater in California was built in the gold-mining town of Nevada City. (SSFC, 2/5/06, p.F9) 1856 nend The St. James Light, a lighthouse, was built by Irish immigrants on Big Beaver Island in northern Lake Michigan. (Smith., Aug. 1995, p.88) 1856 nend The Steinway Mansion was built in Astoria, NYC, home of the scion of the great piano-making family. (SFC, 5/26/96, T-8) 1856 nend John Breuner, German cabinet maker, founded his furniture business. It later expanded to a chain of 17 stores and was sold in 1985. (SFC, 5/28/96, p.A15) 1856 nend The D?Agostini Winery in Amador County, Ca. was founded. It later became the Sobon Estate Winery. (SFC, 12/10/95, p.T-1) 1856 nend In California Mifflin W. Gibbs founded the state?s first black newspaper and lobbied for the repeal of the state?s "black laws." (SFC, 7/18/98, p.A15) 1856 nend St. Pauls prep school was founded in Concord, New Hampshire. In 2003 headmaster Bishop Craig Anderson was paid an annual salary of $524,000. (WSJ, 8/25/03, p.A1) 1856 nend Mauve began to be used to describe a purplish color that was the first synthetic dye. (SFC, 6/29/96, E4) 1856 nend The last presidential candidate of the Whig Party was Millard Fillmore in 1856. Fillmore and his running mate Andrew J. Donelson were also the nominees of the American (Know Nothing) Party that year. In 1999 Michael F. Hold published "The Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party." (HNQ, 9/10/98)(WSJ, 7/8/99, p.A16) 1856 nend Walt Whitman declared that "Always America will be agitated and turbulent." (WSJ, 11/21/95, p.A-12) 1856 nend Orvis, a fly-tackle manufacturer, began operations in Manchester, Vermont. In 1993 the company was a $100 million business. (WSJ, 2/28/97, p.B7) 1856 nend The William Mason locomotive was built. (SFEC, 4/25/99, p.T6) 1856 nend John C. Fremont and Edward D. Baker passed through the Feather River region of northern California. Baker was known as the "Gray Eagle of Republicanism" and gave this name to the town of Graegle around 1916. (SSFC, 7/7/02, p.C10) 1856 nend Sam Hughes, a Welsh immigrant ill with tuberculosis, left his job as a baker in the California Gold Rush and departed by stage coach to Texas. The stage coach driver afraid that Sam might die enroute, dumped him in Tucson, Arizona. Later Sam at age 32 married a Mexican girl age 12 named Atanacia Santa Cruz. (AWAM, Dec. 94, p.29,32) 1856 nend William Thomson, later Lord Kelvin, discovered the property of magneto-resistance. The change in some materials of electrical resistance under a magnetic field was later used in data storage systems. (Econ, 3/31/07, p.89) 1856 nend The Australian state of Victoria first adopted paper ballots for voting. (WSJ, 11/9/00, p.A1) 1856 nend Australia's Van Dieman's Island was renamed Tasmania. (Econ, 1/17/04, p.37) c 1856 nend Rabbits were let loose in Australia about 140 years ago. (WSJ, 4/5/96, p.B-6) 1856 nend Descendants of the Bounty mutineers moved from Pitcairn to Norfolk Island, 1,000 miles from the Australia mainland. (Econ, 7/10/04, p.38) 1856 nend The Victoria Cross was created to honor soldiers of the British Empire during the Crimean War who showed particular gallantry in the face of enemy attack. All the crosses were made from the bronze of Russian cannons captured in the Crimea. (AP, 4/27/05) 1856 nend A one-cent British Guiana stamp of this year was purchased in 1980 for $935,000 by chemicals heir John E. DuPont. (WSJ, 4/7/00, p.W9) 1856 nend Near Dusseldorf in the Neander Valley, limestone minors quarrying in a cave found an unusual human skeleton. A beetle-browed, low-sloping skullcap, part of a pelvis, and some remarkably thick and slightly curved limb bones fell into the hands of the local science teacher. (NG, Nov. 1985, p. 614) 1856 nend The order of nuns known as the "Poor Clares of Perpetual Adoration" was founded in France. It was named after a 13th century saint who jettisoned her family's wealth for a life of poverty. The nuns spent their time praying on behalf of others. (WSJ, 9/19/03, p.A1) 1856 nend In France Emperor Napoleon III decided to quell an impending revolt in Algeria by sending a magician, who would demonstrate the power of the Europeans to the natives. He sent Jean-Eugene Robert Houdin (1805-1871). The 1998 novel "The Magician?s Wife" by Brian Moore is based on the historic events. The magician is named Henri Lambert. (WSJ, 1/13/98, p.A20)(SFEC, 1/25/98, BR p.5) 1856 nend The Countess de Castiglione (Virginia Oldoini) became the mistress of Napoleon III. She was chosen by her cousin Camillo Cavour, prime minister of Sardinia under King Victor Emanuel, to win the emperor?s support for a war against the Austrians. (WSJ, 12/27/00, p.A10) 1856 nend Theodore Chasseriau (b.1819), Dominican-born artist, died in Paris. His paintings included "The Toilette of Esther." (WSJ, 11/26/02, p.D8) 1856 nend Christian Schibsted purchased a hand operated printing press to print a newspaper for somebody else. When the contract moved elsewhere he began his own newspaper and in 2006 the original press could be seen in the Oslo headquarters of the Schibsted newspaper firm. (Econ, 8/26/06, p.52) 1856 nend Lothar von Faber of Germany bought a graphite mine in Siberia to secure raw material for his pencil manufacturing operations. (Econ, 3/3/07, p.73) 1856 nend In Sweden Andre Wallenberg founded Skandinaviska Enskilda Banken (SEB). By 2006 it was one of the Nordic region?s biggest banks. (Econ, 10/14/06, p.73) 1856 1858 The 2nd Anglo-Chinese Opium War. (SFC, 7/1/97, p.A8) 1856 1900 Oscar Wilde, English [Irish] writer, poet and dramatist, a rebel of every kind, ended up playing the part of a mocking fool. He despaired of his countrymen ever waking up, but they did, for they became enraged by his mockery and jailed him, ruining his life. He wrote the play "The Importance of Being Ernest." He was found guilty of violating the Criminal Law Amendment Act which prohibited indecent relations between consenting adult males. He served 2 years in prison where he read the whole of Dante and wrote the letter "De Profundis," and the poem "The Ballad of Reading Gaol." "At every single moment of one's life one is what one is going to be no less than what one has been." [see 1854] (V.D.-H.K.p.279)(HT, 3/97, p.71)(AP, 10/10/99) 1856 1915 Booker T. Washington, American educator: "To be successful, grow to the point where one completely forgets himself; that is, to lose himself in a great cause." (AP, 6/6/97) 1856 1915 Frederick Winslow Taylor, American efficiency expert. In 1997 Robert Kanigel wrote the biography: "The One Best Way: FW Taylor and the Enigma of Efficiency." Taylor was a member of the first winning US Open doubles tennis duo. "In the past the man was first. In the future the system will be first." (WSJ, 6/13/97, p.A17)(Wired, 2/98, p.112) 1856 1920 May 6, Robert Peary, American naval officer and Arctic explorer, was born. He reached the North Pole in 1909. (HFA, ?96, p.30)(AHD, p.964) 1856 1922 Tom Watson, US congressman and quintessential Negrophobe. C. Van Woodward in 1938 authored the biography: "Tom Watson: Agrarian Rebel." (SFEC, 12/19/99, p.C14) 1855 1926 In Baja, Mexico, an estimated 3,350 gray whales were harpooned in their spawning grounds in Magdalena Bay. (SFEM, 5/7/00, p.9) 1856 1929 The Children's Aid Society and The New York Foundling Hospital sponsored Orphan Trains that relocated homeless New York children to adoptive homes in the sparsely populated West and Midwest. Needy children were chosen for relocation and if they were not true orphans, a release for placement was obtained from the remaining parent or guardian. The train route was chosen and the children, after being given new clothing, boarded the train accompanied by the society's agent. Advance notice was placed in local newspapers and a screening committee was responsible for matching the orphans with prospective families. When the train arrived, the orphans were displayed in a church or other public building and if an agreeable match was made, the child was left with his or her new family. Those not selected would reboard the train for the next stop. It was up to the agent to keep tabs on adopted children, and if they were not determined to be happy and well-treated, they would be removed and, hopefully, adopted by a new family. While this procedure was risky and many children were placed in abusive situations, Orphan Train sponsors believed that youngsters placed with western families had a better chance than those living on the streets of New York. In the 75 years of the Orphan Trains, between 150,000 and 200,000 children were relocated. (HNPD, 12/1/98) 1856 1930 Daniel Guggenheim, American industrialist and philanthropist. (AHD, p.585) 1856 1933 Elisabeth Marbury, American writer: "The richer your friends, the more they will cost you." (AP, 9/25/98) 1856 1941 US Justice Louis D. Brandeis: "The greatest dangers to liberty lurk in insidious encroachment by men of zeal, well-meaning but without understanding." (AP, 10/5/99) 1856 1945 Walter Long Williams, veterinarian. He did pioneering work in identifying equine venereal disease. (WSJ, 5/5/99, p.A20) 1856 1950 Minna Antrim, American writer: "Experience is a good teacher, but she sends in terrific bills." (AP, 12/14/97) 1857 nend Jan 6, Patent for reducing zinc ore was granted to Samuel Wetherill in Penn. (MC, 1/6/02) 1857 nend Feb 7, A French court acquitted author Gustave Flaubert of obscenity for his serialized novel "Madame Bovary." (AP, 2/7/08) 1857 nend Feb 12, Eugene Atget, French photographer, was born. He took over 10,000 photographs documenting Paris. (HN, 2/12/01) 1857 nend Feb 15, Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka (53), Russian composer (Russlan & Ludmilla), died. (MC, 2/15/02) 1857 nend Feb 18, Max Klinger, German graphic artist, painter, sculptor, was born. (MC, 2/18/02) 1857 nend Feb 22, Heinrich Hertz, German physicist, was born in Hamburg. He became the first person to broadcast and receive radio waves. The radio wave unit of frequency was named after him. (HN, 2/22/01)(AP, 2/22/07) 1857 nend Feb 22, Lord Robert Baden-Powell, founder of the Boy Scout Movement, was born in London. (AP, 2/22/07) 1857 nend Feb, Charles Darwin in a letter to his cousin Fox, wrote: "I am become most deeply interested in the way facts fall into groups." [indeed] (NH, 5/96, p.7) 1857 nend Mar 3, Under pretexts, Britain and France declared war on China. (HN, 3/3/99) 1857 nend Mar 6, After years in litigation, the Supreme Court, headed by Chief Justice Roger Taney, ruled that Dred Scott did not gain his freedom by living in a free territory. The essence of the decision was that as a slave, Dred Scott was not a citizen and therefore could not sue in a federal court. The opinion also stated that Congress could not exclude slavery in the territories and that blacks could not become citizens. That ruling further increased the tension already simmering between the North and the South. Dred Scott was a slave who accompanied his owner, army surgeon John Emerson, to military posts in Wisconsin and Illinois in 1834-35. In 1846 Scott, backed by abolitionists, sued for his freedom on the grounds that he became free when he lived in an area where slavery was outlawed. Montgomery Blair (b.1813) was one of the lawyers in the Scott vs. Sanford case. In this case the Supreme Court invalidated the 1820 Missouri Compromise. (AP, 3/6/98)(HN, 3/6/98)(HNPD, 3/11/99)(HN, 5/10/99)(SFC, 11/30/00,p.A3) 1857 nend Mar 8, Ruggiero Leoncavallo, Italian composer (I Pagliacci/Zaza), was born. (MC, 3/8/02) 1857 nend Mar 12, The opera "Simon Boccanegra," by Giuseppe Verdi, premiered in Venice, Italy. (AP, 3/12/07) 1857 nend Mar 23, Culinary expert Fannie Farmer was born in Boston. (AP, 3/23/07) 1857 nend Mar 23, Elisha Otis installed the first modern passenger elevator in the 5-story Haughwout and Co. building at 488 Broadway in New York City. (www.theelevatormuseum.org/h/h-2.htm)(ON, 5/05, p.12) 1857 nend Mar 25, Frederick Laggenheim took the 1st photo of a solar eclipse. (MC, 3/25/02) 1857 nend Apr 18, Clarence S. Darrow, defense attorney at the Scopes monkey trial, was born near Kinsman, Ohio. (AP, 4/18/07) 1857 nend Apr 21, Alexander Douglas patented the bustle. (MC, 4/21/02) 1857 nend Apr 27, Establishment of Jewish congregations in Lower Austria prohibited. (MC, 4/27/02) 1857 nend Apr, The Royal Society held their first meeting in Burlington House in London after moving over from Somerset House. They were soon joined by the Linnean Society and the Royal Society of Chemistry. (Econ, 9/15/07,p.104)(www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=41482) 1857 nend May 1, William Walker, conqueror of Nicaragua, surrendered to the US Navy. Cornelius Vanderbilt helped finance a Costa Rican army, which defeated Walker?s forces, and paid men under Walker?s command to defect. Walker later sought protection on a British naval vessel, whose captain turned him over to Hondurans, who executed him in 1860. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Walker_(soldier))(WSJ,8/30/08, p.W7) 1857 nend May 10, Hendrik Zwaardemaker, Dutch physiologist (olefactometer), was born. (MC, 5/10/02) 1857 nend May 10, The Seepoys of India revolted against the British Army. The Bengal Army, Indian soldiers in the British army, staged a revolt in what is viewed as the first attempt at independence. The Rani of Jhansi, a charismatic female strategist, led the Hindu revolt. (SFEC, 8/3/97, p.A15)(HN, 5/10/98)(SSFC, 11/9/03, p.C9) 1857 nend May 11, Indian mutineers against the British seized Delhi. (HN, 5/11/98) 1857 nend May 13, Ronald Ross, bacteriologist, was born. (HN, 5/13/01) 1857 nend May 19, William Francis Channing and Moses G. Farmer were granted the first patent for an electric fire alarm system. (DTnet, 5/19/97) 1857 nend Jun 2, Edward Elgar Broadheath, English composer (Pomp & Circumstance), was born in Worcester, England. (AP, 6/2/07) 1857 nend Jun 2, Karl Gjellerup, poet, novelist (Nobel 1917), was born in Denmark. (SC, 6/2/02) 1857 nend Jun 2, James Gibbs of Virginia patented a chain-stitch single-thread sewing machine. (SC, 6/2/02) 1857 nend Jun 18, Henry Clay Folger, American lawyer and businessman, co-founder of the Folger Shakespeare Library, was born. (HN, 6/18/01) 1857 nend Jun 27, H. Goldschmidt discovered asteroid #45, Eugenia. (SC, 6/27/02) 1857 nend Jun 30, Charles Dickens reads from "A Christmas Carol" at St. Martin's Hall in London--his first public reading. (HN, 6/30/01) 1857 nend Jul 12, George E. Ohr (d.1918), ceramics artist (the mad potter of Biloxi), was born in Biloxi, Mississippi. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_E._Ohr)(ON, 11/06, p.11) 1857 nend Jul 15, British women and children were murdered in the second Cawnpore Massacre during the Indian Mutiny. (HN, 7/15/98) 1857 nend Jul 15, Carl Czerny (66), Austrian pianist, composer, died. (MC, 7/15/02) 1857 nend Jul 27, Jose Celso Barbosa, Puerto Rican statesman and humanitarian, was born in Bayamon. (AP, 7/27/07) 1857 nend Jul 29, James Holman (1786), former British lieutenant in the Royal Navy, died in London. An illness in 1810 left him blind. In 1822 he set off on a journey to travel around the world. In 2006 Jason Roberts authored ?A Sense of the World: How a Blind Man Became History?s Greatest Traveler.? (SSFC, 6/4/06, p.M1) 1857 nend Jul 30, Thorstein Veblen (d.1929), political economist and sociologist, was born in Wisconsin to Norwegian immigrants. He authored "The Theory of the Leisure Class" in 1899. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R20)(SFEC, 7/11/99, BR p.4)(HN, 7/30/01)(MC, 7/30/02) 1857 nend Aug 25, The California gold rush town of Columbia burned down in a 2nd fire that was blamed on a Chinese cook. Miners soon evicted all Chinese from the town. (SFEM, 3/12/00, p.T6)(CVG, Vol 16, p.24,34) 1857 nend Aug 24, The New York branch of the Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Co. failed, sparking the Panic of 1857. Financial pressures exerted negative market influences as noted in a letter to the Economist in 1865. The sharp but short 1857-58 financial crash in the US was touched off by the failure of the New York branch of the Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Company. Over speculation in real estate and railroad securities fed the panic. (AP, 8/24/07)(WSJ, 9/28/95c, p.A-18)(HNQ, 6/6/00) 1857 nend Aug, A human skeleton was found in a limestone cave in the Neanderthal, near Hochdal, between Dusseldorf and Elberfeld. The discovery is described by D. Shaaffhausen in his paper Discovery of the Neanderthal Skull. (RFH-MDHP, 1969, p.140-141) 1857 nend Sep 5, Charles Darwin first outlined his theory of evolution in a letter to American botanist Asa Gray dated September 5, 1857. The leading botanist of his time, Gray was one of the founders of the National Academy of Science. (HNQ, 3/14/99) 1857 nend Sep 11, The Mountain Meadows Massacre of the Fancher emigrant wagon train in Utah Territory was carried out by Mormons fearful of an impending invasion by the US Army. Church patriarch and adopted son of Brigham Young, John Doyle Lee, offered safe passage to the nearly 150 men, women and children on the Fancher train from Arkansas crossing Mormon Utah bound for California, if they left their weapons, livestock and wagons behind-ostensibly to appease hostile Indians. All but the youngest children were slaughtered. Lee, who first blamed the massacre on Paiute Indians, was excommunicated in 1870 and tried, convicted and executed in 1877 for his role in the killings. 120 settlers were killed; 17 children, all under 7, were spared. In 2002 Will Bagley authored ?Blood of the Prophets: Brigham Young and the Massacre at Mountain Meadows.? In 2011 the site was dedicated as a national historic landmark. (SFC, 10/23/02, p.H4)(AP, 9/11/07)(SFC, 9/12/11, p.A4) 1857 nend Sep 12, A wooden-hulled steamship, the SS Central America under Capt. William L. Herndon, sank off the coast of Georgia. The ship carried 21 tons of gold from California to New York. The brig Marine and the Norwegian bark Ellen rescued some 141 people. 425 (428) of 528 (578) passengers were drowned. The survivors included Ansel Ives Easton (d.1868) and his new wife Adeline. The wreck was in 8,000 feet of water and in 1987-1988 salvage operations were begun by Tommy Thompson. He hauled in $500 million worth of gold bars, coins and nuggets. After a court battle he was awarded 92% of the gold. The story is told in the 1998 book "Ship of Gold in the Deep Blue sea" by Gary Kinder. The loss of the gold sparked "The Panic of 1857." The SS Central America sank off Cape Romain, SC. (WSJ, 5/22/98, p.W3)(WSJ, 6/19/98, p.W9)(SFEC, 6/28/98, BR p.3)(WSJ,12/3/99, p.W16)(WSJ, 1/28/00, p.B1)(ON, 7/01, p.2)(MC, 9/12/01)(Ind,12/1/01, 5A) 1857 nend Sep 13, Milton S. Hershey, chocolate manufacturer and philanthropist, was born in Dauphin County, Pa. (www.hersheys.com/about/milton.shtml)(AP, 9/13/07) 1857 nend Sep 15, William Howard Taft was born in Cincinnati, Ohio. He served as 26th president (R) of the United States (1909-1913) and as chief justice. He is most remembered for his "dollar diplomacy." (AP, 9/15/97)(HN, 9/15/99) 1857 nend Sep 15, Mormon leader Brigham Young called out the Nauvoo Legion to fight the U.S. Troops if they enter Utah Territory. (http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Utah_War) 1857 nend Sep 15, Timothy Alden of NYC patented a typesetting machine. (www.todayinsci.com/) 1857 nend Sep 20, Delhi, India, fell to British forces. (AP, 9/20/07) 1857 nend Sep 23, The Russian warship Leffort disappeared in the Finland Gulf in a storm; 826 died. (MC, 9/23/01) 1857 nend Oct 6, The American Chess Association organized. The 1st major US chess tournament was held in NYC. [see Oct 10] (MC, 10/6/01) 1857 nend Oct 10, The American Chess Association formed (NYC). [see Oct 6] (MC, 10/10/01) 1857 nend Oct 29, Conrad Haebler, German historian (Early Printers of Spain and Portugal), was born. (MC, 10/29/01) 1857 nend Oct 30, Gertrude Atherton, novelist, was born. (HN, 10/30/00) 1857 nend Oct, Paul Morphy won fame as the first American chess hero. The New Orleans native became the world?s leading chess player after he defeated Adolf Anderssen of Germany. Morphy beat all the world's masters who took him on, although Englishman Howard Staunton managed to avoid a match. Morphy then issued a challenge to take on any player, but none responded, and Morphy retired. (HN, 1/22/00) 1857 nend Nov 2, Joseph F.F. Babinski, Polish-French neurologist (Babinski reflex), was born. (MC, 11/2/01) 1857 nend Nov 5, Ida M. Tarbell (d.1944), muckraking journalist, was born in Erie County, Pa. (AP, 11/5/07)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ida_Tarbell) 1857 nend Nov 9, Atlantic Monthly magazine was 1st published. (MC, 11/9/01) 1857 nend Nov 23, George Smythe (b.1818), 7th Viscount Strangford, died. In 2006 Mary S. Millar authored ?Disraeli?s Disciple: The Scandalous Life of George Smythe.? (http://tinyurl.com/mhqn3)(WSJ, 9/2/06, p.P9) 1857 nend Nov 26, First Australian Parliament opened in Melbourne. (AP, 11/26/02) 1857 nend Dec 3, Joseph Conrad (d.1924), novelist, was born in Berdychiv, Poland, as Teodor Jozef Konrad Korzeniowski. He is best known for ?Heart of Darkness.? His work ?The Secret Agent? had a profound effect on Unabomber Theodore J. Kaszynski in the late 20th cent. Conrad also wrote the short story ?The Informer.? (SFC, 7/9/96, p.A3)(HN, 12/3/98)(AP, 12/3/07) 1857 nend Dec 8, 1st production of Dion Boucicault's "Poor of NY." (MC, 12/8/01) 1857 nend Dec 17, Sir Francis Beaufort (b.1774), Irish-born hydrogapher, died in London. In 2004 Scott Huler authored ?Defining the Wind: The Beaufort Scale, and How a Nineteenth-Century Admiral Turned Science into Poetry.? (NH, 11/1/04, p.51) 1857 nend Dec 29, Franz Liszt's "Die Hunnenschlacht," premiered in Weimar. (MC, 12/29/01) 1857 nend Dec 31, Britain?s Queen Victoria decided to make Ottawa the capital of Canada. (AP, 12/31/97) 1857 nend Augustus Leopold Egg began to paint his 3-part work "Past and Present." It was completed in 1858. (WSJ, 2/19/97, p.A15) 1857 nend Jean-Francois Millet painted "The Gleaners." (WSJ, 7/12/99, p.A26) 1857 nend Thomas Brewer wrote "North American Oology," a work on bird eggs. (AH, 6/02, p.40) 1857 nend Charles Dickens (1812-1870), English novelist, completed his serial novel ?Little Dorrit.? (WSJ, 7/19/08, p.W6)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Dorrit) 1857 nend Thomas Hughes authored "Tom Brown?s School Days." Brigadier-General Sir Harry Paget Flashman is a fictional character originally created by the author Thomas Hughes in his semi-autobiographical work Tom Brown's Schooldays. In this book, set at Rugby School, Flashman is the notorious bully, who persecutes its eponymous hero Tom Brown. (WSJ, 7/111/00,p.A26)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Paget_Flashman) 1857 nend Fitz Hugh Ludlow authored "The Hasheesh Eater." (SFEC, 1/24/99, BR p.4) 1857 nend Adalbert Stifter (1805-1868), Austrian writer, authored his novel ?Indian Summer.? He noted the issue of bureaucracy long before it was covered by sociologists. (WSJ, 2/10/07, p.P8) 1857 nend Anthony Trollope (1815-1882), British novelist, authored his novel ?Barchester Towers," which explored the mixed motives of various characters. The book established his fame. (WSJ, 12/11/98, p.W10)(WSJ, 9/1/07, p.P9) 1857 nend The New Dungeness Light Station was built at the end of the Dungeness Spit in Dungeness Bay, Washington state. (SSFC, 11/12/06, p.G8) 1857 nend Landscape architect Frederick Law Olmstead and architect Calvert Vaux won the competition to develop NYC's Central Park. (SFEC, 6/21/98, p.T5)(NG, 5/93, p.9)(SFC, 4/5/04, p.B5) 1857 nend Count Agoston Haraszthy founded the Buena Vista Winery in Sonoma, Ca. (WCG, p.67) 1857 nend The Sisters of Mercy established the West Coast?s 1st hospital, St. Mary?s Hospital, in the SF Bay Area. (SFC, 7/24/06, p.B8) 1857 nend Lincoln at Springfield, Ill. expounded on the idea of equality as equality of opportunity as opposed to equality of result. (WSJ, 2/10/95), p.A-8)1857 Pres. Lincoln made a speech on the Dred Scott decision wherehe pointed out that the Declaration of Independence asserts that all menare equal in their right to "life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness." 1857 nend Andrew Johnson, Democrat of Tennessee, was elected to Senator. (SFC, 12/21/98, p.A3) 1857 nend John Thompson was discredited as a banker in the panic 1857. He later went on with his two sons as front men to found the forerunners of what are now City Bank and Chase Manhattan. (WSJ, 5/8/95, p.A-14) 1857 nend Dred Scott and his wife Harriet sued for their freedom after living in free territory. The Supreme Court ruled that black people were not citizens and could not expect federal protection. Dred Scott was quoted to have said: "Will nobody speak for me at Washington, even without hope of other reward than the blessings of a poor black man and his family." The decision was overturned by the 13th and 14th Amendments to the Constitution. (SFC, 12/31/96, p.A7) 1857 nend Joseph Henry, head of the Smithsonian Institute, began providing daily national weather reports to the Washington Evening Star. (ON, 2/06, p.7) 1857 nend Laclede Gas Light Co. was formed and dominated the natural gas business in St. Louis as late as 1942. It began by providing gas-powered street lamps to the city. (WSJ, 5/28/96, R45) 1857 nend The Stanley Rule & Level Co. was founded in New Britain, Conn. (SFC, 11/1/03, p.E4) 1857 nend Joseph C. Gayette of NYC was said to have invented toilet paper. (SFEC, 4/13/97, Z1 p.4) 1857 nend The earliest horse-drawn potato planter was patented in the US. (SFC, 4/30/97, z1 p.6) 1857 nend Paul Broca, a French neurologist, discovered that particular regions of the brain are specialized for particular functions. In 1861 he authored a classical paper that detailed damage in the brain?s left temporal lobe to loss of speech. (WSJ, 10/11/02, p.AB1)(http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Broca/perte-e.htm) 1857 nend William Rowan Hamilton, Irish mathematician, devised the routing conundrum. A simple version of this is known as the traveling salesman problem. It poses the question: Given an arbitrary collection of cities a salesman has to travel between, what is the shortest route linking those cities? (Wired, 8/95, p.115) 1857 nend James Hall, president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, pointed out the great thickness of the Paleozoic rocks in the Appalacian Mountains compared with the Mississippi Valley and offered the explanation that as the weight of the sediment accumulated it had pushed down the crust beneath it. He believed that eventually the crust could take the strain no longer. It buckled and the strata were crumpled and raised high above their original level. This theory is in contrast to Dana?s later theory of geosynclines in 1873. (DD-EVTT, p.120) 1857 nend Lt. Edward F. Beale visited El Morro, New Mexico, with a camel caravan testing the feasibility of employing camels as Army animals in the American southwest. (SSFC, 4/10/05, p.F9) 1857 nend Army Lt. Joseph Ives surveyed the Grand Canyon with "wondering delight," but concluded that it was "altogether valueless." His chief scientist John Strong Newberry declared that it was a geological paradise. (SFEC, 10/4/98, BR p.12) 1857 nend The Fort Tejon, Ca., earthquake, estimated at magnitude 8, ruptured ground for 225 miles from Parkfield to Tejon Pass. It killed 2 people and destroyed the Teyon Army post. (SFC, 5/21/01, p.A4)(SFC, 12/10/04, p.A4) 1857 nend Franz Kruger (b.1797), German Biedermeier artist of cityscapes and rural genre scenes, died. (SSFC, 1/27/02, p.C7) 1857 nend In Australia the Botanical Garden in Adelaide was founded. (SFEC, 10/25/98, p.T5) 1857 nend In Austria Ludwig Moser (d.1916) started a glassmaking shop in Carlsbad. The work was intended for royal families around the world and included intricate gold overlay and detailed hand painting. (SFC, 3/5/97, z-1 p.2) 1857 nend Neuhaus began making chocolate in Belgium. (SFC, 9/15/96, p.T9) 1857 nend The Reading Room of the British National Library opened. It was designed by Sydney Smirke. His brother, Sir Robert Smirke, had designed the British Museum 7 years earlier. The design met the wishes of Sir Anthony Panazzi, the Italian librarian. Its copper dome, supported by 20 cast iron ribs, measured 140 feet. (SFC,10/23/97, p.A17)(WSJ, 2/9/00, p.A24) 1857 nend The British Matrimonial Causes Act proclaimed that a husband?s legal responsibilities went on after a marriage ended. (SFC, 4/12/97, p.E3) 1857 nend In England Dean Richard Trench lectured on the need for a complete English dictionary at the London Library and the project was soon undertaken by The Philological Society. (WSJ, 9/14/98, p.A30) 1857 nend In Montreal, Canada, the Anglican Christ Church Cathedral was constructed. In the 1980s it was elevated on pylons to allow for an expansion of the underground city. (SSFC, 10/9/05, p.D5) 1857 nend In British Columbia nine American slaves arrived at Vesuvius Bay on Salt Spring Island to make a fresh start in a new land. They were later joined by settlers from Hawaii. (SFEC, 7/26/98, p.T5) 1857 nend Ludwig Moser began making Moser glass in Karlovy Vary, Czechoslovakia. (SFC, 5/14/08, p.G6) 1857 nend The coffin of the Egyptian Pharaoh, Kamose, was discovered outside of Thebes, but the body crumbled to dust when exposed to the air... a ceremonial dagger from the site is now in Brussels. (L.C.W.P.p.67) 1857 nend The Paris salon of this year set standards so exclusive that Emp. Napoleon III ordered the rejected paintings to be hung as a separate show in 1863. [see 1863] (Calg. Glen., 1996) 1857 nend In Germany H. Sichel & Sohne, the producers of the popular Blue Nun white wine, was founded. (SFC, 10/8/97, Z1 p.4) 1857 nend In Hong Kong Cheong Ah Lum, the colony?s foremost baker, so hated the Britons that he tried to poison 400 of the most important "gwailos" with arsenic laced bread. No one died but many got sick. (SFEC, 11/10/96, p.A18) 1857 nend In India the 1st madrasah, religious school, was founded in Deoband in the wake of a jihad against British colonial government. (WSJ, 10/2/01, p.A1A14) 1857 nend In Italy the Lido Palace was built overlooking Lake Maggiore for the Marquis Durazzo of Genoa. (SSFC, 12/2/01, p.C6) 1857 nend The Vienna-Trieste railway was completed. (www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Trieste) 1857 nend Luigi Monti, an Italian Roman Catholic friar, founded the Congregation of the Children of the Immaculate Conception in order to provide charitable health services to orphans and the poor. In 1967 the Congregation opened a factory outside of Rome to make dermatological drugs and cosmetics, which were sold commercially. In 2003 Pope John Paul II beatified Monti. In 2004 the Congregation acquired a biotechnology research firm specializing in cancer research and renamed it Nerviano Medical Science. (WSJ, 12/7/06, p.B8) 1857 nend In Lebanon the modern wine industry began when a group of Jesuit monks founded Chateau Ksara in the Bekaa Valley. (SFC, 1/11/08, p.F4) 1857 nend Banco Santander was founded in Spain to finance trade between the port city of Santander and Latin America. (WSJ, 5/23/96, p.A-6) 1857 1861 James Buchanon served as the 15th president. John Cabell Breckinridge (1821-1875) was the US vice-president under Buchanan. Breckenridge was a Confederate General in the Civil War. [His ?brother-in-law was Lloyd Tevis, founder of Wells Fargo] (WUD, 1994, p.183)(A&IP, ESM, p.96b, photo)(SFC, 11/9/96,p.A12)(WUD, 1994, p.183) 1857 1903 George Gissing, English author and critic: "That is one of the bitter curses of poverty; it leaves no right to be generous." (AP, 8/18/97) 1857 1922 Arthur Wesley Dow, artist and teacher, was inspired by William Morris and in turn influenced such artists Georgia O'Keefe, Max Weber, Alvin Langdon Coburn and Gertrude Kasebier. He was later considered as one of the greatest art educators of his day. He considered crafts equal to the fine arts. (SFEM, 8/15/99, p.4)(SFC, 9/11/99, p.C12)(WSJ, 10/5/99, p.A24) 1857 1926 Emile Coue, French pharmacist. In 1920 [1910] he devised the mantra "Every day, in every way, I?m getting better and better" to promote his theory of self-improvement through auto-suggestion. (NH, 7/98, p.20)(SFEC, 6/20/99, Z1 p.8) 1857 1938 Clarence Darrow, American lawyer: "You can only protect your liberties in this world by protecting the other man?s freedom. You can only be free if I am free." (AP, 9/30/97) 1858 nend Jan 14, Emperor Napoleon III and Empress Eugenie escaped unhurt after an Italian assassin threw a bomb at their carriage as they traveled to the Paris Opera. The hoop skirt was first worn by Empress Eugenie to conceal her pregnancy. (HN, 1/14/99)(SFEC, 7/23/00, Z1 p.2)(AP, 1/14/08) 1858 nend Jan 18, Daniel Hale Williams, the first physician to perform open heart surgery and founder of Provident Hospital in Chicago, Ill., was born. (HN, 1/18/99) 1858 nend Jan 21, Felix Marma Zuloaga became president of Mexico upon the ouster of Ignacio Comonfort. (AP, 1/21/08) 1858 nend Jan 25, Britain's Princess Victoria (the eldest daughter of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert), married Crown Prince Frederick William (the future German Emperor and King of Prussia) at St. James's Palace. The ceremony's tradition-setting music, personally selected by the Princess Royal, included the "Bridal Chorus" from Richard Wagner's "Lohengrin" and the "Wedding March" by Felix Mendelssohn. (AP, 1/25/08) 1858 nend Jan 28, John Brown organized a plan to raid the Arsenal at Harper's Ferry. [see Oct 16, 1859] (MC, 1/28/02)(ON, 7/02, p.7) 1858 nend Feb 1, John Brown went to see Frederick Douglass in Rochester and told him of his plan to steal weapons at Harper?s Ferry, Va. (ON, 7/02, p.6) 1858 nend Feb 11, Bernadette Soubirous (14), a French miller?s daughter, claimed for the first time to have seen a vision of the Virgin Mary near Lourdes. (AP, 2/11/97)(HN, 1/11/02) 1858 nend Feb 8, A record brawl in the US House of Representatives erupted over the issue of slavery. Wisconsin Congressman John F. Potter pulled a wig off a Mississippi congressman and declared ?I?ve scalped him.? (WSJ, 6/13/06, p.D6)(www.wisconsinhistory.org/odd/archives/001067.asp) 1858 nend Feb, British explorers Sir Richard Burton and John Speke (1827-1864) explored Lake Tanganyika, Africa. (www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/speke_john_hanning.shtml) 1858 nend Feb 19, Alois Basil Nikolaus Tomasini (78), composer, died. (MC, 2/19/02) 1858 nend Mar 2, Frederick Cook, New Orleans, patented a cotton-bale metallic tie. (SC, 3/2/02) 1858 nend Mar 4, Sen. James Henry Hammond, D-S.C., declared, "Cotton is king" in a speech to the US Senate. (AP, 3/4/08) 1858 nend Mar 4, Matthew Calbraith Perry (63), the American naval officer who'd opened trade relations between the US and Japan, died in New York. (AP, 3/4/08) 1858 nend Mar 9, The mailbox was patented. (HN, 3/9/98) 1858 nend Mar 10, Henry David Thoreau at Fair Haven Pond heard the love call of the red-tailed hawk. (WSJ, 4/17/96, p.A-18) 1858 nend May 11, Minnesota became the 32nd state of the Union. (AP, 5/11/97)(HN, 5/11/98) 1858 nend Mar 12, Adolph Simon Ochs, publisher of The New York Times, was born. (HN, 3/12/01) 1858 nend Mar 18, Rudolf Diesel, German mechanical engineer, was born in Paris. He designed the compression-ignition engine (1893). (HN, 3/18/99)(AP, 3/18/08) 1858 nend Mar 21, British forces in India lifted the siege of Lucknow, ending the Indian Mutiny. (HN, 3/21/99) 1858 nend Mar 17, The Fenian Brotherhood, a brigade of the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB), a secret revolutionary group, was founded in Dublin by James Stephens. John O'Mahony headed the IRB's American wing, popularly known as the Fenian Brotherhood, which was composed of immigrants and Irish Americans whose ultimate goal was to free Ireland from British rule. (HNQ, 4/17/01)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenian) 1858 nend Mar 23, Eleazer A. Gardner of Philadelphia patented the cable street car, which ran on overhead cables. (HN, 3/23/98) 1858 nend Mar 30, Hyman L. Lipman of Philadelphia patented the pencil with an eraser attached on one end. (HN, 3/30/98)(SFC, 9/16/98, Z1 p.6) 1858 nend Mar 31, Norddeutscher Lloyd Bremen launched the SS New York, a passenger cargo vessel. It was sold to Edward Bates of Liverpool in 1874 and later wrecked near Staten Island. In 1994 Edwin Drechsel (1914-2006) later authored a 2-volume history of the North German shipping line. (www.clydesite.co.uk/clydebuilt/viewship.asp?id=15185) 1858 nend Apr 5, Washington Atlee Burpee, founded the world's largest mail-order seed company, was born. (HN, 4/5/01) 1858 nend Apr 6, President Buchanan issued a proclamation declaring Mormons in the Utah Territory to be in a state of rebellion against the US government. (AP, 4/6/08) 1858 nend Apr 7, Anton Diabelli (76), Austrian publisher, composer, died. (MC, 4/7/02) 1858 nend Apr 10, London?s Big Ben bell was cast at the Whitechapel Foundry in East London. It was placed into St. Stephen?s Tower at the Houses of Parliament. (SFC, 4/11/08, p.A16) 1858 nend Apr 15, At the Battle of Azimghur, Mexicans defeated the Spanish loyalists. (HN, 4/15/98) 1858 nend Spring, Darwin sent advance proofs of "Origin of the Species" to Asa Gray, Harvard botanist, who was working up the botanical reports for the Great Exploring Expedition then surveying northern Japan. Gray was introduced to Darwin?s ideas by the geologist James Dwight Dana. [see Sep 5, 1857] (NH, 6/96, p.6) 1858 nend Apr 23, Max K.E. Ludwig Planck, German physicist (Planck Constant, Nobel 1918), was born. (MC, 4/23/02) 1858 nend Apr 29, Austrian troops invaded Piedmont (Italy). (HN, 4/29/98) 1858 nend Apr 30, Mary Scott Lord Dimmick, Pres. B. Harrison's first lady, was born. (HN, 4/30/98) 1858 nend May 1, Anthony Johnson Showalter, composer, was born. (MC, 5/1/02) 1858 nend May 4, In the Mexican War of Reform liberals established their capital at Vera Cruz. (MC, 5/4/02) 1858 nend May 8, John Brown held an antislavery convention. (MC, 5/8/02) 1858 nend May 11, Minnesota became the 32nd state of the Union. (AP, 5/11/97) 1858 nend May 15, Emily Folger, Shakespeare scholar, was born. (HN, 5/15/01) 1858 nend May 28, Dion Boucicault's "Foul Play," premiered in London. (MC, 5/28/02) 1858 nend Jun 2, Donati Comet was 1st seen and named after it's discoverer. (SC, 6/2/02) 1858 nend Jun 16, In a speech accepting the Republican nomination for the U.S. Senate in Springfield, Ill., Senate candidate Abraham Lincoln said the slavery issue had to be resolved, declaring, "A house divided against itself cannot stand." (AP, 6/16/98)(HN, 6/16/98) 1858 nend Jun 16, Dr. John Snow (b.1813), English obstetrician, died of a stroke. He is considered the father of epidemiology for his efforts in documenting the spread of cholera in London epidemics. (ON, 5/05, p.10) 1858 nend Jun 18, The US and China signed a treaty promoting "peace, amity and commerce." (AP, 6/18/08) 1858 nend Jun 20, Charles Chesnutt, African-American novelist, was born in Cleveland. In 2002 Werner Sollors edited "Chesnutt: Stories, Novels, and Essays." (HN, 6/20/01)(WSJ, 1/22/02, p.A11) 1858 nend Jun 22, Giacomo Puccini (d.1924), Italian composer of Madam Butterfly, was born. His work included the opera "Calaf." (WUD, 1994, p.1162)(WSJ, 10/22/97, p.A20)(HN, 6/22/98) 1858 nend Jun 29, George Washington Goethals, engineer of the Panama Canal, was born. (HN, 6/29/98) 1858 nend Jun, The US Army entered Utah and installed a new governor. (SFC, 10/23/02, p.H4) 1858 nend Jul 1, The Darwin-Wallace theory of evolution was 1st read at a meeting of the Linnaean Society of London. (NH, 2/02, p.75) 1858 nend Jul 2, Czar Alexander II freed the serfs working on imperial lands. (HN, 7/2/98) 1858 nend Jul 6, Lyman Blake patented a shoe manufacturing machine. (MC, 7/6/02) 1858 nend Jul 9, Franz Boas, anthropologist, was born. (HN, 7/9/01) 1858 nend Jul 13, Louis Martin and Zelie Guerin married in Alencon, France, and for 10 months refrained from sex in a ?Josephite marriage.? Assured by a priest that raising children was a sacred activity they went on to have 9 children, 5 of whom joined religious order. Their youngest daughter became famous as St. Theresa of Liseux, The Little Flower,? canonized in 1925. (WSJ, 10/17/08, p.W11) 1858 nend Jul 14, Emmeline Pankhurst, British suffragist and founder of the Women's Social and Political Union, was born in Manchester, England. (HN, 7/14/98)(AP, 7/14/08) 1858 nend Jul 16, Eugene Ysaye, violinist, conductor, composer (Pierill Houou), was born in Belgium. (MC, 7/16/02) 1858 nend Jul 20, An admission of 50 cents was charged for the first time at the All Star baseball game between New York and Brooklyn. (WSJ, 10/15/98, p.B8) 1858 nend Jul 23, Jewish Disabilities Removal Act was passed by British Parliament. (MC, 7/23/02) 1858 nend Jul 24, During the Illinois senatorial campaign Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln challenged Democrat Steven Douglas to a series of joint debates, which covered the slavery controversy and its impact on the nation. The debates illuminated the positions of Lincoln and Douglas on slavery, which Lincoln regarded as "a moral, a social and a political wrong," while Douglas evaded the moral issue. Even though Lincoln narrowly won the popular vote, Douglas prevailed in the state legislature 54-41 and thus the election. The debates propelled Lincoln to national prominence. (HNPD, 9/4/99)(AP, 7/24/08) 1858 nend Jul 26, Baron Lionel de Rothschild became the 1st Jew elected to British Parliament. (MC, 7/26/02) 1858 nend Jul 29, Japan signed a treaty of commerce and friendship with the United States. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215)(HN, 7/29/98) 1858 nend Jul, British explorer John Speke (1827-1864) discovered Lake Victoria, Africa, during a side trip under the Burton expedition. (www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/speke_john_hanning.shtml) 1858 nend Jul-1858 Aug, The summer Great Stink, aka The Big Stink, took place when the smell of untreated sewage almost overwhelmed people in central London, England. This persuaded the government to commission Sir Joseph Bazalgette to lay down a new network of sewers. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Stink)(WSJ, 10/21/06, p.P8) 1858 nend Aug 5, Cyrus W. Field completed the first transatlantic cable. It linked Newfoundland to Ireland. The cable burned out after several weeks of use. (www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/cable/peopleevents/e_inquiry.html)(AP, 8/5/08) 1858 nend Aug 16, A telegraphed message from Britain?s Queen Victoria to President Buchanan was transmitted over the recently laid trans-Atlantic cable. The cable linked Ireland and Canada and failed after a few weeks. (AP, 8/16/97)(www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/cable/peopleevents/e_inquiry.html) 1858 nend Aug 17, The 1st bank in Hawaii opened. (SC, 8/17/02) 1858 nend Aug 21, The first of seven debates between Illinois senatorial contenders Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas took place in Ottowa, Ill. Douglas went on to win the Senate seat in November, but Lincoln gains national visibility for the first time. Douglas stated in the 1st debate: "I believe this government was made on the white basis. I believe it was made by white men for the benefit of white men and their posterity forever, and I am in favor of confining citizenship to white men." (WSJ, 3/3/00, p.W11)(HN, 8/21/00)(AP, 8/21/08) 1858 nend Aug 23, "Ten Nights in a Bar-room," a play about the tragic consequences of consuming alcohol, opened in New York. (AP, 8/23/08) 1858 nend Aug 24, Richmond "Daily Dispatch" reported 90 blacks arrested for learning. (MC, 8/24/02) 1858 nend Aug 27, The 2nd of 7 of the Lincoln-Douglas debates in the 1858 Illinois senatorial race of took place in Freeport, Ill. Stephen Douglas formulated what became known as the Freeport Doctrine, which stated that the people of a territory could, by lawful means, exclude slavery prior to the formulation of a state constitution. Douglas first pronounced it in response to a question posed by Lincoln as to how Douglas could reconcile the doctrine of "popular sovereignty" with the Dred Scott decision. (HNQ, 6/4/99)(ON, 4/08, p.2) 1858 nend Sep 1, The 1st transatlantic cable failed after less than 1 month. (SC, 9/1/02) 1858 nend Sep 8, Lincoln made a speech about when you can fool people. (MC, 9/8/01) 1858 nend Sep 15, The third debate between senatorial candidates Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas was held in Jonesboro, Ill. (AP, 9/15/08) 1858 nend Sep 15, The Butterfield Overland Mail Company began delivering mail from St. Louis to San Francisco. The company's motto was: "Remember, boys, nothing on God's earth must stop the United States mail!" (HN, 9/15/99) 1858 nend Sep 15, Charles E Vicomte de Foucauld (d.1916), French explorer and hermit, was born in Strasbourg, France. (www.manntaylor.com/foucauld.html) 1858 nend Sep 17, Dred Scott, US slave, died. (See Mar 6, 1857, decision US Supreme Court). (MC, 9/17/01) 1858 nend Sep 18, Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas held the fourth of their senatorial debates, this one in Charleston, Ill. (AP, 9/18/08) 1858 nend Sep 28, Donati's comet became the 1st to be photographed. (MC, 9/28/01) 1858 nend Sep 29, Rudolf Diesel, engineer, was born. He invented the diesel engine. (HN, 9/29/00) 1858 nend Oct 7, Lincoln and Douglas held their 5th debate in Galesburg, Ill., on the Knox College campus. (SFEM, 10/29/00, p.8)(ON, 4/08, p.2) 1858 nend Oct 9, Gerard L.F. Philips, Dutch engineer and manufacturer, was born. (MC, 10/9/01) 1858 nend Oct 13, The sixth debate between senatorial candidates Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas took place in Quincy, Ill. (AP, 10/13/08) 1858 nend Oct 15, John L. Sullivan, heavyweight boxing champ (1882-92), was born in Mass. (MC, 10/15/01) 1858 nend Oct 15, The seventh and final debate between senatorial candidates Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas took place in Alton, Ill. (ON, 4/08, p.2)(AP, 10/15/08) 1858 nend Oct 18, The play "Our American Cousin" by Tom Taylor premiered at Laura Keene's theater in New York. (AP, 10/18/08) 1858 nend Oct 19, Alice Josephine McLellan Birney, child welfare worker, was born. Her ideas evolved into the PTA. (HN, 10/19/00) 1858 nend Oct 21, Jacques Offenbach's opera "Orphee aux Enfers," premiered in Paris. The Can-Can music was part of the opera. Dancers in Paris displayed their tail feathers in a high kick routine called the "cancan." The word was a diminutive form of "canard," the word for duck, whose evenly displayed feathers were likened to those of the dancers. (SFEC, 3/23/97, z1 p.7)(MC, 10/21/01) 1858 nend Oct 26, Hamilton Smith patented rotary washing machine. (MC, 10/26/01) 1858 nend Oct 27, Theodore Roosevelt, 26th president of the United States (1901-1909) who was the namesake of the "Teddy" bear, was born in New York City in a townhouse at 28 East 20th Street. Today a reconstruction of the house is a National Historic Site and open to the public. The 26th president of the U.S., Roosevelt died on January 6, 1919. He wrote the 4-volume "The Winning of the West." In 1996 The American Experience series broadcast a 4-hr. TV special that covered his life. His pursuit of boxing left him blind in one eye. He put 230 million acres of land under federal protection. "Death is always and under all circumstances a tragedy, for if it is not, then it means that life itself has become one." (WSJ, 9/30/96, p.A14)(SFC, 10/4/96, p.C13)(AP, 10/27/97)(WSJ,12/18/97, p.A20)(HN, 10/27/98)(HNQ, 11/18/98) (AP, 4/22/99) 1858 nend Oct 27, Theodore Roosevelt?s words, "The only one who makes no mistakes is one who never does anything," were inscribed on the New York City home where he was born. The Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace National Historic Site is located at 28 E. 20th Street in Manhattan, www.nps.gov/thrb. (HNQ, 9/28/02) 1858 nend Oct 28, Rowland Hussey Macy opened his first New York store at Sixth Avenue and 14th Street in Manhattan. (AP, 10/28/08)(SFC, 6/1/04, p.A1) 1858 nend Oct 31, Jeanie Johnston, a triple-masted barque, sank in the middle of the Atlantic with a load of timber. The crew was rescued by a Dutch ship. She was built in Quebec City for the Donovan family of Tralee. She was the best known of the "famine ships" that carried Irish refugees to the New World during the potato famine and returned with timber and food. A copy of the ship, built in Ireland, was scheduled for completion in 2000. (SFC, 7/26/99, p.A8,10) 1858 nend Oct, Coaches of the Butterfield Overland Stage Co. began serving the SF peninsula. The Butterfield operation was already charged with carrying the US Mail from St. Louis to SF via southern Ca. (Ind, 10/31/98, p.5A) 1858 nend Nov 2, In Illinois Abraham Lincoln won 4,085 more popular votes for the Senate than did Sen. Stephen Douglas; however Illinois senators were elected by the state legislatures and Douglas won reelection there by 8 votes. (ON, 4/08, p.3) 1858 nend Nov 9, NY Symphony Orchestra made its 1st performance. (MC, 11/9/01) 1858 nend Nov 20, Selma Lagerdorf, Swedish novelist, was born. Her work included "The Story of Gosta Berling." (HN, 11/20/00) 1858 nend Dec 22, Giacomo Puccini, Italian operatic composer best known for Madam Butterfly, La Boheme and Tosca, was born in Lucca, Italy. [see Jun 22] (HN, 12/22/98)(MC, 12/22/01) 1858 nend Dec 31, Vincas Kudirka (d.1899), author of the Lithuanian national anthem, was born in Vilkaviskis County. (LC, 1998, p.30)(LHC, 12/31/02) 1858 nend Dec, The French government?s Council of State limited the ability of Paris to condemn property. Land could be seized for roads but properties along the projected roads could not be expropriated. (ON, 9/06, p.10) 1858 nend August Czartoryski (d.1893) was born as a Polish prince. He became a Salesian priest and was beatified in 2004. (AP, 4/25/04) 1858 nend Longfellow wrote his poem: The Courtship of Miles Standish.? (WSJ, 11/24/04, p.A1) 1858 nend Francis Frith (1822-1898) took a six month expedition up the Nile and shot numerous photographs that included 21 mammoth-plate views (20 x 24 inches). (WSJ, 12/5/95, p.A-16)(SFC, 9/11/97, p.E3) 1858 nend The Wornall House, at 61st Terr., Kansas City, Mo., was built by John B. Wornall as the center of a 500 acre farm. It was used as a hospital during the Civil War and survived two battles. (Postcard, Paragon Products) 1958 nend In Virginia miners and financiers settled on the banks of the Levisa Fork River and founded the town of Grundy to extract local coal deposits. Repeated flooding forced the town in 1997 to plan for a move to higher ground. (SFC, 8/11/97, p.A3) 1858 nend Jacob Gundlach bought a vineyard in Sonoma, Ca., and called it Rhinefarm. Charles Bundschu from Mannheim, Germany, known for his prose and keen business sense, joined the company in 1868, and became part of the family when he married Jacob Gundlach?s daughter Francisca in 1875. (SFC, 12/19/02, p.D4)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gundlach_Bundschu) 1858 nend Charles Krug, a German immigrant, decided to put Napa wine onto a business footing using the Mission grapes. He served a short apprenticeship under Col. Agoston Haraszthy in Sonoma. (WCG, 7/95, p.21) 1858 nend In NYC Central Park was opened to the public. (NG, 5/93, p.32) 1858 nend Stanford Health Services in Palo Alto, Ca. was founded as part of the Univ. of the Pacific. (SFC, 5/12/96, p.A-10) 1858 nend In Washington DC the original board of the Washington Monument regained control after the Know-Nothing Party disbanded due to a split between pro- and anti-slavery factions. (ON, 3/00, p.10) 1858 nend Sen. Seward denounced "an aristocracy of slaveholders" who controlled the country through their southern legislators: "I know that the Democratic Party must go down, and the Republican Party must rise in its place. (WSJ, 11/20/01, p.A16) 1858 nend The California Supreme Court invalidated a law that prohibited the sale of goods on Sunday. (WSJ, 8/11/00, p.W13) 1858 nend John Mohler Studebaker (b1833) joined his two older brothers in a South Bend firm producing wagons. The company went on to become the world?s largest producer of farm wagons and carriages. (WSJ, 6/13/96, p.A12)(HNQ, 1/21/02) 1858 nend A silver rush happened at Mt. St. Helena, Ca., but only a small amount of silver was produced. (WCG, 7/95, p.22) 1858 nend Pay dirt [silver] was struck in the Pike?s Peak region of the Colorado Territory. (WW, 12/96) 1858 nend The city of Denver began as one of several prospecting camps on Cherry Creek in what is now downtown Denver. Gold-seeking settlers at the foot of the Rockies decided to call their settlement "Denver" after the governor of the Kansas Territory, in which the settlement was located. (HNQ, 4/4/00) 1858 nend Geographer Antonio Snider-Pellegrini showed how the continents had once fit together. (NH, 10/02, p.79) 1858 nend Hadrosaurus, one of the duck-billed dinosaurs, was unearthed by the Philadelphia anatomist Joseph Leidy. (T.E.-J.B. p.24) 1858 nend John Speake discovered Lake Victoria, Africa. (NG, May 1985, p.629) 1858 nend Gold was reported found on the sand banks of the Fraser River in BC. The first Chinese arrived in British Columbia seeking gold along the Fraser River. (enRoute, 2/96, p.21)(SFEC, 9/26/99, p.T4) 1858 nend Henry Gray (1827-1861), English anatomist and surgeon, authored the textbook ?Gray?s Anatomy.? It defined the genre and dissected the body along thematic lines. In 2008 Ruth Richardson authored ?The Making of Mr Gray?s Anatomy: Bodies, Books, Fortune, Fame.? (Econ, 8/11/07, p.72)(http://streetanatomy.com/blog/?p=48)(Econ,11/15/08, p.99) 1858 nend Florence Nightingale published her ?Notes on matters affecting the health, efficiency and hospital administration of the British army,? in which she presented a new form of data display later known as ?Nightingale?s Rose? or Nightingale?s coxcomb.? This year she also became the first female fellow of the Statistical Society of London. (Econ, 12/22/07, p.74) 1858 nend In England the Covent Garden Royal Opera House was constructed in London. In 1997 it was scheduled for a $361 million refurbishment and slated to reopen in Dec, 1999. (SFC, 7/14/97, p.E3) 1858 nend Britain made British Columbia a crown colony. (SFEC, 9/26/99, p.T4) 1858 nend The East India Company was abolished and the British government assumed the administration of India. (SFEC, 8/3/97, p.A15) 1858 nend Charles Frederick Worth, an English tailor in Paris, began haute couture. He was hired by Napoleon to create a suitable wardrobe for Princess Eugenie and trigger a demand for French fashion. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R40) 1858 nend The Maori responded to Britain?s colonization of New Zealand by choosing a monarch of their own. (SFC, 8/16/06, p.B7) 1858 nend Papal police took Edgardo Mortara (6), a Jewish boy, from the arms of his father after a Catholic housemaid claimed to have baptized the boy during an illness. Edgardo grew up a church ward and later became a priest. (SFC, 9/1/00, p.D4) 1858 1863 These years are covered in Michael Shaara?s Civil War era novel "Gods and Generals." (SFC, 7/4/96, p.D8) 1858 1867 Edgar Degas painted his portrait: "The Bellelli Family." (SFC, 10/13/97, p.E1) 1858 1868 Brahms spent about ten years composing his "Ein Deutsches Requiem, Opus 45," for solo voices, chorus and orchestra. It is considered his greatest choral work. (BLW, Geiringer, 1963 ed.p.310 ) 1858 1862 In Mexico Benito Juarez served his 1st term as president. He succeeded in resisting the French and offered a moment of democracy before bending the constitution to stand for re-election. (WUD, 1994, p.772)(SFC, 4/5/01, p.A12) 1858 1919 Ruggiero Leoncavallo, Italian composer and librettist. (WUD, 1994, p.821) 1858 1922 Allesandro Moreschi, the last castrato singer. He was a member of the Sistine Chapel Chorus and recorded a few phonograph records in the first decade of the 20th century. "The sound on those records makes one shiver." (LGC-HCS, p.44) 1858 1933 Henry Watson Fowler, English lexicographer-author: "We tell our thoughts, like our children, to put on their hats and coats before they go out." (AP, 7/31/00) 1858 1943 Beatrice Potter Webb, English sociologist: "Religion is love; in no case is it logic." (AP, 11/8/98) 1858 1945 Felix Emmanuel Schelling, American educator and scholar: "True education makes for inequality; the inequality of individuality, the inequality of success; the glorious inequality of talent, of genius; for inequality, not mediocrity, individual superiority, not standardization, is the measure of the progress of the world." (AP, 12/15/97) 1858 1947 Max Planck, German physicist. He proved that in order to fit the theoretical curves of the energy distribution with the experimental curve of emission of hot bodies, it is necessary to assume that this minimum amount of radiant energy be equal to hv, where v is the frequency and h a universal constant known as the quantum, or Planck?s, constant. This constant is 10-27 cm.-gm.-sec. (SCTS, p.47) 1858 1950 Agnes Repplier, American essayist: "The man who never tells an unpalatable truth 'at the wrong time' (the right time has yet to be discovered) is the man whose success in life is fairly well assured." (AP, 3/26/99) 1859 nend Jan 9, Carrie Lane Chapman Catt, founder of the League of Women Voters, was born. (MC, 1/9/02) 1859 nend Jan 20, The Federal War began in Venezuela. Ezequiel Zamora (1817-1860) led the Federalist Army until his assassination on Jan 10, 1860. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_War) 1859 nend Jan 22, Brahms' 1st piano concerto (in D minor) premiered in Hanover. (MC, 1/22/02) 1859 nend Jan 27, Kaiser Wilhelm II, German emperor (1888-1918) during World War I, was born. He was forced to abdicate in 1918. (HN, 1/27/99)(MC, 1/27/02) 1859 nend Feb 1, Victor Herbert was born. (cellist, conductor: Pittsburgh Symphony; composer: operettas: Babes in Toyland, Naughty Marietta; songs: Ah Sweet Mystery of Life (at Last I?ve Found You) (440 Int'l, 2/1/1999) 1859 nend Feb 14, George Washington Gale Ferris, inventor of the Ferris Wheel, was born. (HN, 2/14/98) 1859 nend Feb 14, Oregon was admitted to the Union as the 33rd state. (HN, 2/14/98)(AP, 2/14/98) 1859 nend Feb 17, Giuseppe Verdi's opera "Un Ballo in maschera" premiered in Napoli. (MC, 2/17/02) 1859 nend Feb 18, Shalom Aleichem (Solomon Rabinowitz, d.1916), Russian-Yiddish playwright, author and humorist, was born. "To want to be the cleverest of all is the biggest folly." (WUD, 1994 p.35)(AP, 1/13/01) 1859 nend Feb 19, Svante Arrhenius, Swedish chemist, founder of physical chemistry, was born. (HN, 2/19/01) 1859 nend Feb 19, Daniel E. Sickles, NY congressman, was acquitted of murder on grounds of temporary insanity. This was the 1st time this defense was successfully used. Sickles had shot and killed Philip Barton Key, son of Francis Scott Key, author of "Star Spangled Banner." He shot Lee, the DC district attorney, in Lafayette Square for having an affair with his wife. Sickles pleaded temporary insanity and the sanctity of a man?s home and beat the murder rap. (WSJ, 3/29/02, p.W10)(MC, 2/19/02) 1859 nend Feb 25, The "insanity plea" was 1st used to prove innocence. (MC, 2/25/02) 1859 nend Feb 28, Arkansas legislature required free blacks to choose exile or slavery. (MC, 2/28/02) 1859 nend Mar 1, The present seal of San Francisco was adopted (its 2nd). (SC, 3/1/02) 1859 nend Mar 8, Kenneth Grahame, Scottish author who created the children?s classic "The Wind in the Willows," was born. (HN, 3/8/99) 1859 nend Mar 10, Henry David Thoreau recorded in his journal the hearing of his first spring bluebird. (WSJ, 4/17/96, p.A-18) 1859 nend Mar 19, The opera "Faust" by Charles Gounod premiered in Paris. (AP, 3/19/97) 1859 nend Mar 21, Zoological Society of Philadelphia, the 1st in US, was incorporated. (MC, 3/21/02) 1859 nend Mar 21, The Scottish National Gallery opened in Edinburgh. (MC, 3/21/02) 1859 nend Mar 26, A.E. Houseman (d.1936), critic, classics scholar and poet (A Shropshire Lad), was born. A 1997 fictionalized portrait of Alfred Edward Housman, "The Invention of Love: Memory Play," was written by Tom Stoppard. He is best known for his work "A Shropshire Lad." (SFEC, 3/29/98, p.T9)(SFC, 1/15/00, p.B1)(HN, 3/26/01) 1859 nend Mar 26, 1st sighting of Vulcan, a planet thought to orbit inside Mercury. (SS, 3/26/02) 1859 nend Mar 28, 1st performance of John Brahms' 1st Serenade for orchestra. (MC, 3/28/02) 1859 nend Apr 3, Reginald De Koven, composer (Robin Hood), was born. (MC, 4/3/02) 1859 nend Apr 4, Knut Hamsun, Norwegian writer, was born. He won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1920. His work included "From the Cultural Life in Modern America" (1889), "Hunger," "The Growth of the Soil," "Victoria," and "An Overgrown Path." A film portrait of his life was produced in 1997. (SFEC, 4/20/97, DB p.47-49) 1859 nend Apr 4, Giacomo Meyerbeer's Opera "Dinorah" was produced in Paris. (MC, 4/4/02) 1859 nend Apr 7, Walter Camp, father of American football, was born in Connecticut. (HN, 4/7/97)(MC, 4/7/02) 1859 nend Apr 9, Realizing that France had encouraged the Piedmontese forces to mobilize for invading Italy, Austria began mobilizing its army. (HN, 4/9/00) 1859 nend Apr 11, Basil Harwood, composer, was born. (MC, 4/11/02) 1859 nend Apr 14, Charles Dickens' "A Tale Of Two Cities" was published. (MC, 4/14/02) 1859 nend Apr 16, Alexis de Tocqueville (b.1805), French writer, died in Cannes. His collected writings filled 17 volumes and included "Democracy in America" (1835) and "The Old Regime and the French Revolution." In 2001 a new English translation by Harvey C. Mansfield and Delba Winthrop was published. In 2001 Sheldon S. Wolin authored "Tocqueville Between Two Worlds." In 2006 Hugh Brogan authored ?Alexis de Tocqueville: Prophet of Democracy in the Age of Revolution ? A Biography.? (WSJ, 9/26/01, p.A18)(www.tocqueville.org/chap1.htm)(Econ, 11/25/06,p.85) 1859 nend Apr 25, Ground was broken in Egypt for the Suez Canal. (AP, 4/25/97)(HN, 4/25/02) 1859 nend Apr 27, "Pomona" sank in North Atlantic drowning all 400 aboard. (MC, 4/27/02) 1859 nend Apr 29, In the Italian Campaign some 150,000 Piedmontese troops invaded Piedmontese territory as the French army raced to support them and the Austrian army mobilized to oppose them. (HN, 4/29/00) 1859 nend May 3, France declared war on Austria. (HN, 5/3/98) 1859 nend May 6, Baron Freidrich von Humboldt (b.1769), German naturalist and explorer who made the first isothermic and isobaric maps, died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt) 1859 nend May 9, Threatened by the advancing French army, the Austrian army retreated across the River Sesia in Italy. (HN, 5/9/00) 1859 nend May 10, French emperor Napoleon III left Paris to join his troops preparing to battle the Austrian army in Northern Italy. (HN, 5/10/02) 1859 nend May 15, Pierre Curie, physicist (Nobel 1903), was born. He and his wife discovered radium. (HN, 5/15/99)(MC, 5/15/02) 1859 nend May 20, A scratch force of Austrians collide with Piedmontese cavalry at the village of Montebello, in northern Italy. (HN, 5/20/00) 1859 nend May 22, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (d.1930), author of the Sherlock Holmes series, was born in Edinburgh, Scotland. He wrote 4 novels featuring Sherlock Holmes. "Mediocrity knows nothing higher than itself, but talent instantly recognizes genius." In 1999 Daniel Stashower published the biography: "Teller of Tales." (AP, 6/17/97)(HN, 5/22/98)(WSJ, 4/12/99, p.A21) 1859 nend May 26, Captain James Simpson and his party, looking for the shortest route across Nevada, crossed the Hickison Summit into Big Smoky Valley. Their path was later followed by the Pony Express (1860) and the Overland Mail and Stage (1861). (BLM, 2001) 1859 nend May 28, The French army launched a flanking attack on the Austrian army in Northern France. (HN, 5/28/00) 1859 nend May 30, The Piedmontese army crossed the Sesia River and defeated the Austrians at Palestro, Italy. (HN, 5/30/00) 1859 nend Jun 2, French forces crossed the Ticino River, the last natural barrier between themselves and Milan with the Austrians in retreat. (HN, 6/2/00) 1859 nend Jun 4, The French army under Napoleon III took Magenta from the Austrian army after a bloody battle in northern Italy. (HN, 6/4/99) 1859 nend Jun 11, Comstock silver load was discovered near Virginia City, Nevada. Prospector James Finney stumbled across thick, bluish clay in western Nevada. A fellow minor, Henry Comstock, gave his name to the lode, the most lucrative silver ore mine in history. Ott?s Assay Office in Nevada City, Ca., first assayed samples of the rich Comstock Lode of Nevada. Four Irishmen known as the Bonanza Kings bought up shares in the Comstock mines and became rich. They were John Mackay, James Fair, James Flood, and William O?Brian. Ore from the Comstock lode was hauled by horse-drawn wagon over Donner Pass to SF. (SFEC, 6/25/00, p.T6)(SFC, 4/14/96, T-3)(SFC, 5/19/96,City Guide,p.17)(RFH-MDHP, 1969, p.107)(SC, 6/11/02) 1859 nend Jun 11, Prince Metternich (b.1773), Austrian diplomat and statesman, died in Vienna. (WUD, 1994 ed., p.903)(Internet) 1859 nend Jun 21, Henry Ossawa Tanner, African-American painter, was born. (HN, 6/21/98) 1859 nend Jun 24, At the Battle of Solferino, also known as the Battle of the Three Sovereigns, the French army led by Napoleon III defeated the Austrian army under Franz Joseph I in northern Italy. (HN, 6/24/99)(HNQ, 9/16/99) 1859 nend Jun 30, French acrobat Blondin (born Jean Francois Gravelet) crossed Niagara Falls on a tightrope as 5,000 spectators watched. (AP, 6/30/97)(HN, 6/30/98) 1859 nend Jul 1, John Wise (d.1879), O. A. Gager and John La Mountain took off on a maiden balloon flight to carry mail from St. Louis to NYC. They landed in Jefferson County, New York state on July 2. Their over 800-mile flight stood as a record until 1900. (ON, 11/00, p.8) 1859 nend Jul 8, With the signing of the truce at Villafranca Austria ceded Lombardy to France. France also received Nice and Savoy. (HN, 7/8/99) 1859 nend Jul 12, William Goodale patented a paper bag manufacturing machine in Mass. (MC, 7/12/02) 1859 nend Jul 28, Balington Booth, founder of Volunteers of America, was born. (SC, 7/28/02) 1859 nend Aug 3, U.S. Army captain George Edward Pickett faced the British in the Pacific Northwest. Pickett had served with valor in the Mexican War right after his graduation from the United States Military Academy at West Point, and he had subsequently seen duty at several frontier posts. On August 3, 1859, the man whose name would be forever linked to the most famous of all Civil War charges was the American commander on the scene as the United States and Great Britain again stood on the brink of war in the San Juan Islands Pig War. (HNQ, 2/4/01) 1859 nend Aug 9, The escalator was patented. The first working escalator appeared in 1900. Manufactured by the Otis Elevator Company for the Paris Exposition, it was installed in a Philadelphia office building the following year. (HN, 8/9/00) 1859 nend Aug 12, Katherine Lee Bates (d.1929), educator, author and composer of "America the Beautiful," was born. (WUD, 1994 p.126)(HN, 8/12/01) 1859 nend Aug 17, Harry Colcord crossed over the Niagara Falls while strapped to the back of French tightrope walker Blondin. (www.simpenguin.com/genealogy/blondin/charlesblondinbio.html) 1859 nend Aug 27-28, The US oil business was born in Titusville, Pa. Former army officer Colonel Edwin L. Drake drilled the first oil well in Titusville, Pa., striking oil at 70 feet and setting off a wild scramble for wealth similar to the California gold rush of 1849. The land belonged to the Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company. Until that time, the company had simply collected oil that seeped out of the ground. Drake's plan was to produce it in large quantities for use in heating and illumination. Overnight oil fields sprang up in Pennsylvania but competition, disorganization and oversupply kept oil prices low. It was not until John D. Rockefeller and the Standard Oil Company came onto the scene in 1870 that the petroleum industry developed into a vastly profitable, although much hated, monopoly. (HFA, '96, p.36)(AP, 8/27/97)(HNPD, 10/4/98)(WSJ, 10/4/96, p.A9) 1859 nend Aug 28, Leigh Hunt (b.1784), English poet and essayist, died. He is remembered for his immortal couplet: ?The Two divinist things this world has got: / A lovely women in a rural spot. In 2005 Nicholas Roe authored ?Fiery Heart: The first Life of Leigh Hunt.? Anthony Holden authored ?The Wit in the Dungeon: The Life of Leigh Hunt.? (RTH, 8/28/99)(Econ, 1/29/05, p.80)(WSJ, 12/6/05, p.D8) 1859 nend Sep 1, The 1st Pullman sleeping car went into service. George M. Pullman began outfitting railroad cars. His company was incorporated in 1867. (SFC, 7/1/98, Z1 p.6)(MC, 9/1/02) 1859 nend Sep 1, R.C. Carrington and R. Hodgson made the 1st observation of a solar flare. (SC, 9/1/02) 1859 nend Sep 5, Harriot E. Wilson?s "Our Nig," was published, the first U.S. novel by an African American woman. (HN, 9/5/98) 1859 nend Sep 13, David C. Broderick, a US Senator, faced David S. Terry, Chief Justice of the California Supreme Court, in a duel at Lake Merced. Broderick was hit in the chest and died after 60 hours. Terry resigned his position and was charged with murder, but not convicted. The weapons used were a pair of Belgian .58-caliber pistols on loan from an associate of Terry. Broderick?s weapon was set with a hair-trigger, and misfired. The pistols sold at auction in 1998 for $34,500. (PI, 5/30/98, p.5A)(SFC, 11/25/98, p.B8) 1859 nend Sep 15, Isambard Brunel (b.1806), engineer of England?s Thames Tunnel, died. He was the son of Marc Brunel, the engineer who initiated the project. In 2002 R. Angus Buchanan authored ?Brunel: The Life and Times of Isambard Kingdom Brunel.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isambard_Kingdom_Brunel)(ON, 8/07, p.7) 1859 nend Sep 17, Joshua A. Norton proclaims himself Emperor of the United States and Protector of Mexico with a proclamation delivered to the offices of the San Francisco Bulletin. (HFA, ?96, p.64) 1859 nend Sep 20, George Simpson patented the electric range. (MC, 9/20/01) 1859 nend Oct 4, Karl Baedeker (b.1801), German travel writer and tour guide (Die Schweiz), died. (MC, 10/4/01) 1859 nend Oct 9, Alfred Dreyfus, French artillery officer who was falsely accused of giving French military secrets to foreign powers, was born. (HN, 10/9/98) no_source 1859 nend Oct 16, On Sunday evening radical abolitionist John Brown and a tiny army of five black and 13 white supporters seized the Federal arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia). Convinced that local slaves would rise up behind him, Brown planned to establish a new republic of fugitives in the Appalachian Mountains. Brown's plans immediately went awry when the expected slave rebellion did not happen and the townspeople trapped Brown's men inside the engine house at the Federal arsenal. Within 24 hours, Brown and his four surviving men were captured by a force of 90 U.S. Marines under the command of Lt. Col. Robert E. Lee, pictured here. Brown, quickly convicted of criminal conspiracy and treason and sentenced to death, was hanged on December 2, 1859. As he went to the gallows, Brown handed a note to one of his guards: "I, John Brown, am now quite certain that the crimes of this guilty land will never be purged away but with blood." The incident is the backdrop for George MacDonald Fraser?s novel "Flashman and the Angel of the Lord." Brown was convicted and executed at Charlestown for treason against the state of Virginia. (WSJ, 4/10/95, p. A-16)(AP, 10/16/97)(HNPD, 10/16/98)(HNQ, 2/3/00) 1859 nend Oct 17, Childe Hassam (d.1935), American impressionist painter, etcher and illustrator, was born. His work included "St. Patrick's Day." (WUD, 1994, p.649)(HN, 10/17/00) 1859 nend Oct 18, Henri Bergson (d.1941), French philosopher (Creative Evolution- Nobel 1927), was born. He is said to have taught that man acts first and thinks later as opposed to Descartes who said man thinks before he acts. He won the 1927 Nobel Prize for Literature. His dualistic philosophy held that man's intellect enables him to appraise the world and his intuition tells him something of the all-pervading life force, or elan vital. He was a spokesman for "process philosophy." "Only those ideas that are least truly ours can be adequately expressed in words." (AHD, 1971, p.125)(WSJ, 11/21/95, p.A-12)(SFC, 3/27/99, p.C2)(WSJ,6/22/99, p.A22)(AP, 10/18/99)(MC, 10/18/01) 1859 nend Oct 19, Pres. James Buchanan signed a letter that confirmed the return of California mission properties to the church. (SFEC, 3/12/00, p.T5) 1859 nend Oct 19, Georg Knorr, German engineer (brake system trains), was born. (MC, 10/19/01) 1859 nend Oct 20, John Dewey (d.1952), American political philosopher, educational theorist and writer (Learn by doing), was born in Michigan. He was called an advanced liberal and in 1995 Alan Ryan publishes a biography on Dewey titled: John Dewey and the High Tide of American Liberalism. Ryan points out that Dewey?s ideas were anti-institutional, that he advocated economic and social democracy, that he was more of a romantic and concerned with how things ought to be in an ideal world. "Open-mindedness is not the same as empty-mindedness. To hang out a sign saying, ?Come right in; there is no one at home? is not the equivalent of hospitality." (Civil., Jul-Aug., ?95, p.77)(MT, Fall. ?97, p.15)(WSJ, 6/22/99,p.A22)(MC, 10/20/01)(AP, 2/25/98) 1859 nend Oct 22, Louis (Ludwig) Spohr (75), composer (Faust), died. (MC, 10/22/01) 1859 nend Oct 22, Spain declared war on the Moors in Morocco. (HN, 10/22/98) 1859 nend Nov 12, The first flying-trapeze circus act was performed by Jules Leotard at the Circus Napoleon in Paris. He designed the garment that bears his name. (HN, 11/12/00)(MC, 11/12/01) 1859 nend Nov 19, Mikhail Mikhayl Ippolitov-Ivanov, Russian musician (Armenian Rhapsody), was born. (MC, 11/19/01) 1859 nend Nov 22, Ludwig "Louis" Spohr (75), German violinist and composer (Faust), died. (MC, 11/22/01) 1859 nend Nov 23, Billy the Kid (born as Henry McCarty), was born as William H. Bonney (d.1881) in New York City. He later became a US outlaw. A ballet titled "Billy the Kid" by Aaron Copland was written in 1938. (HFA, ?96, p.42)(WUD, 1994, p.148)(MesWP)(HNQ, 7/9/01) 1859 nend Nov 24, Cass Gilbert (d.1934), architect, was born. His work included the NYC Woolworth Building, completed in 1913. (HN, 11/24/00)(WSJ, 1/10/00, p.A20) 1859 nend Nov 24, British naturalist Charles Darwin published "On the Origin of Species," or "The Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life." The first printing of 1,250 copies sold out in a single day. It explained his theory of evolution. (V.D.-H.K.p.280)(WSJ, 2/24/97, p.A20)(AP, 11/24/97)(HN, 11/24/00) 1859 nend Nov 28, Washington Irving (b. Apr 3,1783) American essayist, author, historian, biographer, attorney/lawyer, died. He was buried in the Hudson Valley Old Dutch Church cemetery in Tarrytown. He was born in New York City and wrote the "Legend of Sleepy Hollow" and "Rip Van Winkle." In 2007 Andrew Burstein authored ?The Original Knickerbocker: The Life of Washington Irving.? (USAT, 11/12/99, p.2D)(WSJ, 2/27/07, p.D5) 1859 nend Dec 2, George Seurat (d.1891), French artist, was born in Paris. He entered the Ecole des Beaux Arts in 1875. His method of painting with bright colors juxtaposed as tiny dots was called pointillism, often called Neo-Impressionism. (SFC, 5/6/97, p.E4)(WUD, 1994, p.1306)(DPCP 1984)(HN, 12/2/98) 1859 nend Dec 2, John Brown, US abolitionist, was hanged for his raid on Harper?s Ferry the previous October. Brown was convicted and executed at Charlestown for treason against the state of Virginia after his unsuccessful October 16-18 raid at Harpers Ferry. Six of Brown?s men were later convicted and hanged. In 1910 Oswald Garrison Villard authored an account of Brown?s life. In 1972 Richard O. Boyer authored "The Legend of John Brown." In 1998 Russell Banks published his novel "Cloudsplitter," narrated by Owen Brown (1824-1889), the 3rd son of John Brown. In 2005 David S. Reynolds authored ?John Brown: Abolitionist.? (SFEC, 2/22/98, BR p.8)(ON, 7/02, p.8)(WSJ, 4/19/05, p.D8)(SSFC,4/24/05, p.B1) 1859 nend Dec 5, Dion Boucicault's "Octaroon," premiered in NYC. (MC, 12/5/01) 1859 nend Dec 8, Thomas De Quincey (b.1785), English essayist, died. In 2006 his essays on murder were collected and published under the title ?On Murder.? He is best know for his famous ?Confessions of an Opium Eater? (1821). (WSJ, 6/9/07,p.P8)(www.britannica.com/eb/article-9029613/Thomas-De-Quincey) 1859 nend Dec 10, In Venezuela?s war for independence from Spain Ezequiel Zamora (1817-1860) led the Battle of Santa Ines. Zamora and 3,400 men defeated the Central Army of 2,300 men, with about 1,200 casualties altogether on both sides. Zamora had returned to Venezuela to lead the Federal War, which lasted to 1863. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_War) 1859 nend Dec 18, South Carolina declared itself an "independent commonwealth." (MC, 12/18/01) 1859 nend Dec 28, Thomas Babington Macaulay (b.1800), English essayist, historian and politician, died. He was one of the first to advocate Indian independence, albeit on the grounds of English commercial self interest. (www.britannica.com)(Econ, 10/30/04, p.48) 1859 nend Dec 31, Luigi Ricci (54), composer, died. (MC, 12/31/01) 1859 nend Havelock Ellis (d.1939), English psychologist, was born "What we call progress is the exchange of one nuisance for another nuisance." (AP, 2/9/02) 1859 nend Frederick Church painted his fantasy landscape "the Heart of the Andes." (WSJ, 9/14/00, p.A24) 1859 nend Jean-Francois Millet painted "The Angelus," and it became the most reproduced painting of the 19th century. (SFEC, 8/22/99, BR p.3) 1859 nend John Rogers bronze statues were used as molds for low cost painted plaster statues until 1892. An 1873 version showed Lincoln and Grant reading a map with Sec. of War Edward M. Stanton standing behind wiping his glasses. (SFC, 4/2/97, Z1 p.6) 1859 nend George Washington Parke Custis, Martha Washington?s grandson, wrote: "Recollections and Private Memoirs of Washington." (HT, 5/97, p.46) 1859 nend Francis Galton published his "Hereditary Genius." He advocated arranged marriages between men of distinction and women of wealth that would, he said, eventually produce a gifted race. (V.D.-H.K.p.399) 1859 nend J.S. Mill authored ?On Liberty in which he formulated the idea that society could restrict individual liberty only for society?s own protection. (WSJ, 8/14/98, p.W11)(Econ, 4/24/04, p.86) 1859 nend The Murray?s "Handbook for Travelers in India" was first published. (SFEC,11/23/97, p.T5) 1859 nend Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) authored "Notes on Hospitals," which combined two papers presented the year before at the Social Science Congress. She addressed every aspect of hospital management, from the purchase of iron bedsteads to replace the wooden ones, to switching to glass cups instead of tin. The 108-page book went on into three editions and established Nightingale once more as an international authority. (HNQ, 4/29/01) 1859 nend Evangelist Phoebe Palmer published "Promise of the Father" on women?s right to preach. (SFC, 3/30/97, Z1. p.6) 1859 nend Joseph Prestwich, English geologist, published his "Verification of Boucher de Perthes? Claims" [that early man made stone tools]. The paper is a model of careful detailing of evidence, and from it we may date the birth of modern prehistory. (RFH-MDHP, p.95) 1859 nend Samuel Smiles (1812-1904), Scottish doctor and writer, authored ?Self-Help.? It became a classic work on self-improvement. (Econ, 4/24/04, p.86) 1859 nend Author Emily Thornwell provided maidens with a model of the correct manner of accepting a marriage proposal in her etiquette book, "The Ladies' Guide to Perfect Gentility:" "Sir: The attentions which you have so long and so assiduously shown to me have not escaped my notice; indeed how could they, since they were directed exclusively to me?...On consulting my parents, I find that they do not object to your proposal; therefore, I have only this to add--may we still entertain the same regard which we have hitherto cherished for each other, until it shall ripen in that affection which wedlock shall sanction, and which lapse of time will not allow to fade. Believe me to be, Yours, sincerely attached...." (HNPD, 6/4/99) 1859 nend Brahms played his composition "Pianoforte Concerto in D minor" for the first time in public in Hanover under J. Joachim. (BLW, Geiringer, 1963 ed. p. 61) 1859 nend Berlioz wrote his version of Gluck?s opera "Orphee et Eurydice." (SFC, 8/27/96, p.B3) 1859 nend Dixie, the musical anthem of the Civil War South, was first performed in New York City. (SFC, 9/22/96, zone 1 p.2) 1859 nend The SF Call reported on the "Hoochie Coochie" dancers on the stages of the Bella Union, The Olympic and the Midway Plaisance and other dance halls: "dances of licentious and profane character, obscenity were served in superior style." (SFEM,11/30/97, p.20) 1859 nend Pres. Buchanan ordered a blockade of Cuba to intercept American-owned slave ships. (SSFC, 2/8/04, p.C12) 1859 nend The US was party to a Friendship, Commerce and Navigation Treaty [with Paraguay]. The treaty was cited in 1998 (along with the 1963 Vienna Convention) as protecting the right of individuals jailed in a foreign land to contact their national consulate. (SFC, 4/14/98, p.A3) 1859 nend In the US the Highlander Regiment, aka Cameron Highlanders, was formed. It was made up primarily of emigrant Scots and Scottish-Americans. It adopted the numerical designation of 79. (RC handout, 5/27/96) 1959 nend Northern and Southern leaders socialized together for the last time at the Napier Ball in the Willard Hotel before the start of the US Civil War. (SFC, 1/5/06, p.E4) 1859 nend Lyman Cutlar, an American farmer, shot and killed a Berkshire boar uprooting his potato patch and the British threatened to put him into irons. The Pig War on San Juan Island forced an arbitration under Kaiser Wilhelm I of Germany, who awarded the San Juan islands off Washington state to the US. Six Royal Marines and 16 US soldiers died during the 13-year occupation from drownings, disease and suicides. (SFEC, 6/18/00, p.T8) 1859 nend The Texas Supreme Court said that the people cannot be oppressed and enslaved who are not first disarmed. (NG, 5/88, mem. forum) 1859 nend The town of Bodie, east of the Sierra Nevada Mountains in Calif., was founded. It was 8,400 feet high and later the site of a gold find. William S. Body found gold in Mono County and prompted the growth of the town of Bodie. It was later made a State Historic Park maintained in its original condition. In 2002 it became the state?s official Gold Rush ghost town. Neighboring Calico was designated the state?s official Silver Rush ghost town in 2003. (SFC, 6/23/96, p.T3)(SFEC,11/23/97, p.D5)(SFC, 8/21/02, p.A2) 1859 nend Colonel Frederick W. Lander led an expedition to the West to survey a railroad route across Nevada to California. Artist Alfred Bierstadt accompanied the expedition. (www.wyomingtalesandtrails.com/sherman2.html) 1859 nend Richard Tobin, SF attorney, co-founded the Hibernia Savings and Loan Society. (Daly City Fog Cutter, Vol 8 No. 3, 2008) 1859 nend Claire Brown was the first black woman to come to Colorado. She helped establish the Adriance Church, one of the state?s first churches. (Hem., 5/97, p.20) 1859 nend Gustave Stomps (1827-1890), a German immigrant, founded a furniture company in Dayton, Ohio. The Stomps Burkhardt Co. of Dayton operated from 1890 to 1928. (SFC, 9/19/07, p.G6) 1859 nend The Riemann Hypothesis was first proposed. (SFC, 5/25/00, p.A2) 1859 nend One of the first reports relating tobacco to cancer was published in France. (HNQ, 11/10/98) 1859 nend John Augustus, Boston businessman, died. He had instituted a practice called probation and helped spare some 2,000 convicted offenders from prison sentences. In 1891 the Mass. state legislature established the 1st official judicial probation system. In 1925 the US Congress passed the National Probation Act. (ON, 5/02, p.5) 1859 nend Peter Lassen was killed at Paiute Peak near the Black Rock Desert by a single shot through the skull. (SFC, 8/25/98, p.A9) 1859 nend In Australia the Yalumba Winery in the Barossa Valley, South Australia, was begun by the Sam Smith family. (SFEC, 10/25/98, p.T5) 1859 nend A treaty between Britain and Guatemala defined the boundaries of Belize. (SFC, 11/2/00, p.A12) 1859 nend There was a rain of tiny fish over England. (SFC, 5/30/98, p.E4) 1859 nend Imam Shamil (1797-1871), Caucasian (Chechen) warrior, surrendered and became an honorary captive of Alexander II. (SFC, 8/13/99, p.A14) 1859 nend The Muslim North Caucasus region of Chechnya was incorporated into the Russian empire after hundreds of years of fighting. Czarist armies conquered Chechnya after decades of fighting. (SFC, 5/13/97, p.A12)(SFC, 10/26/02, p.A10) 1859 nend One of the first reports relating tobacco to cancer was published in France. (HNQ, 11/10/98) 1859 nend Gaston Plante, French physicist, invented the first rechargeable battery. (Econ, 3/8/08, TQ p.23) 1859 nend Leon Benouville (b.1821), French painter, died. His paintings included ?The Wrath of Achilles? (1847). (www.insecula.com/us/contact/A005594.html) 1859 nend A series of at least 4 Olympic competitions began in Athens, Greece. (WSJ, 7/19/96, p.R16) 1859 nend Roatan Island, 40 miles off the mainland, was ceded to Honduras. The British had settled the island with African slaves and the islanders speak English with a Caribbean accent. It was controlled for a time by the pirate Henry Morgan. (SFEC, 5/4/97, p.T10) 1859 nend The onion-domed Great Synagogue was erected in the Jewish quarter of Budapest, Hungary. (Sm, 3/06, p.76) 1859 nend The present church in Thingvellir, Iceland, was constructed. (NH, 6/96, p.53) 1859 nend The first polo club, The Retreat in Silchar, India, was founded. It was organized by British soldiers in northern India. (Hem., 7/95, p.87) 1859 nend Dr. David Livingstone, Scottish missionary, arrived in Malawi. The town of Livingstonia was later named in his honor. (SFC, 8/18/99, p.A10) 1859 nend Melchor Ocampo, a Mexican lawyer, scientist and liberal politician, penned a 537-word ode to marriage, which was incorporated as the vows in a new civil marriage law. They were meant to replace religious vows as Mexican liberals stripped away the Roman Catholic Church?s control over much of the country?s political, social and economic life. Conservative foes summarily executed Ocampo by firing squad for promoting the separation of church and state, but kept the amended vows in the new civil marriage law. (AP, 7/30/06) 1859 nend In Serbia the Zastava manufacturing plant in Kragujevac began operations. (SFC, 5/20/99, p.A12) 1859 nend After four years in the United States, Alfred Nobel returned to Sweden and built a factory to manufacture the explosive nitroglycerin. (HNPD, 10/21/98) 1859 1909 The Indian-head penny was minted over this time. (WSJ, 12/12/03, p.W15) 1859 1927 Jerome K. Jerome, English author and humorist: "It is impossible to enjoy idling thoroughly unless one has plenty of work to do." (AP, 5/30/97) 1859 1947 Carrie Chapman Catt, American feminist: "No written law has ever been more binding than unwritten custom supported by popular opinion." (HN, 7/19/98) 1859 1954 The colonial period of Vietnam. (SSFC, 8/5/01, p.T1) 1860 nend Jan 10, Ezequiel Zamora (1817-1860), leader of the Federalist Army in Venezuela, was assassinated. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_War) 1860 nend Jan 17, Anton Chekhov (d.1904), Russian playwright and short story writer, was born. "Man is what he believes." He was famous for "The Seagull" and "Three Sisters. " Part of his letters were published in a 1955 edition edited by Lillian Hellman. In 1997 his later letters from 1899 to actress Olga Knipper were edited by Jean Benedetti and published as: "Dear Writer, Dear Actress: The Love Letters of Anton Chekhov and Olga Knipper." (WUD, 1994, p.252)(WSJ, 12/5/97, p.A16)(HN, 1/17/99)(AP, 5/24/99) 1860 nend Feb 22, Shoe-making workers of Lynn, Mass, struck successfully for higher wages. The strike in Lynn and Natick, Massachusetts, spread throughout New England and involved 20,000 workers. The strike was for higher wages and included women. The workers won their major demands. (HNQ, 8/3/98)(MC, 2/22/02) 1860 nend Feb 26, White settlers massacred a band of Wiyot Indians at the village of Tuluwat on Indian Island near Eureka, Ca. At least 60 women, children and elders were killed. Bret Harte, newspaper reporter in Arcata, fed the news to newspapers in San Francisco. (SFC, 2/28/04, p.D1) 1860 nend Feb 29, Herman Hollerith, inventor of a tabulation mechanism (1864) that was a forerunner to the computer, was born. (HN, 2/29/00)(WSJ, 3/21/00, p.A20) 1860 nend Mar 1, Suzanna Salter, first female mayor, was born. (HN, 3/1/98) 1860 nend Mar 6, While campaigning for the presidency, Abraham Lincoln made a speech defending the right to strike. (HN, 3/6/99) 1860 nend Mar 9, The first Japanese ambassador to the United States, Niimi Buzennokami, and his staff arrived in San Francisco. (AP, 3/9/05) 1860 nend Mar 11, Thomas Hastings, architect of the New York Public Library, was born. (HN, 3/11/98) 1860 nend Mar 12, US Congress accepted the Pre-emption Bill. It provided free land in West for colonists. (MC, 3/12/02) 1860 nend Mar 19, William Jennings Bryan, orator, statesman, known as "The Great Communicator," was born. (HN, 3/19/98) 1860 nend Mar 27, M.L. Byrn patented a "covered gimlet screw with a 'T' handle" (corkscrew). (MC, 3/27/02) 1860 nend Apr 2, The first Italian Parliament met at Turin. Italy was unified. The Rothschild banking empire bankrolled Italy?s independence. (AP, 4/2/97)(SFC, 6/11/96, p.A16)(SFC, 7/12/96, p.A11) 1860 nend Apr 3, The US Pony Express mail system began when one horse and rider carrying a bulging mail pouch began the 10 1/2-day run from San Francisco, Calif., to St. Joseph, Mo. Riders left St. Joseph, Missouri and Sacramento, Ca., at the same time. They averaged 12 mph over 75-100 mile segments between 153 (190) change stations. The freight company of Russell, Majors and Waddell began the service. The enterprise failed after only 18 months, however, due to mounting financial losses and competition from the ever-expanding telegraph network. Donald C. Biggs (d.2000 at 72), prof. of history at SF State, later authored "The Pony Express: Creation of the Legend." (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pony_Express)(SFC, 2/15/97, p.D4)(AP,4/3/97)(SFC, 6/12/00, p.A24) 1860 nend Apr 6, Rene Lalique (d.1945), French goldsmith, jeweler, glassmaker and artist, was born. He helped mold the shape of 20th century art nouveau, art deco and architectural ornamentation. (SFC, 3/26/97, z1 p.7)(Hem., 6/98, p.134)(MC, 4/6/02) 1860 nend Apr 7, William Keith Kellogg, the brother of Dr. John Harvey Kellogg (1852-1943), was born. Will later founded the W.K. Kellogg company in Battle Creek, Mich., to market the cornflakes invented by his older brother. [see 1895] (HN,4/7/99)(http://www.ivu.org/history/adventists/kellogg.html)(WSJ,9/29/00, p.W17) 1860 nend Apr 13, 1st Pony Express reached Sacramento, Calif. (MC, 4/13/02) 1860 nend Apr 14, First Pony Express rider arrived in San Francisco with mail originating in St. Joseph, Missouri. (HN, 4/14/98) 1860 nend Apr 23, Democratic convention in Charleston, SC, divided over slavery. (MC, 4/23/02) 1860 nend Apr 23, The Pony Express rider missed the boat at Benicia, Ca. Thomas Bedford, a 34-year-old stable keeper, was hired on the spot and boarded the ferry Carquinez with his horse. His discovered that his horse had lost a shoe and borrowed a horse from Martinez blacksmith Casemoro Briones and delivered the mail to the ferry at Oakland. The mail reached SF 9 hours and 15 minutes from the time it left Sacramento. (SFC, 4/28/97, p.A19) 1860 nend Apr 27, Thomas J Jackson (the future "Stonewall") was assigned to command Harpers Ferry. (MC, 4/27/02) 1860 nend Apr 29, Lorado Taft, US sculptor (Black Hawk), was born. (MC, 4/29/02) 1860 nend Apr 30, Navaho Indians attacked Fort Defiance (Canby). (MC, 4/30/02) 1860 nend Apr, John Speke and James Grant left England on an expedition to confirm Lake Victoria as the source of the Nile. (ON, 10/01, p.9)(WSJ, 5/20/06, p.P9) 1860 nend May 2, William Maddock Bayliss, British physiologist, co-discoverer of hormones, was born. (HN, 5/2/02) 1860 nend May 2, Theodor Herzl, journalist, founder (Zionist movement), was born in Austria. (MC, 5/2/02) 1860 nend May 9, James Matthew Barrie (d.1937), novelist (Margaret Ogilvy, Peter Pan), was born in Kirriemuir, Scotland. (www.angus.gov.uk) 1860 nend May 11, Giuseppe Garibaldi landed at Marsala, Sicily. He began a series of campaigns that politically unified most of the Italian peninsula in 1861. (HN, 5/11/99)(ON, 10/06, p.7) 1860 nend May 15, Ellen Louise Axson Wilson, first wife of President Woodrow Wilson, was born. (HN, 5/15/98) 1860 nend May 16, Chicago: Republican convention selected Abraham Lincoln as their presidential candidate. (MC, 5/16/02) 1860 nend May 18, The Republican Convention in Chicago nominated Abraham Lincoln for US president in a hastily constructed edifice called the Wigwam. (Hem., 7/96, p.26)(HN, 5/18/98) 1860 nend May 21, Willem Einthoven, Dutch physiologist, inventor of the electrocardiogram, was born. (HN, 5/21/01)(MC, 5/21/02) 1860 nend May 21, Phinneas Gage died in SF from a major seizure. Gage had survived an 1848 blasting accident in Vermont when tamping iron blasted through his skull. [see Sep 13, 1848] (ON, 10/02, p.10) 1860 nend May 22, In Lebanon a small group of Maronites fired on a group of Druzes at the entrance to Beirut, killing one and wounding two. This sparked off a torrent of violence which swept through Lebanon. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1860_Lebanon_conflict) 1860 nend May 26, Garibaldi occupied Palermo, Italy. (MC, 5/26/02) 1860 nend May 29, Isaac [Manuel F] Albéniz, Spanish pianist, composer (Iberia), was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1860 nend Jun 6, William R. Inge, English theologian, Deacon St. Paul's Cathedral, was born. (MC, 6/6/02) 1860 nend Jun 7, Workmen started laying track for Market Street Railroad in SF. (SC, 6/7/02) 1860 nend Jun 9, The first dime novel: "Malaeska: The Indian Wife of the White Hunter," written by Ann Sophia Stephens (1813-1886), was published by Beadle and Adams in NYC. (AP, 6/9/02)(www.niulib.niu.edu/badndp/dn01.html) 1860 nend Jun 22, Nathan Maroney, a Philadelphia station agent for Adams Express Co., pleaded guilty to the theft of $40,000 after Pinkerton agents, who had secretly befriended him, appeared in court to testify against him. (ON, 7/06, p.12) 1860 nend Jun 23, The U.S. Secret Service was created to arrest counterfeiters and protect the president. (HN, 6/23/98) 1860 nend Jun 25, Gustave Charpentier, French composer (Louise), was born. (MC, 6/25/02) 1860 nend Jun 29, Thomas Addison (67), English physician (A-Biermer Disease), died. (MC, 6/29/02) 1860 nend Jul 1, Charles Goodyear (b.1800), inventor or the vulcanization process for rubber, died. In 2002 Charles Slack authored "Noble Obsession" an account of his quest to develop a form of rubber impervious to high temperatures. (WSJ, 7/31/02, p.D10)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Goodyear) 1860 nend Jul 7, Gustav Mahler, conductor of the Vienna State Opera House, was born in Kalischat, Bohemia, Austria. (HN, 7/7/98)(MC, 7/7/02) 1860 nend Jul 14, Owen Wister (d.1938), novelist, was born in Germantown, Pa. His 1902 novel "The Virginian" inspired 5 films. (HN, 7/14/01)(SFC, 1/9/02, p.D8)(AH, 10/02, p.18) 1860 nend Jul 19, Lizzie Borden, teacher, famous 1892 murder suspect, was born. (HN, 7/19/01) 1860 nend Jul 25, The 1st US intercollegiate billiard match was between Harvard and Yale. (SC, 7/25/02) 1860 nend Jul, Fighting in Lebanon spilled over into Damascus. With the connivance of the military authorities and Turkish soldiers, Muslim fanatics organized pogroms which lasted three days (July 9-11). 25,000 Christians were killed including the American and Dutch consuls. Churches and missionary schools were set on fire. Many Christians were saved through the intervention of the Muslim Algerian exile Abd al-Qadir and his soldiers. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1860_Lebanon_conflict) 1860 nend Aug 3, The American Canoe Association was founded at Lake George, NY. (SC, 8/3/02) 1860 nend Aug 5, Joseph Carey Merrick, "Elephant Man," was born. (MC, 8/5/02) 1860 nend Aug 8, Queen of Sandwich Islands (Hawaii) arrived in NYC. (MC, 8/8/02) 1860 nend Aug 11, The first US successful silver mill began operation near Virginia City, Nev. (AP, 8/11/97) 1860 nend Aug 13, Annie Oakley (d.1926), sharp-shooter and entertainer, was born in Darke County, Ohio, as Phoebe Anne Oakley Mozee (Mosey). She became a markswoman and toured with the Buffalo Bill Wild West Show. (WUD, 1994, p.992)(SFEC, 8/3/97, Z1 p.2)(HN, 8/14/98) 1860 nend Aug 20, Robert O?Hara Burke led a group of 15 men, 27 camels and 23 horses out of Melbourne on an expedition to cross Australia. (ON, 12/01, p.1) 1860 nend Aug 30, The first British tramway was inaugurated at Birkenhead by an American, George Francis Train. (HN, 8/30/98) 1861 nend Sep 1, Ulysses Grant assumed command of Federal forces at Cape Girardeau, MI. (MC, 9/1/02) 1860 nend Sep 3, Edward Albert Filene, merchant, was born. He established the US credit union movement. (MC, 9/3/01) 1860 nend Sep 6, Jane Addams (d.1935) was born. She is known for her work as a social reformer, pacifist, and founder of Hull House in Chicago in 1889, and as the first American woman to receive the Nobel Peace Prize (1931). ?The essence of immorality is the tendency to make an exception of one?s self.? ?You do not know what life means when all the difficulties are removed! I am simply smothered and sickened with advantages. It is like eating a sweet dessert the first thing in the morning.? (AHD, 1971, p.15)(AP, 8/28/97)(HN, 9/6/98)(AP, 10/4/98) 1860 nend Sep 7, Anna Marie Robertson (Grandma Moses, d.1953), American folk painter, best known for her paintings of rural life, was born. Anna Mary Robertson began painting at the age of 78. Her primitive and untrained art holds great appeal in its simplicity. [see 1953] (MC, 9/7/01)(HN, 9/7/02) 1860 nend Sep 7, Edith Sitwell, poet, was born in Scarborough, Yorkshire, England. (HN, 9/7/00) 1860 nend Sep 7, The Excursion steamer "Lady Elgin" sank and drowned 340 people in Lake Michigan. (MC, 9/7/01) 1860 nend Sep 12, William Walker (b.1824), conqueror of Nicaragua, was convicted and executed by the government of Honduras. The British had arrested him and turned him over to the government. In 2008 Stephen Dando-Collins authored ?Tycoon?s War: How Cornelius Vanderbilt Invaded a Country to Overthrow America's Most Famous Military Adventurer.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Walker_(soldier))(SSFC,4/10/05, p.F4) 1860 nend Sep 13, John J. Pershing (d.1948), aka "Black Jack," was born in Laclede, Missouri. He led the campaign against Pancho Villa in Mexico and commanded the American Expeditionary Force in France during World War I. (HN, 9/13/98) 1860 nend Sep 14, Hamlin Garland, author, was born. He wrote about the Midwest in novels such as "A Son of the Middle Border" and "The Book of the American Indian." (HN, 9/14/00) 1860 nend Oct 7, During the 2nd Opium War British troops on the outskirts of Beijing began to plunder the gardens of Yuanmingyuan (the garden of perfection and light), the imperial summer palace built by the Qing emperor Qianlong in 1709. Lord Elgin?s cavalry soon set fire and let the gardens burn for 3 days and nights. (WSJ, 1/13/04, p.A8)(www.china.org.cn/english/features/beijng/31186.htm) 1860 nend Oct 12, British and French troops captured Beijing. (MC, 10/12/01) 1860 nend Oct 13, The 1st US aerial photo was taken from a balloon over Boston. (HFA, ?96, p.40)(MC, 10/13/01) 1860 nend Oct 15, 11-year-old Grace Bedell of Westfield, N.Y., wrote a letter to presidential candidate Abraham Lincoln, suggesting he could improve his appearance by growing a beard. (AP, 10/15/01) 1860 nend Oct 31, Juliette Low, founder of the Girl Scouts, was born. (HN, 10/31/00) 1860 nend Nov 6, Former Illinois congressman Abraham Lincoln was elected as the 16th US president. He defeated three other candidates, John Breckinridge, John Bell and Stephen Douglas. He won the US presidential elections with a majority of the electoral votes in a 4-way race. Following his election South Carolina seceded from the Union followed by Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas. Hannibal Hamlin was his vice-president. (WSJ, 9/19/97, p.A13)(HN, 11/6/98)(SFC, 12/21/98, p.A3)(AP, 11/6/08) 1860 nend Nov 13, South Carolina?s legislature called a special convention to discuss secession from the Union. (HN, 11/13/98) 1860 nend Nov 18, Ignacy Jan Paderewski (d.1941), composer and 3rd prime minister of Poland (1919), was born. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignacy_Jan_Paderewski) 1860 1861 Nov-Apr. This five month period is described in the 1997 book: "Days of Defiance: Sumter, Secession, and the Coming of the Civil War" by Maury Klein. (WSJ, 9/19/97, p.A13) 1860 nend Dec 18, Edward Alexander MacDowell, American composer (Indian Suite), was born. (MC, 12/18/01) 1860 nend Dec 20, South Carolina became the first state to secede from the Union. (AP, 12/20/97)(HN, 12/20/98) 1860 nend Dec 26, Major Robert Anderson, under cover of darkness, concentrated his small federal force at Ft. Sumter, SC. (MC, 12/26/01) 1860 nend Walter Richard Sickert (d.1942), English Impressionist painter, was born. In 2002 Patricia Cornwell, crime writer, reported that he was Jack the Ripper. (WSJ, 9/27/01, p.A16)(SSFC, 2/24/02, Par p.2) 1860 nend Frederic Edwin Church created his painting "Twilight in the Wilderness." (WSJ, 9/19/02, p.D12) 1860 nend William Craft authored ?Running a Thousand Miles for Freedom.? He and his wife Ellen had escaped under disguise from Macon, Georgia, to Philadelphia in 1848. (ON, 10/04, p.10) 1860 nend George Eliot, aka Mary Ann Evans, wrote her novel "The Mill on the Floss." (SFC, 10/10/97, p.C1) 1860 nend Charles Dickens wrote his novel "Great Expectations." It was made into a 1997 film with the setting transferred to New York and Florida in the 1990s. (SFEC,11/23/97, DB p.43) 1860 nend Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882), published his poem ?Paul Revere?s Ride,? (The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere). (WSJ, 10/31/00,p.A24)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow) 1860 nend Henry Creswicke Rawlinson (1810-1895), English diplomat and Assyriologist, authored ?Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia,? the 1st book on deciphering Assyrian script. (ON, 11/07, p.4)(http://tinyurl.com/34fg4f) 1860 nend Gottfried Semper authored "Der Stil." (WSJ, 1/29/00, p.A24) 1860 nend The martini drink cocktail was invented. (SFC,12/24/97, Z1 p.6) c 1860 nend Golf balls began to be made of guttal percha, a tree sap. (SFEC, 6/14/98, p.A12) 1860 nend The British Open was 1st held at the Old Course in St. Andrew?s. The prize was a red leather belt with a silver buckle. The belt was retired in 1872 and replaced with a silver claret jug. (WSJ, 7/21/00, p.W9) 1860 nend The Woodlawn Vase was created by Tiffany & Co. as a trophy for the Woodlawn Racing Assoc. in Louisville, Ky. It was buried during the Civil War and by 1917 was associated with the Preakness. (WSJ, 11/21/00, p.A24) 1860 nend The 95,000 acre Baca Ranch, NM, was founded under a land grant to a Spanish leader. The property contained the Valles Caldera, the collapsed crater of an ancient volcano. The property was sold to James P. Dunigan, an oil man, in 1962 for $2.5 mil. It was sold to the US government in 1999 for $101 million. (SFC, 9/9/99, p.A3) 1860 nend Pinos Altos, NM, was founded when three 49ers stopped to take a drink in Bear Creek and discovered gold. (WSJ, 5/21/04, p.W2) 1860 nend In New York Bard College began as a small school in Annandale-on-Hudson. It was next to Montgomery Place, whose landscape was attributed to Andrew Jackson Downing, America?s most famous 19th century landscape architect. (WSJ, 11/24/98, p.A20) 1860 nend A US government expedition explored the northwest border of the Wyoming territory. Ferdinand Hayden (30) served as doctor and geologist. (ON, 11/02, p.1) 1860 nend US sailors intercepted 3 American slave ships on their way to Cuba. The Wildfire, the William and the Bogota carried some 1,432 African slaves from the area of Benin and Congo to be sold in Cuba. The slaves were taken to Key West for 3 months and then returned to Africa. (SSFC, 2/8/04, p.C12) 1860 nend The total value of US slaves was $3.5 billion, the equivalent of $68.4 billion in 2006. The US gross national product was only about 20% above the value of the nation?s slaves. (WSJ, 3/24/06, p.W4) 1860 nend In South Carolina by the time of the Civil War the Ball family owned some 4,000 slaves who worked 25 plantations along the Cooper River. The family kept a history and in 1998 descendant Edward Ball published "Slaves in the Family." (SFEC, 2/22/98, BR p.1,8)(SFEC, 4/19/98, p.A22) 1860 nend St. Teresa of Avila's Catholic Church in Bodega Bay, Ca., was founded. (SFEM, 6/13/99, p.27) 1860 nend More laws in California were passed that allowed the enslavement of Indians. (SFEC, 9/20/98, Z1 p.4) 1860 nend California began its official mineral collection. It was later house in the California State Mineral and Mining Museum in Mariposa County. (SSFC, 7/1/07, p.W8) 1860 nend In California the 25-room Burgess Mansion, later known as the Secret Garden Mansion, was built in The Corners, renamed Walnut Creek in 1862. The Leech House was built in The Corners. In 2006 it stood as a restaurant and offices at 1533 N. Main St. (SFC, 7/4/98, p.A17)(SFC, 7/17/06, p.B5) 1860 nend California pioneer John Bidwell founded Chico, Ca. His Rancho Chico became a model for agriculture across the state. (SFC, 3/9/01, p.WBb 7)(SFC, 4/21/07, p.B5) 1860 nend Sam Brannan, California?s first millionaire, bought the spring grounds at Indian Springs and built a lavish resort. His name of Calistoga is the combination of California and Saratoga, a famous New York spa. (Flyer on Indian Springs, 7/95)(SFEC, 2/22/98, p.T5) 1860 nend Miners numbered some 3,000 in the town of Volcano in California?s Amador county. John Doble, a miner from Indiana, noted this in his diary. (SSFC, 4/8/01, p.T4) 1860 nend A mattress on the floor of the Tremont House Hotel in Chicago rented for $2.50 per night. (Hem., 7/96, p.26) 1860 nend Milton Bradley started a lithograph company in Springfield, Mass. In 1866 Bradley launched the board-game industry in North America with ?The Checkered Game of Life,? which innovated on earlier representations of life as a board game. By 1880 he expanded into manufacturing jigsaw puzzles. Hasbro bought Milton Bradley in 1992. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Game_of_Life)(SFC, 6/11/08, p.G3) 1860 nend John Wagner established Nevada's longest-operating brewery in Carson City during the rush to Virginia City. The Carson Brewing Co. built a new two-story brewery in 1865 in the commercial form of Classical Revival, on the corner of Division and King streets, where it was later turned into an arts and performance center. (www.cr.nps.gov/nr/travel/nevada/bre.htm)(SSFC, 11/19/06, p.F10) 1860 nend John and Frank Wyeth established a drugstore in Philadelphia. It grew to become Wyeth-Ayerst Laboratories in 1926 and was later acquired by American Home Products. (SFC, 1/21/98, p.B2) 1860 nend Sewanee Mining Co. was reorganized and incorporated as Tennessee Coal and Railroad Co. (WSJ, 5/28/96, R45) 1860 nend The Great Lakes Brewing Co. was established in Cleveland and is the oldest licensed saloon there. (SFC, 6/2/96, p.T-11) c 1860 nend Mass production of watches began in the US in this decade. (NG, Mar, 1990, p. 113) 1860 nend Of the more than 8 million whites in the American South in 1860, those who owned slaves numbered 383,637. Of those, 2,292 were large planters who held more than 100 slaves. (HNQ, 6/8/98) 1860 nend A US federal head count numbered 32,654 men and 1,577 women in Colorado. (SFEC, 1/30/00, Z1 p.2) 1860 nend Edward Lartet, geologist, presented his paper Proofs that Man Existed with Extinct Animals. (RFH-MDHP, 1969, p.121-122) 1860 nend Cinnabar or quicksilver was discovered in the Mayacamas Range of Calistoga, Ca. The mercury was used to recover gold and silver from ores by amalgamation, and in the manufacture of explosives, drugs and paints. (WCG, 7/95, p.22) 1860 nend The release of carbon into the atmosphere was estimated to have been about 93 million tons. (NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.40) 1860 nend Cornelius Felton (1807-1862), professor of Greek literature, succeeded James Walker as president of Harvard. (www.nndb.com/people/711/000107390/) 1860 nend In Britain Queen Victoria decreed that men who chose to remain unmarried would not be welcome in Her Majesty?s Rifle Corp. She held that "normal married life improves a man?s marksmanship." (SFEC, 12/15/96, zone 1 p.5) 1860 nend Britain forswore most import duties. (Econ, 9/1/07, p.74) 1860 nend Thomas Huxley was asked by Bishop Samuel ("Soapy Sam") Wilberforce whether his ape ancestry resided on his father?s side or his mother?s side. Huxley responded that he would prefer descent from an ape rather than from a man of keen faculties and wide influence who employed his gifts to ridicule science. (WSJ, 10/10/97, p.A20) 1860 nend English inventor Frederick Walton made "linoleum" out of linseed oil. (SFC, 2/15/97, p.D4) 1860 nend In the Convention of Peking China ceded the Kowloon Peninsula to Britain for all time. (SFC, 3/11/97, p.A12)(SFEC, 6/22/97, p.A14)(SFC, 7/1/97, p.A8) 1860 nend In China the Taiping Rising marked the first looting of Peking by the "big-nosed barbarians." (WSJ, 4/20/95, p. A-13) 1860 nend Signor Beato (d.1907), photographer, shot views of the Dagu forts, guarding the approaches to Beijing, with heaps of dead following their capture by an Anglo-French expedition. (WSJ, 11/27/00, p.A36) 1860 nend George Belden Crane decided that German grapes were a better idea for the Napa Valley than the native Missions. (WCG, 7/95, p.21) 1860 nend The Parc Monceau in Paris was taken over by the state to enable Baron Haussmann to complete the Boulevard Malesherbes. (SFEC, 3/26/00, p.T12) 1860 nend France sent 5,000 troops to Syria to stop the massacre of Maronite Christians at the hands of the Druze, which the Ottoman authorities were neither willing nor able to stop. (SFC, 9/7/08, Books p.5) 1860 nend The 1st French gendarmes arrived in Vietnam. (WSJ, 2/2/04, p.A12) 1860 nend Parisian inventor Edouard-Leon Scott de Martinville captured 10-second clip of a woman singing "Au Clair de la Lune,? using a phonautograph, a device that created visual recordings of sound waves. (AP, 3/28/08) 1860 nend In France the Yonne Department had almost 99,000 acres of grapevines for wine. Diseases such as oidium and phylloxera destroyed the Chablis vines in the late 19th century and the Carmenére grape was wiped out in France. In 1994 the Carmenére grape was found to be thriving in Chile. (SFC, 7/16/97, Z1 p.4)(WSJ, 12/28/01, p.A17) 1860 nend Theodor Herzl, the founder of Zionism, was born in Pest, Hungary. (CNT, Nov., 1994, p.212) 1860 nend A British seaman proposed digging a deeper, 19-mile shipping canal in the shallow Palk strait between India and Sri Lanka. In 2004 India planned to go ahead with the project. (Econ, 11/6/04, p.44) 1860 nend During the excavation of Pompeii, Italy, Giuseppe Fiorelli got the idea of pouring liquid plaster into the spaces left by decomposed bodies in the beds of ashes. (SFEM, 10/11/98, p.14) 1860 nend In Mexico City the Hosteria de Santo Domingo restaurant began serving Chile en Nogada, a chili dish that displays the national colors (green, white & red). (WSJ, 9/5/96, p.B1) 1860 nend Russian pioneers founded Vladivostok. (SFC, 2/15/97, p.D4) 1860 nend Savoy was ceded to France. (WUD, 1994, p.1272) 1860 nend The Serb King Knez Mihaljo was assassinated. (SFC, 12/27/96, p.A1,15) 1860 nend s Lone Pine, Ca., was named after a solitary tree. (SFEC, 8/17/97, p.T3) 1860 nend s Land surveyor William Magee discovered an enormous mass of rich ore in Northern California and bought the land for an iron mine. (SFEC,11/2/97, p.A13) 1860 nend s A 1000 Paiutes of Owens Valley, Ca., were forcibly relocated to Fort Tejon in the Tehachapi Mountains by the US Army. (SFEC, 4/13/97, Z1 p.6) 1860 nend s Svend Foyn invented the harpoon cannon for whaling. (SFEC, 1/12/97, zone 3 p.4) 1860 nend s Brown?s Celebrated Indian Herb Bitters was a bitters medicine made at this time. They used a painted amber bottle shaped like an Indian woman holding a shield. An original sold for $4,800 in 1987. (SFC,12/17/97, Z1 p.16) 1860 nend s In Britain palace garden parties were begun to extend royal hospitality to Brits from all walks of life. (WSJ, 8/9/96, p.A8) 1860 nend s The last African slave ship landed in Cuba in the late 1860s. (WSJ, 12/1/97, p.A20) 1860 nend s Italian immigration to America slowly began. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.49) 1860 nend s In Malaysia prospectors for tin founded the city of Kuala Lumpur ("muddy confluence") at the confluence of the Kelang and Gombak rivers. (SFEC, 8/3/97, p.T3) 1860 1865 Anti-slavery, pro-Union guerrillas in Kansas during the American Civil War were commonly known as Jayhawkers. As a bird, the Jayhawk does not exist, but Jayhawkers were very real. Jayhawkers coursed about Kansas and Missouri, impelled by substantially more malice than charity as they fought their Confederate counterparts, the Bushwhackers, who favored the Confederacy. Some Bushwhackers were semi-legitimate soldiers, even grudgingly acknowledged as such by the Confederate Army. Such men as William Quantrill, "Bloody Bill" Anderson, John Thrailkill, David Pool, Jo Shelby and Jeff Thompson were in this category. Others were simply banditti with a quasi-military excuse for vengeful ambush, robbery, murder, arson and plunder. (HNQ, 5/24/01)(HN, 5/30/01) 1860 1870 Lewis Carroll took photographs of Alice Lidell, his inspiration for Alice In Wonderland. (WSJ, 9/29/95, p.A-10) 1860 1870 Erdmann and Reinhold Schlegelmilch, apparently unrelated, began making dinnerware in the 1860s in central Germany. (SFC, 4/2/08, p.G2) 1860 1870 The Maoari Wars broke out in New Zealand over issues of land ownership after colonists flooded the islands. (NG, Aug., 1974, C. McCarry, p.197) 1860 1884 Maria Bashkirtsev, Russian born writer. She studied art in Paris and wrote "The Journal of a Young Artist." She died of tuberculosis. (WP, 1951, p.23) 1860 nend s-1890s The Saud family moved to exile in Kuwait when the Ottoman Empire conquered much of Arabia. (WSJ, 11/13/01, p.A14) 1860 1900 Baled cotton remained the number one American export item from 1860 to 1900, rising from $192 million to $243 million. During the period its proportion of total exports dropped from approximately 60 percent to about 17 percent, as meat, grain, petroleum products and machinery grew. (HNPD, 6/13/99) 1860 1910 Auguste Moreau, a French bronze sculptor, worked over this period. His art included the sculpture "Eglantine" (wild rose), which depicted a woman draped in a vine of roses. It was used as the design for a clock c1900. His bronzes were copied in spelter, a soft white metal that?s mostly zinc. (SFC, 2/18/98, Z1 p.3)(SFC, 3/11/98, Z1 p.5) 1860 1911 Gustav Mahler, Bohemian born composer, wrote 10 symphonies. (T&L, 10/80, p. 104) 1860 1921 James Gibbons Huneker, American author and critic: "We are all snobs of the Infinite, parvenus of the Eternal." (AP, 8/5/98) 1860 1935 Charlotte Perkins Gilman, American economist and feminist: "A concept is stronger than a fact." (AP, 7/10/97) 1860 1937 Sir James Matthew Barrie, Scottish dramatist-author: "The life of every man is a diary in which he means to write one story, and writes another; and his humblest hour is when he compares the volume as it is with what he hoped to make it." (AP, 8/6/97) 1860 1947 Don Simon Iturbi Patino, part Indian Bolivian miner, made a fortune in tin. While working as a clerk a customer in debt offered him the deed to an old tin mine. It turned out to be one of the richest deposits on earth. He served as an ambassador to Spain and France but was shunned by Bolivian aristocracy (WSJ, 1/11/98, p.R18) 1860 1949 James Ensor, Belgian painter. He was a master at dredging disturbing, uncensored images from the depths of the unconscious. (WUD, 1994 p.475)(WSJ, 6/5/01, p.A23) 1860 1958 Industry burned fossil fuel at a rate that doubled every two decades or so, injecting a total of more than 76 billion tons of carbon into the air. (NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.5) 1861 nend Jan 2, Helen Herron Taft, First Lady to President Robert Taft, was born. (HN, 1/2/99) 1861 nend Jan 2, The USS Brooklyn was readied at Norfolk to aid Fort Sumter. (HN, 1/2/99) 1861 nend Jan 2, SC seized the inactive Ft. Johnson in Charleston Harbor. (MC, 1/2/02) 1861 nend Jan 2, Frederik Willem IV (b.1795), king of Prussia (1840-61) and Germany (1849-61), died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_William_IV_of_Prussia) 1861 nend Jan 3, Delaware rejected a proposal that it join the South in seceding. (HN, 1/3/99) 1861 nend Jan 3, US Ft. Pulaski & Ft. Jackson, Savannah, were seized by Georgia. (MC, 1/3/02) 1861 nend Jan 5, The merchant vessel Star of the West set sail from New York to Fort Sumter, in response to rebel attack, carrying supplies and 250 troops. (HN, 1/5/99) 1861 nend Jan 5, Alabama troops seized Forts Morgan & Gaines at Mobile Bay. (MC, 1/5/02) 1861 nend Jan 6, Florida troops seized the Federal arsenal at Apalachicola. (MC, 1/6/02) 1861 nend Jan 6, Governor of Maryland sent a message to the people of Maryland, strongly opposing Maryland?s secession from the Union. (HN, 1/6/99) 1861 nend Jan 6, NYC mayor proposed that NY become a free city to continue trading with the North & South. (MC, 1/6/02) 1861 nend Jan 9, Mississippi became the 2nd state to secede from the Union. (HN, 1/9/98)(AP, 1/9/99)(MC, 1/9/02) 1861 nend Jan 9, The Star of the West, a merchant vessel bringing reinforcements to Federal troops at Fort Sumter, S.C., retreated after being fired on by a battery in the harbor. (AP, 1/9/04) 1861 nend Jan 10, Ft. Jackson and Ft. Philip were taken over by LA state troops. (MC, 1/10/02) 1861 nend Jan 10, US forts & property were seized by Mississippi. (MC, 1/10/02) 1861 nend Jan 10, Florida became the 3rd state to secede from the Union. (AP, 1/10/98)(HN, 1/10/99)(MC, 1/10/02) 1861 nend Jan 11, Alabama became the 4th state to secede from the Union. (AP, 1/11/98)(HN, 1/11/99) 1861 nend Jan 15, Elisha Otis received patent # 31,128 for his steam elevator. (www.sterlingelevatorcons.com/history.htm) 1861 nend Jan 19, Georgia became the 5th state to secede from the Union. (AP, 1/19/98)(HN, 1/19/99) 1861 nend Jan 21, U.S. Senator Jefferson Davis of Mississippi and four (five) other Southern senators made emotional farewell speeches. Just weeks after his home state of Mississippi seceded from the Union, Davis prepared to leave Washington, D.C., and the country he had served as a soldier, cabinet member and member of Congress. One more time, Davis enumerated the reasons why the South felt secession was its only recourse: "...when you deny to us the right to withdraw from a Government which...threatens to be destructive to our rights, we but tread in the path of our fathers when we proclaim our independence...." Davis then apologized to any senators he may have offended, and finished his address by saying, "...it only remains for me to bid you a final adieu." (AP, 1/21/01)(HNPD, 1/21/99) 1861 nend Jan 25, Pres. Lincoln picked Ferdinand Schavers, a black man, as his first bodyguard. He appointed William H. Seward as his Sec. of State. (Hem., 5/97, p.18)(WSJ, 9/19/97, p.A13) 1861 nend Jan 26, Louisiana became the 6th state to secede from the Union. (AP, 1/26/98)(HN, 1/26/99)(MC, 1/26/02) 1861 nend Jan 29, Kansas became the 34th state of the Union and entered as a free state. (HFA, ?96, p.22)(AP, 1/29/98)(NH, 7/98, p.28) 1861 nend Jan, Pres. Lincoln appointed William H. Seward as his Sec. of State. (WSJ, 9/19/97, p.A13) 1861 nend Feb 1, A furious Governor Sam Houston stormed out of a legislative session upon learning that Texas had voted 167-7 to secede from the Union. Texas became the 7th state to secede. (AP, 2/1/97)(HN, 2/1/99)(MC, 2/1/02) 1861 nend Feb 2, Solomon R. Guggenheim, philanthropist (Guggenheim Museum NYC), was born. (MC, 2/2/02) 1861 nend Feb 2, Mohammed VI, last sultan of Ottoman Empire (1918-22), was born. (MC, 2/2/02) 1861 nend Feb 4, Delegates from six southern states met in Montgomery, Ala., to form the Confederate States of America. They included Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas. They elected Jefferson Davis as president of Confederacy. (AP, 2/4/97)(ON, 11/00, p.1) 1861 nend Feb 4, Winfield Scott, US general-in-chief, decided to relieve Lt. Col. Robert E. Lee as commander of federal forces in Texas and bring him to Washington DC where Lee could take command of forces guarding DC. (ON, 12/05, p.11) 1861 nend Feb 4, The Apache Wars began. (HFA, ?96, p.22) 1861 nend Feb 5, The kinematoscope was patented by Coleman Sellers in Philadelphia. (MC, 2/5/02) 1861 nend Feb 6, The 1st meeting of Provisional Congress of Confederate States of America. (MC, 2/6/02) 1861 nend Feb 6, English Adm. Robert Ritzroy issued the 1st storm warnings for ships. (MC, 2/6/02) 1861 nend Feb 7, The general council of the Choctaw Indian nation adopted a resolution declaring allegiance with the South "in the event a permanent dissolution of the American Union takes place." (AP, 2/7/07) 1861 nend Feb 8, Delegates from seceded states adopted a provisional Confederate Constitution in Montgomery, Ala. (HN, 2/7/97)(MC, 2/8/02) 1861 nend Feb 9, Confederate Provisional Congress declared all laws under the US Constitution were consistent with constitution of Confederate states. The Congress elected Jefferson Davis president and Alexander H. Stephens vice president. Jefferson Davis' Mexican War exploits led him to the Confederate White House. In 2001 William C. Davis authored "The Union That Shaped the Confederacy: Robert Toombs and Alexander H. Stephens." (HN, 2/9/97)(AP, 2/9/99)(WSJ, 6/13/01, p.A18)(MC, 2/9/02) 1861 nend Feb 9, Tennessee voted against secession. (HN, 2/9/97) 1861 nend Feb 11, President-elect Lincoln departed Springfield, Ill., for Washington. (AP, 2/11/97) 1861 nend Feb 11, The US House unanimously passed a resolution guaranteeing noninterference with slavery in any state. (MC, 2/11/02) 1861 nend Feb 11, Australian explorers Burke and Wills approached the coast of Carpetaria but were forced to turn back when no path through the coastal marsh was found. (ON, 12/01, p.2,3) 1861 nend Feb 12, State troops seized US munitions in Napoleon, Ak. (MC, 2/12/02) 1861 nend Feb 13, Abraham Lincoln was declared president. (MC, 2/13/02) 1861 nend Feb 13, In Australia the 4-man Burke party began their 700-mile return to Cooper?s Creek under constant rain. (ON, 12/01, p.2) 1861 nend Feb 15, Alfred North Whitehead (d.1947), English philosopher (Adv of Ideas) and mathematician, was born. "We think in generalities, but we live in detail." "I have always noticed that deeply and truly religious persons are fond of a joke, and I am suspicious of those who aren?t." "It is more important that a proposition be interesting than that it be true." (AP, 4/11/97)(AP, 10/5/97)(AP, 9/8/98)(MC, 2/15/02) 1861 nend Feb 15, Ft. Point was completed & garrisoned. It never fired cannon in anger. (440 Int?l., 2/15/99) 1861 nend Feb 18, Jefferson F. Davis was inaugurated as the Confederacy?s provisional president at a ceremony held in Montgomery, Ala., where the Confederate constitutional convention was held. Davis was sworn in on Feb 22 in Virginia. (AP, 2/18/98)(HN, 2/18/98)(AH, 10/04, p.60) 1861 nend Feb 18, At Fort Wise, Kansas, Indian tribes ceded possessions, enough to constitute two great States of the Union, retaining only a small district for themselves on both sides of the Arkansas river, which included the country around Fort Lyon. (http://facweb.furman.edu/~benson/docs/peace.htm) 1861 nend Feb 18, Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia became the first King of Italy. (HN, 2/18/98)(MC, 2/18/02) 1861 nend Feb 19, Pres.-elect Lincoln traveled through NYC on his way to Washington. (WSJ, 2/12/04, p.D12) 1861 nend Feb 20, The Confederacy Dept. of Navy formed. (MC, 2/20/02) 1861 nend Feb 20, Steeple of Chichester Cathedral was blown down during a storm. (MC, 2/20/02) 1861 nend Feb 22, Edward Weston left Boston on a bet to walk to Lincoln's inauguration. (MC, 2/22/02) 1861 nend Feb 22, Jefferson Davis was sworn in as the permanent president of the Confederate States of America in Richmond, Va., on Washington?s birthday. (AH, 10/04, p.60) 1861 nend Feb 23, President-elect Lincoln arrived secretly in Washington to take office after an assassination plot was foiled in Baltimore. Allan Pinkerton, founder of the Pinkerton Detective Agency, may have saved Abraham Lincoln?s life by uncovering a plot to assassinate the president-elect in Baltimore, Md. At the detective?s suggestion, Lincoln avoided the threat by secretly slipping through the city at night. A few months later, Pinkerton joined Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan?s staff as chief intelligence officer. Using the name "Major Allen," the private detective remained with McClellan until late 1862, catching southern spies and running an espionage network in Confederate territory. (AP, 2/23/98)(HNPD, 3/22/99) 1861 nend Feb 23, Texas by popular referendum became the 7th state to secede from the Union. (HN, 2/23/98)(MC, 2/23/02) 1861 nend Feb 26, Ferdinand I, 1st tsar of modern Bulgaria (1908-18), was born in Vienna. (SC, 2/26/02) 1861 nend Feb 27, In the Warsaw massacre Russian troops fired on a crowd protesting Russian rule over Poland. Five marchers were killed. (AP, 2/27/98) 1861 nend Feb 28, The territory of Colorado was organized. (AP, 2/28/98)(HN, 2/28/98) 1861 nend Mar 2, The Territory of Nevada was created by an act of Congress. The first elected governor of the state was Henry G. Blasdel. US Congress created the Dakota & Nevada Territories out of the Nebraska & Utah territories (LVRJ, 11/1/97, p.1B)(SFEC, 7/9/00, DB p.67)(SC, 3/2/02) 1861 nend Mar 2, Government Printing Office in Washington DC purchased its 1st printing plant. (SC, 3/2/02) 1861 nend Mar 3, Russian Czar Alexander II issued a manifest and statutes to end feudal control of serfs as part of a program of westernization. (HN, 3/3/99)(LHC,3/1/03)(WSJ, 12/6/07, p.D7) 1861 nend Mar 4, Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated president. (AP, 3/4/99) 1861 nend Mar 4, President Lincoln opened the Government Printing Office. (SC, 3/4/02) 1861 nend Mar 4, Confederate States adopted the "Stars and Bars" flag. (HN, 3/4/98) 1861 nend Mar 6, Provisionary Confederate Congress established Confederate Army. (MC, 3/6/02) 1861 nend Mar 8, St. Augustine, Florida, surrendered to Union armies. (MC, 3/8/02) 1861 nend Mar 9, First hostile act of the Civil War occurred when Star of the West fired on Sumter, S.C. (HN, 3/9/98) 1861 nend Mar 11, The Confederate convention in Montgomery, Ala., adopted a constitution. (AP, 3/11/98)(HN, 3/11/98) 1861 nend Mar 13, Jefferson Davis signed a bill authorizing slaves to be used as soldiers for the Confederacy. (HN, 3/13/98) 1861 nend Mar 14, Abraham Louis Niedermeyer (58), composer, died. (MC, 3/14/02) 1861 nend Mar 16, Arizona Territory voted to leave the Union. (MC, 3/16/02) 1861 nend Mar 19, Maori War in New Zealand ended. (AP, 3/19/03) 1861 nend Mar 23, London's 1st tramcars, designed by Mr. Train of New York, began operating. (SS, 3/23/02) 1861 nend Mar 27, Black demonstrators in Charleston staged ride-ins on street cars. (MC, 3/27/02) 1861 nend Apr 4, John McLean (b.1785), US Supreme Court Justice, died after serving over 31 years. (AP, 7/24/98)(www.oyez.org/oyez/resource/legal_entity/21/) 1861 nend Apr 5, Gideon Wells, the Secretary of the Navy, issued official orders for the relief of Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, S.C. (HN, 4/5/99) 1861 nend Apr 5, Federals abandoned Ft. Quitman, Tx. (MC, 4/5/02) 1861 nend Apr 6, Pres. Lincoln dispatched 3 ships and 600 men to Fort Sumter as a relief expedition carrying provisions. He followed this with a note to South Carolina Gov. Francis W. Pickens that no arms were included. (ON, 11/00, p.2) 1861 nend Apr 8, Elisha Graves Otis (50), US elevator builder (Otis), died. (www.famousamericans.net/elishagravesotis/) 1861 nend Apr 11, On April 11, 1861, Brig. Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard ordered the Federals under the command of Major Robert Anderson to surrender Fort Sumter, but Anderson refused. Anticipating war between North and South, Confederate President Jefferson Davis had ordered Beauregard to clear the harbor forts in Charleston, South Carolina, of Union troops. For three long months, Anderson and his besieged troops had waited for reinforcements at Fort Sumter. Back in Washington, Union naval officer Gustavus Fox raced against time to organize just such a mission. (HNPD, 4/12/99) 1861 nend Apr 12, The Confederates sent a final ultimatum for the surrender of Fort Sumter, South Carolina, at 12:45 a.m. Upon receiving Anderson's refusal, Gen'l. Beauregard's artillery began to bombard Fort Sumter at 4:30 a.m. For 34 hours, the Confederates and Federals traded fire before Anderson surrendered on April 13. The Civil War had begun. (Hem. 1/95, p. 70)(AP, 4/12/97)(HN, 4/12/98)(HNPD, 4/12/99) 1861 nend Apr 13, After 34 hours of bombardment, Union-held Fort Sumter surrendered at 2:30 pm to Confederates under the command of Gen PGT Beauregard. No Union defenders were killed in the 34-hour rebel assault on Charleston Harbor?s Fort Sumter led by Major Robert Anderson. Likewise, none of the Confederate attackers were killed in this action. Union Pvt. Daniel Hough became the war?s first official casualty when he was killed by a premature discharge of a cannon used as a salute in the evacuation ceremonies after the surrender. (HN, 4/13/98)(HNQ, 8/31/00)(MC, 4/13/02) 1861 nend Apr 14, Winfield Scott, US general-in-chief, met with Pres. Lincoln and his cabinet to plan a response to the surrender of Fort Sumter. They decided to enlarge the 17,000 member US army and raise 75,000 new volunteers to suppress the rebellion. (ON, 12/05, p.11) 1861 nend Apr 15, Three days after the attack on Fort Sumter, S.C., President Lincoln declared a state of insurrection and called out for 75,000 Union volunteers. (AP, 4/15/97)(HN, 4/15/98) 1861 nend Apr 15, Samuel (41) and Florence Baker (20) left Cairo to search for explorers John Speke and James Grant. (ON, 10/01, p.9) 1861 nend Apr 16, US president Lincoln outlawed business with confederate states. (MC, 4/16/02) 1861 nend Apr 17, The Virginia State Convention voted to secede from the Union. Virginia became the eighth state to secede from the Union and moved troops to take over National Capital. Federal troops were rushed down the Chesapeake-Delaware Canal and arrived in time to stop Confederate troops from taking Washington D.C. The Wheeling Conventions declared Virginia?s secession from the Union unconstitutional and named Francis H. Pierpont governor of the Reorganized Government of Virginia, which was quickly recognized by the federal government. At the outbreak of the Civil War, representatives of Virginia?s western counties had gathered in the city of Wheeling (as the temporary capital) to form the Reorganized Government of Virginia. In 1862 a state constitution was adopted by the convention and on June 20, 1863, West Virginia was admitted as the 35th state in the Union. (AP, 4/17/97)(HN, 4/17/98)(NG, Sept. 1939, p.379)(HNQ, 6/16/99) 1861 nend Apr 17, In Australia Charles Gray, the ex-sailor in the Burke party, was found dead in his bed roll. (ON, 12/01, p.2) 1861 nend Apr 18, Colonel Robert E. Lee turned down an offer to command the Union armies. (HN, 4/18/98)(www.us-civilwar.com/lee.htm) 1861 nend Apr 18, Battle of Harpers Ferry, VA. (MC, 4/18/02) 1861 nend Apr 18, The Kansas Frontier Guards drilled and set up camp in the East Room of the White House with the mission to protect President Lincoln from a feared Rebel attack on Washington. The collection of Kansans in Washington, many office seekers and politicians, were organized and led by the state's first senator, James Henry Lane, a friend of the president and former leader of the Free State movement in Kansas. With Virginia's secession from the Union on April 17, rumors spread of an impending rebel strike on Washington. Lane organized the force of 50 men and offered their service to the War Department, arriving in the White House in the evening of April 18. As additional Union troops entered the city, the Frontier Guard was dismissed from the White House on April 19. The unofficial unit was assigned various positions in the city during the following week and, in a ceremony attended by the president, was disbanded on April 25. (HNQ, 1/7/99) 1861 nend Apr 19, President Lincoln ordered the blockade of Confederate ports. (HN, 4/19/97) 1861 nend Apr 19, Baltimore riots resulted in four Union soldiers, 9 civilians killed. The 6th Massachusetts Volunteer Regiment, the first Union troops to pass through pro-secessionist Baltimore, Md., entered Baltimore expecting trouble. As they marched through the streets on their way to the defense of Washington, D.C., the troops were attacked by rock-throwing rioters bearing Confederate flags. Four soldiers and nine civilians were killed in the daylong melee. (HN, 4/19/97)(HNPD, 4/23/99) 1861 nend Apr 20, Robert E. Lee resigned from U.S. Army. (HN, 4/20/98) 1861 nend Apr 20, Thaddeus Lowe landed in South Carolina only to be surrounded by a group of incredulous Carolinians who believed he was a spy. Lowe managed to persuade the crowd that his 500-mile trip from Cincinnati, Ohio, was merely an innocent aerial journey to test his strange craft. He later tried to convince the Union to use his skill as a balloonist. (HNQ, 4/5/01)(ON, 2/05, p.7) 1861 nend Apr 20, Battle of Norfolk, VA. [see Apr 21] (MC, 4/20/02) 1861 nend Apr 21, The Gosport Navy Yard on the Elizabeth River near Norfolk, Va., was burned and U.S. Navy ships destroyed by Federal troops carrying out the orders of Commodore Hiram Paulding. With the Confederate noose tightening around Gosport following Virginia?s secession, and Union defenders dispatched by Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles unable to reach the yard, Paulding determined he must destroy and abandon the installation. Considered the most extensive and valuable naval shipyard in the Union, the loss of Gosport and 10 ships docked there, including the Merrimack?later refitted by the rebels and known as the CSS Virginia?was called by Horace Greeley as "The most shameful, cowardly, disastrous performance that stains the annals of the American Navy." (HNQ, 2/16/01) 1861 nend Apr 21, In Australia the Burke party of 3 reached Cooper?s Creek and found a message that the 4-man depot party under William Brahe had left earlier the same day for Darling with 6 camels and 12 horses. The Burke party departed Cooper?s Creek for the police station at Mount Hopeless, 150 miles away. (ON, 12/01, p.3) 1861 nend Apr 22, Robert E. Lee was named commander of Virginia forces. (HN, 4/22/98) 1861 nend Apr 23, Robert E. Lee assumed command of the military and naval forces of Virginia, which he organized thoroughly before they were absorbed by the Confederacy. (www.us-civilwar.com/lee.htm) 1861 nend Apr 23, Arkansas troops seized Fort Smith. (AP, 4/23/98) 1861 nend Apr 23, Battle of San Antonio, TX. (MC, 4/23/02) 1861 nend Apr 25, The Richmond Fayette Light Artillery was mustered into state service and first stationed at the Baptist College artillery barracks. The unit fought under General Magruder through the battles at Wynns Mill, Yorktown and Williamsburg. It fought the Maryland campaign with major General McLaw?s Division and was transferred to Major Pickett?s Division and fought at Fredericksburg. (RC handout, 5/27/96) 1861 nend Apr 25, Women in New York held a meeting out of which plans were made for the formation of the Civil War related Women's Central Association of Relief. This led to the formation of the Civil War Sanitary Commission, a forerunner of the Red Cross. (www.civilwarhome.com) 1861 nend Apr 27, President Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus. (HN, 4/27/98) 1861 nend Apr 27, West Virginia seceded from Virginia after Virginia seceded from the Union. (HN, 4/27/98) 1861 nend Apr 29, The Maryland House of Delegates voted against seceding from the Union. (AP, 4/29/98)(HN, 4/29/98) 1861 nend Apr 29, In Australia the Burke party shot one of their last 2 camels after it got stuck in mud. Supplies were divided between the 3 men and one camel. (ON, 12/01, p.4) 1861 nend Apr 30, President Lincoln ordered Federal Troops to evacuate Indian Territory. (MC, 4/30/02) 1861 nend Apr, William Woods Averell, recently convalesced Union officer, was sent out west in civilian garb from Washington, D.C., carrying orders to a fort commander in Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma). Averell was to proceed through secessionist lands to Fort Arbuckle in Indian Territory. Ordinarily, orders to frontier posts were telegraphed to Fort Smith, Arkansas--some 180 miles east of Fort Arbuckle--and a courier dispatched from there. But with Arkansas likely to secede at any time, such orders might be intercepted by secessionists. (HNQ, 5/27/01) 1861 nend May 3, Lincoln asked for 42,000 Army Volunteers and another 18,000 seamen. (MC, 5/3/02) 1861 nend May 3, Gen. Winfield Scott presented his Anaconda Plan to Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan. (www.civilwarhome.com/scottmcclellananaconda.htm)(ON, 12/05, p.12) 1861 nend May 5, Peter Cooper Hewitt, electrical engineer, inventor of the mercury-vapor lamp, was born. (HN, 5/5/01) 1861 nend May 5, CS troops abandon Alexandria, VA. (MC, 5/5/02) 1861 nend May 6, Jefferson Davis approved a bill declaring War between US and Confederacy. (MC, 5/6/02) 1861 nend May 6, Arkansas and Tennessee becomes 9th & 10th state to secede from US. [see Jun 8] (AP, 5/6/97)(HN, 5/6/98)(MC, 5/6/02) 1861 nend May 7, In Australia the lost Burke party encountered some Aborigines and partook of some nardoo cakes that provided a euphoric effect. (ON, 12/01, p.4) 1861 nend May 8, Richmond, Va, was named the capital of the Confederacy. (MC, 5/8/02) 1861 nend May 10, Union troops marched on state militia in St Louis, Mo. (MC, 5/10/02) 1861 nend May 13, Britain declared its neutrality in the American Civil War. (HN, 5/13/98) 1861 nend May 16, Confederate government offered war volunteers a $10 premium. (MC, 5/16/02) 1861 nend May 16, Kentucky proclaimed its neutrality. [see May 20] (MC, 5/16/02) 1861 nend May 18, Battle of Sewall's Point VA was the 1st Federal offense against South. (SC, 5/18/02) 1861 nend May 18, Friedrich Hebbel's "Kriemhildes Rache" premiered in Weimar. (SC, 5/18/02) 1861 nend May 20, Kentucky proclaimed its neutrality in Civil War. [see May 16] (MC, 5/20/02) 1861 nend May 20, North Carolina voted to secede from the Union and became the 11th and last state to do so. (AP, 5/20/97)(HN, 5/20/98) 1861 nend May 20, US marshals appropriated the previous year's telegraph dispatches, to reveal pro-secessionist evidence. (MC, 5/20/02) 1861 nend May 21, The Confederate Congress, meeting in Montgomery, Ala., voted to move the capital of the Confederacy from Montgomery to Richmond, Va. (AP, 5/21/07) 1861 nend May 23, Virginia citizens voted 3 to 1 in favor of secession, becoming the last Confederate state. (HN, 5/23/98)(MC, 5/23/02) 1861 nend May 23, Pro Union and pro Confederate forces clashed in Clarksburg, West Virginia. (HN, 5/23/99) 1861 nend May 24, General Benjamin Butler declared slaves to be the contraband of war. (HN, 5/24/98) 1861 nend May 24, Shortly after Union troops quietly occupied Alexandria, Va., 24-year-old Colonel Elmer E. Ellsworth and a handful of friends from the 11th New York Regiment impulsively entered the Marshall Hotel to forcibly remove a Confederate flag from the roof. Hotel proprietor James W. Jackson shot and mortally wounded Ellsworth as he descended the stairs, flag in hand. Jackson himself was then shot by a Union soldier. Only weeks after the outbreak of the Civil War, both the North and the South had received the first martyrs to their respective causes. (HN, 5/24/99) 1861 nend May 25, John Merryman was arrested under suspension of writ of habeas corpus. This later sparked a supreme court decision protecting the writ. (SC, 5/25/02) 1861 nend May 26, Postmaster General Blair announced the end of postal connection with South. (MC, 5/26/02) 1861 nend May 26, Union blockaded New Orleans, LA., and Mobile, AL. (MC, 5/26/02) 1861 nend May 29, Dorothea Dix offered to help set up hospitals for Union Army. (SC, 5/29/02) 1861 nend May 30, In Australia William Wills returned to the Cooper?s Creek depot and left an updated message as to the Burke party?s plight. (ON, 12/01, p.5) 1861 nend May 31, Gen. PGT Beauregard was given command of Confederate Alexandria Line. (MC, 5/31/02) 1861 nend May, Battery "D" Fifth US Light Artillery had been stationed at West Point but was moved to Washington, D.C. and assigned to the Army of the Potomac. (RC handout, 5/27/96) 1861 nend May, The 79th Highlander Regiment was mustered into Federal service with 795 men. It suffered over 558 casualties during the war. After the regiment fought at the battle of First Bull Run, it adopted standard Federal uniforms. (RC handout, 5/27/96) 1861 nend May, The 7th Regiment of Virginia Volunteers was mustered into the young Confederacy under the command of Col. James Kemper. It was part of Pickett?s All Virginia Division. The regiment fought in 45 battles, from First Manassas until Clover Hill, Appomattox Court House in April, 1865. (RC handout, 5/27/96) 1861 nend May, The 33rd Virginia Volunteer Infantry Regiment formed at Harper?s Ferry as part of the Stonewall Brigade under Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson. It was nicknamed "Jackson?s Foot Cavalry" for it?s long marches of 25-30 miles a day. (RC Handout, 5/27/96) 1861 nend Jun 1, The US and the Confederacy simultaneously stopped mail interchange. (DTnet, 6/1/97) 1861 nend Jun 1, The first skirmish in the Civil War was at Fairfax Court House, Arlington Mills, Va. (DTnet, 6/1/97)(HN, 6/1/98) 1861 nend Jun 1, British territorial waters & ports were put off-limits during Civil War. (DTnet, 6/1/97) 1861 nend Jun 3, In the first Civil War land battle, Union forces defeated Confederates at Philippi, in Western Virginia. (HN, 6/3/98) 1861 nend Jun 3, Stephen A Douglas, "Little Giant", senator (Lincoln Debates), died. (MC, 6/3/02) 1861 nend Jun 5, Federal marshals seized arms and gunpowder at Du Pont works in Delaware. (MC, 6/5/02) 1861 nend Jun 6, Lincoln's cabinet declared Union government will pay for expenses once states have mobilized volunteers. (MC, 6/6/02) 1861 nend Jun 8, Tennessee voted to secede from the Union and joined the Confederacy. [see May 6] (AP, 6/8/97)(HN, 6/8/98) 1861 nend Jun 9, Mary Ann "Mother" Bickerdyke, Civil War hospital worker, began working in Union hospitals. "The midwife must give way to the physician. Woman, therefore, must become physician." (HN 6/9/98) 1861 nend Jun 10, Thaddeus Lowe demonstrated his balloon, the Enterprise, along with its telegraphy capabilities for Pres. Lincoln at the White House lawn. (ON, 2/05, p.8) 1861 nend Jun 10, The Virginia village of Big Bethel became the site of the 1st major land battle of the Civil War. Private Henry L. Wyatt was the 1st Confederate soldier killed in a Civil War battle. 18 Union soldiers were killed. (AH, 10/01, p.50) 1861 nend Jun 10, Dorthea Dix, known for her work with the mentally ill, was appointed superintendent of women nurses for the Union Army. (HN, 6/10/98) 1861 nend Jun 11, Union forces under General George B. McClellen repulsed a Confederate force at Rich Mountain in Western Virginia. (HN, 6/11/98) 1861 nend Jun 13, Pres. Lincoln approved a plan for the formation of the Civil War Sanitary Commission no_source 1861 nend Jun 16, Battle of Vienna, VA., and Secessionville, SC (James Island). (MC, 6/16/02) 1861 nend Jun 17, President Abraham Lincoln witnessed Dr. Thaddeus Lowe demonstrate the use of a hot-air balloon. (HN, 6/17/98) 1861 nend Jun 19, Loyal Virginians, in what would soon be West Virginia, elected Francis Pierpoint as their provisional governor. (HN, 6/19/98) 1861 nend Jun 24, Federal gunboats attacked Confederate batteries at Mathias Point, Virginia. (HN, 6/24/98) 1861 nend Jun 24, Tennessee became the 11th and last state to secede from US. (MC, 6/24/02) 1861 nend Jun 29, William James Mayo, co-founder of the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota, was born. (HN, 6/29/98) 1861 nend Jun 29, Elizabeth Barrett Browning (55), writer, died. (MC, 6/29/02) 1861 nend Jun 29, Australian explorers Robert O?Hara Burke and John King left William Wills in search of Aborigines. (ON, 12/01, p.5) 1861 nend Jun 30, CSS Sumter slipped past USS Brooklyn blockade. (MC, 6/30/02) 1861 nend Jun, James D. Bulloch arrived in London to procure ships and arms for the Southern Confederacy. (ON, 7/01, p.6) 1861 nend Jul 1, The US War Department decreed that Kansas and Tennessee were to be canvassed for volunteers. (MC, 7/1/02) 1861 nend Jul 2, Australian explorer Robert O?Hara Burke died near Cooper?s Creek and John King pressed on to look for native Aborigines. King later returned to William Wills but found him dead. King continued to survive with the local Aborigines until he was rescued. In 1991 Tom Bonyhady authored "Burke and Wills: From Melbourne to Myth." (ON, 12/01, p.5) 1861 nend Jul 3, US Colonel Jackson received his CSA commission as brigadier general. (MC, 7/3/02) 1861 nend Jul 3, Pony Express arrived in SF with overland letters from NY. (MC, 7/3/02) 1861 nend Jul 4, In a special session of 27th Congress Lincoln requested 400,000 troops. (Maggio, 98) 1861 nend Jul 4, Union and Confederate forces skirmished at Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. (HN, 7/4/98) 1861 nend Jul 9, Confederate cavalry led by John Morgan captured Tompkinsville, Kentucky. "The Yankees will never take me a prisoner again," vowed Confederate General John Hunt Morgan. (HN, 7/9/98) 1861 nend Jul 12, Anton Stepanovich Arensky, composer, was born. (MC, 7/12/02) 1861 nend Jul 13, Battle of Corrick's Ford, VA (Carrick's Ford): Union army took total control of western Virginia. (MC, 7/13/02) 1861 nend Jul 14, Union troops tried to force a crossing at Seneca Falls on the Potomac, northwest of Washington but were repulsed by the Confederates. A company of the Louisiana Tiger Rifles helped defend the line. (HN, 7/14/99) 1861 nend Jul 14, Gen McDowell advanced toward Fairfax Courthouse, VA, with 40,000 troops. (MC, 7/14/02) 1861 nend Jul 14, Naval Engagement at Wilmington, NC. USS Daylight established a blockade. (MC, 7/14/02) 1861 nend Jul 17, At Manassas, VA, Gen Beauregard requested reinforcements for his 22,000 men and Gen Johnston was ordered to Manassas. (MC, 7/17/02) 1861 nend Jul 18, Union and Confederate troops skirmished at Blackburn?s Ford, Virginia, in a prelude to the Battle of Bull Run. (HN, 7/18/98) 1861 nend Jul 20, The Congress of the Confederate States began holding sessions in Richmond, Va. (AP, 7/20/97) 1861 nend Jul 20, The New York Tribune compared Peace Democrats to the venomous Copperhead snake, which strikes without warning. During the American Civil War, Northerners who advocated restoration of the Union through a negotiated settlement with the South was referred to as Peace Democrats. (HNQ, 10/9/99) 1861 nend Jul 20, In the first major battle of the Civil War [see June 10], Confederate forces repelled an attempt by the Union Army to turn their flank in Virginia. The battle becomes known by the Confederates as Manassas, while the Union called it Bull Run. It was fought on Judith Carter Henry?s farm. (HN, 7/20/98)(HNQ, 5/10/02) 1861 nend Jul 21, In the first major battle of the Civil War, Confederate forces repelled an attempt by the Union Army to turn their flank in Virginia. The battle became known by the Confederates as Manassas, while the Union called it Bull Run. The 33rd Virginia Infantry held Henry House Hill at the first Battle of Bull Run in Manassas, Virginia, resulting in a Confederate victory. This was the spot from which Jackson took on the title of "Stonewall" and his brigade the "Stonewall Brigade." Union forces had 3,000 men killed, wounded, or missing in action while the Confederates suffered 2,000 casualties. Bernard Bee coined the nickname associated with Confederate General Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson. At the Battle of First Manassas, it is General Bee who supposedly rallied his troops by calling out, "Look! There is Jackson standing like a stone wall. Rally to the Virginians!" Though there is some controversy about exactly what was said, when Bee said it, and what exactly he meant by it, the words helped create a legend. Bee couldn?t explain further; he was mortally wounded during the battle and died the next day. Brig. Gen. Irvin McDowell was in command of the Union forces at the First Battle of Bull Run (First Manassas). (HT, 3/97, p.48)(AP, 7/21/97)(HN, 7/21/99)(HN, 1/18/00)(HNQ,7/30/01)(MC, 7/21/02) 1861 nend Jul 25, The Crittenden Resolution, calling for the American Civil War to be fought to preserve the Union and not for slavery, was passed by Congress. (HN, 7/25/98) 1861 nend Jul 27, President Abraham Lincoln replaced General Irwin McDowell with General George B. McClellen, a pro-slavery Democrat, as head of the Army of the Potomac. (AP, 7/27/97)(HN, 7/27/98)(ON, 12/03, p.1) 1861 nend Jul 27, Battle of Mathias Point, VA. Rebel forces repelled a Federal landing. (MC, 7/27/02) 1861 nend Aug 1, Sally Louisa Tompkins opened Robertson Hospital in Richmond, Virginia. She ceased operating the hospital on June 13, 1865. (HNQ, 5/17/01) 1861 nend Aug 5, The US federal government levied an income tax for the first time to finance the Civil War. It was 3% of incomes over $800. The law expired in 1872. (AP, 8/5/97)(HN, 8/5/98)(MC, 8/5/02)(WSJ, 6/4/03, p.B1) 1861 nend Aug 5, US Army abolished flogging. (MC, 8/5/02) 1861 nend Aug 10, General Nathaniel Lyon died at the Battle of Wilson's Creek, Missouri. He was the 1st Union general to die in the Civil War. The 2nd land battle of the Civil War was fought along Wilson?s Creek in southwest Missouri. The fight was considered a Confederate victory. This 1st major battle west of the Mississippi was pivotal in determining the fate of the most populous state west of the Mississippi River in the early months of the Civil War." (HNQ, 6/5/02)(www.civilwarhome.com/wilsonscreek.htm)(AM, 11/04, p.28) 1861 nend Aug 10, Friedrich Julius Stahl (b.1802), conservative German jurist and publicist, died in Bruckenau. He developed the idea that Germans are a people based on descent. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Julius_Stahl)(Econ, 2/11/06,Survey p.13) 1861 nend Aug 11, James Bryan Herrick, physician who first described sickle-cell anemia, was born. (AP, 8/11/00) 1861 nend Aug 12, Texas rebels were attacked by Apaches. (MC, 8/12/02) 1861 nend Aug 14, Martial Law was declared at St. Louis, Missouri. (MC, 8/14/02) 1861 nend Aug 15, Lincoln directed reinforcements to be sent to Missouri. (MC, 8/15/02) 1861 nend Aug 16, President Lincoln prohibited the states of the Union from trading with the seceding states of the Confederacy. (AP, 8/16/97) 1861 nend Aug 16, Union and Confederate forces clashed near Fredericktown and Kirkville, Missouri. (HN, 8/16/98) 1861 nend Aug 23, Rose O?Neal Greenhow was arrested by Union secret service operative Allan Pinkerton and held under house arrest for five months. She had supplied Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard with a warning that Union General Irvin McDowell was planning an attack on Manassas in July 1861. Greenhow, a 44-year-old widow with four daughters, was recruited in 1861 to be the operating head of the Confederacy?s first spy ring. A Washington socialite with many friends in high government circles, Rose was perfectly placed to gather intelligence about Federal troop strengths and movements. Rose Greenhow was finally released and sent South on June 2, 1862. She drowned in a shipwreck on September 30, 1864. (HNQ, 6/9/98) 1861 nend Aug 27, Union troops made an amphibious landing at Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. (HN, 8/27/98) 1861 nend Aug 27, At the Battle of Cape Hatteras, SC, Union troops took Fort Clark. (MC, 8/27/01) 1861 nend Aug 28, The Battle of Fort Hatteras, NC. (MC, 8/28/01) 1861 nend Aug 30, Union General John Fremont declared martial law throughout Missouri and made his own emancipation proclamation to free slaves in the state. However, Fremont?s order was countermanded days later by President Lincoln. (HN, 8/30/98)(AP, 8/30/06) 1861 nend Sep 20, Lexington, Missouri, was captured by Union forces. (MC, 9/20/01) 1861 nend Sep 3, Confederate forces entered Kentucky, thus ending its neutrality. (MC, 9/3/01) 1861 nend Sep 6, Union General Ulysses S. Grant?s forces captured Paducah, Kentucky from Confederate forces. A lifelong friend and trusted aide of Ulysses S. Grant, Ely Parker rose to the top in two worlds, that of his native Seneca Indian tribe and the white man?s world at large. (HN, 9/6/98) 1861 nend Sep 9, Sally Louisa Tompkins (b.1833) was commissioned as a Confederate captain of cavalry. Born into a wealthy and altruistic family in coastal Mathews County, Virginia, Tompkins was destined for a life of philanthropy. After moving to Richmond, she spent much of her time and a considerable portion of her fortune assisting causes she considered worthy. With the onset of civil war, she labored on the behalf of the South's wounded soldiers, and for this she became the first and only woman to receive an officer's commission in the Confederate army. (HNQ, 5/17/01) 1861 nend Sep 10, Confederates at Carnifex Ferry, Virginia, fell back after being attacked by Union troops. There were 170 casualties. The action was instrumental in helping preserve western Virginia for the Union. (HN, 9/10/98)(MC, 9/10/01) 1861 nend Sep 13, In the 1st naval battle of Civil War, Union frigate "Colorado" sank privateer "Judah" off Pensacola, Fla. (MC, 9/13/01) 1861 nend Sep 18, Australian explorer John King (d.1872) was found by a rescue party. A land prospector or "squatter" touring the area in 1875 met an Aboriginal woman who claimed to have witnessed Robert O?Hara Burke being shot by John King, and he detailed her story in his journal. Historian Darrell Lewis unearthed the story around 1990. (ON, 12/01, p.5)(AFP, 7/23/11) 1861 nend Sep 25, Secretary of US Navy authorized the enlistment of slaves. (MC, 9/25/01) 1861 nend Sep 30, William Wrigley, Jr., founder of the Wrigley chewing gum empire and owner of the Chicago Cubs baseball team, was born. (HN, 9/30/98) 1861 nend Sep, Harry Macarthy delivered a stirring performance of "The Bonnie Blue Flag" on a New Orleans stage, causing a near riot. Born an Englishman, he became famous throughout the Confederacy as an entertainer. Macarthy was a hit, and for the rest of the war, he would do his best to keep his song and himself popular, taking his show on the road all over the South and providing diversion for thousands of civilians and soldiers. He lifted the morale of war-weary Southerners and became the most popular performer in his adopted country, the Confederate States of America. (HNQ, 6/14/01) 1861 nend Oct 4, Frederic Remington (d.1909), American Western painter and sculptor, was born. (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.1213)(HN, 10/4/00) 1861 nend Oct 4, The Union ship USS South Carolina captured two Confederate blockade runners outside of New Orleans, La. (HN, 10/4/98) 1861 nend Oct 6, Naval Engagement at Charleston, SC, the USS Flag vs. Britain?s Alert. (MC, 10/6/01) 1861 nend Oct 11, Battle of Dumfries, Va., at Quantico Creek. (MC, 10/11/01) 1861 nend Oct 12, The Confederate ironclad Manassas attacked the northern ship Richmond on the Mississippi River. The Manassas was the Confederacy?s first operational ironclad. Originally a New England tugboat called the Enoch Train, the ship was refit with iron sheathing and an iron prow for ramming. The underpowered ship was used in defense of New Orleans, finally being dispatched by the Union warship Mississippi. (AP, 10/12/97)(HNQ, 7/12/00) 1861 nend Oct 15, The British steamship Fingal, purchased by James D. Bulloch for the US Southern Confederacy, ran into the Austrian brig Siccardi, which sank with her load of coal in England?s Holyhead harbor. The Fingal quickly sailed for Savannah. The Fingal was later converted to an ironclad and renamed Atlanta. (ON, 7/01, p.6) 1861 nend Oct 16, The Confederacy started selling postage stamps. (MC, 10/16/01) 1861 nend Oct 21, Battle of Ball?s Bluff, Va., was a disastrous Union defeat which sparked Congressional investigations. (HN, 10/21/98) 1861 nend Oct 22, The 1st telegraph line linking West & East coasts was completed. [see Oct 24] (MC, 10/22/01) 1861 nend Oct 23, President Abraham Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus in Washington, D.C. for all military-related cases. (HN, 10/23/98) 1861 nend Oct 24, West Virginia seceded from Virginia. (MC, 10/24/01) 1861 nend Oct 24, Western Union completed the first transcontinental telegraph line. The first transcontinental telegraph message was sent as Justice Stephen J. Field of California transmitted a telegram to President Lincoln. Telegraph lines linked the West Coast to the rest of the country and made the Pony Express obsolete late in the year. (SFC, 4/28/97, p.A19)(AP, 10/24/97)(HN, 10/24/98) 1861 nend Oct 26, The Pony Express ended after 18 months of operation. [see Apr 3, 1860] (MC, 10/26/01) 1861 nend Nov 1, Lieutenant General Winfield Scott, 50 year veteran and leader of the U.S. Army at the onset of the Civil War, retired. Gen. George B. McClellan was made General-in-Chief of the Union armies. (AP, 11/1/97)(HN, 11/1/98) 1861 nend Nov 6, Dr. James Naismith (d. Nov 28, 1939), Canadian physical education instructor, was born. He invented the game of basketball in 1891. (DTnet, 11/28/97)(HN, 11/6/99) 1861 nend Nov 6, Jefferson Davis was elected to a six-year term as president of the Confederacy. (AP, 11/6/97)(HN, 11/6/98) 1861 nend Nov 7, Union General Ulysses S. Grant launches an unsuccessful raid on Belmont, Missouri. (HN, 11/7/02) 1861 nend Nov 7, Union forces capture the Hilton Head-Beaufort-Port Royal area of Southern Carolina. (Smith., 4/95, p.14)(HN, 11/7/98) 1861 nend Nov 8, Union Captain Charles Wilkes of the sloop San Jacinto seized Confederate commissioners John Slidell and James M. Mason from the British mail ship Trent. Lincoln's response to uproar: "One war at a time." The Confederates were released. In 1977 Norman F. Ferris authored "The Trent Affair: A Diplomatic Crisis." (HN, 11/6/98)(ON, 1/01, p.7)(MC, 11/8/01) 1861 nend Nov 9, During the Civil War, soldiers of the Illinois 11th, 18th, and 29th Regiments, after forcing the Confederates south, set up camp in Bloomfield, Missouri. Upon finding the newspaper office empty, they decided to print a newspaper for their expedition, relating the troop's activities. They called it the Stars and Stripes. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stars_and_Stripes_(newspaper)) 1861 nend Nov 10, Robert T.A. Innes, astronomer (Proxima Centauri), was born in Edinburgh, Scotland. (MC, 11/10/01) 1861 nend Nov 11, In China the Qing Dynasty established a new ministry of foreign affairs. It was housed in a building that had housed the Department of Iron Coins and was considered as a temporary institution. (WSJ, 5/16/97, p.A16) 1861 nend Nov 16, Vaclav Suk, composer, was born. (MC, 11/16/01) 1861 nend Nov 18, The first provisional meeting of the Confederate Congress was held in Richmond. (HN, 11/18/98) 1861 nend Nov 18, Poet and abolitionist Julia Ward Howe (inset) accompanied her husband, Dr. Samuel Howe, to Fort Griffin, Virginia, to review Union troops defending the capital. The ceremony was cut short when the Federals were forced to give chase to a nearby party of Confederates. Dr. and Mrs. Howe returned to their Washington hotel, but Mrs. Howe awoke in the early morning hours with "long lines" of a poem in her mind. She rose in darkness and wrote six stanzas of The Battle Hymn of the Republic on her husband's stationery based on chapter 63 of the Old Testament?s Book of Isaiah. In February 1862, The Atlantic Monthly printed the poem for a $5 payment. Soon troops all over the North were singing the stirring words to the popular tune of John Brown's Body, which had been composed in 1852. (HNPD, 11/20/98)(HNQ, 5/21/02) 1861 nend Nov 19, Julia Ward Howe wrote "The Battle Hymn of the Republic" while visiting Union troops near Washington. [see Nov 18] (HN, 11/19/00) 1861 nend Nov 26, West Virginia was created as a result of dispute over slavery with Virginia. (MC, 11/26/01) 1861 nend Nov 28, The Confederate Congress admitted Missouri to the Confederacy, although Missouri had not yet seceded from the Union. (DTnet, 11/28/97)(HN, 11/28/98) 1861 nend Nov 30, Harper's Weekly publishes E.E. Beers' "All quiet along the Potomac." (MC, 11/30/01) 1861 nend Nov 30, The British Parliament sent to Queen Elizabeth an ultimatum for the United States, demanding the release of two Confederate diplomats who were seized on the British ship Trent. (HN, 11/30/98) 1861 nend Dec 1, The U.S. gunboat Penguin seized the Confederate blockade runner Albion carrying supplies worth almost $100,000. (HN, 12/1/98) 1861 nend Dec 3, In his first annual message Pres. Lincoln argued that "labor is prior to, and independent of capital. Capital is the fruit of labor, and could never have existed if labor had not first existed..." (WSJ, 2/10/95,p.A8)(http://caps.fool.com/blogs/quotes-by-lincoln/548670) 1861 nend Dec 4, Lillian Russell, singer and actress, was born Helen Louise Leonard in Clinton, Iowa. She performed in burlesque and light opera, debuting in Gilbert and Sullivan's HMS Pinafore in 1879. Russell was praised for her voluptuous beauty and was frequently photographed. Women everywhere tried to emulate her plump physique by buying potions and corsets to accentuate their curves. Although Russell was the ideal beauty of her time, her 186-pound figure--which she kept by eating without restraint--would be quite a departure from today's standard of beauty. Russell later wrote a newspaper column on health, beauty and love, and she died in 1922. (HNPD, 12/3/98) 1861 nend Dec 4, The Federal Senate, voting 36 to 0, expelled Senator John C. Brekenridge of Kentucky because he joined the Confederate Army. (HN, 12/4/98) 1861 nend Dec 5, In the U.S. Congress petitions and bills calling for the abolition of slavery were introduced. (HN, 12/5/98) 1861 nend Dec 6, Union General George G. Meade led a foraging expedition to Gunnell?s farm near Dranesville, Va. (HN, 12/6/98) 1861 nend Dec 7, USS Santiago de Cuba, under Commander Daniel B. Ridgely, halted the British schooner Eugenia Smith and captured J.W. Zacharie, a New Orleans merchant and Confederate purchasing agent. (HN, 12/7/98) 1861 nend Dec 8, Aristide Maillol, French painter and sculptor (Seated Woman), was born. (MC, 12/8/01) 1861 nend Dec 8, The American Bible Society announced that it would distribute 7,000 Bibles a day to Union soldiers. (HN, 12/8/98) 1861 nend Dec 8, CSS Sumter captured the whaler Eben Dodge in the Atlantic. The war began affecting the Northern whaling industry. (HN, 12/8/98) 1861 nend Dec 9, U.S. Senate approved the establishment of a committee that would become the Joint Committee on the Conduct of War. (HN, 12/9/98) 1861 nend Dec 10, Kentucky was admitted to the Confederate States of America. (HN, 12/10/98) 1861 nend Dec 11, A raging fire swept the business district of Charleston, South Carolina, adding to an already depressed economic state. (HN, 12/11/98) 1861 nend Dec 13, Battle of Alleghany Summit, WV. (MC, 12/13/01) 1861 nend Dec 14, Prince Albert of England, husband of Queen Victoria and one of the Union?s strongest advocates, died in London. The book "Uncrowned King: The Life of Prince Albert" was later written by Stanley Weintraub. (WUD, 1994, p.34)(WSJ, 1/26/98, p.A16)(AP, 12/14/98)(HN, 12/14/98) 1861 nend Dec 17, The Stonewall Brigade began to dismantle Dam No. 5 of the C&O Canal near Martinsburg, W.Va. (HN, 12/17/98) 1861 nend Dec 20, Transports were loaded with 8,000 troops in England. They were setting sail for Canada so that troops would be available if the "Trent Affair" was not settled without war. (HN, 12/20/98) 1861 nend Dec 21, Pres. Lincoln signed legislation establishing the Medal of Honor. The medal was first authorized for Sailors and Marines, and the following year for Soldiers as well. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medal_of_Honor) 1861 nend Dec 23, Lord Lyons, The British minister to America presented a formal complaint to secretary of state, William Seward, regarding the Trent affair. (HN, 12/23/98) 1861 nend Dec 24, The USS Gem of the Sea destroyed the British blockade runner Prince of Wales off the coast at Georgetown, S.C. (HN, 12/24/98) 1861 nend Dec 25, Stonewall Jackson spent Christmas with his wife; their last together. (HN, 12/25/98) 1861 nend Dec 26, Friedrich Engel, German mathematician (group theory), was born. (MC, 12/26/01) 1861 nend Dec 30, Banks in the United States suspended the practice of redeeming paper money for metal currency, a practice that would continue until 1879. (HN, 12/30/98) 1861 nend Dec, French, British and Spanish troops landed at Veracruz, Mexico, seeking to force Benito Juarez to resume his financial obligations. (PCh, 1992, p.485) 1861 nend Matthew Brady, born in upstate NY around 1823, determined to make a complete photographic record of the Civil War. (V.D.-H.K.p.275) 1861 nend William Wrigley, Jr., was born in Philadelphia. He began his business career by selling soap manufactured by his father. In 1891, Wrigley moved to Chicago where he founded and became president of Wm. Wrigley, Jr. Company, manufacturers of chewing gum, earning him the money to acquire the Chicago Cubs and to build Wrigley?s Stadium. Wrigley is especially noted for his effective advertising techniques. (AP, 4/9/00) 1861 nend Pierre-Auguste Renoir, French impressionist painter, entered the Ecole des Beaux Arts and studied with Charles Gleyre. (DPCP 1984) 1861 nend Dante Gabriel Rossetti painted "Fair Rosamund." (WSJ, 2/9/00, p.W2) 1861 nend Sam Beeton and his wife Isabella Mayson (1840-1868) published ?Beeton?s Book of Household Management.? Mayson was a columnist for the Englishwoman?s Domestic Magazine.? Beeton had made his fortune publishing the British edition of ?Uncle Tom?s Cabin.? In 2005 Kathryn Hughes authored ?The Short Life and Long Times of Mrs. Beeton.? (Econ, 11/5/05, p.93) 1861 nend Rebecca Harding Davis authored ?Life in the Iron Mills.? (SFC, 1/10/08, p.E1) 1861 nend The book "Great Expectations" by Charles Dickens was published. (SFEC, 1/25/98, DB p.43) 1861 nend Harriet Jacobs (1813-1897) authored ?Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl? under the pseudonym Linda Brent. In 2004 Jean Fagan Yellin (73) authored ?Harriet Jacobs: A Life.? (SFC, 6/23/04, p.E1) 1861 nend Samuel F.B. Morse, inventor of the telegraph, authored a pamphlet titled: "An Argument on the Ethical Position of Slavery in the Social System." (WSJ, 10/28/03, p.D10) 1861 nend Sir Francis Turner Palgrave (1824-1897) edited ?The Golden Treasury,? a 4-volume anthology of the best songs and lyrical poems in the English language. (WSJ, 1/20/07, p.P11)(WSJ, 11/15/08, p.W10) 1861 nend Anthony Trollope (1815-1882), British novelist, authored his novel ?Orley Farm," which told the story of an unjust will. (WSJ, 2/24/07, p.P10) 1861 nend Young?s "Scientific Secrets" was published. It is a book of recipes and formulas for furniture polish, beers, wines, and directions on interpreting flowers? "language." (CM, 12/94, p.59) 1861 nend An Octagon House was built in San Francisco at Gough and Union by William C. McElroy, a miller and his wife Harriet. In 1953 the Colonial Dames persuaded PG&E to sell it for $1 on the condition that they move it across the street to 2645 Gough. (SFEC, 11/3/96, DB p.33)(SFEC,11/2/97, DB p.31)(SSFC, 7/24/11, p.A2) 1861 nend The Donohue House in Elk, California, was built by an Irish immigrant. (SFC, 9/1/96, T3) 1861 nend Alcatraz Island became an official US military prison. (OAH, 2/05, p.A1) 1861 nend In his first annual message Lincoln argued that "labor is prior to, and independent of capital. Capital is the fruit of labor, and could never have existed if labor had not first existed..." (WSJ, 2/10/95), p.A-8)1861 General Winfield Scott offered Robert E. Lee, "the very bestsoldier I ever saw in the field," command of the Union army, but Leedeclined, deciding to support the Confederacy. 1861 nend The first Confederate flag had three stripes and a circle of 7 stars in the upper left corner. The commonly seen battle flag of the Army of Northern Virginia had an 13 stars on an "X" field with 7 stars along each line of the x. (WSJ, 2/4/97, p.A20) 1861 nend Virginia seceded from the Union and moved troops to take over National Capital. Federal troops were rushed down the Chesapeake-Delaware Canal and arrived in time to stop Confederate troops from taking Washington D.C. The Wheeling Conventions declared Virginia?s secession from the Union unconstitutional and named Francis H. Pierpont governor of the Reorganized Government of Virginia, which was quickly recognized by the federal government. At the outbreak of the Civil War, representatives of Virginia?s western counties had gathered in the city of Wheeling (as the temporary capital) to form the Reorganized Government of Virginia. In 1862 a state constitution was adopted by the convention and on June 20, 1863, West Virginia was admitted as the 35th state in the Union. (NG, Sept. 1939, p.379)(HNQ, 6/16/99) 1861 nend According to Hardee?s Tactics, used extensively to instruct infantrymen in the Civil War, every officer "should, by practice, be enabled, if necessary," to perform the important function of sounding bugle calls. This knowledge, so necessary in general instruction, becomes of vital importance on actual service in the field." Lieutenant Colonel William J. Hardee published this admonition for career officers of the U.S. Army in 1861. That very year, the Civil War erupted, and huge numbers of civilians were hastily made officers. As Hardee (who ultimately became a Confederate lieutenant general) would have admitted, most of these volunteer officers knew very few of the dozens of bugle calls, and could not sound any of them. According to section 55 under "Instruction of the Battalion" in Hardee?s Rifle and Light Infantry Tactics (1862, J.O. Kane edition), "Every officer will make himself perfectly acquainted with the bugle signals; and should, by practice, be enabled, if necessary, to sound them. (HNQ, 9/28/01) 1861 nend Ardent Confederate Isabelle (Belle) Boyd became one of the Civil War's most notorious spies. When only 16, she fatally wounded a Union soldier who entered her family's home in Martinsburg, Virginia (now West Virginia). During the next year, she regularly provided intelligence to Rebel commanders. She was arrested several times and twice served sentences in Washington, D.C., prisons. When captured aboard a Confederate blockade-runner in 1864, Belle was banished to Canada. While traveling in England to further the Southern cause, she created a sensation by marrying Sam Hardinge, a Union officer. A widow with one child by war's end, Boyd published her memoirs, returned to America and later earned a living by acting and lecturing on her wartime experiences. (HNPD, 1/16/99) 1861 nend Orion Clemens was appointed Secretary of the Territory of Nevada. He took along his young brother, Sam Clemens (Mark Twain). (SFEC, 9/17/00, Z1 p.2) 1861 nend Pres. Lincoln appointed Anson Burlingame, congressman from Mass., as ambassador to China. (Ind, 8/11/01, 5A) 1861 nend Union Major General William T. Sherman battled bitterly with the press throughout the Civil War, after 1861 news reports called the nervous, quick-tempered general "insane." Once, when told about reporters killed by shells, he exclaimed, "Good! Now we?ll have news from hell before breakfast!" (HNQ, 1/18/02) 1861 nend Leland Stanford was elected Governor of California. (Ind, 6/2/01, 5A) 1861 nend Chicago Mayor John Wentworth fired all the 60 policemen, 3 sergeants and 1 captain as his last official act. For 12 hours the city was without police as the Board of Commissioners worked to replace them. (SFC, 3/20/99, p.B4) 1861 nend James Buchanan, 15th President of the United States, retired to Wheatland, his Pennsylvania home. (HNQ, 4/15/01) 1861 nend Col. Agoston Haraszthy, a Hungarian immigrant to the US who settled in Sonoma, California, was asked by Calif. Governor John Downey to go to Europe and to find sample cuttings of the best European varieties of grapes. Haraszthy?s methodology, personality and perseverance earned him the name of Father of California Wines. (WCG, p.58) 1861 nend Samuel A. Bishop brought the first herd of 600 cattle to Owens Valley in mid-east California. (SFEC, 9/29/96, T7) 1861 nend Camels were brought to Virginia City, Nevada to carry supplies and salt for miners at the Comstock Lode. (SFEC, 8/25/96, DB p.67) 1861 nend The Central Pacific Railroad was founded by Sacramento merchants Leland Stanford, Charles Crocker, Mark Hopkins and Collis P. Huntington. (SFC, 4/18/98, p.A1) 1861 nend Henry Morton founded the Paris Manufacturing Co. in South Paris, Maine. The company made various toys and then desks from the late 1800s. In 1978 it became Paricon Inc. (SFC, 1/23/08, p.G5) 1861 nend In Philadelphia John Wanamaker (1838-1922) and Nathan Brown (d.1868) purchased a 6-story men?s clothing store called McNeill?s Folly and renamed it the Oak Hall Clothing Bazaar. (ON, 12/05, p.4) 1861 nend John Wallace Cowden founded the Cowden pottery in Harrisburg, Pa. It became Cowden & Son from 1888-1904. (SFC, 3/29/06, p.G6) 1861 nend The College of California was founded in Oakland. (SFEC, 2/9/97, p.W4) 1861 nend American cotton exports reached 4 million bales a year. (Econ, 12/20/03, p.46) 1861 nend At the outbreak of the American Civil War, the Northern population was approximately 22 million, while the total Southern population was about 9 million. Of the total population of 9 million in the 11 seceded states, 3.5 million were black slaves. The 22 million in the 23 Northern and border states were augmented during the war by heavy foreign immigration. (HNQ, 8/8/98) 1861 nend In Albania the first school known to use Albanian language in modern times was opened in Shkodra. (www, Albania, 1998) 1861 nend The British firm Butterfield & Swire began trading in Hong Kong and China. (Econ, 6/30/07, SR p.13) 1861 nend Henry Gray (b.1827), English anatomist and surgeon, died of smallpox. He had authored the textbook ?Gray?s Anatomy? (1858). (Econ, 11/15/08, p.100)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Gray) 1861 nend Shanghai came under attack from the Taiping rebellion, led by the self-proclaimed younger brother of Jesus Christ. To help pay for their defense, China?s provincial governments borrowed money from foreign investors. As collateral they offered claims on Shanghai?s customs revenues. (Econ, 11/19/11, p.78) 1861 nend Ch'ing Emperor Hsien Feng died in exile and his widow Orchid (26) became China's Empress Dowager. (SSFC, 2/1/04, p.M6) 1861 nend The first Archaeopteryx fossil was found in Germany in mid-Jurassic rocks dating to about 155-150 million BC. The very rare remains of the first bird, Archaeopteryx, was about the size of a dove, had a long, reptile-like tail but with real feathers, not scales, and it possessed teeth in its beak. (Econ, 11/10/07, p.101)(SFC, 7/28/11, p.A8) 1861 nend In Greenland the first Eskimo newspaper began. (WSJ, 4/10/00, p.A44) 1861 nend In Bombay, India, the Magen David synagogue was erected at the sole expense of David Sasson Esq. (WSJ, 9/17/98, p.A20) 1861 nend British colonial rulers framed an anti-homosexuality law for India. (Reuters, 7/7/06) 1861 nend In India the Murree Brewery Co. Ltd. was founded by British colonialists. In 1947 it came under the control of Pakistan. (SFC, 7/10/00, p.A8) 1861 nend The Risorgimento movement resulted in Italian unification. The Carbonari was a secret society in early 19th century Italy who advocated liberal and patriotic ideas and opposed the conservative regimes imposed on Italy by the Allies who had defeated Napoleon in 1815. As with other secret societies of the age, the Carbonari had an initiation ceremony, complex symbols and a hierarchical organization though its exact origins are left to conjecture. They recruited primarily among nobility, small landowners and officeholders and may have been an offshoot of the Freemasons. Their influence is credited with preparing the way for the Risorgimento movement. (HNQ, 8/21/00) 1861 nend Radama II (1829-1863), the son of Queen Ranavalona I, succeeded her to rule Madagascar. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radama_II_of_Madagascar) 1861 nend Benito Juarez became the president of Mexico. Napoleon III persuaded Archduke Maximilian of Austria to take the throne of Mexico. (SCal, May 1995) 1861 nend In Russia Dmitri Ivanovich Mendelyev, chemist, determined that the maximum solubility of alcohol in water occurs at a ratio of 40% to 60%. This became the ideal mixture for sipping vodka for Russians. (WSJ, 2/2/98, p.A23) 1861 nend The L?Osservatore Romano newspaper was founded as the mouthpiece for the Vatican. (WSJ, 10/13/08, p.A16) 1861 1865 In 1860, Lincoln became the first president elected from the new Republican Party. Abraham Lincoln was fatally shot by John Wilkes Booth at Ford's Theater in Washington, D.C., on April 14, 1865. In 1996 a new biography of Abraham Lincoln by David Donald was published. (HN, 2/12/98)(AP, 2/12/98)(AHD, 1971, p.759)(WSJ, 2/10/95,p.A-8)(SFC, 9/1/96, Par. p.12)(HNPD, 2/12/99)(SFC, 4/30/99, p.E9) 1861 1865 The American Civil War. In 1996 "A Short History of the Civil War" by James L. Stokesbury, Canadian professor, was published. 185,000 black soldiers served in the Colored Troops. In 1997 James M. McPherson published "For Cause and Comrades," a collection of letters by the men who fought in the war. (SFC, 9/1/96, Par. p.12)(SFC, 9/11/96, p.C1) 1861 1865 During the American Civil War, Confederate prisoners who were pressed into service by the Union to fight against Indians on the Western frontier were referred to as "Galvanized Yankees. (HNQ, 8/11/98) 1861 1865 The U.S. Military Railroads` Construction Corps under Herman Haupt performed spectacular engineering feats during the American Civil War. (HNQ, 8/30/01) 1861 1865 The American Civil War left over 600,000 people dead. (WSJ, 5/7/99, p.A1) c 1861 1865 Walt Whitman went to Virginia during the Civil War to nurse his brother George, who had been wounded in battle. Afterward, Whitman volunteered in army hospitals in Washington. (HN, 9/5/00) 1861 1865 The Napoleon 12-pounder gun howitzer was the most popular smoothbore artillery piece employed in the American Civil War (there was also a 6-pounder Napoleon that was less widely used). The muzzle-loaded artillery piece?named for French emperor Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III)--was adopted by the U.S. Army shortly before the Civil War. Confederates captured a great many Federal pieces, but also copied the design to manufacture themselves. The cannon fired a variety of ammunition and had a maximum effective range of between 800 and 1,000 yards. (HNQ, 12/15/00) 1861 1865 The National Museum of Health and Medicine (NHMH) was founded in Washington DC to advance medical care during the Civil War. (SFEC, 6/29/97, p.T10) 1861 1865 In 2001 Russell F. Weigley won the Lincoln Prize for his book: "A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History." (WSJ, 2/15/00, p.A16) 1861 1865 Major Gen?l. Dan Butterfield wrote "Taps" during the Civil War and created the first military shoulder patches. (SFC,12/27/97, p.C3) 1861 1865 The mid-downtown park, donated to San Francisco by Mayor John Geary, became the site of rallies on behalf of the Union that gave the park its name. Many of the rallies were led by Unitarian minister Thomas Starr King. The block was renamed Union Square to commemorate the rallies. (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.W27)(SSFC, 7/21/02, p.F2) 1861 1865 Turin was the capital of Italy. (WSJ, 8/18/99, p.A17) 1861 1869 William Henry Seward was the American Sec. of State during these years (HFA, ?96, p.30)(AHD, p.1187) 1861 1871 In 2007 Michael Knox Beran authored ?Forge of Empires: 1861-1871: Three Revolutionary Statesmen and the World They Made,? a work of comparative history in which he focuses on the US, Russia and the unifying German states during the 1860s. (WSJ, 12/6/07, p.D7) 1861 1876 Abdul Aziz succeeded Abdul Meçid in the Ottoman House of Osman. (Ot, 1993, xvii) 1861 1880 Rob Cox tells the story of William Mumler and other photographers of the dead and living dead in his article The Transportation of American Spirits: Gender, Spirit Photography and American Culture, 1861-1880 in Ephemera Journal 7, 1995. (MT, 10/95, p.10-11) 1861 1920 Louise Imogen Guiney, American poet and essayist: "Quotations (such as have point and lack triteness) from the great old authors are an act of filial reverence on the part of the quoter, and a blessing to a public grown superficial and external." (AP, 7/9/98) 1861 1925 Rudolf Steiner was a theosophist who saw himself as a bridge between the scientific and spiritual traditions. (SFC,12/18/97, p.E1) 1861 1941 Sir Rabindranath Tagore, Indian Nobel Prize-winning poet: "Each child comes with the message that God is not yet discouraged of man." (AP, 10/26/00) 1861 1950 Minna Antrim, American writer: "A fool bolts pleasure, then complains of moral indigestion." (AP, 5/12/99) 1862 nend Jan 1, The US established its 1st income tax. (MC, 1/1/02) 1862 nend Jan 4, In the Romney Campaign Stonewall Jackson occupied Bath. (MC, 1/4/02) 1862 nend Jan 7, Battle of Manassas Junction, VA. (MC, 1/7/02) 1862 nend Jan 8, Frank Nelson Doubleday, founder of Doubleday publishing house, was born. (HN, 1/8/99) 1862 nend Jan 10, Battle of Big Sandy River, KY (Middle Creek). (MC, 1/10/02) 1862 nend Jan 10, Battle of Romney, WV. (MC, 1/10/02) 1862 nend Jan 10, Samuel Colt (47), inventor (6 shot revolver), died. (MC, 1/10/02) 1862 nend Jan 11, Lincoln accepted Simon Cameron's resignation as Secretary of War. (HN, 1/11/99) 1862 nend Jan 13, President Lincoln named Edwin M. Stanton Secretary of War. (HN, 1/13/99) 1862 nend Jan 18, Confederate Territory of Arizona formed. (MC, 1/18/02) 1862 nend Jan 18, John Tyler (71), 10th president of the United States (1841-1845), died and was buried at Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond, Va. He drank a mint julep every morning for breakfast. Tyler had joined the Confederacy after his presidency and was designated a "sworn enemy of the United States." (AP, 1/18/98)(SFEC, 11/15/98, Z1 p.10)(SFEC, 12/20/98, Z1 p.8)(HN,1/18/99) 1862 nend Jan 22, Confederate government raised the premium for volunteers from $10 to $20. (MC, 1/22/02) 1862 nend Jan 24, Edith Wharton (d.1937), U.S. novelist was born. Her novels included Age of Innocence," House of Mirth," "Summer," and "Ethan Frome." She also wrote books on home design. "There are two ways of spreading light: to be the candle, or the mirror that reflects it." "The essence of taste is suitability. Divest the word of its prim and priggish implications, and see how it expresses the mysterious demand of the eye and mind for symmetry, harmony and order." In 1978 Gore Vidal edited the "Edith Wharton Omnibus." Eleanor Dwight wrote her 1994 biography: "An Extraordinary Life." (AP, 8/17/97)(WSJ, 12/9/97, p.A20)(AP, 1/11/98)(HN, 1/24/99)(SSFC,1/14/01, BR p.8) 1862 nend Jan 27, President Abraham Lincoln issued General War Order No. 1, setting in motion the Union armies. (HN, 1/27/99) 1862 nend Jan 29, William Quantrill and his Confederate raiders attack Danville, Kentucky. (HN, 1/29/00) 1862 nend Jan 30, The USS Monitor, a Union ironclad ship designed by John Ericsson, was launched into the East River at Greenpoint, Long Island, under Captain John L. Worden. It was the first warship equipped with a revolving turret. On March 6 it left NY Harbor and headed for Virginia to face the Confederate ironclad. (HN, 1/30/99)(AH, 12/02, p.8)(ON, 10/08, p.1) 1862 nend Feb 1, "The Battle Hymn of the Republic" was first published in "Atlantic Monthly" as an anonymous poem. The lyric was the work of Julia Ward Howe and was based on chapter 63 of the Old Testament?s Book of Isaiah. "The Battle Hymn of the Republic" soon became the most popular Union marching song of the Civil War and is still being sung and to the tune of a song titled, "John Brown?s Body". Julia Ward Howe (b.1819-1908) was an influential social reformer and wife of fellow reformer and educator Samuel Gridley Howe. She was prominent in the anti-slavery movement, woman?s suffrage, prison reform and the international peace movements. Julia Ward Howe was the first woman elected to the American Academy of Fine Arts and Letters in 1908. Ralph Waldo Emerson, said: "I honor the author of 'The Battle Hymn' ... she was born in the city of New York. I could well wish she were a native of Massachusetts. We have no such poetess in New England." (440 Int'l, 2/1/1999)(HNQ, 1/31/00,5/21/02) 1862 nend Feb 6, Ulysses S. Grant began a military campaign in Mississippi. The Battle of Fort Henry, Tenn., began the Mississippi Valley campaign. (HN, 2/6/99)(MC, 2/6/02) 1862 nend Feb 7, Bernard Maybeck (d.1957), architect, was born in NYC. He designed the Palace of Fine Arts in SF and the First Church of Christ Scientist in Berkeley. (SFEM,12/797, p.46)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Maybeck) 1862 nend Feb 7, Federal fleet attacked Roanoke Island, NC. (MC, 2/7/02) 1862 nend Feb 8, Union troops under Gen. Ambrose Burnside defeated a Confederate defense force at the Battle of Roanoke Island, N.C. (HN, 2/8/99) 1862 nend Feb 13, Four-day Battle of Fort Donelson, Tenn., began. General Grant said, "What determined my attack on Donelson was as much the knowledge I had gained of its commanders in Mexico as anything else." (HN, 2/13/98) 1862 nend Feb 14, Galena, the 1st US iron-clad warship for service at sea, was launched in Conn. (MC, 2/14/02) 1862 nend Feb 15, Grant launched a major assault on Fort Donelson, Tenn. (HN, 2/15/98) 1862 nend Feb 16, During the Civil War, some 14,000 Confederate soldiers surrendered at Fort Donelson, Tenn. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant?s victory earned him the nickname "Unconditional Surrender Grant." Nathan Bedford Forrest escaped. (AP, 2/16/98)(HN, 2/16/98) 1862 nend Feb 18, Charles M. Schwab, "Boy Wonder" of the steel industry, was born. He became president of both U.S. Steel and Bethlehem Steel. (HN, 2/18/99) 1862 nend Feb 20, Willie Lincoln (b.1850), son of Pres. Lincoln, died in Washington DC. Typhoid fever was the suspected cause. (SSFC, 3/20/05, Par p.4)(www.nps.gov/liho/lincoln.htm) 1862 nend Feb 21, The Texas Rangers won a Confederate victory in the Battle of Val Verde, New Mexico. (HN, 2/21/98) 1862 nend Feb 21, Confederate Constitution & presidency were declared permanent. (MC, 2/21/02) 1862 nend Feb 22, Jefferson Davis was inaugurated president of the Confederacy in Richmond, Va. for the second time. (HN, 2/22/98) 1862 nend Feb 25, Congress formed the US Bureau of Engraving & Printing. Greenbacks were introduced. (MC, 2/25/02) 1862 nend Feb 25, Confederate troops abandoned Nashville, Tenn., in the face of Grant?s advance. (HN, 2/25/98) 1862 nend Feb 25, The ironclad Monitor was commissioned at the Brooklyn Navy Yard. (HN, 2/25/98) 1862 nend Feb 26, Battle of Woodburn, KY. (SC, 2/26/02) 1862 nend Feb 26, Cornelius Felton (b.1807), president of Harvard Univ., died in Chester, Pen., after 2 years in office. (WSJ, 2/21/06, p.A3)(www.nndb.com/people/711/000107390/) 1862 nend Feb 28, Karl Goldmark's opera "The Queen of Sheba," premiered in Paris. (MC, 2/28/02) 1862 nend Mar 2, Gen?l. Frederick W. Lander (b.1821), transcontinental engineer and Union General, died of ?congestion of the brain? at Paw Paw, Virginia. He was the chief engineer of the Central Overland route. In 2000 Gary L. Ecalbarger authored ?Frederick W. Lander: The Great Natural American Soldier.? (www.picturehistory.com/find/p/16832/mcms.html)(ACC, 2004) 1862 nend Mar 3, General Pope laid siege in front of New Madrid, MO. (SC, 3/3/02) 1862 nend Mar 6, Battle of Pea Ridge, AR (Elkhorn Tavern). [see Mar 7] (MC, 3/6/02) 1862 nend Mar 7, Confederate forces surprised the Union army at the Battle of Pea Ridge, in Arkansas, but the Union was victorious. [see Mar 6] (HN, 3/7/99) 1862 nend Mar 7, In the second day of the Battle of Elkhorn Tavern, Generals McCulloch and McIntosh perished. (HN, 3/7/98) 1862 nend Mar 8, On the second day of the Battle of Pea Ridge (Elkhorn Tavern) in Arkansas, Confederate forces, including some Indian troops, under General Earl Van Dorn surprised Union troops, but the Union troops won the battle. Pea Ridge Natl. Military Park, Arkansas, marked the site where Confederate commanders, Gen. Ben McCulloch and Gen. James McIntosh, were killed. (Postcard, Coastal Photo Scenics, SW Harbor, Maine)(HN, 3/8/98)(HN,3/8/99) 1862 nend Mar 8, The ironclad CSS Virginia (formerly USS Merrimack) rammed and sank the USS Cumberland and inflicted heavy damage on the USS Congress, both frigates, off Newport News, Va. Popular during the Crimean War, the floating battery was revived by hard-pressed Confederates. (AP, 3/8/07)(HN, 3/8/98) 1862 nend Mar 8, Nat Gordon, last pirate, was hanged in NYC for stealing 1,000 slaves. (MC, 3/8/02) 1862 nend Mar 9, The ironclads, CSS Virginia, (formerly Merrimac) of the South, battled the USS Monitor, designed by John Ericsson, in their first battle for five hours to a draw at Hampton Roads, Va. The story is told by James Tertius deKay in his 1998 book ?Monitor: The Story of the Legendary Civil War Ironclad and the Man Whose Invention Changed the Course of History.? (SFEC, 1/18/98, Par p.16)(AP, 3/9/98)(HN, 3/9/98) 1862 nend Mar 10, First U.S. paper money was issued in denominations of $5, $10, $20, $50, $100, $500 & $1000. (HN, 3/10/98)(MC, 3/10/02) 1862 nend Mar 11, Pres. Lincoln suspended General George McClellan from command of all the Union armies so that McClellan could concentrate on the Army of the Potomac and Richmond. (www.civilwarhome.com/macbio.htm) 1862 nend Mar 12, Jane Delano (d.1919), nurse, teacher and founder of the American Red Cross, was born in Montour Falls, New York. She helped the American Red Cross Nursing Service to be recognized as the nursing reserve for the Army and Navy. (www.wordiq.com/definition/Jane_Delano) 1862 nend Mar 14, Battle of New Bern, NC. General Burnside conquered New Bern, a strategic port and rail hub. (AM, 11/04, p.28) 1862 nend Mar 15, General John Hunt Morgan began four days of raids near the city of Gallatin, Tenn. "The Yankees will never take me a prisoner again," vowed Confederate General John Hunt Morgan. (HN, 3/15/98) 1862 nend Mar 19, F. Wilhelm von Schadow (73), German painter (Modern Vasari), died. (MC, 3/19/02) 1862 nend Mar 23, Battle of Kernstown, Va., began. Winchester, Va., was another embattled town. Confederate General Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson faced his only defeat at the Battle of Kernstown, Va., as he began his Valley Campaign. (HN, 3/23/98)(HN, 3/23/99)(SS, 3/23/02) 1862 nend Mar 24, Abolitionist Wendell Phillips spoke to a crowd about emancipation in Cincinnati, Ohio and was pelted by eggs. (HN, 3/24/00) 1862 nend Mar 26, Battle of La Glorieta Pass, New Mexico Territory (Apache Canyon, Pigeon's Ranch). (SS, 3/26/02) 1862 nend Mar 28, Aristide Briand, premier of France (1909-22), was born. (HN, 3/28/98) 1862 nend Mar 28, US Civil War skirmish at Bealeton Station, Virginia. (MC, 3/28/02) 1862 nend Mar 31, Skirmishing between Rebels and Union forces took place at Island 10 on the Mississippi River. (HN, 3/31/98) 1862 nend Apr 1, Shenandoah Valley campaign, Jackson's Battle of Woodstock, VA. (MC, 4/1/02) 1862 nend Apr 3, A bill was passed to abolish slavery in Washington, D.C. [see Apr 16] (HN, 4/3/98) 1862 nend Apr 4, Battle of Yorktown, Virginia, began as Union gen. George B. McClellan closed in on Richmond. This began the Peninsular Campaign aimed at capturing Richmond. (HN, 4/4/99)(MC, 4/4/02) 1862 nend Apr 5, Siege of Yorktown, VA., continued. (MC, 4/5/02) 1862 nend Apr 6, Two days of bitter fighting began at the Civil War battle of Shiloh (called Pittsburg Landing by the Confederates) as the Confederates attacked Grant's Union forces in southwestern Tennessee. Union commander Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, planning to advance on the important railway junction at Corinth, Miss., met a surprise attack by General Albert Sidney Johnston's Army of Mississippi. The Confederates pushed the Federals back steadily during the first day's fighting, in spite of Johnston's death that afternoon. Only with the arrival of Union reinforcements during the night did the tide turn, forcing the rebels to withdraw. The opposing sides slaughtered each other with such ferocity that one survivor wrote, "No blaze of glory...can ever atone for the unwritten and unutterable horrors of the scene." Gen. Ulysses Grant after the Battle of Shiloh said: "I saw an open field... so covered with dead that it would have been possible to walk across... in any direction, stepping on dead bodies without a foot touching the ground." More than 9,000 Americans died. The battle left some 24,000 casualties and secured the West for the Union. In 1952 Shelby Foote wrote "Shiloh," an historical novel based on documentation from participants in the battle. Recorded Books made a cassette version in 1992. (SFC, 6/19/96, p.E5)(HT, 4/97, p.13)(AP, 4/6/97)(AM, May/Jun 97p.27)(RBI, 1992)(HN, 4/6/98)(HNPD, 4/6/99) 1862 nend Apr 6, Albert Sidney Johnston (59), US and Confederate general, was killed in battle of Shiloh. (MC, 4/6/02) 1862 nend Apr 7, Union forces led by Gen. Ulysses S. Grant defeated the Confederates at the battle of Shiloh in Tennessee. Gen. Ulysses Grant after the Battle of Shiloh said: "I saw an open field... so covered with dead that it would have been possible to walk across... in any direction, stepping on dead bodies without a foot touching the ground." More than 9,000 Americans died. (SFC, 6/19/96, p.E5)(HT, 4/97, p.13)(AP, 4/7/97) 1862 nend Apr 8, John D. Lynde patented an aerosol dispenser. (MC, 4/8/02) 1862 nend Apr 10, Union forces began the bombardment of Fort Pulaski in Georgia along the Tybee River. (HN, 4/10/99) 1862 nend Apr 11, Charles Evans Hughs, 11th Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1930-41), was born. He resisted President Franklin Roosevelt?s attempts to "pack" the Supreme Court with judges favorable to the New Deal. (HN, 4/11/99) 1862 nend Apr 11, Rebels surrendered Ft Pulaski, Georgia. (MC, 4/11/02) 1862 nend Apr 12, Union volunteers from Ohio, led by Lt. James J. Andrews, stole a Confederate train near Marietta, Ga. They were caught 89 miles up the track. 8 of the 24 raiders were hanged that summer. 8 others escaped and made their way north. The episode inspired Buster Keaton?s 1927 comedy "The General." In 1956 Disney retold the story in ?The Great Locomotive Chase? with Fess Parker. In 2006 Russell S. Bonds authored ?Stealing the General.? (AP, 4/12/00)(WSJ, 11/10/06, p.W4) 1862 nend Apr 12, Union troops occupied Fort Pulaski, Georgia. (MC, 4/12/02) 1862 nend Apr 13, In the Washington area volunteers led by Sarah J. Evans paid homage to the graves of Civil War soldiers. Villagers in Waterloo, NY, held their 1st Memorial Day service on May 5, 1866. In 1966 Pres. Johnson gave Waterloo, NY, the distinction of holding the 1st Memorial Day. (SFC, 5/26/03, p.A2) 1862 nend Apr 16, Confederate President Jefferson Davis approved conscription act for white males between 18 and 35. (HN, 4/16/98) 1862 nend Apr 16, President Lincoln signed a bill, passed on April 3, ending slavery in the District of Columbia. (HN, 4/16/98)(AP, 4/16/08) 1862 nend Apr 18, Battle of Ft Jackson, Ft St. Philip and New Orleans, LA. (MC, 4/18/02) 1862 nend Apr 19, Simon Fraser, Canadian explorer, died. (MC, 4/19/02) 1862 nend Apr 21, Ellen Price Wood's "East Lynne," premiered in Boston. (MC, 4/21/02) 1862 nend Apr 21, Congress established the U.S. Mint. (HN, 4/21/98) 1862 nend Apr 25, Admiral David Farragut gained control of the Mississippi River at New Orleans, Louisiana. A few days later federal troops occupied the city. This stopped cotton sales by the Confederacy a revenue shortage that led to printed money and hyperinflation. In 2000 Jack D. Coombe published "Gunfire Around the Gulf," which recounts the Southern Civil War naval campaign. (WSJ, 1/26/00, p.A20)(WSJ, 11/21/08,p.W6)(www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=1105) 1862 nend Apr 29, Forts Philip and Jackson surrendered to Union forces under Admiral Farragut outside New Orleans. 100,000 federal troops prepared to march into Corinth, Miss. (AP, 4/29/98)(HN, 4/29/98)(MC, 4/29/02) 1862 nend May 1, Marcel Prevost, French publisher, writer (Les demis-vierges), was born. (MC, 5/1/02) 1862 nend May 4, Battle at Williamsburg, Virginia. [see May 5] (MC, 5/4/02) 1862 nend May 4, At Yorktown, VA., McClellan halted his troop before town as it was full of armed land mines left by CS Brig. general Gabrial Rains. (MC, 5/4/02) 1862 nend May 5, Battle of Williamsburg commenced as part of the Peninsular Campaign. Confederate Captain Charles Bruce kept his father apprised of conditions during the crucial Peninsula campaign. (HN, 5/5/98) 1862 nend May 5, At the Battle of Pueblo, a [2,000] 5,000 man Mexican force (cavalry), loyal to Benito Juarez and under the leadership of Gen?l. Ignacio Zaragoza, defeated 6,000 [10,000] French troops sent by Napoleon III. The French were attempting to capture Puebla de Los Angeles, a small town in east-central Mexico. The Battle of Puebla represented a great moral victory for the Mexican government, symbolizing the country's ability to defend its sovereignty against threat by a powerful foreign nation. The event became memorialized in the Cinco de Mayo annual festival. Napoleon had intended to march through to the US and help the Confederacy in the Civil War. (SFEM, 4/27/97, p.6)(AP, 5/5/97)(SFEC,11/9/97, p.T6)(SFEC, 11/8/98,p.T8)(SFC, 5/1/99, p.A13)(WSJ, 5/5/00, p.W17)(MC, 5/5/02) 1862 nend May 6, Henry David Thoreau (44), American writer, died of tuberculosis. In 1999 his unfinished manuscript "Wild Fruits," a catalog of his observations on local plants and fruits, was published. (WP, 1952, p.42)(SFC, 9/7/99, p.A3)(HN, 5/6/01) 1862 nend May 7, At the Battle of Eltham's Landing in Virginia, Confederate troops struck Union troops in the Shenandoah Valley. (HN, 5/7/99) 1862 nend May 8, General 'Stonewall' Jackson repulsed the Federals at the Battle of McDowell, in the Shenandoah Valley Campaign. (HN, 5/8/99) 1862 nend May 9, Battle of Ft. Pickens, FL (Pensacola), evacuated by CSA. (MC, 5/9/02) 1862 nend May 9, Battle of Farmington, MS. (MC, 5/9/02) 1862 nend May 9, US Naval Academy was relocated from Annapolis MD to Newport, RI. (MC, 5/9/02) 1862 nend May 10, Battle of Plum Run Bend, TN (Plum Point Bend). (MC, 5/10/02) 1862 nend May 11, The Confederates scuttled the CSS Virginia off Norfolk, Virginia. (HN, 5/11/98) 1862 nend May 12, Federal troops occupied Baton Rouge, Louisiana. (MC, 5/12/02) 1862 nend May 13, Robert Smalls, a slave crewman on the Confederate steamboat Planter, stole the ship from the harbor of Charleston and surrendered it to the USS Onward of the Union blockade. In 1971 Okon Edet Uya published "From slavery to Public Service: Robert Smalls, 1839-1915. (ON, 5/00, p.2) 1862 nend May 15, Arthur Schnitzler, playwright, novelist (La Ronde), was born in Austria. (MC, 5/15/02) 1862 nend May 15, The US Department of Agriculture was created. (MC, 5/15/02) 1862 nend May 15, General Benjamin F. ("Beast") Butler decreed "Woman Order," that all captured women in New Orleans were to be his whores. (MC, 5/15/02) 1862 nend May 15, The Union ironclad Monitor and the gunboat Galena fired on Confederate troops at the Battle of Drewry's Bluff, Virginia. (HN, 5/15/99) 1862 nend May 15, The Confederate cruiser Alabama ran aground near London. (MC, 5/15/02) 1862 nend May 15-17, Battle of Princeton, WV. (MC, 5/15/02) 1862 nend May 18, William High Keim (b.1813), US Union Brigadier-General, died in camp of fever in Harrisburg, Pa. (SC, 5/18/02)(http://home.ptd.net/~nikki/usagen3.htm) 1862 nend May 19, Homestead Act became law and provided cheap land for settlement of West. (MC, 5/19/02) 1862 nend May 20, President Lincoln signed the Homestead Act, providing 250 million acres of free land to settlers in the West. It officially opened the Nebraska territory for settlement, leading to statehood in 1867. The US government passed the Homestead Act to stop the spread of slavery to the Western territories. Public land was awarded to any head of a family on condition that the settlers improve the land and live there for 5 years. (Hem., 5/97, p.20)(HNQ, 12/3/00)(HN, 5/20/01) 1862 nend May 23, Stonewall Jackson took Fort Royal, Virginia, in the Valley Campaign. (HN, 5/23/98) 1862 nend May 24, Westminster Bridge opened across the Thames. (MC, 5/24/02) 1862 nend May 25, Battle of Winchester, VA. (SC, 5/25/02) 1862 nend May 25, Johann N. Nestroy (60) Austrian actor (Einmal Keine Sorgen Haben), died. (SC, 5/25/02) 1862 nend May 27, Battle of Hanover Court House, VA (Slash Church, Peake's Station). (MC, 5/27/02) 1862 nend May 29, Confederate General P.T. Beauregard retreated to Tupelo, Mississippi. He had taken command of the Trans-Mississippi area after the death of General Albert Sidney Johnson. (HN, 5/29/99) 1862 nend May 29, Franciszek Wincenty Mirecki (71), composer, died. (SC, 5/29/02) 1862 nend May 30, Confederate General Beauregard evacuated Corinth, Mississippi and Union troops under Union General Henry Halleck entered. (HN, 5/30/98) 1862 nend May 30, Battle of Front Royal, VA. (MC, 5/30/02) 1862 nend May 31, At the Battle of Fair Oaks, McClellan defeated the Confederates outside of Richmond. (HN, 5/31/98) 1862 nend May, Union Colonel Benjamin H. Grierson was commissioned a major in the 6th Illinois Cavalry. He proved to be an excellent cavalry leader despite his prewar experience as a music teacher who hated horses. Grierson had traveled to various small towns organizing amateur bands. When the war began, the Midwesterner enlisted as a private in the infantry. He very much wanted to do his share of the fighting on foot; while a child, he had been kicked in the face by a horse and still harbored a severe dislike for the equine creatures. This was not to be. A man with little military training or experience--and a pronounced dislike of horses--would soon prove to be one of the most skilled cavalry leaders of the war. His raids in early 1863 greatly helped Grant?s army in the siege of Vicksburg. (HN, 6/28/01) 1862 nend Jun 1, General Robert E. Lee assumed command of the Confederate Army outside Richmond after General Joe Johnston was injured at Seven Pines. Robert E. Lee received a field command: the Army of Northern Virginia. (DTnet, 6/1/97)(HN, 6/1/98)(HNQ, 8/2/01) 1862 nend Jun 4, Confederates evacuated Ft. Pillow, Tenn. (MC, 6/4/02) 1862 nend Jun 6, The city of Memphis surrendered to the Union Navy after an intense naval engagement on the Mississippi River. (HN, 6/6/98) 1862 nend Jun 6, Battle of Port Royal, SC (Port Royal Ferry). [see Jul 4, 1862] (MC, 6/6/02) 1862 nend Jun 7, William Mumford became the 1st US citizen to be hanged for treason. (SC, 6/7/02) 1862 nend Jun 7, James J. Andrews (b.1829), civilian Union spy, was hanged in Atlanta for leading the April 12 Union raid in Georgia that stole the locomotive ?General? in an effort to disrupt Confederate transport. 7 others Union men were also hanged for the raid. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_J._Andrews) 1862 nend Jun 8, The Army of the Potomac defeated the Confederates at the Battle of Cross Keys, Virginia, during the Peninsula Campaign. (HN, 6/8/98) 1862 nend Jun 9, Battle of Port Republic, last of 5 battles in Jackson's Valley camp. (MC, 6/9/02) 1862 nend Jun 12, Confederate General J. E. B. Stuart began his ride around the Union Army outside of Richmond, Virginia. (HN, 6/12/99) 1862 nend Jun 15, General J.E.B. Stuart completes his "ride around McClellan." (HN, 6/15/98) 1862 nend Jun 19, Slavery was outlawed in U.S. territories. President Abraham Lincoln outlined his Emancipation Proclamation. News of the document reached the south and Texas through General Gordon Granger. (BEP, 1994)(DTnet, 6/19/97)(HN, 6/19/99) 1862 nend Jun 21, Union and Confederate forces skirmished at the Chickahominy Creek during the Peninsular Campaign. (HN, 6/21/98) 1862 nend Jun 24, U.S. intervention saved the British and French at the Dagu forts in China. (HN, 6/24/98) 1862 nend Jun 25, The first day of the Seven Days Campaign began with fighting at Oak Grove, Virginia, with Robert E. Lee commanding the Confederate Army for the first time. (HN, 6/25/98) 1862 nend Jun 26, General Robert E. Lee attacked McClellan's line at Mechanicsville of day 2 of the Seven Days battle near Richmond, Va. (HN, 6/26/98)(MC, 6/26/02) 1862 nend Jun 27, May Irwin, US comedienne, singer (A Hot Time in the Old Town), was born. (SC, 6/27/02) 1862 nend Jun 27, Confederates broke through the Union lines at the Battle of Gaines? Mill on the 3rd day of the Seven Days Battle in Virginia. (HN, 6/27/98) 1862 nend Jun 28, At Garnett?s and Golding?s farms, fighting continued for a 4th day between Union and Confederate forces during the Seven Days in Virginia. (HN, 6/28/98) 1862 nend Jun 29, Union forces continued to fall back from Richmond, but put up a fight at the Battle of Savage?s Station on day 5 of the 7 Days Battle. (HN, 6/29/98)(MC, 6/29/02) 1862 nend Jun 30, The Confederates failed to coordinate their attacks at the Battle of White Oak Swamp, allowing the Union forces to retreat to Malvern Hill in Virginia on Day 6 of the 7 Days-Battle. This battle in Virginia was alternately known as the battle of White Oak Swamp, Frayser?s Farm, Glendale, Charles City Cross Roads, Nelson?s Farm, New Market Cross Roads and Turkey Bend! (HN, 6/30/98)(HNQ, 3/5/01)(AM, 11/04, p.28) 1862 nend Jun 30, Julian Scott (16) sustained a hip injury during the Battle of White Oak Swamp. During his nine-month convalescence he developed a friendship with millionaire Henry Clark, who encouraged Scott to develop his artistic talent. After he obtained an honorable discharge from the army, Scott returned to the front to record the war through his art. (HNQ, 12/20/02) 1862 nend Jun 30, Gustave Flaubert completed "Salammbo." (MC, 6/30/02) 1862 nend Jun, Some 5,000 wounded soldiers came into Richmond after the Battle of Seven Pines. (AH, 6/02, p.23) 1862 nend Jun, SF Lawmakers signed a petition to anoint Lazarus (d.1963) and Bummer (d.1865), 2 popular rat catching dogs, as official city property and exempt from the recently passed muzzle law. In 1984 Malcolm E. Barker authored ?Bummer & Lazarus: San Francisco?s Famous Dogs.? (SSFC, 1/27/02, p.D6)(SFC, 1/30/04, p.A23)(SSFC, 7/24/11, p.E11) 1862 nend Jun, Samuel and Florence Baker arrived in Khartoum, Sudan, on their search for explorers John Speke and James Grant. (ON, 10/01, p.9) 1862 nend Jul 1, Abraham Lincoln instituted an income tax to pay for the Civil War. The US Internal Revenue Service (IRS) was founded. Internal Revenue Law imposed federal taxes on inheritance, tobacco & a progressive rate on incomes over $600. (SFC, 11/2/96, p.D1)(WSJ, 12/15/95, p.A-1)(MC, 7/1/02) 1862 nend Jul 1, The US Congress outlawed polygamy for the 1st time. The Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act, signed by Pres. Lincoln, made polygamy illegal in American territories. It led to the prosecution of over 1300 Mormons. It also granted large tracts of public land to the states with the directive to sell for the support of institutions teaching the mechanical and agricultural arts. It also obligated state male university students to military training. The education initiative resulted in 68 land-grant colleges. (SFEM, 6/28/98, p.39)(SFEM, 1/30/00, p.8,14)(HNQ, 10/6/02)(MC, 7/1/02) 1862 nend Jul 1, In day 7 of the 7 Days Battle Union artillery stopped a Confederate attack at Malvern Hill, Virginia. Casualties totaled: US 15,249 and CS 17,583. (HN, 7/1/98)(MC, 7/1/02) 1862 nend Jul 1, Czar Alexander II granted Jews the right to publish books. (MC, 7/1/02) 1862 nend Jul 2, Lincoln signed an act granting land for state agricultural colleges. [see Jul 1] (SC, 7/2/02) 1862 nend Jul 4, Charles Dodgson, an Oxford mathematician whose penname of Lewis Carroll would make him world famous, told little Alice Liddell on a boat trip the fairy tale he had dreamed up for her called "Alice's Adventures Underground." He later wrote it out for her and it became the classic children's tale, "Alice in Wonderland." (IB, Internet, 12/7/98) 1862 nend Jul 4, Battle at Green River, Ky. (Morgan's Ohio Raid). (Maggio, 98) 1862 nend Jul 4, Battle of Port Royal, SC. (Port Royal Ferry). [see Jun 6, 1862] (Maggio, 98) 1862 nend Jul 8, Odore R. Timby patented a revolving gun turret. (MC, 7/8/02) 1862 nend Jul 9, Gen. John Hunt Morgan captured Tompkinsville, Ky. (MC, 7/9/02) 1862 nend Jul 10, Helene Schjerfbeck (d.1946), Finnish painter, was born. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helene_Schjerfbeck) 1862 nend Jul 11, President Abraham Lincoln appointed General Henry Halleck as general in chief of the Federal army. [see Aug 11] Stephen Ambrose later authored "Halleck: Lincoln?s Chief of Staff." (HN, 7/11/98)(WSJ, 8/20/01, p.A8) 1862 nend Jul 12, The US Congress authorized the Medal of Honor. Between 1861 and 1999 the medal was awarded to 3,410 members of the US armed forces. The Web site for the US Army Center of Military History: www2.army.mil/cmh-pg/moh1.htm (AP, 7/12/97)(SFC, 5/31/99, p.A7) 1862 nend Jul 12, Federal troops occupied Helena, Arkansas. (MC, 7/12/02) 1862 nend Jul 13, Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest defeated a Union army at Murfreesboro, Tennessee. [see Aug 13] (HN, 7/13/98) 1862 nend Jul 15, Lt. Isaac Brown took the Confederate ironclad C.S.S. Arkansas into the Mississippi River and engaged 3 Union ships near Vicksburg. The CSS Arkansas vs. USS Carondelet and Queen of the West engaged at Yazoo River. (ON, 10/02, p.12)(MC, 7/15/02) 1862 nend Jul 16, Ida Bell Wells, first president of the American Negro League, was born. (HN, 7/16/98) 1862 nend Jul 16, David G. Farragut became the first rear admiral in the U.S. Navy. (AP, 7/16/97) 1862 nend Jul 16, Two Union soldiers and their servant ransacked a house and raped a slave in Sperryville, Virginia. (HN, 7/16/99) 1862 nend Jul 17, US army was authorized to accept blacks as laborers. (MC, 7/17/02) 1862 nend Jul 17, James Glaisher (52), British meteorologist, rose to some 22,000 over Wolverhampton with balloonist Henry Tracy Coxwell in an attempt to set an altitude record. They reached 24,000 feet in a 2nd attempt on Aug 18. On Sep 5 Glaisher passed out as they reached 29,000 feet. At a record 7 miles Coxwell managed to begin their descent. (ON, 4/03, p.11) 1862 nend Jul 19, Nathan Bedford Forrest made his 1st raid. (MC, 7/19/02) 1862 nend Jul 20-Sep 20, A guerrilla campaign in GA (Porter's & Poindexter's) left US 580 and CS 2,866 casualties. (MC, 7/20/02) 1862 nend Jul 24, Union fleets abandoned their attack on Vicksburg, Miss. (ON, 10/02, p.12) 1862 nend Jul 24, Martin Van Buren (79), the eighth president of the United States, died in Kinderhook, N.Y. (AP, 7/24/97)(HN, 7/24/98) 1862 nend Jul 29, At Moore?s Mill in Missouri, the Confederates were routed by Union guerrillas. (HN, 7/29/98) 1862 nend Jul, The bugle call known as "Taps," originally based on a French bugle signal called "tatoo" was rewritten by Union Gen?l. Daniel Adams Butterfield with the help of an aide and brigade bugler, Oliver W. Norton. Up to then the army?s infantry call to end the day was the French final call: "L?Extinction des feux." (SFC, 2/4/98, p.E8) 1862 nend Jul, Another 10 thousand wounded men came into Richmond along with thousands of Federal prisoners. (AH, 6/02, p.23) 1862 nend Jul, John Speke and James Grant discovered Ripon Falls at the northern end of Lake Victoria (Uganda), which he identified as the source of the White Nile. (http://tinyurl.com/qtxrk) 1862 nend Aug 1, James Henley Thornwell (b.1812), Presbyterian preacher from South Carolina, died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Henley_Thornwell) 1862 nend Aug 2, The US Army Ambulance Corps was established by Maj. Gen. George McClellan. (HN, 8/2/00) 1862 nend Aug 2, Union General John Pope captured Orange Court House, Virginia. (HN, 8/2/98) 1862 nend Aug 5, Battle of Baton Rouge, LA. (MC, 8/5/02) 1862 nend Aug 6, Confederate Army ironclad "Arkansas" was badly damaged in Union attack. (MC, 8/6/02) 1862 nend Aug 8, Minnesota?s 5th Infantry fought the Sioux Indians in Redwood, Minn., and 24 soldiers were killed. (SFC, 2/7/03, p.A23) 1862 nend Aug 9, Hector Berlioz' opera "Beatrice et Benedict," premiered in Baden-Baden. (MC, 8/9/02) 1862 nend Aug 9, At Cedar Mountain, Virginia, Confederate General "Stonewall" Jackson repelled an attack by Union forces. Gen. Charles S. Winder was killed. (HN, 8/9/98)(MC, 8/9/02) 1862 nend Aug 11, Carrie James Bond, songwriter who wrote "I Love You Truly" and "A Perfect Day," was born. (HN, 8/10/98) 1862 nend Aug 11, President Abraham Lincoln appointed Union General Henry Halleck to the position of general in chief of the Union Army. [see Jul 11] (HN, 8/10/98) 1862 nend Aug 12, Gen John Hunt Morgan and his raiders capture Gallatin, TX. (SC, 8/12/02) 1862 nend Aug 13, Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest defeated a Union army under Thomas Crittenden at Murfreesboro, Tennessee. [see Jul 13] (HN, 8/13/98) 1862 nend Aug 16, Amos Alonzo Stagg, football pioneer, inventor of the tackling dummy, was born in West Orange, New Jersey. (MC, 8/16/02) 1862 nend Aug 18, Confederate General J.E.B. Stuart?s headquarters was raided by Union troops of the 5th New York and 1st Michigan cavalries. (HN, 8/18/98) 1862 nend Aug 18, A Sioux Uprising began uprising in Minnesota. It resulted in more than 800 white settlers dead and 38 Sioux Indians condemned and hanged. The Minnesota Uprising began when four young Sioux murdered five white settlers at Acton. The Santee Sioux, who lived on a long, narrow reservation on the south side of the Minnesota River, were reacting to broken government promises and corrupt Indian agents. a military court sentenced 303 Sioux to die, but President Abraham Lincoln reduced the list. The 38 hangings took place on December 26, 1862, in Mankato, Minn. (MC, 8/18/02)(HNQ, 1/4/00) 1862 nend Aug 22, Claude Debussy (d.1918), composer (La Mer, Clair de Lune), was born in St. Germain-en-Laye. (MC, 8/22/02) 1862 nend Aug 22, Santee Sioux attacked Fort Ridgely, Minn. (MC, 8/22/02) 1862 nend Aug 24, The C.S.S. Alabama was commissioned at sea off Portugal's Azore Islands, beginning a career that would see over 60 Union merchant vessels sunk or destroyed by the Confederate raider. The ship was built in secret in the in Liverpool shipyards, and a diplomatic crisis between the US government and Britain ensued when the Union uncovered the ship?s birth place. (MC, 8/24/02) 1862 nend Aug 25, US Secretary of War authorized Gen. Rufus Saxton to arm 5,000 slaves. (chblue.com, 8/25/01) 1862 nend Aug 25, Union and Confederate troops skirmished at Waterloo Bridge, Virginia, during the Second Bull Run Campaign. (HN, 8/25/98) 1862 nend Aug 26, Confederate General Thomas ?Stonewall? Jackson encircled the Union Army under General John Pope at the Second Battle of Bull Run. (HN, 8/26/99) 1862 nend Aug 27, As the Second Battle of Bull Run raged, Confederate soldiers attacked Loudoun County, Virginia. (HN, 8/27/98) 1862 nend Aug 28, Mistakenly believing the Confederate Army to be in retreat, Union General John Pope attacks, began the Battle of Groveten. Both sides sustained heavy casualties. (HN, 8/28/98) 1862 nend Aug 28, The Battle of Thoroughfare Gap, VA. (MC, 8/28/01) 1862 nend Aug 28, Confederate spy Belle Boyd was released from Old Capital Prison in Washington, DC. (MC, 8/28/01) 1862 nend Aug 29, P.M.B. Maurice Maeterlinck, Belgium, poet (Blue Bird, Nobel 1911), was born. (MC, 8/29/01) 1862 nend Aug 29, The US Bureau of Engraving & Printing began operation. (MC, 8/29/01) 1862 nend Aug 29, Union General John Pope?s army was defeated by a smaller Confederate force at the Second Battle of Bull Run. (HN, 8/29/98) 1862 nend Aug 30, Union forces were defeated by the Confederates at the Second Battle of Bull Run in Manassas, Va. Brig. Gen. Irvin McDowell fought at the Second Battle of Manassas, which was also a Union defeat (the Union army in this case was commanded by Maj. Gen. John Pope). McDowell was then relieved of his command until he was sent to command the Department of the Pacific in 1864, where he finished the war. (AP, 8/30/97)(HNQ, 7/30/01) 1862 nend Aug 30, In the Battle of Altamont, Tennessee, Confederates beat Union forces. (MC, 8/30/01) 1862 nend Sep 1, A federal tax was levied on tobacco, especially that grown in Confederate states. (MC, 9/1/02) 1862 nend Sep 1, Battle at Chantilly (Ox Hill), Virginia, left 2100 casualties. (AM, 11/04, p.24) 1862 nend Sep 1, Oliver Tilden of the Bronx was killed in the Civil War in Virginia. (SC, 9/1/02) 1862 nend Sep 4, Robert E. Lee's Confederate 50,000-man army invaded Maryland, starting the Antietam Campaign. New York Tribune reporter George Smalley scooped the world with his vivid account of the Battle of Antietam. (HN, 9/4/98)(MC, 9/4/01) 1862 nend Sep 5, Lee crossed Potomac & entered Maryland. [see Sep 4] (MC, 9/5/01) 1862 nend Sep 6, Stonewall Jackson occupied Frederick, Maryland. (MC, 9/6/01) 1862 nend Sep 9, Gen?l. Lee split his army and sent Jackson to capture Harpers Ferry. (MC, 9/9/01) 1862 nend Sep 11, O. Henry was born. This was the pen name of William Sydney Porter, short story writer, who wrote "The Gift of the Magi," and "The Last Leaf." The name was taken from a French chemist, Ossian Henry, that he noticed while working at a pharmacy. (HN, 9/11/98)(SFEC, 9/3/00, Z1 p.2) 1862 nend Sep 12, The Battle of Harper?s Ferry took place in West Virginia. (MC, 9/12/01) 1862 nend Sep 13, Union troops in Frederick, Maryland, discovered General Robert E. Lee?s attack plans for the invasion of Maryland wrapped around a pack of cigars. They gave the plans to General George B. McClellan who did nothing with them for the next 14 hours. (HN, 9/13/98) 1862 nend Sep 14, At the battles of South Mountain and Crampton?s Gap, Maryland Union troops smashed into the Confederates as they closed in on what would become the Antietam battleground. Confederates delayed McClellan?s advance against Lee. (HN, 9/14/98)(AM, 11/04, p.28) 1862 nend Sep 14, A contingent of Federal troops escaped from the beleaguered Harper's Ferry. (www.nps.gov/hafe/jackson.htm) 1862 nend Sep 15, Confederates captured the Union weapon arsenal at Harpers Ferry, WV, securing the rear of Robert E. Lee's forces in Maryland. (HN, 9/15/99) 1862 nend Sep 15, John T. Wilder, the Union commander at Munfordville, used unconventional methods to stall Confederate General Braxton Bragg?s advance through Kentucky. On September 15, Bragg arrived to find some 4,000 men behind well-built defenses--far more than he had anticipated. He brought up more units and surrounded the area, but instead of pressing his advantage, agreed to a suggestion made by his subordinate, Maj. Gen. Simon Bolivar Buckner. Buckner suggested that he be allowed to parley with the garrison and convince them of the hopelessness of their position. Bragg grudgingly acquiesced. (HNQ, 4/26/01) 1862 nend Sep 16, "Fighting Joe" Major General Joseph Hooker?s I Corps crossed Antietam Creek on to strike the Confederates? left flank. (HN, 8/12/98) 1862 nend Sep 17, The Battle of Antietam at Sharpsburg, Maryland, the bloodiest day in US history, commenced. Fighting in the corn field, Bloody Lane and Burnside?s Bridge raged all day as the Union and Confederate armies suffered a combined 26,293 (23,585) casualties. New York Tribune reporter George Smalley scooped the world with his vivid account of the Battle of Antietam, also known as the Battle of Sharpsburg. During the battle an entire Union corps spent most of the bloodiest single day of the Civil War waiting to cross the creek over that bridge, opposed by a contingent of Georgia riflemen. Late in the day Gen. Ambrose Burnside sent his Union troops across the bridge in a major disaster. The rest of the Union IX Corps followed, but by day?s end, a Confederate flank attack sent the corps back across the river. Over 23,000 [23,110] men, both Union and Confederate, were killed or wounded. The battle resulted in about 10,000 Confederate and 12,000 Union casualties. The next day, Robert E. Lee began his retreat back across the Potomac River. 2,108 Union troops and 1,512 Confederates died. In 2002 James M. McPherson authored "Crossroads of Freedom: Antietam: The Battle that changed the Course of the Civil War." (HN, 9/17/98)(HNPD, 9/17/98)(SFC, 7/7/96, T6)(AP, 9/17/97)(SFC,9/22/01, p.A3)(WSJ, 9/12/02, p.D8)(WSJ, 9/17/02, p.D8) 1862 nend Sep 17, Sgt. William McKinley and a single volunteer drove a wagon of hot coffee and warm food through Confederate fire at Antietam to the men of the 23rd Ohio regiment. Col. Rutherford B. Hayes promoted him to lieutenant for his bravery and initiative. (WSJ, 12/12/03, p.W9) 1862 nend Sep 17, Battle of Cumberland Gap, Tenn., was evacuated by Federals. (MC, 9/17/01) 1862 nend Sep 18, After waiting all day for a Union attack which never came at Antietam, Confederate General Robert E. Lee began a retreat out of Maryland and back to Virginia. At Antietam, George McClellan and his ?bodyguard? dawdled throughout a long ?Fatal Thursday.? (HN, 9/18/98) 1862 nend Sep 21, William Benjamin Gould and 7 other black men stole a boat and rowed past Fort Caswell, NC. They were picked up the next day by the Union warship Cambridge. In 2002 Prof. W.B. Gould published his great-grandfather?s diary "Dairy of a Contraband: The Civil War Passage of a Black Sailor." (SFC, 9/2/02, p.A1) 1862 nend Sep 21, 300 Indians were sentenced to hang in Mankato, Minnesota. (MC, 9/21/01) 1862 nend Sep 22, President Lincoln announced at a cabinet meeting that he intended to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, declaring all slaves in rebel states should be free as of Jan. 1, 1863. President Abraham Lincoln brought the issue of freedom to the forefront of the Civil War when he delivered the Emancipation Proclamation to his cabinet, a few days after the bloody Battle of Antietam. The proclamation stated that slaves in any of the states in rebellion against the Union would be freed if the states had not returned to the Union by January 1, 1863. After that, nearly 180,000 black soldiers enlisted to fight the Confederates until the end of the war. (SFE Mag., 2/12/95, p. 30)(AP, 9/22/97)(HNPD, 9/22/98) 1862 nend Sep 23, Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation was published in Northern Newspapers. (MC, 9/23/01) 1862 nend Sep 24, President Abraham Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus against anyone suspected of being a Southern sympathizer. (HN, 9/24/98) 1862 nend Sep 24, The Confederate Congress adopted the confederacy seal. (MC, 9/24/01) 1862 nend Sep 27, Louis Botha, commander-in-chief of the Boar Army against the British and first president of South Africa, was born. (HN, 9/27/98) 1862 nend Sep 29, Union general Jefferson C. Davis shot and killed a fellow general in a dispute at a hotel during the Civil War. After a series of angry confrontations with General William Nelson, Davis shot his superior officer to death in a Louisville, Kentucky, hotel. Because of the scarcity of officers needed to form a court-martial for a trial, Davis was never charged with the crime and went on to build an extensive Civil War combat record. Davis was of no relation to Confederate President Jefferson Davis. (HNQ, 3/20/00) 1862 nend Sep, The troops of the 1st Louisiana Native Guards were free black men who lived in New Orleans. When President Abraham Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation he invited black men in Confederate territory to join the Union army. Union Major General Benjamin Butler immediately mustered the 1st Louisiana Native Guards into Federal service, making them the Union?s first black soldiers. They had volunteered for state service in the Civil War, and served as a home guard unit. When New Orleans fell to Union forces in April 1862, the black troops remained in the city and offered their services to Butler. (HNQ, 2/21/02) 1862 nend Oct 2, An Army under Union General Joseph Hooker arrived in Bridgeport, Alabama to support the Union forces at Chattanooga. (HN, 10/2/98) 1862 nend Oct 3, At the Battle of Corinth, Mississippi, a Union army defeated the Confederates. (HN, 10/3/98) 1862 nend Oct 4, Edward Stratemeyer, author, was born. He created the Hardy Boys, Rover Boys, Nancy Drew and the Bobbsey Twins. The first series of books written/produced by Stratemeyer was The Rover Boys, written under the pseudonym of Arthur M. Winfield. There were 30 volumes, written between 1899 and 1926. The Bobbsey Twins series (Laura Lee Hope) was next, and is the oldest "surviving" series, extending to 72 volumes, written between 1904 and 1979. Tom Swift, attributed to Victor Appleton, began in 1910 and there were 40 volumes before the series ended in 1941. (There was also a Tom Swift, Jr. series, by Victor Appleton II.) The Hardy Boys (Franklin W. Dixon, 85 volumes from 1927 to 1985) and Nancy Drew (Carolyn Keene, 78 volumes from 1930 to 1985) are the other best-known Stratemeyer books. (HN, 10/4/00)(http://pw2.netcom.com/~drmike99/aboutbobbsey.html) 1862 nend Oct 4, Battle of Corinth, Mississippi, ended. (MC, 10/4/01) 1862 nend Oct 8, The Union was victorious at the Battle of Perryville, the largest Civil War combat to take place in Kentucky. (HN, 10/8/98) 1862 nend Oct 8, Otto von Bismarck became German republic chancellor. (MC, 10/8/01) 1862 nend Oct 11, The Confederate Congress in Richmond passed a draft law allowing anyone owning 20 or more slaves to be exempt from military service. This law confirmed many southerners opinion that they were in a ?rich man?s war and a poor man?s fight.? (HN, 10/11/98) 1862 nend Oct 12, J.E.B. Stuart completed his "2nd ride around McClellan." (MC, 10/12/01) 1862 nend Oct 12, There was a skirmish at Monocacy, Maryland. (MC, 10/12/01) 1862 nend Oct 17, Battle of Leetown and Thoroughfare Gap, Va. (MC, 10/17/01) 1862 nend Oct 18, Morgan's raiders captured federal garrison at Lexington, Ky. (MC, 10/18/01) 1862 nend Oct 18, James Creighton died of ruptured bladder caused from hitting a HR on Oct 14th. (MC, 10/18/01) 1862 nend Oct 19, Auguste Lumiere, French film pioneer, was born. He made the 1st film: "Workers Leaving Lumiere Factory." (MC, 10/19/01) 1862 nend Oct 22, Union troops pushed 5,000 confederates out of Maysville, Ark., at the Second Battle of Pea Ridge. (HN, 10/22/98) 1862 nend Oct 22, Battle at Old Fort Wayne, Indian Territory. (MC, 10/22/01) 1862 nend Oct 22, Confederate troops reconquered the Cumberland Gap in Tennessee. (MC, 10/22/01) 1862 nend Oct 27, A Confederate force was routed at the Battle of Labadieville, near Bayou Lafourche in Louisiana. John Howard Payne?s haunting ?Home, Sweet Home? was the Civil War soldier?s favorite song. (HN, 10/27/98) 1862 nend Nov 3, There was a battle between gunboats at Bayou Teche, Louisiana. (MC, 11/3/01) 1862 nend Nov 4, Dr. Richard Gatling received patent # 36,836 for his machine gun. In 2008 Julia Keller authored ?Mr. Gatling?s Terrible Marvel: The Gun That Changed Everything and the Misunderstood Genius Who Invented It.? (www.civilwarhome.com/gatlinggun.htm)(Econ, 6/14/08, p.102) 1862 nend Nov 5, President Abraham Lincoln relieved General George McClellan of command of the Union Army of the Potomac and named Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside commander of the Army of the Potomac. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_McClellan) 1862 nend Nov 7, The body of exiled Bahadur Shah Zafar II was lowered into an unmarked grave in Rangoon (Burma-Myanmar). Zafar II, the last Mughal emperor in India, was deposed in the 1857 sepoy mutiny. In 2006 William Dalrymple authored ?The Last Mughal: The Fall of a Dynasty, Delhi, 1857.? (Econ, 11/11/06, p.96) 1862 nend Nov 9, General US Grant issued orders to bar Jews from serving under him. The order was quickly rescinded. (MC, 11/9/01) 1862 nend Nov 11, Verdi's Opera "La Forza Del Destino" premiered in St Petersburg, Russia. (MC, 11/11/01) 1862 nend Nov 13, Lewis Carroll wrote in his diary, "Began writing the fairy-tale of Alice?I hope to finish it by Christmas." (HN, 11/13/00) 1862 nend Nov 13, Battle of Holly Spring, Miss. (MC, 11/13/01) 1862 nend Nov 15, Gerhart Hauptmann, German author (Before Dawn- Nobel 1912), was born. (MC, 11/15/01) 1862 nend Nov 17, Union General Burnside marched north out of Washington, D.C. to begin the Fredericksburg Campaign. (HN, 11/17/98) 1862 nend Nov 20, Confederate army of Tennessee organized under Gen. Braxton Bragg. (MC, 11/20/01) 1862 nend Nov 24, M. Levy published Gustave Flaubert?s "Salammbo." (MC, 11/24/01) 1862 nend Nov 27, George Armstrong Custer met his future bride, Elizabeth Bacon, at a Thanksgiving party. (HN, 11/27/98) 1862 nend Nov 28, The Battle at Cane Hill, Arkansas, left 475 casualties. In late November, Maj. Gen. Thomas C. Hindman detached Brig. Gen. John Marmaduke's cavalry from Van Buren north to occupy the Cane Hill area. Hearing of this movement, Brig. Gen. James Blunt advanced to meet Marmaduke's command and destroy it, if possible. The Union vanguard encountered Col. Joe Shelby's brigade, which fought a delaying action to protect their supply trains. Shelby gradually gave ground until establishing a strong defensive perimeter on Cove Creek where he repulsed a determined attack. The Federals withdrew to Cane Hill, while the Confederates returned to Van Buren. (http://www2.cr.nps.gov/abpp/battles/ar004.htm) 1862 nend Nov 28, Battle of Hooly Spring, Ms. (MC, 11/28/01) 1862 nend Nov, Jean Henri Dunant (1828-1910) published "A Memory of Solferino." His ideas about creation of a volunteer committee to care for war-wounded led to the creation in 1863 of the Permanent International Committee for Relief to Wounded Combatants, later called the International Red Cross. Dunant, a Swiss businessman, had witnessed the plight of thousands of wounded left helpless on the battlefield at Solferino, Italy, on June 24, 1859. Organizing local volunteers to help, Dunant brought aid to as many of the victims as he could. (WUD, 1994, p.442)(HNQ, 9/16/99)(ON, 4/08, p.11) 1862 nend Dec 1, President Lincoln gave the State of the Union message to the 37th Congress. ?The dogmas of the quiet past are inadequate to the stormy present? As our case is new, so we must think anew, and act anew. We must disenthrall ourselves.? (WSJ, 9/7/06, p.A20) 1862 nend Dec 3, Confederate rebels attacked a Federal forage train on the Hardin Pike near Nashville, Tenn. (HN, 12/3/98) 1862 nend Dec 5, Union general Ulysses Grant?s cavalry received a setback in an engagement on the Mississippi Central Railroad at Coffeeville, Mississippi. (HN, 12/5/98) 1862 nend Dec 6, President Lincoln ordered the hanging of 39 of the 303 convicted Indians who participated in the Sioux Uprising in Minnesota. They were to be hanged on Dec. 26. The Dakota Indians were going hungry when food and money from the federal government was not distributed as promised. They led a massacre that left over 400 white people dead. The uprising was put down and 300 Indians were sentenced to death. Pres. Lincoln reduced the number to 39, who were hanged. The government then nullified the 1851 treaty. (WSJ, 2/5/98, p.A6)(HN, 12/6/98) 1862 nend Dec 7, Confederate forces surprise an equal number of Union troops at the Battle of Prairie Grove, Arkansas. (HN, 12/7/99) 1862 nend Dec 8, Georges Feydeau, French playwright (La Dame de Chez Maxim's), was born. (MC, 12/8/01) 1862 nend Dec 10, U.S. House of Representatives passed a bill creating the state of West Virginia. (HN, 12/10/98) 1862 nend Dec 11, Union General Burnside occupied Fredericksburg and prepared to attack the Confederates under Robert E. Lee. (HN, 12/11/98) 1862 nend Dec 12, The Union lost its first ship to a torpedo, the USS Cairo, in the Yazoo River. (HN, 12/12/98) 1862 nend Dec 13, Confederate forces dealt Union troops a major defeat at the Battle of Fredericksburg, Va. The Battle of Fredericksburg ended at Marye?s Heights with the bloody slaughter of Union troops, while Confederate President Davis reviewed Braxton Bragg?s troops at Murfreesboro, Tenn. Burnside, newly appointed commander of an army of over 120,000, planned to cross the Rappahannock River and advance on the Confederate capital of Richmond. Some 78,000 troops under Confederate General Robert E. Lee took a strong position on the high ground near Fredericksburg, Virginia. Burnside?s assault resulted in over 12,500 casualties for the Union compared with about 5,000 for the entrenched Confederates. Burnside was relieved of command the following month. (WUD, 1994, p.565)(AP, 12/13/97)(HN, 12/13/98)(HNQ, 10/14/00) 1862 nend Dec 15, Nathan B. Forrest crossed the Tennessee River at Clifton with 2,500 men to raid the communications around Vicksburg. (HN, 12/15/98) 1862 nend Dec 15, In New Orleans, Union Major General Benjamin F. Butler turned his command over to Nathaniel Banks. The citizens of New Orleans held farewell parties for Butler, "The Beast," but only after he had already left. Maj. Gen Benjamin Butler was given the unusual nickname "Spoons" due to his apparent penchant for stealing the silver while occupying New Orleans. He was also called "Beast" for alleged insults to the women in the town. Both the names were coined by Confederates. (HN, 12/15/98)(HNQ, 7/29/00) 1862 nend Dec 18, Grant announced the organization of his army in the West. Sherman, Hurlbut, McPherson, and McClernand would be Corps Commanders. (HN, 12/18/98) 1862 nend Dec 18, Nathan B. Forrest engaged and defeated a Federal cavalry force near Lexington in his continued effort to disrupt supply lines. (HN, 12/18/98) 1862 nend Dec 18, Samuel and Florence Baker departed Khartoum on their search for explorers John Speke and James Grant. (ON, 10/01, p.9) 1862 nend Dec 19, Nathan B. Forrest tore up the railroads in Grant and Rosecrans' rear, causing considerable delays in the movement of Union supplies. (HN, 12/19/98) 1862 nend Dec 19, Skirmish at Jackson-Salem Church, Tenn., left 80 casualties. (MC, 12/19/01) 1862 nend Dec 20, Battle of Holly Spring, MS. [see Nov 13] (MC, 12/20/01) 1862 nend Dec 20, Brig-gen Nathan B. Forrest occupied Trenton, Kentucky. (MC, 12/20/01) 1862 nend Dec 20-Jan 3, The Vicksburg campaign. (MC, 12/20/01) 1862 nend Dec 21, U.S. Congress authorized the Medal of Honor to be awarded to Navy personnel that had distinguished themselves by their gallantry in action. (HN, 12/21/98) 1862 nend Dec 22-Jan 2, Raid on Morgan's: Bardstown to Elizabethtown, Ky. (MC, 12/22/01) 1862 nend Dec 23, Union Gen. Ben "Beast" Butler was proclaimed a "felon, outlaw & common enemy of mankind" by Jefferson Davis. (MC, 12/23/01) 1862 nend Dec 24, A Christmas present arrived a day early for the Federal troops at Columbus, Ky., in the way of artillery on board the USS New Era. (HN, 12/24/98) 1862 nend Dec 25, President and Mrs. Lincoln visited hospitals in the Washington D.C. area on this Christmas Day. (HN, 12/25/98) 1862 nend Dec 25, John Hunt Morgan and his raiders clashed with Union forces near Bear Wallow, Kentucky. Fighting also occurred at Green?s Chapel. (HN, 12/25/99) 1862 nend Dec 26, 38 Santee Sioux were hanged in Mankato, Minn., for their part in the Sioux Uprising. (HN, 12/26/98) 1862 nend Dec 26-28, Battle of Dumfries, Va. (MC, 12/26/01) 1862 nend Dec 27, Rosecrans? army moved slowly toward Bragg at Murfreesboro. (HN, 12/27/98) 1862 nend Dec 27, Battle of Chickasaw Bluffs, Miss. (Chickasaw Bayou), began. (MC, 12/27/01) 1862 nend Dec 27, Battle of Elizabethtown, KY. (MC, 12/27/01) 1862 nend Dec 29, Battle of Chickasaw Bayou was fought by Sherman?s troops in order to gain the north side of Vicksburg. Confederate armies defeated Gen. Sherman. (HN, 12/29/98)(MC, 12/29/01) 1862 nend Dec 29, The bowling ball was invented. (MC, 12/29/01) 1862 nend Dec 30, The draft of the Emancipation Proclamation was finished and circulated around Lincoln's cabinet for comment. (HN, 12/30/98) 1862 nend Dec 31, President Lincoln signed an act admitting West Virginia to the Union. (AP, 12/31/97) 1862 nend Dec 31, Union General William Rosecrans' army repelled two Confederate attacks at the Battle of Murfreesboro (Stone's River). (HN, 12/31/98) 1862 nend Dec 31, The USS Monitor sank in a storm off Cape Hatteras, NC., while being towed by the Rhode Island. 16 officers and seamen died. In 1973 scientists from North Carolina?s Duke University discovered the deteriorating relic 16 miles from the coast, in 240 feet of water. In 1975 the site was designated the nation?s first marine sanctuary, and it was the first shipwreck to be named a National Historic Landmark in the United States. In 2002 the turret was raised. (SFC, 8/6/02, p.A2)(HNQ, 11/29/02)(ON, 10/08, p.5) 1862 nend Dec, German-born illustrator Thomas Nast, widely recognized as the father of political cartooning, is also responsible for our modern-day concept of Santa Claus. Nast, who came to the United States from Germany at age 6, received his art education at New York's National Academy of Design. At 15, he began working for Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper for $4 a week. During his long career, Nast illustrated major news stories for many periodicals, but he is perhaps best remembered for his imaginative Christmas drawings that first appeared in Harper's Weekly in 1862 and continued for 30 years. Inspired by Clement Moore's poem "Twas the Night Before Christmas," Nast pictured Santa Claus as a jolly, white-bearded elf who lived at the North Pole and brought gifts only to good children. His drawings also portrayed many modern symbols we associate with Christmas--holly, toys under the Christmas tree and the reindeer-drawn sleigh on a snowy roof. (HNPD, 12/25/99) 1862 nend Julius Rosenwald (d.1932), later president of Sears, Roebuck & Co., was born in Springfield, Ill. By 1931 he had financed the construction of 5,295 schools throughout the South in association with Booker T. Washington and William Baldwin Jr., a Boston railway executive and founder of the Urban League. (WSJ, 2/24/98, p.A22)(WSJ, 4/23/02, p.D7) 1862 nend Claude Monet (22) began studying painting with Charles Gleyre, a retired artist in Paris. (ON, 9/06, p.6) 1862 nend Sanford Robinson Gifford painted "Kauterskill Clove, in the Catskills." The 9x8 inch painting was auctioned in 1999 for $475,500 in NYC. (WSJ, 7/9/99, p.W12) 1862 nend James Whistler painted his: "Symphony in White, No. 1: The White Girl," a portrait of his Irish mistress Joanna Hiffernan. (WSJ, 1/2/06, p.D8) 1862 nend Mary Elizabeth Braddon published her sensation novel "Lady Audley's Secret." It was the first of its type and became a bestseller. Braddon was a former actress with 5 illegitimate children by a publisher whose wife was locked in an insane asylum. (WSJ, 3/17/00, p.W8) 1862 nend William Brewer, surveyor, authored ?Up and Down California,? a journal based on the first survey of California. (SSFC, 5/14/06, p.G9) 1862 nend Victor Hugo published "Les Miserables." The novel covers events in France from 1815 to 1833. In 2004 Mario Vargas Llosa authored his book-length Spanish essay: ?The Temptation of the Impossible: Victor Hugo and ?Les Miserables.? The English translation came out in 2007. (WSJ, 4/30/98, p.A17)(SFC, 6/30/07, p.E2) 1862 nend Jerry Thomas authored ?How to Mix Drinks, or the Bon-Vivant?s Companion.? It also became known as the ?Bar-Tenders Guide.? (WSJ, 3/10/07, p.P5) 1862 nend Fathers and Sons by Turgenev was published. (NH, 6/96, p.22) 1862 nend The most popular song of the year was "Rally ?Round the Flag." (NH, 10/98, p.16) 1862 nend The Glee Club at the Univ. of Pennsylvania was founded by eight undergraduates. (WSJ, 12/16/96, p.A1) 1862 nend The Buffalo Fine Arts Academy was founded in Buffalo, NY. In 1905 it opened the Albright-Knox Art Gallery following a generous gift from Buffalo entrepreneur and philanthropist John J. Albright. (WSJ, 11/15/06, p.D14)(www.albrightknox.org/geninfo.html) 1862 nend In Napa Valley, Ca., Jacob Schram (1826-1905) purchases 200 acres on Diamond Mountain and founded the Schramsberg Winery. He used Chinese laborers to clear the forests, plant the vineyards and dig the caves to store his wine. In 1965 Jack and Jamie Davies purchased the winery. (SFEM, 10/27/96, p.40)(SFC, 12/22/05, p.F1)(SFC, 1/18/08, p.A12) 1862 nend Pres. Lincoln made Andrew Johnson the military governor of Tennessee after Federal forces captured Nashville. (SFC, 12/21/98, p.A3) 1862 nend The Washington DC bordello of Mary Ann Hall at 349 Maryland Ave. was rated at the top of a list of 450 brothels catalogued by the office of the federal provost marshal. The city had an estimated 5,000 prostitutes, 18 of whom resided at the 3-story brick Hall house. (SFEC, 4/18/99, p.A24) 1862 nend The dark clouds of civil war gathered over the nation as two aggressive factions?the Wide-Awakes and the Minutemen?plotted to gain political control of Missouri and its most important city, St. Louis. (HN, 7/29/98) 1862 nend The first US federal tax on beer was levied to finance the Civil War. (SFC, 8/2/06, p.G7) 1862 nend The US battleship Monticello crashed trying to get past the US Navy and into Mobile Bay during the Civil War after sailing from Havana. In 1969 Hurricane Camille uncovered wreckage near Fort Morgan, Alabama, that some believed to be the Monticello, though others thought it was a schooner that ran aground in 1933. (AP, 9/20/08) 1862 nend Confederate General Earl Van Dorn attacked Union forces at the Mississippi railroad town of Corinth in an effort to help Braxton Bragg?s invasion of Kentucky. With Union interest concentrated chiefly on Bragg?s invasion of Kentucky, Union General Grant?s command was scattered about western Tennessee and northern Mississippi in several garrisons. Impetuous and aggressive (he was a former Indian fighter), Van Dorn evaluated potential objectives before deciding to attack the strongest, the one at Corinth, Miss. Two strategic railroads, the Mobile & Ohio and the Memphis & Charleston, linked up there, and control of the rails was, as always, a paramount concern in the war. (HNQ, 4/19/01) 1862 nend The Rhea County Spartans, an all-girl cavalry company in Tennessee, began as a lark during the American Civil War, but soon attracted the attention of unamused Union officers. The Rhea County Girls? Company was created through a combination of boredom and the desire to be a part of the war for Southern independence. Almost all of the "sidesaddle soldiers" had fathers or brothers in the Confederate military, and the young ladies evidently felt frustrated because their gender prevented them from enlisting. Since they could not actually join the Confederate Army, they did the next best thing: They created an army of their own. (HNQ, 4/12/01) 1862 nend The Dakota Indians were going hungry when food and money from the federal government was not distributed as promised. They led a massacre that left over 400 white people dead. The uprising was put down and 300 Indians were sentenced to death. Pres. Lincoln reduced the number to 39, who were hanged. The government then nullified the 1851 treaty. (WSJ, 2/5/98, p.A6) 1862 nend The Choctaw Indians issued a 75 cent note and the Cherokee Indians issued a $1 bill. (SFEC, 1/25/98, Z1 p.8) 1862 nend Austin, Nevada, was born when a horse kicked loose a rock revealing rich silver ore. (ACC, 2004) 1862 nend David Walley of New York discovered natural hot springs about 90 miles south of Carson City. (SSFC, 12/18/05, p.F4) 1862 nend The San Francisco Stock and Bond Exchange was established by 19 founding members as a marketplace for mining company stocks following the Comstock Lode strike. (SSFC, 1/25/04, p.I3) 1862 nend The Corners area by Mt. Diablo, Ca., changed its name to Walnut Creek following the arrival of a post office. (SFCM, 8/24/03, p.7)(SFC, 7/17/06, p.B5) 1862 nend In southern California Isaias Hellman founded the first synagogue in Los Angeles. It became the Wilshire Boulevard Reform Temple. (SSFC, 11/30/08, Books p.3) 1862 nend Rogers, Smith & Co. of New Haven, Conn., organized to manufacture silver-plated holloware. The company was sold in 1863 to Meriden Britannia Co., but the New Haven operation continued to 1877. (SFC, 11/29/06, p.G3) 1862 nend Frederick August Otto Schwartz (FAO Schwartz) opened up a toy shop in Baltimore 6 years after arriving in America from Germany. In 1870 he moved to New York. In 1880 he moved to larger quarters on Union Square. (SSFC, 7/21/02, p.F3)(WSJ, 11/21/03, p.B1) 1862 nend Merck patented cocaine. (WSJ, 3/14/00, p.A20) 1862 nend Mary Jane Patterson (1840-1894) received a degree from Oberlin College, Ohio, becoming the 1st black female college graduate in the US. (SSFC, 2/15/04, p.C6) 1862 nend In Lone Pine, Ca., settlers shot it out with a local band of Paiute Indians. 11 Paiutes were killed and 2 settlers were wounded. (SFEC, 8/17/97, p.T9) 1862 nend The Pacific Mail Co.'s Golden Gate steamer sank off Manzanillo. An English salvage company recovered gold bullion and artifacts in 1928. (SFC, 6/20/03, p.E2) 1862 nend The British Schooner Alma was captured off the coast of North Carolina by the US brig Perry. She is today called the Australia and is owned by the Woodfield Fish and Oyster Co., of Galesville, Maryland. (NG, Sept. 1939, J. Maloney p.356) 1862 nend In Australia Scotsman explorer John McDouall Stuart crossed the continent from Adelaide to Port Darwin. (HNQ, 5/26/98) 1862 nend In Austria Julius Meinl founded a coffee and food store that developed into a chain and later Meinl Bank. (Econ, 8/2/08, p.74) 1862 nend Britain legislated a Companies Act that defined the limited-liability joint stock company, and removed the restriction that they be established by an act of Parliament. (WSJ, 5/7/03, p.D10) 1862 nend In Britain Lord Kelvin presented his theoretical calculation of the energy storage capacity of the sun. The calculation led to an estimate of the sun?s age- later called Kelvin time. His estimate was way too low due to lack of knowledge on atomic energy. (I&I, Penzias, p.157) 1862 nend William Banting, a London undertaker, was the first dieter on record. He went from 253 pounds to 153 on lean meat, fish and fruit. (SFEC, 2/14/99, Z1 p.8) 1862 nend John Hanning Speke found a river that issued from Lake Victoria to the north and impetuously cabled the Royal Geographic Society in London, "...the Nile is settled." (NG, May 1985, R. Caputo, p.629) 1862 nend Facundo Bacardi Masso founded a rum business in Cuba. (SFC, 9/9/08, p.E3) 1862 nend The Baymen, named after the Bay of Honduras, sought protection from their Spanish-speaking neighbors as a British colony, British Honduras. (SFEC, 6/1/97, p.T3) 1862 nend Two New Zealanders, who married Hawaiian women, obtained a deed to Palmyra Atoll from King Kamehameha V. (SFC, 5/4/00, p.A9) 1862 nend Francisco Solano Lopez (c1826-1870) became president of Paraguay following the death of his father. (http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/L/Lopez-Fr.html) 1862 nend Peruvian slavers arrived on Easter Island. Slaves that eventually returned brought smallpox. (SSFC, 9/18/05, p.E14) 1862 nend Baron James Forester, a wealthy Scottish port wine shipper, capsized on the Douro River in Portugal and was dragged to the river bottom by his money belt full of gold coins. (SFEC, 1/12/97, p.T7) 1862 nend An earthquake in Russia?s Lake Baikal region put 200 square km of lakeshore under water. (Econ, 7/19/03, p.41) 1862 nend Swiss immigrants settled in Montevideo, Uruguay, and formed an agricultural community known as the Colonia Suiza. (Hem., 2/96, p.26) 1862 1863 Louisa May Alcott, American author, went to Washington, D.C., in the winter to serve as a nurse in the newly established United States Sanitary Commission. She tended wounded soldiers, but after only a few weeks she became ill. In accordance with army medical practice of the time, Alcott was given large doses of calomel, an emetic containing mercury, which rendered her a semi-invalid. Alcott was a semi-invalid for the last 20 years of life. (HNQ, 12/29/98) 1862 1868 Bartolome Mitre served as Argentina?s 1st constitutional president. (WSJ, 1/9/02, p.A14) 1862 1893 David and John Jacob Decker founded and ran the Decker Bros. piano manufacturing firm. Their first piano patent was issued in 1859. (SFC, 10/15/97, Z1 p.7) 1862 1906 Bitters bottles were manufactured in Tiffin, Ohio and Omaha, Neb. to hold "American Life Bitters," an alcoholic concoction of herbs and gin that was marketed as medicine. (SFC, 6/3/98, Z1 p.6) 1862 1910 William Sydney Porter (aka O. Henry), American short story writer: "Inject a few raisins of conversation into the tasteless dough of existence." (WUD, 1994, p.1120)(AP, 6/15/97) 1862 1922 Mori Ogai, Japanese writer. His work included "The Wild Goose." (MT, Fall ?96, p.15) 1862 1935 William Ashley "Billy" Sunday, American baseball player turned evangelist, is said to have said: If there is no Hell, a good many preachers are obtaining money under false pretenses. "Going to church doesn't make you a Christian any more than going to a garage makes you an automobile." (AP, 10/19/97)(AP, 12/20/98) 1862 1944 Gerald Stanley Lee, American clergyman and author: "America is a tune. It must be sung together." (AP, 3/3/99) 1862 1944 Nellie Simmons Meier, famous American palm reader. She lived most of her life in Indianapolis and studied the palms of such people as actress Mary Pickford, boxer Gene Tunney, Eleanor Roosevelt, Susan B. Anthony, and Amelia Erhart. She donated her palm prints to the Library of Congress in 1938 after publishing her 1937 best seller Lion?s Paws, a set of character sketches based on the palm prints. (Civil., Jul-Aug., ?95, p.54-57) 1862 1947 Nicholas Murray Butler, American educator. "Time was invented by Almighty God in order to give ideas a chance." "The force that rules the world is conduct, whether it be moral or immoral." (AP, 4/5/97)(AP, 1/13/99) 1862 1956 In Grass Valley, California, the Idaho-Maryland gold mine produced about 2.4 million ounces of gold. The nearby Empire Mine produced 5.8 million ounces. In 2007 plans were underway for re-opening the Idaho-Maryland mine. (WSJ, 11/9/07, p.B2) 1863 nend Jan, 1, All slaves held in rebellion territory in USA were made free by Abraham Lincoln's Sep 22, 1862, Emancipation Proclamation. (HFA, ?96, p.22)(V.D.-H.K.p.275)(AP, 1/1/98)(HN, 1/1/99) 1863 nend Jan 1, Confederate General Braxton Bragg and Union General William Rosecrans readjusted their troops as the Battle of Murfreesboro continued. (HN, 1/1/99) 1863 nend Jan 2, In the second day of hard fighting at Stone's River, near Murfreesboro, Tenn., Union troops defeated the Confederates. The battle, which began Dec 31, involved 80,000 troops and left 24,000 casualties. (HN, 1/2/99)(AM, 11/04, p.28) 1863 nend Jan 4, General Halleck, by direction of President Lincoln, ordered U.S. Grant to revoke his infamous General Order No. 11 that expelled Jews from his operational area. (HN, 1/4/99) 1863 nend Jan 4, Roller skates with 4 wheels were patented by James Plimpton of NY. (MC, 1/4/02) 1863 nend Jan 8, Construction on the Central Pacific Railroad from Sacramento heading east was started. With pull from Gov. Leland Stanford, extensive government backing was obtained along with federal land grants in California that totaled 11.6 million acres, 11.4% of the state. $59 mil in 30-year railroad bonds was backed by the government and not paid back until 1909. The Northern Pacific Railroad was built by Nelson Bennett (SFC, 7/8/96, p.D2)(SFC, 2/24/98, p.A22) 1863 nend Jan 10, London's Metropolitan, the world's first underground passenger railway, opened to the public. It was nationalized in 1948. In 2004 Christian Wolmar authored ?The Subterranean Railway: How the London Underground was Built and How it Changed the City Forever.? (AP, 1/10/98)(HN, 1/10/99)(Econ, 1/22/05, p.81) 1863 nend Jan 11, Union forces captured Arkansas Post, or Ft. Hindman, Arkansas. (MC, 1/11/02) 1863 nend Jan 11, The Confederate ship Alabama under Capt. Semmes flew a British flag and lured the USS Hatteras out of Galveston harbor. The Hatteras was quickly sunk. (ON, 9/01, p.10) 1863 nend Jan 12, President Davis delivered his "State of Confederacy" address. (MC, 1/12/02) 1863 nend Jan, 13, The black 1st Kansas Regiment was mustered in as a battalion. (Smith., 4/95, p.14) 1863 nend Jan 13, Thomas Crapper pioneered a one-piece pedestal flushing toilet. (MC, 1/13/02) 1863 nend Jan 17, David Lloyd George (d.1945), British Prime Minister, was born. First Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor, English statesman: "It is always too late, or too little, or both. And that is the road to disaster." (AP, 8/13/97)(HN, 1/17/99) 1863 nend Jan 22, In an attempt to out flank Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, General Ambrose Burnside led his army on a march north to Fredericksburg, but foul weather bogged his army down in what became known as "Mud March." (HN, 1/22/99) 1863 nend Jan 22, The interim Lithuanian government in Warsaw announced an uprising against Russian rule. The uprising aspired to restore the Polish-Lithuanian state and was supported by large numbers of peasants. (DrEE, 9/14/96, p.4)(LHC, 1/22/03) 1863 nend Jan 25, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker assumed command and undertook the reorganization of the demoralized Army of the Potomac. He commanded the Army of the Potomac during the Battle of Chancellorsville. By April, he thought he was ready to face Lee?s Army of Northern Virginia. [see Jan 26] (HNQ, 9/20/00) 1863 nend Jan 25, Battle of Kingston, NC. (MC, 1/25/02) 1863 nend Jan 26, President Lincoln named General Joseph Hooker to replace Burnside as commander of the Army of the Potomac. [see Jan 25] (HN, 1/26/99) 1863 nend Jan 31, The 1st South Carolina Volunteers, later called the 33rd U.S. Colored Troops was officially recognized. Components of the regiment had been in training since early 1962. (Smith., 4/95, p.14)(MC, 1/31/02) 1863 nend Feb 1, A committee in Vilnius issued a manifesto and took up a leadership role for a national revolution. (LHC, 2/1/03) 1863 nend Feb 3, Samuel Clemens became Mark Twain for 1st time. In Nevada the Territorial Enterprise in Comstock printed some humorous letters from a reader named ?Josh.? The editor hired the man, who was Samuel Clemens, for $25 a week. Clemens accepted and changed his pen name to Mark Twain. Sam had dropped the penname "Josh" and first signed himself "Mark Twain" in a letter written on January 31, 1863. The Territorial Enterprise published the letter in its Tuesday, February 3, 1863 issue (http://www.twainquotes.com/18630203t.html). (SFEC, 3/8/98, BR p.6) 1863 nend Feb 9, A fire extinguisher was patented by Alanson Crane. (MC, 2/9/02) 1863 nend Feb 9, Henri Dunant (1828-1910) addressed the Geneva Society for Public Welfare and asked the members to form a volunteer society to aid wounded soldiers. The Intl. Committee of Red Cross (Nobel 1917, 1944, 1963) was formed in Geneva, Switz. The red cross design based on the Swiss flag with the colors reversed. (ON, 4/08, p.11)(www.redcross.org)(SFC, 6/20/06, p.A4) 1863 nend Feb 10, P.T. Barnum?s star midgets, Tom Thumb and Lavinia Warren, are married. (HN, 2/10/97) 1863 nend Feb 15, Samuel and Florence Baker encountered John Speke and James Grant at the frontier village of Gondokoro (southern Sudan). Speke and Grant said they had found the Nile?s headwaters at a lake they named Victoria (Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda). (ON, 10/01, p.9) 1863 nend Feb 24, Arizona was organized as a territory. (AP, 2/24/98) 1863 nend Feb 24, Confederate Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest made a raid on Brentwood, Tennessee. (MC, 2/24/02) 1863 nend Feb 26, Pres. Lincoln signed a National Currency Act. (SC, 2/26/02) 1863 nend Feb 28, Four Union gunboats destroyed the CSS Nashville near Fort McAllister, Ga. Popular during the Crimean War, the floating battery was revived by hard-pressed Confederates because the popular gunboats were not capable of doing the things that the batteries could do. (HN, 2/28/98) 1863 nend Mar 2, Congress authorized track width of 4'-8œ" for Union Pacific RR. (SC, 3/2/02) 1863 nend Mar 3, President Abraham Lincoln signed the conscription act compelling U.S. citizens to report for duty in the Civil War or pay $300.00. 86,724 men paid the exemption cost to avoid service. The inequality of this arrangement led to draft riots in New York. (HN, 3/3/99)(HNQ, 10/18/00) 1863 nend Mar 3, Abraham Lincoln approved a charter for National Academy of Sciences. (www.nasonline.org/site/PageServer?pagename=ABOUT_main_page) 1863 nend Mar 3, Free city delivery of mail was authorized by the U.S. Postal Service on this day. It replaced zone postage and 449 letter carriers were hired. (HC, Internet, 3/3/98)(SC, 3/3/02) 1863 nend Mar 3, Congress authorized a US mint at Carson City, NV, and Gold certificates as currency. (SC, 3/3/02) 1863 nend Mar 3, Federal ironclad ships bombed Fort McAllister, Georgia. (SC, 3/3/02) 1863 nend Mar 3, Idaho Territory formed. (SC, 3/3/02) 1863 nend Mar 4, Battle of Thompson's Station, Tennessee. (SC, 3/4/02) 1863 nend Mar 9, U.S. Grant was appointed commander-in-chief of the Union forces. (HN, 3/9/98) 1863 nend Mar 11, A naval engagement occurred between the CSS Alabama and the USS Hatteras. (HN, 3/11/98) 1863 nend Mar 11, Union troops under General Ulysses S. Grant gave up their preparations to take Vicksburg after failing to pass Fort Pemberton, north of Vicksburg. (HN, 3/11/99) 1863 nend Mar 11, A Lithuanian ruling group replaced a committee for the lead in an uprising. (LHC,3/11/03) 1863 nend Mar 12, President Jefferson Davis delivered his State of the Confederacy address. (HN, 3/12/98) 1863 nend Mar 17, The Battle of Kelly's Ford, Va., was fought. (http://americancivilwar.com/statepic/va/va029.html) 1863 nend Mar 18, Confederate women rioted in Salisbury, N.C. to protest the lack of flour and salt in the South. (HN, 3/18/00) 1863 nend Mar 20, Battle of Pensacola, Florida- evacuated by Federals. (MC, 3/20/02) 1863 nend Mar 25, US Sec. of War Edward Stanton awarded Corp. William Pittenger of the 2nd Ohio Regiment and 5 other Union soldiers the first US Medals of Honor. Pittenger had been a member of Andrews Raiders who stole the locomotive ?General? in Georgia on April 12, 1862. Civilian spy James Andrews and 7 other were hanged in 1862 following a Confederate court martial. (ON, 8/08, p.12) 1863 nend Mar 25, There was a skirmish at Brentwood, Tennessee. (MC, 3/25/02) 1863 nend Mar 26, Samuel and Florence Baker departed Gondokoro (southern Sudan) to find a lake called Luta N?Zige, through which flowed a branch of the Nile. (ON, 10/01, p.9) 1863 nend Mar 26, Henry Royce, founder (Rolls-Royce Limited in 1884), was born. [see Mar 27] (SS, 3/26/02) 1863 nend Mar 26, Voters in West Virginia approved the gradual emancipation of slaves. (SS, 3/26/02) 1863 nend Mar 27, Sir Henry Royce, Rolls Royce founder, was born. [see Mar 26] (HN, 3/27/98) 1863 nend Mar 27, Confederate Pres. Jefferson Davis called for this to be a day of fasting and prayer. (MC, 3/27/02) 1863 nend Mar 31, Battle of Grand Gulf, MS & Dinwiddie Court House, VA. (MC, 3/31/02) 1863 nend Apr 1, First wartime conscription law went into effect in the U.S. (HN, 4/1/98) 1863 nend Apr 2, In Richmond, Va., a large crowd of hungry women from one of Richmond's working-class neighborhoods demanded bread from Governor John Letcher. When the governor did not respond favorably to the rioters' demands, the women marched down Main Street, shouting "Bread" as they made their way to the commissary, where they smashed store windows and grabbed food and anything else they could get their hands on. Not until the mob faced President Davis and his troops did the rampage end. Varina Howell Davis wrote an account of the riots after her husbands death in 1889. (HNQ, 5/8/02)(AH, 6/02, p.24) 1863 nend Apr 7, Battle of Charleston, SC. The Federal fleet attack on Fort Sumter failed. (MC, 4/7/02) 1863 nend Apr 10, Rebel Gen. Earl Van Dorn attacked at Franklin, Tenn. (MC, 4/10/02) 1863 nend Apr 11, Battle of Suffolk, VA (Norfleet House). (MC, 4/11/02) 1863 nend Apr 12-14, Gunboat battle at Bayou Teche, Louisiana. (MC, 4/12/02) 1863 nend Apr 13, Battle of Irish Bend, LA (Ft. Bisland). (MC, 4/13/02) 1863 Apr 13, Hospital for Ruptured and Crippled in NY became the 1st orthopedic hospital. (MC, 4/13/02) 1863 nend Apr 14, William Bullock patented a continuous-roll printing press. (MC, 4/14/02) 1863 nend Apr 24, Skirmish at Okolona, Birmingham, Mississippi (Grierson's Raid). (MC, 4/24/02) 1863 nend Apr 27, Battle of Streight's raid: Tuscumbia to Cedar Bluff, AL. (MC, 4/27/02) 1863 nend Apr 27, The Army of the Potomac began marching on Chancellorsville. (HN, 4/27/98) 1863 nend Apr 29, William Randolph Hearst (d.1951), American newspaper publisher, was born. He helped launch the Spanish-American War. "Any man who has the brains to think and the nerve to act for the benefit of the people of the country is considered a radical by those who are content with stagnation and willing to endure disaster." In 1998 Ben Proctor authored "William Randolph Hearst ? The Early Years, 1863-1910." (HN, 4/29/99)(SFEM, 12/12/98, p.8)(AP, 5/1/99) 1863 nend Apr 29, Battle of Chancellorsville, VA., (Fredericksburg, Wilderness Tavern). [see May 1] (MC, 4/29/02) 1863 nend May 1, Confederate congress passed a resolution to kill black Union soldiers. (HN, 5/1/98) 1863 nend May 1, Confederate "National Flag" replaced "Stars & Bars." (MC, 5/1/02) 1863 nend May 1, The beginning of the Battle of Chancellorsville, Va., in the East and the Battle Port Gibson in the west. The new Union commander, ?Fighting Joe? Hooker, planned to encircle Robert E. Lee at the Virginia crossroads hamlet of Chancellorsville. (HN, 5/1/98) 1863 nend May 2, The Confederates smashed Hooker's flank and won a smashing victory at Chancellorsville, Virginia. Confederate Gen?l. Stonewall Jackson was shot by friendly fire as he returned to his lines; he died eight days later. Captain J. Keith Boswell, an officer with Jackson, was also shot and killed. (HT, 3/97, p.48)(AP, 5/2/99)(HN, 5/2/99) 1863 nend May 3, Stonewall Jackson?s arm was amputated and buried. Jackson told his medical director, Dr. Hunter McGuire, "If the enemy does come, I am not afraid of them; I have always been kind to their wounded, and I am sure they will be kind to me." His words followed an order from Robert E. Lee to move Jackson to Guiney's Station, fearing that nearby Federal troops might capture him. Following perhaps his greatest performance, leading a brilliant flanking maneuver against Union Major General Joseph Hooker at Chancellorsville, he was mistakenly shot by his own troops while scouting ahead of their lines after dark. Jackson sustained severe wounds to the left arm and minor wounds to the right hand that later led to his death. (HT, 3/97, p.52)(HNQ, 3/11/02) 1863 nend May 3, In Virginia the Battle of Chancellorsville raged for a second day, as Confederate General Robert E. Lee parried Union General Joseph T. Hooker's thrusts. [see May 1-2] (HN, 5/3/00) 1863 nend May 4, Battle of Chancellorsville ended when the Union Army retreated. (HN, 5/4/98) 1863 nend May 4, War correspondents Richard T. Colburn, Junius H. Brown and Albert Dean Richardson were captured enroute to Grant?s headquarters by a Confederate patrol near Vicksburg, Miss. Colburn was soon released but Brown and Richardson were sent to Libby Prison in Richmond, Va., and later to Salisbury Prison in North Carolina. They managed to escape in Dec 1864 and arrived in Knoxville, Tenn., on Jan 13, 1865. (ON, 4/03, p.12) 1863 nend May 5, Battle of Tupelo, MS. (MC, 5/5/02) 1863 nend May 10, Confederate General Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson (39) died 8 days after being shot by friendly fire at Chancellorsville, Virginia. He had been a professor at the Virginia Military Institute. Many historians believe that he was the greatest commander of the Civil War. Stonewall Jackson has three graves. Jackson?s left arm, amputated after it was shot twice during the Battle of Chancellorsville, has its own grave near Chancellorsville, Virginia. Lexington, Virginia, where he had lived with his wife, is the site of his original resting place and the nearby monument where his remains were later moved. James I. Robertson published a biography of Jackson in 1997: "Stonewall Jackson: The Man, the Soldier, the Legend." (SFC, 7/4/96, p.D8)(HT, 3/97, p.48)(HNQ, 2/22/01) 1863 nend May 12, With a victory at the Battle of Raymond, Mississippi, Grant closed in on Vicksburg. (SC, internet, 5/12/97)(HN, 5/12/99) 1863 nend May 13, The 54th Massachusetts was mustered in and was the first black regiment recruited in the North; it suffered 109 battle deaths in the war. (Smith., 4/95, p.14) 1863 nend May 14, Union General Nathaniel Banks took his army out of Alexandria, Louisiana, and headed towards Port Hudson along the Mississippi River. The fort was considered the second most important strategic location on the river, after Vicksburg. (HN, 5/14/99) 1863 nend May 14, Battle of Jackson, MS. (MC, 5/14/02) 1863 nend May 16, At the Battle of Champion's Hill, in Mississippi, the bloodiest action of the Vicksburg Campaign, Union General Ulysses S. Grant repulsed the Confederates, driving them into Vicksburg. (HN, 5/16/99) 1863 nend May 17, Union General Ulysses Grant continued his push towards Vicksburg at the Battle of the Big Black River Bridge in Mississippi. (HN, 5/17/99) 1863 nend May 18, Siege of Vicksburg, MS. (SC, 5/18/02) 1863 nend May 19, Union General Ulysses S. Grant's first attack on Vicksburg, Miss., was repulsed. (HN, 5/19/99) 1863 nend May 21, The siege on Port Hudson, Louisiana, began. (HN, 5/21/98) 1863 nend May 22, The US War Dept. established the Bureau of Colored Troops. (MC, 5/22/02) 1863 nend May 22, U.S. Grant?s second attack on Vicksburg, Miss., failed and a siege began. (HN, 5/22/98) 1863 nend May 24, Bushwackers led by Captain William Marchbanks attacked a Federal militia party in Nevada, Missouri. (HN, 5/24/99) 1863 nend May 25, Federal authorities in Tennessee turned over former Ohio congressman Clement L. Vallandigham to the Confederates. President Abraham Lincoln had changed his sentence to banishment from the United States after his conviction of expressing alleged pro-Confederate sentiments. (HN, 5/25/99) 1863 nend May 27, Siege of Port Hudson, LA. [see May 21] (MC, 5/27/02) 1863 nend May 28, The 54th Massachusetts, the first black regiment from the North, left Boston headed for Hilton Head, South Carolina, to fight in the Civil War. (AP, 5/28/97)(HN, 5/28/99) 1863 nend Jun 2, Felix Weingartner, conductor (Zara, Dalmatia), was born in Germany. (SC, 6/2/02) 1863 nend Jun 3, Gen. Lee, with 75,000 Confederates, launched a second invasion of the North. On June 3rd, Lee led his troops into Maryland and then Pennsylvania, to meet the Army of the Potomac again, this time around a small town called Gettysburg. (HNQ, 9/22/00) 1863 nend Jun 5, CSS Alabama captured the Talisman in the Mid-Atlantic. (HN, 6/5/98) 1863 nend Jun 5, Battle of Franklin's Crossing, VA (Deep Run). (MC, 6/5/02) 1863 nend Jun 7, Mexico City was captured by French troops. (HN, 6/7/98) 1863 nend Jun 8, Residents of Vicksburg, Miss., fled into caves as Grant?s army began shelling the town. (HN, 6/8/98) 1863 nend Jun 9, At the Battle of Brandy Station in Virginia, Union and Confederate cavalries clashed. This was the largest cavalry battle in the Civil War. (HN, 6/9/01) 1863 nend Jun 10, At the Battle of Brice's Crossroads in Mississippi, Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest with 3,500 troops defeated the Union troops of 8,000. (HN, 6/10/98)(MC, 6/10/02) 1863 nend Jun 13, Confederate forces on their way to Gettysburg clashed with Union troops at the Second Battle of Winchester, Virginia. (HN, 6/13/98) 1863 nend Jun 15, The 2nd battle at Winchester, Va., ended in Federal defeat with 1350 casualties. (MC, 6/15/02) 1863 nend Jun 17, On the way to Gettysburg, Union and Confederate forces skirmished at Point of Rocks, Maryland. (HN, 6/17/98) 1863 nend Jun 17, Battle of Aldie: Confederates failed to drive back Union in Virginia. (MC, 6/17/02) 1863 nend Jun 17, Travelers Insurance Co. of Hartford, the 1st accident insurer, was chartered. (MC, 6/17/02) 1863 nend Jun 18, After repeated acts of insubordination, General John McClernand was relieved by General Ulysses S. Grant during the siege of Vicksburg. (HN, 6/18/98) 1863 nend Jun 19, Battle at Middleburg Virginia (100+ casualties). (DTnet, 6/19/97) 1863 nend Jun 20, West Virginia became the 35th state. (AP, 6/20/97) 1863 nend Jun 21, In the second day of fighting, Confederate cavalry failed to dislodge a Union force at the Battle of LaFourche Crossing in Louisiana. (HN, 6/21/00) 1863 nend Jun 23, Confederate forces overwhelmed a Union garrison at the Battle of Brasher City in Louisiana. (HN, 6/23/99) 1863 nend Jun 24, Planning an invasion of Pennsylvania, Lee's army crossed the Potomac. (MC, 6/24/02) 1863 nend Jun 25, Pres. Lincoln chose US General George Meade to replace General Hooker, hoping he would be more aggressive. [see Jun 28] (MC, 6/25/02) 1863 nend Jun 26, Jubal Early and his Confederate forces moved into Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. (HN, 6/26/98) 1863 nend Jun 27, There was a skirmish at Fairfax Courthouse in Virginia. (MC, 6/27/02) 1863 nend Jun 28, General Meade replaced General Hooker three days before the Battle of Gettysburg. General George Gordon Meade said "Well, I?ve been tried and condemned without a hearing, and I suppose I shall have to go to execution," in response to his appointment as head of the Union Army of the Potomac during the Civil War. Within a week his army won the Battle of Gettysburg, assuring Meade of a record of success superior to all of his predecessors. (HN, 6/28/98)(HNQ, 2/25/02) 1863 nend Jun 28, Officers of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia?s Second Corps were looking at Harrisburg through field glasses from across the Susquehanna River just a day or two before a developing battle at Gettysburg called them away. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, the Keystone State?s capital was a major hub for rail traffic from every direction. Consequently, it was also the point through which the hard, slow-burning coal used by ships, locomotives, and furnaces traveled on its way from the mines of north central Pennsylvania to military and industrial customers. Philadelphia, an important ocean port east of Harrisburg and connected to it by rail, would have been virtually defenseless against an attack from its landward side. If Lee had taken Harrisburg, he would also have been perfectly positioned to threaten Washington, D.C., from the north. (HNQ, 3/5/02) 1863 nend Jun 29, Battle at Westminster, Maryland: Federal assault. (MC, 6/29/02) 1863 nend Jun 29, George A. Custer (23) was appointed Union Brevet Brig-general. (MC, 6/29/02) 1863 nend Jun 29, Lee ordered his forces to concentrate near Gettysburg, PN. (MC, 6/29/02) 1863 nend Jun 30, Union and Confederate cavalries clashed at Hanover, Pennsylvania. (HN, 6/30/98) 1863 nend Jul 1, The opening shot at the Battle of Gettysburg was at 7:30 a.m. In the first day's fighting at Gettysburg, Federal forces retreated through the town and dug in at Cemetery Ridge and Cemetery Hill. Gen. Robert E. Lee's ordered Lt. Gen. Richard Ewell, "Take the hill if practicable, but do not bring on a general engagement..." Books on the campaign included "The Gettysburg Campaign, A Study in Command," by Edwin B. Coddington and "Gettysburg: Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill," by Harry W. Pfanz. The novel "While Gods and Generals" by Jeff Shaara, son of Michael Shaara, describes the years leading up to the battle. (HFA, '96, p.32)(AP, 7/1/97)(SFEC, 6/21/98, p.D5)(HN, 7/1/98) 1863 nend Jul 1, John Fulton Reynolds (42), Union general, died in battle at Gettysburg. (MC, 7/1/02) 1863 nend Jul 1, The Dutch abolished slavery in Suriname. The Dutch were among the last Europeans to abolish slavery. (AP, 7/2/03) 1863 nend Jul 2, Mrs. Lincoln was thrown from her carriage and spent weeks recovering at the Anderson Cottage, Washington DC. The seat assembly may have been sabotaged. (SFC, 5/20/02, p.F10) 1863 nend Jul 2, The Union left flank held at Little Round Top during 2nd day of the Battle of Gettysburg. Union Gen. Daniel Sickles was severely wounded and had his leg amputated. In 2002 Thomas Keneally authored "American Scoundrel: The Life of the Notorious Civil War General Dan Sickles." (WSJ, 3/29/02, p.W10)(SFC, 4/17/02, p.D1)(AH, 2/05, p.49) 1863 nend Jul 3, The last rebel assault was repulsed at the Battle of Gettysburg at 4 p.m. The Civil War?s Battle of Gettysburg in Pennsylvania ended after three days in a major victory for the North as Confederate troops retreated. The last Confederate assault at Gettysburg was Pickett?s Charge against the center of the Union line that left some 7,000 of 13,000 [15,000] Confederate troops dead. Lt. Gen. James Longstreet gave Maj. Gen. George Pickett the assent. General Lee took responsibility. The Union and Confederate armies suffered an estimated 50-51 thousand casualties in the battle. It was the bloodiest battle the country had yet seen. Upon whom the responsibility for the South's failure at Gettysburg rests has been widely debated, but five months after the epic battle, Confederate General Robert E. Lee admitted, "I thought my men were invincible." The fighting in the small Pennsylvania town marked a pivotal point in the Union's ascent to victory and helped decide the outcome of the Civil War. In 1974 Michael Shaara published "The Killer Angels," a novel about the 3-day battle. (SFC, 7/7/96, T6)(SFC,2/17/97, p.A3)(AP, 7/3/97)(SFEC, 6/21/98,p.D5)(HN, 7/3/98)(WSJ, 9/11/98, p.W10)(HNPD, 7/6/99) 1863 nend Jul 3, Battle of Donaldsonville, LA. (MC, 7/3/02) 1863 nend Jul 4, Boise, Idaho, was founded. (Maggio, 98) 1863 nend Jul 4, General U.S. Grant's Union army captured the Confederate town of Vicksburg after a long siege during the Civil War. (HN, 7/4/98)(IB, Internet, 12/7/98) 1863 nend Jul 4, General Lee?s army limped toward Virginia after defeat at Gettysburg. 28,063 of 75,000 confederate soldiers were lost. General Meade?s army suffered 23,049 soldiers killed, wounded and missing. (SFC, 7/7/96, T6) 1863 nend Jul 4, Paul Joseph Revere, US grandson of Paul Revere, Union brig-gen, died from wounds at Gettysburg. (MC, 7/4/02) 1863 nend Jul 4, Failed Confederate assault on Helena, Arkansas, left 640 casualties. (Maggio, 98) 1863 nend Jul 4, Skirmish at Smithburg, TN. (Maggio, 98) 1863 nend Jul 5, Federal troops occupied Vicksburg, Mississippi, and distributed supplies to the citizens. The battles of Jackson and Birdsong Ferry, were fought in Mississippi. (HN, 7/5/98)(MC, 7/5/02) 1863 nend Jul 6, Vincent Strong (b.1837), US Union brig-general, died from wounds at Gettysburg. (MC, 6/17/02)(MC, 7/6/02) 1863 nend Jul 7, Confederate General Robert E. Lee, in Hagerstown, Maryland, reported his defeat at Gettysburg to President Jefferson Davis. (HN, 7/7/98) 1863 nend Jul 7, The 1st military draft was called by the US. It allowed exemptions for $100. (MC, 7/7/02) 1863 nend Jul 7, Orders barring Jews from serving under US Grant were revoked. (MC, 7/7/02) 1863 nend Jul 8, Discouraged by the surrender of Vicksburg, Mississippi, Confederates in Port Hudson, Louisiana, surrendered to Union forces. (HN, 7/8/98) 1863 nend Jul 10, Clement Clarke Moore (83), (alleged author of "'Twas the Night Before Xmas"), died in NYC. (MC, 7/10/02) 1863 nend Jul 10-Jul 16, In the Battle of Jackson, MS, federals captured Jackson with 1000 casualties vs. 1339 for the Confederates. (MC, 7/10/02) 1863 nend Jul 11, The Battle of Fort Wager began as Union forces assaulted the Confederate battery on Morris Island at the southern approach to Charleston Harbor. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assault_on_the_Battery_Wagner) 1863 nend Jul 13, Rioting against the Civil War military draft erupted in New York City; about 1,000 people died over three days. Antiabolitionist Irish longshoremen rampaged against blacks in the deadly Draft Riots in New York City in response to Pres. Lincoln?s announcement of military conscription. Mobs lynched a black man and torched the Colored Orphan Asylum. The 2003 film "Gangs of New York" focused on this event. In 2006 Barnet Schecter authored ?The Devil?s Own Work,? an account of the riots. (WSJ, 3/19/96, p.A-12)(AP, 7/13/97)(HN, 7/13/98)(WSJ, 8/2100,p.A14)(WSJ, 1/18/06, p.D13) 1863 nend Jul 13-15, Battle of Tupelo, MS (Harrisburg). (MC, 7/13/02) 1863 nend Jul 14, Jews of Holstein Germany were granted equality. (MC, 7/14/02) 1863 nend Jul 15, Confederate raider Bill Anderson and his Bushwackers attacked Huntsville, Missouri, stealing $45,000 from the local bank. (HN, 7/15/99) 1863 nend Jul 18, A 2nd assault in the Battle of Fort Wagner, SC, left US1500 and CS174 casualties. Union troops of the Massachusetts 54th Infantry assaulted Battery Wagner on Morris Island in the harbor at Charleston, SC. The ultimately unsuccessful attack, the 1st major engagement by a unit of freed black soldiers, was later celebrated in the 1989 film ?Glory.? (www.awod.com/cwchas/wagner.html)(LP, Spring 2006, p.58) 1863 nend Jul 18, William Dorsey Pender (29), US Confederate gen-maj, died of injuries. (MC, 7/18/02) 1863 nend Jul 23, Bill Anderson and his Confederate Bushwackers gutted the railway station at Renick, Missouri. (HN, 7/23/99) 1863 nend Jul 24, Battle at Battle Mountain, Virginia. (MC, 7/24/02) 1863 nend Jul 26, In the Battle of Salineville, Ohio, John Hunt Morgan and 364 troops surrendered. Confederate Brigadier General John Hunt Morgan and his cavalrymen were captured during their daring raid into Ohio. Conditions for Confederate soldiers housed in the Ohio State Penitentiary in Columbus improved after General Morgan sent a written complaint to the Buckeye State?s governor, David Todd. The Confederates were placed in the dark, dank stone prison, where they were subject to harsh punishment and forced to live on bread and water. Todd visited the prison after receiving Morgan?s letter, and soon afterward reforms were instituted to improve living conditions. Morgan did not stay to savor the improvements, though. In November 1863, he and six other Confederate officers escaped. (HNQ, 9/20/01)(MC, 7/26/02) 1863 nend Jul 26, Samuel Houston (70), 1st Pres. of Republic of Texas (1836-38, 41-44), died. (MC, 7/26/02) 1863 nend Jul 27, William Lowndes Yancey (b.1814), former Alabama state senator, and advocate of states? rights and slavery, died at his home near in Montgomery, Alabama. In 2006 Eric H. Walther authored ?William Lowndes Yancey and the Coming of the Civil War.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Lowndes_Yancey) 1863 nend Jul 28, Confederate John Mosby began a series of attacks against General Meade's Army of the Potomac as it tried to pursue General Robert E. Lee in Virginia's Shenandoah Valley. Confederate Colonel John S. Mosby was known as "The Gray Ghost." The rather ordinary looking Mosby led his Partisan Rangers in guerilla warfare operations that continually confounded Union commanders in the Piedmont region of Virginia. Learn more about Mosby?s Confederacy in Faquier and Loudoun counties. (HN, 7/28/98)(HNQ, 7/15/00) 1863 nend Jul 30, Henry Ford (d.1947), founder of the Ford Motor Company and developer of the Model T, was born in Dearborn Township, Mich. He led American war production with the gigantic facility at Willow Run. "You can?t build a reputation on what you are going to do." (AP, 8/16/97)(AP, 7/30/98)(HN, 7/30/98) 1863 nend Jul 30, Pres. Lincoln issued his "eye-for-eye" order to shoot a rebel prisoner for every black prisoner shot. (MC, 7/30/02) 1863 nend Jul 30, George Crockett Strong (29), US Union Gen-Maj, died of injuries. (MC, 7/30/02) 1863 nend Jul, The Point Lookout prison camp was begun under Gen'l. Gilman Marston with 200 confederate soldiers in St. Mary?s County, 86 miles from Washington DC. More than 4,000 Confederate soldiers perished in 18 months due to privation and disease. (WSJ, 3/26/96, p.A-19) 1863 nend Jul, The European public first learned of Angkor in Cambodia from the posthumously published journal of French naturalist Henri Mouhot. (SFEC, 7/26/98, p.T6) 1863 nend Aug 1, Battle of Little Rock, AK, and start of the Chattanooga campaign. (MC, 8/1/02) 1863 nend Aug 1, Cavalry action near Brandy Station marked the end of Gettysburg Campaign. (MC, 8/1/02) 1863 nend Aug 3, Governor Seymour asked Pres. Lincoln to suspend the draft in NY. (SC, 8/3/02) 1863 nend Aug 3, Saratoga Racetrack opened in NY. (SC, 8/3/02) 1863 nend Aug 6, The CSS Alabama captured the Federal ship Sea Bride near the Cape of Good Hope. (HN, 8/6/98) 1863 nend Aug 8, Confederate President Jefferson Davis refused General Robert E. Lee?s resignation. (HN, 8/8/98) 1863 nend Aug 12, 1st cargo of lumber left Burrard Inlet in the Vancouver, BC area. (SC, 8/12/02) 1863 nend Aug 14, Ernest L. Thayer, author of the poem "Casey at the Bat," was born. (HN, 8/14/98) 1863 nend Aug 16, Chickamauga campaign took place in GA. Union General William S. Rosecrans moved his army south from Tullahoma, Tennessee to attack Confederate forces in Chattanooga. (HN, 8/16/99)(MC, 8/16/02) 1863 nend Aug 17, Federal batteries and ships bombarded South Carolina?s Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor during the Civil War, but the Confederates managed to hold on despite several days of pounding. (HN, 8/17/98)(AP, 8/17/08) 1863 nend Aug 21, William Clarke Quantrill (d.1865), a pro-Confederate guerrilla fighter during the American Civil War, attacked Lawrence, Kansas, with a force estimated at anywhere from 200 to 450 raiders. Though Senator Lane, a prime target of the raid, managed to escape through a cornfield in his nightshirt, the bushwhackers killed an estimated 150-200 men and boys, dragging many from their homes to kill them before their families. When Quantrill rode out at 9 a.m., most of Lawrence's buildings had been burned, including all but two businesses; his raiders looted indiscriminately and also robbed the town's bank. The raid would become notorious in the North as one of the most vicious atrocities of the Civil War. (HN, 8/21/98)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Quantrill) 1863 nend Aug 23, Union batteries ceased their first bombardment of Fort Sumter, leaving it a mass of rubble but still unconquered by the Northern besiegers. (HN, 8/23/00) 1863 nend Aug 26, Battle of Rocky Gap, WV, (White Sulphur Springs). (MC, 8/26/02) 1863 nend Sep 1, RR and ferry connections between SF and Oakland were inaugurated. (SC, 9/1/02) 1863 nend Sep 1, 6th Ohio Cavalry ambush at Barbees Crossroads, Virginia. (MC, 9/1/02) 1863 nend Sep 6, After 59 day siege, confederates evacuated Ft Wagner, SC. (MC, 9/6/01) 1863 nend Sep 8, Federal troops reconquered the Cumberland Gap, Tennessee. (MC, 9/8/01) 1863 nend Sep 8, Battle of Telford's Depot, Ten. (MC, 9/8/01) 1863 nend Sep 8, Confederate Lieutenant Dick Dowling thwarted a Union naval landing at Sabine Pass, northeast of Galveston, Texas. (HN, 9/8/98) 1863 nend Sep 9, The Union Army of the Cumberland passed through Chattanooga as they chased after the retreating Confederates following the Battle of Cumberland Gap. (HN, 9/9/98)(MC, 9/9/01) 1863 nend Sep 13, The Loudoun County Rangers routed a company of Confederate cavalry at Catoctin Mountain in Virginia. (HN, 9/13/99) 1863 nend Sep 13, Franz von Hipper, German naval commander at the Battle of Jutland in World War I, was born. (HN, 9/13/98) 1863 nend Sep 17, The Robinson family under widow Eliza Sinclair arrived in Honolulu. They had moved to British Columbia from New Zealand in June, but were advised to relocate to the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii). (www.clansinclairusa.org/articles/march2001/elizabeth.php) 1863 nend Sep 18, Union cavalry troops clashed with a group of Confederates at Chickamauga Creek. (HN, 9/18/99) 1863 nend Sep 19, In Georgia, the two-day Battle of Chickamauga began as Union troops under George Thomas clashed with Confederates under Nathan Bedford Forrest. (HN, 9/19/98) 1863 nend Sep 20, Union troops under George Thomas prevented the Union defeat at Chickamauga from becoming a rout, earning him the nickname "the Rock of Chickamauga." Thomas stayed and fought even after his commander, William Rosecrans, retreated to Chattanooga. President Abraham Lincoln later appointed Thomas as Rosecrans? successor. Armed with their new, lethal seven-shot Spencer rifles, Wilder?s Lightning Brigade was all that stood between the Union Army and the looming disaster at Chickamauga Creek. The bloody battle of Chickamauga was the costliest two-day battle of the entire war. (HN, 9/20/98)(HN, 11/4/98)(HNQ, 9/29/00) 1863 nend Sep 20, Jakob Grimm, writer, died at 78. (MC, 9/20/01) 1863 nend Sep 21, Union troops under Major Gen?l. William S. Rosecrans defeated at Chickamauga sought refuge in Chattanooga, Tennessee, which was then besieged by Confederate troops. There they lost 10,000 horses and mules to starvation. (HT, 4/97, p.52)(HN, 9/21/98) 1863 nend Sep 23, Mary Church Terrell, educator, political activist, and first president of the National Association of Colored Women, was born in Memphis, Tennessee. An 1884 graduate of Oberlin College, America's first college to admit women and amongst the first to admit students of all races, Terrell was one of the first American women of African descent to graduate from college. She earned her master's degree from Oberlin in 1888. (http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/today.html) 1863 nend Sep 23, The Confederate siege of Chattanooga began. (MC, 9/23/01) 1863 nend Sep 26, James M. Wells, a Union cavalry lieutenant from Michigan, was captured by Confederate cavalry and sent to Libby Prison in Richmond, Va. (ON, 3/01, p.7) 1863 nend Sep 27, Jo Shelby's cavalry in action at Moffat's Station, Arkansas. (MC, 9/27/01) 1863 nend Sep 30, Reinhard von Scheer, German admiral who commanded the German fleet at the Battle of Jutland, was born. (HN, 9/30/98) 1863 nend Sep 30, The George Bizet (1838-1875) opera "Les Pecheurs de Perles" (Pearl Fishers) premiered in Paris. (www.operaphilly.com/03-04/bizet-bio.shtml) 1863 nend Oct 1, 5 Russian warships were welcomed in NYC. (MC, 10/1/01) 1863 nend Oct 3, President Lincoln declared the last Thursday in November, Thanksgiving Day. Credit for establishing Thanksgiving as a national holiday is usually given to Sarah J. Hale, editor and founder of the Ladies' Magazine in Boston. Her editorials in the magazine and letters to President Lincoln urging the formal establishment of a national holiday of Thanksgiving resulted in Lincoln's proclamation, which designated the last Thursday of November as Thanksgiving Day. Later presidents followed this example, with the exception of Franklin D. Roosevelt, who in 1939 proclaimed Thanksgiving Day a week earlier--on the fourth, not the last, Thursday of November--in effort to encourage more holiday shopping. In 1941 Congress adopted a joint resolution, permanently setting the date of Thanksgiving on the fourth Thursday of November. (AP, 10/3/97)(HN, 11/26/98)(HNPD, 11/26/98)(HN, 11/25/99) 1863 nend Oct 5, Confederate sub David damaged the Union ship Ironsides. (MC, 10/5/01) 1863 nend Oct 9, Confederate cavalry raiders returned to Chattanooga having attacked Union General William Rosecrans? supply and communication lines all around east Tennessee. (HN, 10/9/98) 1863 nend Oct 9, Battle of Brady Station, Va. (Culpeper Court House, Bristoe Station). (MC, 10/9/01) 1863 nend Oct 10, The first telegraph line to Denver was completed. (HN, 10/10/98) 1863 nend Oct 10, The Skirmish at Blue Springs, Tennessee, resulted in 166 casualties. (MC, 10/10/01) 1863 nend Oct 11, Skirmish at Rheatown, Henderson's Mill, Tennessee. (MC, 10/11/01) 1863 nend Oct 15, For the second time, the Confederate submarine H. L. Hunley sank during a practice dive in Charleston Harbor, S.C, this time drowning its inventor along with seven crew members. The 40-foot Hunley sank in August with five sailors who had volunteered to test it. (Historynet, 10/15/98)(SFC, 3/12/99, p.A3) 1863 nend Oct 16, Grant was given command of Union forces in West. [see Oct 17] (MC, 10/16/01) 1863 nend Oct 17, General Ulysses S. Grant was named overall Union Commander of the West. [see Oct 16] (HN, 10/17/98) 1863 nend Oct 18, Battle of Charlestown in WV. (MC, 10/18/01) 1863 nend Oct 19, Gen?l. Grant ordered Major Gen?l. George Thomas to replace Major Gen?l. Rosecrans and Major Gen?l. Joseph Hooker arrived at Chattanooga with 20,000 fresh Federals from Virginia. (HT, 4/97, p.56) 1863 nend Oct 23, Gen?l. Grant arrived at Chattanooga. [see Oct 24] (HT, 4/97, p.56) 1863 nend Oct 24, General Ulysses S. Grant arrived in Chattanooga, Tennessee to find the Union Army there starving. [see Oct 23] (HN, 10/24/98) 1863 nend Oct 28-29, In a rare night attack, Confederates under Gen. James Longstreet attacked a Federal force near Chattanooga in the Battle of Wauhatchie, Tennessee. Longstreet hoped to cut the Federal supply line, the ?cracker line,? but failed. The principal commanders were: Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker [US] and Brig. Gen. Micah Jenkins [CS]. Estimated causalities: 828 total (US 420; CS 408). (HN, 10/28/98)(http://www2.cr.nps.gov/abpp/battles/tn021.htm) 1863 nend Oct, 7,000 soldiers were cramped into Point Lookout Union prison for Confederate soldiers. (WSJ, 3/26/96, p.A-19) 1863 nend Nov 4, From the main Confederate Army at Chattanooga, Tenn., Lt. Gen. James Longstreet's troops were sent northeast to besiege Knoxville. (HN, 11/4/98) 1863 nend Nov 6, A Union force surrounded and scattered defending Confederates at the Battle of Droop Mountain, in West Virginia. (HN, 11/6/99) 1863 nend Nov 6, The Battle of Rogersville took place at Big Creek in Hawkins County, Tennessee. Union troops, under the command of Col. Israel Garrard, faced Confederates under the overall command of Brig. Gen. William E. Jones. Confederates won and sent prisoners sent to Libby Prison in Richmond, Virginia. (http://johnsettles.com/roger.htm) 1863 nend Nov 7, The Battle of Rappahannock Station, Va., was fought. (http://www2.cr.nps.gov/abpp/battles/va043.htm) 1863 nend Nov 12, Confederate General James Longstreet arrived at Loudon, Tennessee to assist the attack on Union General Ambrose Burnside?s troops at Knoxville. (HN, 11/12/98) 1863 nend Nov 14, Leo H.A. Baekeland (d.1944), Belgian-born US chemist (bakelite), was born in Ghent. (www.zephyrus.co.uk/galen.html) 1863 nend Nov 14, Gen Nathan Bedford Forrest was assigned to command of West Tennessee. (MC, 11/14/01) 1863 nend Nov 14, There was a skirmish at Danville, Mississippi. (MC, 11/14/01) 1863 nend cNov 15, Major Gen?l. William Tecumseh Sherman arrived at Chattanooga from Mississippi with 16,000 reinforcements. (HT, 4/97, p.56) 1863 nend Nov 16, At the Battle of Campbell's Station, Ten., there were 492 causalities. (MC, 11/16/01) 1863 nend Nov 17, Lincoln began the 1st draft of his Gettysburg Address. (MC, 11/17/01) 1863 nend Nov 17-Dec 4th, Battle of Knoxville, Ten. (MC, 11/17/01) 1863 nend Nov 19, President Lincoln delivered the Gettysburg Address as he dedicated a national cemetery at the site of the Civil War battlefield in Pennsylvania. Lincoln had been asked to deliver a few "appropriate remarks" to the crowd at the dedication of the National Cemetery at the site of the Battle of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. His address was almost ignored in the wake of the lengthy oration by main speaker Edwin Everett, the former governor of Massachusetts. In fact, Lincoln's speech was over before many in the crowd were even aware that he was speaking. Lincoln concluded his speech with this vow: "We here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom; and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth." (http://condor.stcloudstate.edu/~brixr01/theTIMEMACHINE.html)(AP,11/19/97)(ON, 8/07, p.1) 1863 nend Nov 23, At Chattanooga Gen?l. Thomas? men drove the Confederates from Orchard Knob. Union forces won the Battle of Orchard Knob, Tenn. The Battle of Chattanooga, one of the most decisive battles of the American Civil War, also began in Tennessee. (HN, 11/23/01) 1863 nend Nov 23, A patent was granted for a process of making color photographs. (MC, 11/23/01) 1863 nend Nov 24, In the Battle Above the Clouds, Union Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker's forces took Lookout Mountain, near Chattanooga, Tenn. The battle for Lookout Mountain was fought in a layer of fog whose lower level began at the Cravens House, used as Rebel headquarters. Gen?l. Hooker later commissioned painter James Walker to render a picture of the battle for $20,000. (HFA, ?96, p.42)(HT, 4/97, p.56)(HN, 11/24/98) 1863 nend Nov 25, The Union ended the siege of Chattanooga, Tenn., with the Battle of Missionary Ridge, Tenn. (HN, 11/25/98) 1863 nend Nov 26, The first of our modern annual Thanksgivings was held following the Oct 3 proclamation of Pres. Lincoln to assign the last Thursday in Nov for this purpose. (HN, 11/26/98)(HNPD, 11/26/98) 1863 nend Nov 27, Battle of Payne's Farm, Va. (MC, 11/27/01) 1863 nend Nov 29, The Battle of Fort Sanders, Knoxville, Tenn., ended in Confederate withdrawal. There were 8-900 causalities. (HN, 11/29/98)(MC, 11/29/01) 1863 nend Dec 1, Oliver Herford, American humorist and poet, was born. He wrote "Cupid's Fair Weather Book" and "The Deb's Dictionary." (HN, 12/1/99) 1863 nend Dec 1, Belle Boyd, a Confederate spy, was released from prison in Washington. (HN, 12/1/98) 1863 nend Dec 2, Charles Ringling, one of the 7 Ringling brothers of circus fame, was born. Of the 7 Ringling brothers, five were involved in the founding of the famous Ringling Brothers Circus. The 5 Ringling brothers who founded the circus were Albert, Otto, Alfred, Charles and John. Two other Ringling brothers were never associated with the circus, which began as a wagon show in 1884. In 1907 they bought the Barnum & Bailey Circus and after 1918 called their circus the Ringling Brothers and Barnum & Bailey Combined Shows. John Ringling?s son, John Ringling North, sold the circus to interests outside of the family in 1967. (HN, 12/2/00)(HNQ, 1/22/03) 1863 nend Dec 2, General Braxton Bragg turned over command of the Army of Tennessee to General William Hardee at Dalton, Ga. (HN, 12/2/98) 1863 nend Dec 3, Confederate General Longstreet abandoned his siege at Knoxville, Ten., and moved his army east and north toward Greeneville. This withdrawal marked the end of the Fall Campaign in Tennessee. (HN, 12/3/98)(MC, 12/3/01) 1863 nend Dec 4, Seven solid days of bombardment ended at Charleston, S.C. The Union fired some 1,307 rounds. (HN, 12/4/99) 1863 nend Dec 6, The monitor Weehawken sank in the Charleston Harbor. (HN, 12/6/98) 1863 nend Dec 7, Outlaw George Ives, an alleged member of an outlaw gang known as the "Innocents," robbed and then killed Nick Thiebalt in the Ruby Valley of what would become Montana. (HN, 12/7/98) 1863 nend Dec 8, President Lincoln announced his plan for the Reconstruction of the South. President Lincoln offered amnesty for confederate deserters. (AP, 12/8/97)(MC, 12/8/01) 1863 nend Dec 8, Averell?s cavalry destroyed railroads in the southwestern part of West Virginia. (HN, 12/8/98) 1863 nend Dec 8, A Jesuit church in Chile caught fire and 2,500 died in a panic. (MC, 12/8/01) 1863 nend Dec 9, Major General John G. Foster replaced Major General Ambrose E. Burnside as Commander of the Department of Ohio. (HN, 12/9/98) 1863 nend Dec 11, Union gunboats Restless, Bloomer and Caroline entered St. Andrew?s Bay, Fla., and began bombardment of both Confederate Quarters and Saltworks. (HN, 12/11/98) 1863 nend Dec 12, Edvard Munch (d.1944), Norwegian artist (The Scream), was born. (WUD, 1994 p.941)(NH, 6/00, p.20)(HN, 12/12/00) 1863 nend Dec 12, Orders were given in Richmond that no more supplies from the Union should be received by Federal prisoners. (HN, 12/12/98) 1863 nend Dec 14, The widow of Confederate General B.H. Helm was given amnesty by President Lincoln after she swore allegiance to the Union. Mrs. Helm was the half-sister of Mary Todd Lincoln. (HN, 12/14/98) 1863 nend Dec 14, Longstreet attacked Union troops at Bean?s Station, Tenn. (HN, 12/14/98) 1863 nend Dec 16, Confederate General Joseph Johnston took command of the Army of Tennessee, replacing Lt. General William Hardee. (HN, 12/16/98) 1863 nend Albert Bierstadt created his painting "Rocky Mountains, Landers Peak." (SSFC, 8/4/02, p.M2) 1863 nend Johan Barthold Jongkind created his painting " Port of Honfleur at Evening." (WSJ, 12/3/03, p.D12) 1863 nend George Richmond, R.A., painted the portrait "Maharani ?Chund Kowr? alias Rani Jindan" in India. (SFEM, 2/1/98, p.14)(SFC, 2/7/98, p.E1) 1863 nend Auguste Rodin began his sculpture masterpiece "Mask of the Man With the Broken Nose." (WSJ, 4/1/97, p.A16) 1863 nend The Paris Salon des Refuses was a group show of artists rejected by the mavens of the official salon. The hit and scandal of the show was Edouard Manet?s "Le Dejeuner sur l?Herbe" which depicted a happy foursome picnicking in the woods with the two women undressed. Other refused artists included Cezanne, Pissarro, and other impressionists. (WSJ, 6/14/95, p.A-14) 1863 nend George Frederic Watts painted "Choosing." (WSJ, 2/19/97, p.A15) 1863 nend Charles Dodgson, aka Lewis Carroll, published "Alice?s Adventures in Wonderland." [see Dodgson in 1832] (WSJ, 11/9/95, p.A-20) 1863 nend T.H. Huxley published his exposition of Darwinism in his lectures to working men: "On Our Knowledge of the Causes of the Phenomena of Organic Nature." (NH, 5/96, p.22) 1863 nend Jules Verne (1828-1905) authored his novel ?Five Weeks in a Balloon.? This was his first published book. (WSJ, 9/18/07, p.D8) 1863 nend The first SF Cliff House was built as a dining establishment for well-to-do families. It was purchased in 1881 by Adolph Sutro and rebuilt in 1909 after a fire. [see 1881] (SFC, 1/7/97, p.B1)(SFC, 4/14/99, Z1 p.4) 1863 nend The Sears-Ferris House was built in Carson City, Nev. It was the boyhood home of Gale Ferris (1859-1896), the inventor of the Ferris Wheel. (SSFC, 11/19/06, p.F10) 1863 nend Ellen White of Maine, founder of the 7th Day Adventists, testified against tobacco, spirituous liquors, snuff, tea, coffee, flesh-meats, butter, spices, rich cakes, mince pies, large amounts of salt and all exciting substances used as articles of food. (SFC, 9/29/00, p.W17) 1863 nend In Indianapolis the Crown Hill cemetery was established. (SFEC,10/26/97, p.T6) 1863 nend Walker Rankin Sr. founded the 31,000 acre Quarter Circle U Rankin Ranch in the Tehachapi Mountains of Kern County, Ca. (SFEC, 7/5/98, p.T6) 1863 nend The Mütter Museum was founded as part of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia was an educational service for practicing physicians. (NW, 11/18/02, p.14) 1863 nend Fitz Hugh Ludlow, author of the 1857 book "The Hasheesh Eater," arrived in SF by the Overland Stagecoach. He rode with painter Albert Bierstadt who married Ludlow's wife in 1864. Ludlow wrote an account of his travels titled "The heart of the Continent." In 1999 Donald P. Dulchinos published "Pioneer of Inner Space: The Life of Fitz Hugh Ludlow, Hasheesh Eater." (SFEC, 1/24/99, BR p.4) 1863 nend Treasury Sec. Hugh McCulloch lamented that America?s monetary system "is unfitted for a commercial country like ours." (WSJ, 1/13/98, p.A1) 1863 nend The Treaty of Ruby Valley with the Western Shoshone Indians assured their ownership of property that later became a US nuclear test site. The treaty stated that the presence of US settlements will not negate Indian sovereignty. (SFC, 7/12/97, p.E4)(SFEC, 8/29/99, Z1 p.7) 1863 nend The US government paid a group of Nez Perce Indians $265,000 for some 6 million acres in the area of Lewiston, Oregon. (ON, 3/04, p.1) 1863 nend James Garfield was elected to Congress. (HNQ, 8/3/02) 1863 nend Civil war ships, the Dot, the Charm and the Paul Jones, were scuttled on a tributary to the Big Muddy during the Confederate retreat from Vicksburg. (NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.88) 1863 nend At the Battle of Chickamauga Creek, James B. Steedman seized his regiment?s colors and dramatically led his wavering volunteers through a withering barrage of Confederate fire. The Confederates won the battle, but Steedman emerged unscathed to become Toledo?s most famous Civil War hero. (Smith., 4/1995, p.140) 1863 nend Pauline C. Fryer (1833-1893) toured the South getting information for the Union, when she was found out and ordered hung by Confederate General Braxton Bragg. The Union troops took the town before the sentence could be carried out. She then toured the North and wrote a book "Spy for the Cumberland" (1864). President Lincoln gave her the Honorary rank of Major. (www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=6333443) 1863 nend Bloody Bill Anderson, notorious Confederate guerilla leader, executed all the troopers in a raid but one, Sergeant T.M. Goodman, who was left alive to deliver news of the raid to Union officers. (SFC, 9/23/96, A15) 1863 nend The National Bank Act was passed to create a market in government bonds needed to finance the Civil War. The act required that bank notes issued by commercial banks be uniform in appearance and that 90% be backed by collateral consisting of US Treasury securities. [see 1881-1890, currency decline] Prior to the Civil War virtually the only currency was local and issued by banks. The government issued "greenbacks" to finance the Civil War." (WSJ,11/24/95, p.A-8)(WSJ, 6/27/96, p.B1)(Wired, 10/96, p.143)(WSJ,1/13/98, p.A1) 1863 nend Dorence Atwater was captured by the Confederates and his penmanship won him the job of recording the name, company, regiment, disease, date of death, and grave number of each prisoner who had died at Andersonville. Atwater made a secret copy of the list and after the war wanted to publish it so that the families of the dead would know where their loved ones were buried. When the Civil War ended, former Union soldier Dorence Atwater sought Clara Barton?s help to publish a list of soldiers who had died while interned at the Confederate Andersonville prison camp in Georgia. He approached Clara Barton, who had already opened an office to locate missing Union soldiers. When they tried to publish the death register, however, it resulted in Atwater?s court marital and imprisonment. (HNQ, 2/27/01) 1863 nend A woman was executed in Texas. The next woman to face execution would be Karla Faye Tucker in 1998. (SFC, 2/5/97, p.A7)(WSJ, 2/3/98, p.A1) 1863 nend In California the state?s "black laws" were repealed. (SFC, 7/18/98, p.A15) 1863 nend The California Teachers Association was formed. (SSFC, 1/23/05, p.C1) 1863 nend As San Francisco voters considered a bond measure to help finance the Central Pacific Railroad, Philip Stanford, brother of the governor, drove through the city on election day "handing out money liberally? to all who would vote for the bond. (SFC, 7/8/96, p.D2) 1863 nend A locomotive named the Gov. Stanford was built by Richard Norris & Son in Philadelphia and shipped around Cape Horn to California by schooner. It hauled the Central Pacific?s 1st freight and passenger trains. (SSFC, 8/8/04, p.D5) 1863 nend John A. Frye (d.1911), a shoemaker from England, founded the Frye Boot company in the US (www.bootbarn.com/blog/archives/2005/07/frye_boots_step.html). (WSJ, 6/21/07, p.D1) 1863 nend Linus Yale Jr. introduced the Double Dial bank lock. It revolutionized the vault business by presenting 100 million possible combinations. (WSJ, 12/2/06, p.P9) 1863 nend John D. Rockefeller and partner Maurice Clark invested $4,000 to start an oil refinery. (WSJ, 5/8/98, p.W10) 1863 nend Sir Francis Galton theorized that the quality of human offspring would improve if talented people married only other talented people. His ideas led to the eugenics movement. (SSFC, 11/9/03, p.D1) 1863 nend William Banting, An English undertaker, printed his pamphlet ?Letter on Corpulence,? in which he recommended a high protein diet that helped him loose weight. The diet was based on one recently recommended for diabetics. (WSJ, 5/5/04, p.B1) 1863 nend Last Chance Gulch and Alder Gulch were sites of major gold discoveries in the American West. Each became a city and each served as capital of the territory that eventually became the state of Montana. After the gold strikes, Alder Gulch became Virginia City and Last Chance Gulch became Helena. (HNQ, 2/9/00) 1863 nend The star U Scorpii flared up as a recurrent novae. It recurred in 1906 and 1936. (SCTS, p.182) 1863 nend Eugene Delacroix (b.1798), French artist, died. (WUD, 1994, p.381) 1863 nend William Makepeace Thackeray (b.1811), English novelist and satirist, died. His books, which included "Vanity Fair," were published as monthly serials. In 2001 D.J. Taylor authored the biography "Thackeray: The Life of a Literary Man." Thackeray was a chronicler of upward mobility. (HN, 7/18/98)(WSJ, 11/12/01, p.A20) 1863 nend The sailing ship Star of India was built as Euterpe, a full-rigged iron ship in Ramsey, Isle of Man. In 1926, Star of India was sold to the Zoological Society of San Diego, to be the centerpiece of a planned museum and aquarium. The Great Depression and World War II caused that plan to be canceled; it wasn't until 1957 that her restoration began. (SFC, 11/13/06, p.B1)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_of_India_(ship)) 1863 nend The British military invaded Maori land in New Zealand in violation of the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi. (Fin. Post, 11/2/95, p.2) 1863 nend The Cayman Islands became a British Caribbean territory. (AP, 5/10/03) 1863 nend French forces captured Puebla, Mexico. (SFEC,11/9/97, p.T6) 1863 nend Ludwig II (1845-1886) became king of Bavaria after his father died. (SFEC, 4/9/00, p.T5) 1863 nend In Iran the Bahai faith was founded by Hussain Ali (b. Nov 12, 1817 in Iran). It reflected the attitudes of the Shiah sect with an emphasis on tolerance. Among its principles are full equality between the sexes, universal education and the establishment of a world of a world federal system. The Baha'i Faith was founded in Iran by a man named Baha'u'llah, which literally means "The Glory of God". (WUD, 1994, p.111)(SFC, 10/30/98, p.A20) 1863 nend In Italy the Grand Hotel des Iles Borromees opened in Stresa on Lake Maggiore. (AMNHDT, 5/98) 1863 nend Radama II, ruler of Madagascar, was assassinated. He was succeeded by his wife Rasoherina, who was later succeeded by another of Radama's wives, Ranavalona II. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radama_II_of_Madagascar) 1863 nend Prince Charles III built the casino of Monte Carlo. The Monte Carlo Casino was built and officially named the Sea Bathing & Circle of Foreigners Co. (SFC, 1/8/97, p.C1)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1863 nend The Matica Slovenska was founded as a cultural organization and nurtured the dream of Slovak independence. (WSJ, 4/26/96, p.A-11) 1863 1865 The 1998 novel "The Last Full Measure" by Jeff Shaara covers the last years of the Civil War. (SFEC, 6/21/98, p.D5) 1863 1865 In the Dominican Republic the conflict of this period was known as the War of the Restoration. From 1844--after independence from Haitian?until 1899, the fledgling republic was dominated by a series of dictatorial "men on horseback." One of these strong men, Pedro Santana, endeavored to stave off the threat of Haiti by returning the country to Spanish control, with him as the Governor General beginning in 1861. The Spanish troops eventually left, but the idea of the protectorate remained, eventually leading to U.S. occupation in 1916. (HNQ, 8/10/00) 1863 1867 Felix Nadar joined a group of men that included Jules Verne to promote the development of flying machines, which they envisioned as helicopters. They funded the building of the Geant, the largest balloon yet flown that measured 147 feet in circumference. It held 12 people in a two-story basket and flew over a number of cities before crashing in Hanover injuring both Nadar and his wife. This made him quite famous and he wrote two books about his experiences. (Smith., 5/95, p.79-80) 1863 1869 The Big Four Sacramento merchants, Charles Crocker, Mark Hopkins, Collis P. Huntington, and Leland Stanford put up the initial money for the Central Pacific Railroad. Congress thought that silver from the Comstock mines would help finance the Civil War and contracted the Central Pacific and Union Pacific to build a trans-continental railroad. (SFC, 5/19/96,City Guide, p.17) 1863 1869 In 2000 Stephen E. Ambrose authored "Nothing Like It in the World, The Men Who Built the Transcontinental Railroad 1863-1869." (SSFC, 12/17/00, BR p.10) 1863 1933 Constantine Cavafy, Greek poet. He describes the coming of the barbarians and the fall of the Roman empire as: "At least they were some kind of solution." (V.D.-H.K.p.296) 1863 1936 James Harvey Robinson, American historian: "We are incredibly heedless in the formation of our beliefs, but find ourselves filled with an illicit passion for them when anyone proposes to rob us of their companionship." (AP, 11/23/97) 1863 1941 William Gibbs McAdoo, American government official: "It is impossible to defeat an ignorant man in argument." (AP, 6/11/97) 1863 1952 George Santayana, Spanish-American philosopher: "What man strives to preserve, in preserving himself, is something which he has never been at any particular moment." "Miracles are propitious accidents, the natural causes of which are too complicated to be readily understood." (AP, 12/7/97)(HN, 7/18/98) 1864 nend Jan 1, Alfred Stieglitz (d.1946), American photographer, was born in New Jersey. (www.fact-index.com) 1864 nend Jan 3, John Joseph Hughes (b.1797), Irish-born Archbishop of the Catholic diocese of NY, died. (WSJ, 12/5/08,p.A19)(www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/John-Joseph-Hughes) 1864 nend Jan 10, George Washington Carver (d.1943), American botanist and a former slave who became a scientist and inventor, gave the world peanut butter, was born. "Ninety-nine percent of the failures come from people who have the habit of making excuses." (AP, 9/20/98)(HN, 1/10/99) 1864 nend Jan 11, H. George Selfridge, founder of the British store Selfridge and Co., Ltd., was born. He was the first to say "the customer is always right." (HN, 1/11/99) 1864 nend Jan 11, Charing Cross Station opened in London. (MC, 1/11/02) 1864 nend Jan 13, Wilhelm K.W. Wien, German physicist (Nobel 1911), was born. (MC, 1/13/02) 1864 nend Jan 13, Composer Stephen Foster (37), composer and American song writer, died in a New York City hospital. Ken Emerson later authored his biography. (HFA, '96, p.22)(AHD, p. 519)(AP, 1/13/98)(SFC, 4/23/01, p.E4) 1864 nend Jan 14, Confederate President Jefferson Davis wrote to General Johnson, observing that troops might need to be sent to Alabama or Mississippi. (HN, 1/14/99) 1864 nend Jan 14, General Sherman began his march to the South. (MC, 1/14/02) 1864 nend Jan 16, A celebration was held in San Jose for the completion of the San Francisco and San Jose Railroad. (Ind, 4/20/02, 5A) 1864 nend Jan 24, Eliza Sinclair (d.1892), a widow from New Zealand, paid the Hawaiian monarchy $10,000 in gold for the 70-square-mile Hawaiian island of Niihau. Her son-in-law, Valdemar Knudsen, later paid an additional 1,000 silver dollars for 50 acres that were not included in the original deal. (www.clansinclairusa.org/articles/march2001/elizabeth.php) 1864 nend Feb 5, Federal forces occupied Jackson, Miss. (HN, 2/5/99) 1864 nend Feb 7, Federal troops occupied Jacksonville, Florida. (MC, 2/7/02) 1864 nend Feb 9, After a courtship that began at a party on Thanksgiving Day 1862, Brevet General George Armstrong Custer and Miss Elizabeth Bacon, both of Monroe, Michigan, married. Until Custer died at the Battle of the Little Bighorn a dozen years later, Libbie followed him to postings throughout the West whenever possible. Libbie never remarried, even though she outlived her husband by 50 years, preferring to keep his memory alive by lecturing and writing books about their life together on the Plains. Elizabeth Custer lived comfortably in New York City until her death on April 8, 1933, at the age of 91. (HNPD, 2/9/99) 1864 nend Feb 9, 109 Union prisoners escaped through a tunnel from the Confederate Libby Prison in Richmond, Va., including Lt. James M. Wells of Michigan. In 1904 Wells published an account of the escape in the Jan. issue of McClure?s Magazine. (ON, 3/01, p.7) 1864 nend Feb 10, Konstanty Kalinowski, the last Lithuanian provincial rebel leader, was captured. He was hanged a month later. (LHC, 2/10/03) 1864 nend Feb 13, Miridian Campaign fighting at Chunky Creek and Wyatt, Mississippi. (MC, 2/13/02) 1864 nend Feb 16, Battle of Mobile, Al., operations by Union Army. (MC, 2/16/02) 1864 nend Feb 17, Andrew Barton "Banjo" Paterson (d.1941), Australian poet and journalist, was born. He is best known for his song ?Waltzing Matilda.? (HN, 2/17/01)(NG, 8/04, p.29) 1864 nend Feb 17, Confederate officer George Dixon used the submarine H.L. Hunley to sink the USS Housatonic in Charleston Harbor, S.C. 5 Union soldiers died on the Housatonic as did the 9-man crew of the Hunley as it soon sank. In 1995 the Hunley was found by Clive Cussler. The event was turned into a TNT cable movie in 1999. On Aug 8, 2000, the Hunley was raised and returned to Charleston. (HN, 2/17/98)(SFC, 7/9/99, p.C1)(SFC, 8/9/00, p.A3)(Econ, 4/10/04, p.25) 1864 nend Feb 20, Confederate troops defeated a Union army sent to bring Florida into the union at the Battle of Olustee, Fla. (HN, 2/20/99) 1864 nend Feb 21, The 1st US Catholic parish church for blacks was dedicated in Baltimore. (MC, 2/21/02) 1864 nend Feb 21-22, Battle at Okolona, Mississippi. (MC, 2/21/02) 1864 nend Feb 22, Nathan Bedford Forrest?s brother, Jeffrey, was killed at Okolona, Miss. Nathan Bedford Forrest (1821-1877) was a Confederate cavalry general. (HN, 2/22/98)(WUD, 1994, p.558) 1864 nend Feb 22-27, Battle at Dalton, Georgia. (MC, 2/22/02) 1864 nend Feb 24-25, Battle of Tunnel Hill, GA (Buzzard's Roost). (MC, 2/24/02) 1864 nend Feb 27, The 6th and last day of battle at Dalton, Georgia, (about 600 casualties). (MC, 2/27/02) 1864 nend Feb 27, First Union prisoners arrived at Camp Sumpter prison near Andersonville, Georgia. It was designed for 6,000 prisoners but by summer?s end held 33,000. After enduring the hardship of being held in the South's Andersonville and Cahaba prison camps, A terrible disaster befell hundreds of Union soldiers who were being shipped home on the steamer Sultana at the end of the Civil War. (HN, 2/27/98)(MC, 2/27/02)(AHHT, 10/02, p.20) 1864 nend Feb 28-Mar 3, A skirmish took place at Albemarle County, Virginia (Burton's Ford). (MC, 2/28/02) 1864 nend Feb 29, Union Brig. Gen. Judson Kilpatrick split his forces at the Rapidan River ordering Col. Ulric Dahlgren to lead 500 men his men to Goochland Court House, while the remainder followed Kilpatrick in his raid on Richmond. (HN, 2/29/00) 1864 nend Feb 29, Lt. William B. Cushing led a landing party from the USS Monticello to Smithville, NC, in an attempt to capture Confederate Brig. Gen. Louis Hebert, only to discover that Hebert and his men had already moved on Wilmington. (HN, 2/29/00) 1864 nend Mar 1, Rebecca Lee (1831-1895) became the first black woman to receive an American medical degree, from the New England Female Medical College in Boston. (AP,3/1/00)(www.nlm.nih.gov/changingthefaceofmedicine/physicians/biography_73.html) 1864 nend Mar 1, Louis Ducos du Hauron patented a movie machine that was never built. (SC, 3/1/02) 1864 nend Mar 4, Thomas Starr King (b.1824), Unitarian minister, died in SF. During the Civil War, he spoke zealously in favor of the Union and is credited (by Abraham Lincoln) with saving California from becoming a separate republic. In addition, he organized the Pacific Branch of the United States Sanitary Commission, which cared for wounded soldiers. He led many rallies on behalf of the Union in SF, and the site of the rallies was later renamed Union Square. (SSFC, 7/21/02, p.F2)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Starr_King) 1864 nend Mar 9, 1864, President Abraham Lincoln officially commissioned Ulysses S. Grant lieutenant general in the U.S. Army. After leading Union victories in the West in 1862-63, Lincoln gave Grant supreme command of the Union forces with the revived rank of lieutenant general. (HNQ, 3/13/99) 1864 nend Mar 10, Ulysses S. Grant became commander of the Union armies in the Civil War. (AP, 3/10/98) 1864 nend Mar 10, Red River campaign took place in LA. [see Mar 15] (MC, 3/10/02) 1864 nend Mar 12, Ulysses S. Grant became commander in chief of the Union armies in the American Civil War. (AP, 3/12/07) 1864 nend Mar 14, Casey Jones (John Luther Jones), railroad engineer, was born. (HFA, ?96, p.26)(HN, 3/14/01)(MC, 3/14/02) 1864 nend Mar 14, Rossini's "Petite Messe Solennelle," premiered in Paris. (MC, 3/14/02) 1864 nend Mar 14, Samuel and Florence Baker arrived at Lake Luta N?Zige and named it Lake Albert. They soon found that the Nile entered the lake at a 130-foot waterfall that they named Murchison Falls (Uganda) after the president of the British Royal Geographical Society. In 2004 Pat shipman authored ?To the Heart of the Nile: Lady Florence Baker and the Exploration of Central Africa.? (ON, 10/01, p.12)(Econ, 4/24/04, p.87) 1864 nend Mar 15, Red River Campaign began as the Union forces reached Alexandria, La. (HN, 3/15/98) 1864 nend Mar 18, The Dale Dike on Humber River, England, crumbled drowning some 240. (MC, 3/18/02) 1864 nend Mar 19, Montana vigilantes lynched Jack Slade (33), a hell-raising freight hauler. Mark Twain had encountered Slade in 1861 and included him in his book ?Roughing It? (1872). In 2008 Dan Rottenberg authored ?Death of a Gunfighter: The Quest for Jack Slade, the West?s Most Elusive Legend.? (WSJ, 11/11/08, p.A15)(www.twainquotes.com/Slade.html) 1864 nend Mar 19, Charles Gounod's opera "Mireille" premiered in Paris. (MC, 3/19/02) 1864 nend Mar 19, Alexandre Calame (b.1810), Swiss painter, died in Menton, France. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_Calame) 1864 nend Mar 21, Battle at Henderson's Hill (Bayou Rapids), Louisiana. (MC, 3/21/02) 1864 nend Mar 23, Encounter at Camden, AR. (SS, 3/23/02) 1864 nend Mar 25, Battle of Paducah, KY (Forrest's raid). (MC, 3/25/02) 1864 nend Mar 28, A group of Copperheads attacked Federal soldiers in Charleston Ill. Five were killed and twenty wounded. (HN, 3/28/99) 1864 nend Mar 29, Union General Steele's troops reached Arkadelphia, Arkansas. (MC, 3/29/02) 1864 nend Mar 30, Skirmish at Mount Elba, Arkansas. (MC, 3/30/02) 1864 nend Apr 1, The first travel accident policy was issued to James Batterson by the Travelers Insurance Company. (OTD) 1864 nend Apr 2, Skirmish at Crump's Hill (Piney Woods), Louisiana. (MC, 4/2/02) 1864 nend Apr 2, Skirmish at Spoonville-Antoine, Arkansas. (MC, 4/2/02) 1864 nend Apr 8, In the Battle of Mansfield, Louisiana, Federals were routed by Confederate Gen. Richard Taylor. Keatchi girl?s school was taken over as a hospital for the injured soldiers. (HN, 4/8/98)(SSFC, 7/7/02, p.C5) 1864 nend Apr 9, The Battle of Pleasant Hill, LA, left 2,870 casualties. (MC, 4/9/02) 1864 nend Apr 10, Eugene Francis Charles D'Albert, German pianist, composer (Golem), was born. (MC, 4/10/02) 1864 nend Apr 10, The French crowned Archduke Maximilian, the younger brother of Austria?s Franz Josef, as ruler of Mexico. (CLTIH, 4/10/96)(WSJ, 5/5/00, p.W17) 1864 nend Apr 12, Battle of Blair's Landing in LA. (MC, 4/12/02) 1864 nend Apr 12, Confederate forces under Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest captured Fort Pillow, Tennessee, and killed many black Union troops there. Charged with ruthless killing, Forrest argued that the soldiers had been killed trying to escape; however, racial animosity on the part of his troops was undoubtedly a factor. (HN, 4/12/99)( http://www.civilwarweb.com/articles/05-99/ftpillow.htm) 1864 nend Apr 15, General Steele's Union troops occupied Camden, Arkansas. (MC, 4/15/02) 1864 nend Apr 16, Flora Batson, soprano baritone singer, was born. (HN, 4/16/99) 1864 nend Apr 17, General Grant banned the trading of prisoners. (HN, 4/17/98) 1864 nend Apr 17, There was a bread revolt in Savannah, Georgia. (MC, 4/17/02) 1864 nend Apr 18, Richard Harding Davis, journalist, was born. (HN, 4/18/01) 1864 nend Apr 19, Naval Engagement at Cherbourg, France: USS Kearsarge vs. CSS Alabama. [see Jun 19] (MC, 4/19/02) 1864 nend Apr 21, Max Weber (d.1920), German sociologist and political economist, was born. Weber drew strong connection between Protestantism and the rise of capitalism in "The Protestant and the Spirit of Capitalism" (1904). "He was the first sociologist to grasp that the universe has no true meaning." In 1996 "Max Weber: Politics and the Spirit of Tragedy" by John Patrick Diggins was published. (V.D.-H.K.p.167)(WSJ, 9/3/98, p.A1)(HN, 4/21/01) 1864 nend Apr 22, Congress authorized the use of the phrase "In God We Trust" on for the 1st time on a 2 cent coin. (AP, 4/22/97)(MC, 4/22/02) 1864 nend Apr 23, Battle of Cane River, LA (Red River Expedition, Monett's Ferry). (MC, 4/23/02) 1864 nend Apr 25, Battle of Marks? Mill, Arkansas. (HN, 4/25/98) 1864 nend Apr 25, After facing defeat in the Red River Campaign, Union General Nathaniel Bank returned to Alexandria, Louisiana. (HN, 4/25/99) 1864 nend Apr 30, Work began on the Dams along the Red River which would allow Union General Nathaniel Banks? troops to sail over the rapids above Alexandria, Louisiana. (HN, 4/30/98) 1864 nend Apr 30, New York became the 1st state to charge for a hunting license. (MC, 4/30/02) 1864 nend Apr, At Fort Pillow, Tenn., Confederate troops murdered at least 25 black Union soldiers who had surrendered and begged for their lives. In 1996 "Don?t Know Much About the Civil War: Everything You Need to Know About America?s Greatest Conflict But Never Learned" by Kenneth C. Davis was published. (SFC, 6/19/96, p.E8) 1864 nend May 1-8, Battle at Alexandria, Louisiana (Red River Campaign). (MC, 5/1/02) 1864 nend May 1, Atlanta campaign, GA. (MC, 5/1/02) 1864 nend May 4, Ulysses S. Grant crossed Rapidan and began his duel with Robert E. Lee?s Confederate army. (HN, 5/4/98) 1864 nend May 5, Atlanta Campaign: 5 days fighting began at Rocky Face Ridge. (MC, 5/5/02) 1864 nend May 5, The Battle of Wilderness began as Robert E. Lee caught U.S. Grant's forces in the Virginia woods. It was the first in a series of clashes fought as Grant's army advanced on Richmond, Va. During the close range fighting in the dense woods of Virginia, forest fires broke out, killing many wounded soldiers. While the battle ended as a tactical draw, Lee was unable to halt Grant's progress toward Richmond. (HN, 5/5/98)(HNPD, 5/5/99) 1864 nend May 5, Battle between Confederate & Union ships at mouth of Roanoke. (MC, 5/5/02) 1864 nend May 6, In the second day of the Battle of Wilderness between Union General Ulysses S. Grant and Confederate General Robert E. Lee, Confederate Gen. James Longstreet (d.1903) was wounded by his own men. (HN, 5/6/99)(MC, 5/6/02) 1864 nend May 6, General Sherman began to advance on Atlanta. (MC, 5/6/02) 1864 nend May 7, In Virginia the Battle of Wilderness ended, with heavy losses to both sides. Union losses were 17,666; CSA-7,500. In 2002 the US federal government bought the 465-acre tract of the battle site and incorporated it into Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania Military Park. (HN, 5/7/98)(AARP, 7/05, p.12) 1864 nend May 8, Union troops arrived at Spotsylvania Court House to find the Confederates waiting for them. (HN, 5/8/99) 1864 nend May 8, The Atlanta Campaign saw severe fighting at Rocky Face Ridge. (HN, 5/8/98) 1864 nend May 8-19 Grant and Lee?s armies suffered horrendous losses at the "Bloody Angle" during the Battle of Spotsylvania. Shortly after the Battle of the Wilderness, Grant?s Union forces once again attempted to outflank or smash Lee?s Confederates. Defensive breastworks contributed to savage, close combat that lasted about a week and a half, resulting in 17,000 Union and 8,000 casualties. (HNQ, 10//00) 1864 nend May 9, Union General John Sedgwick was shot and killed by a confederate sharpshooter during fighting at Spotsylvania, Va. His last words before getting hit were "They couldn't hit an elephant at this distance." (HN, 5/9/99) 1864 nend May 9, Battle of Dalton, GA. (MC, 5/9/02) 1864 nend May 9, Battle of Cloyd's Mt. and Swift Creek, VA (Drewry?s Bluff, Ft. Darling). (MC, 5/9/02) 1864 nend May 9, Austria and Denmark held a ship battle at Helgoland. (MC, 5/9/02) 1864 nend May 10, Battles at Spotsylvania Court House, Virginia. [see May 8] (MC, 5/10/02) 1864 nend May 11, Confederate General J.E.B. Stuart was mortally wounded at Yellow Tavern. (HN, 5/11/98) 1864 nend May 12, The Battle of Spotsylvania Courthouse, Virginia, was fought. (SC, Internet, 5/12/97) 1864 nend May 12, Battle of Todd's Tavern, VA (Sheridan's Raid). (MC, 5/12/02) 1864 nend May 12, Union General Benjamin Butler attacked Drewry?s Bluff on the James River. (SC, internet, 5/12/97)(HN, 5/12/99) 1864 nend May 12, J.E.B. Stuart (31), Confederate Gen?l., died. [see May 11] (SC, Internet, 5/12/97)(MC, 5/12/02) 1864 nend May 13, Battle of Resaca commenced as Union General Sherman fought towards Atlanta. (SS, Internet, 5/13/97)(HN, 5/13/98) 1864 nend May 15, At Battle of New Market, Virginia, Military Institute cadets repelled a Union attack. (HN, 5/15/99) 1864 nend May 15, In mid-May about daylight Major Downing succeeded in surprising the Cheyenne village of Cedar Bluffs, in a small canon about 60 miles north of the South Platte river. ?We commenced shooting. I ordered the men to commence killing them. They lost, as I am informed, some 26 killed and 30 wounded. My own loss was one killed and one wounded. I burnt up their lodges and everything I could get hold of. I took no prisoners. We got out of ammunition and could not pursue them." (http://facweb.furman.edu/~benson/docs/peace.htm) 1864 nend May 16, In the Atlanta Campaign, the battle of Resaca, begun May 13, ended. (MC, 5/16/02) 1864 nend May 17, The Battle of Adairsville, Georgia, resulted in a Confederate retreat. (HN, 5/17/98) 1864 nend May 18, Jan P. Veth Bayern, Dutch painter, etcher, lithographer, art historian, was born. (SC, 5/18/02) 1864 nend May 18, The fighting at Spotsylvania in Virginia, reached its peak at the Bloody Angle. (HN, 5/18/99) 1864 nend May 18, Battle of Yellow Bayou, LA (Bayou de Glaize, Old Oaks). (SC, 5/18/02) 1864 nend May 18, James Byron Gordon (41) Confederate Brigadier-General, died. (SC, 5/18/02) 1864 nend May 19, The last engagement in a series of battles of Spotsylvania was fought. Following the American Civil War Battle of Spotsylvania in 1864, General Ulysses S. Grant said, "The world has never seen so bloody and so protracted a battle as the one being fought and I hope never will again." (HN, 5/19/98)(HNQ, 2/12/99) 1864 nend May 19, Battle of Port Walthall Junction, VA (Bermuda Hundred). (MC, 5/19/02) 1864 nend May 19, Nathaniel Hawthorne (b.1804), US writer (Scarlet Letter), died in Plymouth, New Hampshire. Friend and former US Pres. Franklin Pierce was at his bedside. In 2003 Brenda Wineapple authored "Hawthorne: A Life." (MC, 5/19/02)(http://www.gradesaver.com/)(SSFC, 10/5/03, p.M1) 1864 nend May 20, Battle at Ware Bottom Church, Virginia, killed or injured 1,400. (MC, 5/20/02) 1864 nend May 20, Spotsylvania-campaign ended after 10,920 were killed or injured person. (MC, 5/20/02) 1864 nend May 21, Gen. David Hunter took command of Dept. of West Virginia. (MC, 5/21/02) 1864 nend May 22, Battle of North Anna River, VA. (MC, 5/22/02) 1864 nend May 23, Union General Ulysses Grant attempted to outflank Lee in the Battle of North Anna, Virginia. (HN, 5/23/98) 1864 nend May 25, Battle of New Hope Church, Ga. Joseph E. Johnston tried to halt Sherman?s advance on Atlanta at the Hell Hole. (SC, 5/25/02)(AM, 11/04, p.28) 1864 nend May 26, Congress created the Montana Territory and Virginia City became the capital in 1865. Helena was made capital of the territory in 1875. Montana became the 41st state in 1889, with Helena the state capital. (AP, 5/26/98)(HNQ, 2/9/00) 1864 nend May 26-30, There was a skirmish along the Totopotomoy Creek, Virginia. (MC, 5/26/02) 1864 nend May 29, A.H. Borgesius, Dutch amateur astronomer, was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1864 nend May 29, Mexican Emperor Maximilian arrived at Vera Cruz. (SC, 5/29/02) 1864 nend May 30, Battle of Bethesda Church, VA. (MC, 5/30/02) 1864 nend Jun 1, Battle of Cold Harbor, Virginia, began as Lee tried to turn Grant?s flank. (HN, 6/1/98) 1864 nend Jun 1-Nov, Shenandoah Valley campaign began. (MC, 6/1/02) 1864 Jun 1, Hong Xiuquan (b.1814), leader of the Taiping Heavenly Army, died from poisoning. At the time of his death his led over 100,000 troops and controlled an area bigger than France. In 1996 Jonathan Spence authored ?God?s Chinese Son,? a biography of Xiuquan, who believed himself to be God?s second son. (WSJ, 8/18/07, p.P9)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Xiuquan) 1864 nend Jun 2, This was day 2 in the Battle of Cold Harbor. (SC, 6/2/02) 1864 nend Jun 3, Some 7,000 Union troops were killed within 30 minutes during the Battle of Cold Harbor in Virginia. General Lee won his last victory of the Civil War at the Battle of Cold Harbor in Virginia (HN, 6/3/98)(MC, 6/3/02) 1864 nend Jun 4, With Gen. Sherman again flanking them, Confederates under General Joseph Johnston retreated to the mountains before Marietta, Georgia. General Joseph E. Johnston, the Confederacy?s second-ranking field general, described the army led by Union General William Tecumseh Sherman as the best "since the days of Julius Caesar." (HN, 6/4/98)(HNQ, 9/4/98) 1864 nend Jun 5, Battle of Piedmont, VA (Augusta City). (MC, 6/5/02) 1864 nend Jun 8, Abraham Lincoln was nominated for another term as president during the National Union (Republican) Party's convention in Baltimore. (AP, 6/8/07) 1864 nend Jun 9, Battle of Kenesaw Mountain, GA (Pine Mt, Pine Knob, Golgotha). (MC, 6/9/02) 1864 nend Jun 11, Gen. Wade Hampton (1818-1902) led a company of Citadel cadets at the battle of Trevilian Station in Virginia. (WSJ, 6/7/08, p.W9)(http://civilwarcavalry.com/?p=207) 1864 nend Jun 11, Richard Strauss (d.1949), German orchestra conductor and composer, was born. His work included "Daphne" and "Ariadne auf Naxos," (1912). (CFA, ?96, p.48)(WUD, 1994, p.1405) 1864 nend Jun 12, Lee sent Early into the Shenandoah Valley. (MC, 6/12/02) 1864 nend Jun 14, Alois Alzheimer (d.1915), German psychiatrist, pathologist (Alzheimer Disease), was born. (www.ibro.info/Pub_Main_Display.asp?Main_ID=34) 1864 nend Jun 14, At the Battle of Pine Mountain, Georgia, Confederate General Leonidas Polk was killed by a Union shell. (HN, 6/14/98) 1864 nend Jun 15, Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton signed an order establishing a military burial ground at Robert E. Lee's home estate at Arlington. This became Arlington National Cemetery. (AP, 6/15/97) 1864 nend Jun 15, Battle for Petersburg, Virg., began as Union forces skirmished against the Confederate line. (HN, 6/15/98) 1864 nend Jun 16, Siege of Petersburg and Richmond began after a moonlight skirmish. (HN, 6/16/98) 1864 nend Jun 16, Battle of Lynchburg, VA. (MC, 6/16/02) 1864 nend Jun 17, A 640 meter long pontoon bridge over the James River in Virginia was finished. (MC, 6/17/02) 1864 nend Jun 17, General John B. Hood replaced General Johnston as head of CSA troops around Atlanta. (MC, 6/17/02) 1864 nend Jun 18, At Petersburg, Union General Ulysses S. Grant realized the town could no longer be taken by assault and settled into a siege. (HN, 6/18/98) 1864 nend Jun 19, Skirmish at Pine Knob Georgia. (DTnet, 6/19/97) 1864 nend Jun 19, The CSS "Alabama" was sunk by the USS "Kearsarge" off Cherbourg, France. The Alabama had captured, sank or burned 68 ships in 22 months. (DT, 6/19/97)(HN, 6/19/98)(HNQ, 11/28/00) 1864 nend Jun 20, Battle of Petersburg, VA, in trenches. (MC, 6/20/02) 1864 nend Jun 22, Confederate General A. P. Hill turned back a Federal flanking movement at the Weldon Railroad near Petersburg, Virginia. (HN, 6/22/98) 1864 nend Jun 22, Battle of Ream's Station, VA (Wilson's Raid). (MC, 6/22/02) 1864 nend Jun 25, Union troops surrounding Petersburg, Virginia began building a mine tunnel underneath the Confederate lines. With the Army of Northern Virginia stubbornly clinging to Petersburg, Ulysses S. Grant decided to cut its vital rail lines. (HN, 6/25/98) 1864 nend Jun 27, General Sherman was repulsed by Confederates at the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain. (HN, 6/27/98) 1864 nend Jul 1, Battle of Petersburg, VA, began. (MC, 7/1/02) 1864 nend Jul 2, Statuary Hall in US Capitol was established. (SC, 7/2/02) 1864 nend Jul 2, Gen. Early and Confederate forces reached Winchester. (SC, 7/2/02) 1864 nend Jul 3, Battle of Chattahoochee River, GA, began and lasted until Jul 9. (MC, 7/3/02) 1864 nend Jul 3, At Harpers Ferry, WV, Federals evacuated in face of Early's advance. (MC, 7/3/02) 1864 nend Jul 4-9, Battle at Chattahoochee River, Georgia. (MC, 7/4/02) 1864 nend Jul 5, William Ralston founded the Bank of California with $2 million in capital. (Ind, 11/2/02, 5A)(SFC, 4/7/06, SF Rising p.14) 1864 nend Jul 6, Battle of Chattahoochee River, GA. (MC, 7/6/02) 1864 nend Jul 8, Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston retreated into Atlanta to prevent being flanked by Union General William T. Sherman. (HN, 7/8/98) 1864 nend Jul 9, An informal force of Union troops was defeated by Jubal Early at Monacacy, Maryland. Gen?l. Lew Wallace was able to detain Confederate Lt. Gen?l. Jubal from an early advance on Washington. Federal casualties numbered 1959 vs. 400 Confederate. (HT, 3/97, p.66)(AP, 7/11/97)(HN, 7/9/98)(MC, 7/9/02) 1864 nend Jul 10, During the siege of Petersburg, General Ulysses S. Grant established a huge supply center, called City Point, at the confluence of the James and Appomattox rivers. After nearly 10 months of trench warfare, Confederate resistance at Petersburg, Va., suddenly collapsed. Desperate to save his army, Robert E. Lee called on his soldiers for one last miracle. (HN, 7/10/98) 1864 nend Jul 11, Confederate General Jubal Early's army arrived in Silver Spring, Maryland, on the outskirts of Washington, D.C., and began to probe the Union line. Confederate forces led by Gen. Jubal Early began an invasion of Washington, D.C., turning back the next day. (HT, 3/97, p.66)(AP, 7/11/97)(HN, 7/11/98) 1864 nend Jul 11(Jun 11), Battle of Laurel Hill, WV. (MC, 7/11/02) 1864 nend Jul 11(Jun 11), Battle of Trevillian Station, VA (Central Railroad). (MC, 7/11/02) 1864 nend Jul 12, President Abraham Lincoln became the first standing president to witness a battle as Union forces repelled Jubal Early?s army on the outskirts of Washington, D.C. (HN, 7/12/98) 1864 nend Jul 13, Gen Jubal Early retreated from the outskirts of Washington back to Shenandoah Valley. (MC, 7/13/02) 1864 nend Jul 14, At Harrisburg, Mississippi, Federal troops under General Andrew Jackson Smith repulsed an attack by General Nathan Bedford Forrest, one of Forrest?s only two defeats. (HN, 7/14/98) 1864 nend Jul 14, Gold was discovered in Helena, Mont. Four prospectors discovered gold in a small stream they called "Last Chance." This marked the birth of Helena, future capital of Montana. [see 1863] (Visitor?s brochure, 9/11/97)(MC, 7/14/02) 1864 nend Jul 17, Confederate President Jefferson Davis replaced General Joseph E. Johnston with General John Bell Hood in hopes of defeating Union General William T. Sherman outside Atlanta. (HN, 7/17/98) 1864 nend Jul 18, President Lincoln asked for 500,000 volunteers for military service. (MC, 7/18/02) 1864 nend Jul 18-20, Battle of Winchester, VA (Stephenson's Depot). (MC, 7/19/02) 1864 nend Jul 20, Confederate General John Bell Hood attacked Union forces under General William T. Sherman outside Atlanta. Gen. Hood lashed out against the Union right wing north of the city. Repulsed but undaunted, Hood turned to strike the Federal left wing, Major General James B. McPherson?s Army of the Tennessee, east of Atlanta. He deployed Major General Benjamin F. Chatham?s corps northeast of the city and sent Lieutenant General William J. Hardee's corps around McPherson?s left flank with orders to crush the Army of the Tennessee on the morning of July 22. Both corps were then to assail the rest of Sherman?s host. Battle of Peachtree Creek was part of the Atlanta Campaign. (HN, 7/20/98)(HNQ, 7/19/01)(MC, 7/20/02) 1864 nend Jul 22, The Battle of Atlanta reached its peak when Confederate General John Bell Hood launched an all-out attack on Union General William T. Sherman's Army. Union General James McPherson was killed repulsing a Confederate attack. The Federal officer who sent his men naked against the enemy was Colonel James P. Brownlow of the 1st (Union) Tennessee Cavalry. Casualties numbered 8449 conf, 3641 US. (HN, 7/22/98)(MC, 7/22/02) 1864 nend Jul 24, In the Battle of Winchester, VA, casualties numbered US1200 and CS600. (MC, 7/24/02) 1864 nend Jul 26-31, Riots took place at McCook's to Lovejoy Station, and Stoneman's to Macon, Georgia. (MC, 7/26/02) 1864 nend Jul 26, Battle at Ezra Chapel (Church), Georgia [Hood's Third Sortie]. (MC, 7/26/02) 1864 nend Jul 27, Battle of Darbytown, VA (Deep Bottom, Newmarket Road) (Strawberry Plains). (MC, 7/27/02) 1864 nend Jul 28, Atlanta Campaign-Battle of Ezra Church. (SC, 7/28/02) 1864 nend Jul 29, During the Civil War, Union forces tried to take Petersburg, Va., by exploding a mine under Confederate defense lines. The attack failed. [see Jul 30] (AP, 7/30/97) 1864 nend Jul 29, 3rd and last day of battle at Deep Bottom Run, Virginia. (MC, 7/29/02) 1864 nend Jul 29, Battle of Macon, GA (Stoneman's Raid). (MC, 7/29/02) 1864 nend Jul 30, Gen Burnside failed on an attack of Petersburg and in an effort to penetrate the Confederate lines around Petersburg, Va., Union troops exploded some 8,000 pounds of gunpowder underneath the Confederate trenches. The blast killed 100s of Confederates. Union forces could not capitalize on the assault and ended up trapped in the bloody crater. The ensuing action is known as the Battle of the Crater. 4,000 Union soldiers were killed, wounded or captured in the Battle of the Crater during the Siege of Petersburg. [see Jul 29] (HN, 7/30/98)(HNQ, 8/23/00)(MC, 7/30/02) 1864 nend Jul 30, Confederate troops attack Chambersburg, Pennsylvania. The town was burned by Union forces under McCausland. (MC, 7/30/02) 1864 nend Jul 31, Ulysses S. Grant was named General of Volunteers. (MC, 7/31/02) 1864 nend Jul 31, Louis Hachette (64), French publisher, died. (MC, 7/31/02) 1864 nend Aug 1, Union General Ulysses S. Grant gave general Philip H. Sheridan the mission of clearing the Shenandoah Valley of Confederate forces. (HN, 8/1/98) 1864 nend Aug 1, Battle of Petersburg, VA. (MC, 8/1/02) 1864 nend Aug 3, Federal gunboats attacked but did not capture Fort Gains, at the mouth of Mobile Bay, Alabama. (HN, 8/3/98) 1864 nend Aug 4, Federal troops failed to capture Fort Gaines on Dauphin Island, one of the Confederate forts defending Mobile Bay. (HN, 8/4/99) 1864 nend Aug 5, During the Civil War, Union Adm. David G. Farragut is said to have given his famous order, "Damn the torpedoes, full speed ahead!" as he led his fleet against Mobile Bay, Ala. The Union Navy captured Mobile Bay in Alabama. (AP, 8/5/97)(HN, 8/5/98) 1864 nend Aug 6, Rebels evacuated Ft. Powell, Mobile Bay. (MC, 8/6/02) 1864 nend Aug 7, Union troops captured part of Confederate General Jubal Early's army at Moorefield, West Virginia. (HN, 8/7/98) 1864 nend Aug 8, Union troops and fleet occupied Fort Gaines, Alabama. (MC, 8/8/02) 1864 nend Aug 8, The 1st Geneva Convention was issued on protecting the war wounded. (www.redcross.org) 1864 nend Aug 10, Confederate Commander John Bell Hood sent his cavalry north of Atlanta to cut off Union General William Sherman?s supply lines. (HN, 8/10/98) 1864 nend Aug 12, After a week of heavy raiding, the Confederate cruiser Tallahassee claimed six Union ships captured. (HN, 8/12/98) 1864 nend Aug 13, Battle of Deep Bottom, Va., (Strawberry Plains) and Fussell's Mill, Va. (MC, 8/13/02) 1864 nend Aug 14-16, Confederate General Joe Wheeler besieged Dalton, Georgia. (MC, 8/14/02) 1864 nend Aug 14, A Federal assault continued for a 2nd day of battle at Deep Bottom Run, Virginia. (MC, 8/14/02) 1864 nend Aug 15, The Confederate raider Tallahassee captured six Federal ships off New England. (HN, 8/15/98) 1864 nend Aug 16, Battle of Front Royal, VA. (Guard Hill). (MC, 8/16/02) 1864 nend Aug 18, Union General William T. Sherman sent General Judson Kilpatrick to raid Confederate lines of communication outside Atlanta. The raid was unsuccessful. Union General William Sherman considered Judson Kilpatrick, his cavalry chief, ?a hell of a damn fool.? (HN, 8/18/98) 1864 nend Aug 18, Day 1 of 3 day Petersburg Campaign-Battle of Weldon Railroad, Va. (MC, 8/18/02) 1864 nend Aug 19, The 2nd day of battle at Globe Tavern, Virginia. (MC, 8/19/02) 1864 nend Aug 20, The 8th and last day of battle at Deep Bottom Run, Va., left about 3900 casualties. (MC, 8/20/02) 1864 nend Aug 21, Confederate General A.P. Hill attacked Union troops south of Petersburg, Va., at the Weldon railroad. His attack was repulsed, resulting in heavy Confederate casualties. (HN, 8/21/00) 1864 nend Aug 22, In Geneva, Switzerland, representatives of 12 nations agreed to sign the First Geneva Contention ?for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field.? By 1866 twenty countries had signed. 194 states were signatories as of 2008. (ON, 4/08, p.12) 1864 nend Aug 23, Union troops and fleet occupied Fort Morgan, Alabama. (MC, 8/23/02) 1864 nend Aug 25, Confederate General A.P. Hill pushed back Union General Winfield Scott Hancock from Reams Station where his army had spent several days destroying railroad tracks. With Robert E. Lee?s Army of Northern Virginia stubbornly clinging to Petersburg, Ulysses S. Grant decided to cut its vital rail lines. To perform the surgery, he selected one of the North?s proven heroes??Hancock the Superb.? (HN, 8/25/98) 1864 nend Aug 25, A combination rail and ferry service became available from SF to Alameda, Ca. (chblue.com, 8/25/01) 1864 nend Aug 28, The Democratic National Convention began in Chicago. General George B. McClellan's campaign platform called the war in America a failure. [see Aug 31] (WSJ, 9/25/03, p.A18) 1864 nend Aug 31, At the Democratic convention in Chicago, General George B. McClellan was nominated for president. [see Aug 28] (HN, 8/31/98) 1864 nend Aug 31, Atlanta Campaign-Battle of Jonesboro Georgia, 1900 casualties. (MC, 8/31/01) 1864 nend Sep 1, Roger David Casement, Irish nationalist (Easter uprising 1916), was born. (MC, 9/1/02) 1864 nend Sep 1, Confederate forces under General John Bell Hood evacuated Atlanta in anticipation of the arrival of Union General William T. Sherman's troops. (HN, 9/1/99) 1864 nend Sep 1, 2nd day of battle at Jonesboro, Georgia, left some 3,000 casualties. (MC, 9/1/02) 1864 nend Sep 1, Battle of Petersburg, VA. (MC, 9/1/02) 1864 nend Sep 1, The Charlottetown Conference, convened in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, was the first of a series of meetings that ultimately led to the formation of the Dominion of Canada. (HNQ, 8/22/99) 1864 nend Sep 2, During the Civil War, Union Gen. William T. Sherman?s forces occupied Atlanta. (AP, 9/2/97) 1864 nend Sep 3, Battle of Berryville, VA. (MC, 9/3/01) 1864 nend Sep 4, Bread riots took place in Mobile, Alabama. (MC, 9/4/01) 1864 nend Sep 5, British, French & Dutch fleets attacked Japan in Shimonoseki Straits. (MC, 9/5/01) 1864 nend Sep 7, Union General Phil Sheridan?s troops skirmished with the Confederates under Jubal Early outside Winchester, Virginia. (HN, 9/7/00) 1864 nend Sep 11, A 10-day truce was declared between generals Sherman and Hood so civilians could leave Atlanta, Georgia. (HN, 9/11/98) 1864 nend Sep 14, Lord Robert Cecil, one of the founders of the League of Nations and its president from 1923 to 1945, was born. (HN, 9/14/98) 1864 nend Sep 16, Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest led 4,500 men out of Verona, Miss. to harass Union outposts in northern Alabama and Tennessee. (HN, 9/16/98) 1864 nend Sep 17, Gen. Grant approved Sheridan's plan for Shenandoah Valley Campaign. "I want it so barren that a crow, flying down it, would need to pack rations." (MC, 9/17/01) 1864 nend Sep 17, Walter Savage Landor, author, died. (MC, 9/17/01) 1864 nend Sep 18, Battle of Martinsburg, WV. (MC, 9/18/01) 1864 nend Sep 19, The 3rd Battle of Winchester, Virginia (Opequon, 3rd Winchester). (MC, 9/19/01) 1864 nend Sep 19, Archibald Campbell Godwin, Confederate brig-general, died in battle. (MC, 9/19/01) 1864 nend Sep 22, Union General Philip Sheridan defeated Confederate General Jubal Early's troops at the Battle of Fisher's Hill, in Virginia. Gen Early retreated to Brown's Gap. Sheridan set up camp in Harrisonburg, Va. (HN, 9/22/98)(MC, 9/22/01) 1864 nend Sep 23, Confederate and Union forces clashed at Mount Jackson, Front Royal and Woodstock in Virginia during the Valley campaign. (HN, 9/23/98) 1864 nend Sep 23, Battle of Athens, Va. (MC, 9/23/01) 1864 nend Sep 26, General Nathan Bedford Forrest and his men assaulted a Federal garrison near Pulaski, Tennessee. (HN, 9/26/99) 1864 nend Sep 27, Confederate guerrilla Bloody Bill Anderson and his henchmen, including a teenage Jesse James, massacred 20 unarmed Union soldiers at Centralia, Mo. (HN, 9/27/98) 1864 nend Sep 27, Battle at Pilot Knob (Ft Davidson), Missouri. 1700 were killed or injured. (MC, 9/27/01) 1864 nend Sep 28, Union General William Rosecrans blamed his defeat at Chickamauga on two of his subordinate generals. They were later exonerated by a court of inquiry. (HN, 9/28/98) 1864 nend Sep 28-30, The Battle of Fort Harrison Va. (Chaffin's Farm New Market Heights). (MC, 9/28/01) 1864 nend Sep 29, Union troops captured the Confederate Fort Harrison, outside Petersburg, Virginia. After nearly 10 months of trench warfare, Confederate resistance at Petersburg, Va., suddenly collapsed. (HN, 9/29/98) 1864 nend Sep 29-30, Christian A. Fleetwood was one of 13 African-American soldiers who won the Medal of Honor at the Battle of Chaffin's Farm, Virginia. (HN, 12/21/98) 1864 nend Sep 30, Black Soldiers were given the Medal of Honor. [see Sep 29-30] (MC, 9/30/01) 1864 nend Sep 30, Confederate troops failed to retake Fort Harrison from the Union forces during the siege of Petersburg. (HN, 9/30/98) 1864 nend Sep 30, Battle of Preble's Farm Va. (Poplar Springs Church). (MC, 9/30/01) 1864 nend Sep, General William Tecumseh Sherman held the opinion: "If forced to choose between the penitentiary and the White House for four years . . .I would say the penitentiary, thank you." William T. Sherman penned that thought in a letter to General Henry W. Halleck in Sep, 1864. Twenty years later he squashed a movement to name him the Republican presidential candidate, saying, "I will not accept if nominated and will not serve if elected." (HNQ, 3/27/01) 1864 nend Oct 1, The Condor, a British blockade-runner, was grounded near Fort Fisher, North Carolina. (HN, 10/1/98) 1864 nend Oct 5, At the Battle of Allatoona, a small Union post was saved from Lt. Gen. John Bell Hood's army. 1/3 of Union troops died repulsing Southern forces. (HN, 10/5/98)(MC, 10/5/01) 1864 nend Oct 5, Calcutta, India, was denuded by a cyclone and some 70,000 people were killed. (www.emergency-management.net/cyclone.htm) 1864 nend Oct 7, General Phil Sheridan wired General Ulysses Grant that he had destroyed so much between Winchester and Staunton that the area "will have little in it for man or beast." (HN, 10/7/98) 1864 nend Oct 7, The USS Wachusett captured the CSS Florida in a naval engagement fought at the neutral harbor of Bahia, Brazil. Many of the Confederate crew were ashore at the time. (AH, 10/04, p.15) 1864 nend Oct 7-13, Battle of Darbytown Road, Va. (MC, 10/7/01) 1864 nend Oct 9, At the Battle of Tom's Brook the Confederate cavalry that harassed Sheridan's campaign was wiped by Custer and Merrit's cavalry divisions. (MC, 10/9/01) 1864 nend Oct 11, Slavery was abolished in Maryland. [see Oct 13] (MC, 10/11/01) 1864 nend Oct 12, Roger B. Taney (b.1777), US Supreme Court Chief Justice (1836-1864), died after serving over 28 years. He favored state?s rights and voided laws limiting the rights of slaveholders. In the 1857 Dred Scott case Taney ruled that blacks as slaves could not become citizens of the US. (SFC, 9/6/05, p.A4)(www.oyez.org/oyez/resource/legal_entity/24/) 1864 nend Oct 13, Battle at Darbytown Road Virginia resulted in 337 casualties. (MC, 10/13/01) 1864 nend Oct 13, Battle of Harpers Ferry, WV (Mosby's Raid). (MC, 10/13/01) 1864 nend Oct 13, Maryland voters adopted a new constitution, including abolition of slavery. [see Oct 11] (MC, 10/13/01) 1864 nend Oct 15, Confederate troops occupied Glasgow, Missouri. (MC, 10/15/01) 1864 nend Oct 17, Elinor Glyn, British novelist (3 Weeks), was born. (MC, 10/17/01) 1864 nend Oct 19, Philip Sheridan and his gelding horse Rienzi made their most famous ride to repulse an attack led by Lt. General Jubal A. Early at Cedar Creek, Virginia. Sheridan had been on his way back from a strategy session in Washington, D.C. when Early attacked. The Union scored a narrow victory which helped it secure the Shenandoah Valley. Thomas Buchanan Read later wrote a poem, "Sheridan?s Ride," and created a painting immortalizing the Union general and his steed. (AP, 10/19/97)(HN, 10/19/98)(HNQ, 6/29/00) 1864 nend Oct 19, The northernmost action of the American Civil War took place in the Vermont town of St. Albans. Some 25 escaped Confederate POWs led by Kentuckian Bennett Young (21) raided the town near the Canadian border with the intent of robbing three banks and burning the town. While they managed to leave town and hide out in Canada with more than $200,000, their attempts to burn down the town failed. Most of the raiders were captured and imprisoned in Canada and later released after a court ruled the robberies in St. Albans were acts of war. (HNQ, 12/9/98)(ON, 11/99, p.11)(MC, 10/19/01) 1864 nend Oct 20, Lincoln established Thanksgiving as a national holiday. [see Oct 3, 1863] (MC, 10/20/01) 1864 nend Oct 23, Forces led by Union Gen. Samuel R. Curtis defeated Confederate Gen. Stirling Price?s army in Missouri. (AP, 10/23/97) 1864 nend Oct 25, Skirmishes took place at Mine Creek, Ka., and Turkeytown, Al. (MC, 10/25/01) 1864 nend Oct 27, Battle of Boydton Plank Road, Va. (Burgess' Mill, Southside Railroad). (MC, 10/27/01) 1864 nend Oct 27, Battle of Fair Oaks, Va. (MC, 10/27/01) 1864 nend Oct 27, Siege of Petersburg, Va. (MC, 10/27/01) 1864 nend Oct 27, Battle of Newtonia, Mi. (MC, 10/27/01) 1864 nend Oct 27, Confederate ship Albemarle was torpedoed and sank. (MC, 10/27/01) 1864 nend Oct 28, Battle at Fair Oaks, Virginia, ended after 1554 casualties. (MC, 10/28/01) 1864 nend Oct 31, Nevada became the 36th state under a proclamation signed by Pres. Lincoln. (AP, 10/31/97)(LVRJ, 11/1/97, p.1B)(HN, 10/31/98) 1864 nend Oct, James Russel Lowell and Charles Elliot Norton had resuscitated the North American Review and in this issue published a book review, his first, by Henry James. (WSJ, 10/17/96, p.A20) 1864 nend Oct, Financial pressures exerted negative market influences as noted in a letter to the Economist in 1865. (WSJ, 9/28/95, p.A18) 1864 nend Oct, Lambdin P. Milligan and two others were tried in an Indiana military court and found guilty of conspiring with the South to set up a "Northwestern Confederacy." All three conspirators were sentenced to hang the following May. Milligan, maintaining his innocence, wrote this note to his friend Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, pleading for his case to be reconsidered. Milligan's case was based on the fact that he had been tried in a military court in violation of his civil rights. His execution was postponed and the Supreme Court then ruled in favor of Milligan and the other conspirators, and on April 12, 1866, the prisoners were released. Ex parte Milligan is considered an extremely important Supreme Court decision, upholding the civil rights of all Americans. One Supreme Court justice wrote, "No graver question was ever considered by this court, nor one which more clearly concerns the rights of the whole people; for it is the birthright of every American citizen when charged with a crime, to be tried and punished according to the law." (HNPD, 12/28/98) 1864 nend Nov 4, There was a Confederate assault on the Union depot and headquarters at Reynoldsburg Island, near Johnsonville, Tennessee. Paddle-wheelers USS Key West, Acting Lt. King; USS Tawah, Acting Lt. Goudy; and small steamer U.S.S. Elfin, Acting Master Augustus F. Thompson; were destroyed after an engagement with Confederate batteries off Johnsonville, Ten., along with several transport steamers and a large quantity of supplies. (www.multied.com/navy/cwnavalhistory/November1864.html) 1864 nend Nov 8, President Abraham Lincoln was re-elected with Andrew Johnson as his vice-president. Lincoln won with 55% of the popular vote. (HN, 11/6/98)(SFC, 12/21/98, p.A3)(ON, 12/03, p.4) 1864 nend Nov 9, Sherman designed his "March to the Sea." (MC, 11/9/01) 1864 nend Nov 10, Kingston, Ga., was burned as the first act of Sherman's March to Sea. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman had made the city his headquarters as he planned to lay waste the south over the next six weeks. (www.ourgeorgiahistory.com/chronpop/2606) 1864 nend Nov 11, Sherman's troops destroyed Rome, Georgia. Gen. Sherman (1820-1891) ordered Gen. John Murray Corse?s (1835-1893) troops to destroy Rome, Georgia, and ?everything that could be useful to an enemy.? (www.civilwarhome.com/shermangeorgia.htm) 1864 nend Nov 15, Union Major General William T. Sherman?s troops set fires that destroyed much of Atlanta. (HN, 11/15/98) 1864 nend Nov 15, 1st US mines school opened in the basement of Columbia University, NY. (MC, 11/15/01) 1864 nend Nov 16, Union Gen. William T. Sherman and his troops departed Atlanta and began their "March to the Sea" during the Civil War. (AP, 11/1697)(HN, 11/16/98) 1864 nend Nov 21, Confederate General John Bell Hood launched the Franklin-Nashville Campaign into Tennessee from northern Alabama. Hood led the Confederate Army of Tennessee in its offensive into Tennessee, which was decisively broken in the battles of Franklin and Nashville. Hood, a graduate of West Point, had been in the U.S. Cavalry until the Civil War broke out. He was seriously wounded attacking Little Round Top during the Battle of Gettysburg and later lost a leg at Chickamauga in September of that year. In 1864, he was appointed a Lieutenant General under Joseph E. Johnston?s command in defense of Atlanta. In July, Confederate president Jefferson Davis put Hood in command who promptly attacked Sherman?s Union army and was repulsed. Hood then attempted a long march to the north and west to assault Sherman?s rear and ran into Union Army of the Cumberland. The November Battle of Franklin and December Battle of Nashville decisively defeated Hood?s Army which was harassed and almost destroyed in its retreat. Hood?s own request to end his command was granted the following month. After the war he lived in New Orleans. (HNQ, 11/4/00)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin-Nashville_Campaign) 1864 nend Nov 21-22, Battle at Griswoldville, Georgia. (MC, 11/21/01) 1864 nend Nov 22, Union General O. Howard ordered plunderers shot to death. (MC, 11/22/01) 1864 nend Nov 22, Battle at Griswoldville, Georgia, ended after 650 casualties. (MC, 11/22/01) 1864 nend Nov 23-25, The Battle at Ball's Ferry, Georgia, left 30 casualties. (MC, 11/23/01) 1864 nend Nov 24, Henri Toulouse-Lautrec, French post-impressionist painter, was born. (HN, 11/24/98) 1864 nend Nov 25, A Confederate plot to burn NYC failed. (MC, 11/25/01) 1864 nend Nov 25, Confederates retreated at Sandersville, Georgia. (MC, 11/25/01) 1864 nend Nov 25, David Roberts (b.1796), Scottish painter, died. He toured Egypt and the Holy Land from 1838-1840. His work there made him a prominent Orientalist painter. (SSFC, 7/24/11,p.F7)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Roberts_%28painter%29) 1864 nend Nov 26, Skirmish at Sylvan Brutal and Waynesboro, Georgia. (MC, 11/26/01) 1864 nend Nov 26, Colonel Kit Carson led the attack in the first Battle of Adobe Walls. Carson, leading a column of 335 officers and men of the 1st New Mexico Volunteer Cavalry, surprised an encampment of Kiowa Indians on the site of adobe buildings on the South Canadian River in Texas. After routing the Kiowa, Carson?s forces were counterattacked by hundreds of Comanches from nearby villages and forced to retreat. (HNQ, 9/25/98) 1864 nend Nov 27, 2nd day of Battles at Waynesboro, Georgia. (MC, 11/27/01) 1864 nend Nov 28, 3rd day of Battles at Waynesboro and Jones's Plantation, Georgia. (MC, 11/28/01) 1864 nend Nov 28, Battle of New Creek, WV, (Rosser's Raid, Ft. Kelly). (MC, 11/28/01) 1864 nend Nov 29, 4th and last day of skirmishes took place at Waynesboro, Georgia. (MC, 11/29/01) 1864 nend Nov 29, Battle of Spring Hill, Ten. (Thomason's Station). (MC, 11/29/01) 1864 nend Nov 29, In retaliation for an Indian attack on a party of immigrants near Denver, 750 members of a Colorado militia unit, led by Colonel John M. Chivington, attacked an unsuspecting village of Cheyenne and Arapahoe Indians camped on Sand Creek in present-day Kiowa County. Some 300 [163] Indians were killed in the attack, including women and children, many of whose bodies were mutilated. Ten soldiers died in the attack. The Sand Creek Massacre, as this incident came to be called, provoked a savage struggle between Indians and the white settlers. It also generated two Congressional investigations into the actions of Chivington and his men. The House Committee on the Conduct of the War concluded that Chivington had "deliberately planned and executed a foul and dastardly massacre which would have disgraced the varied and savage among those who were the victims of his cruelty." (HNPD, 11/29/98)(HN, 11/29/98)(SFC, 9/15/00, p.A9)(SSFC, 2/1/04, p.C13) 1864 nend Nov 30, Battle of Honey Hill, SC, (Broad River). 96 were killed and 665 wounded. (MC, 11/30/01) 1864 nend Nov 30, The Union won the Battle of Franklin, Tenn., where John B. Hood ordered a disastrous assault on Union earthworks. There were 7,700 casualties. Maj. Gen?l. Patrick R. Cleburne, division commander in the Army of Tennessee, was killed at the battle of Franklin. In early 1864 he had advocated the abolition of slavery and the formal opening of the Confederate Army of the Freedmen. In 2005 Robert Hicks authored the novel ?The Widow of the South,? set around the Battle of Franklin. (HN, 11/30/98)(SFC, 11/29/02, p.A23)(AM, 11/04, p.28)(SSFC, 9/4/05,p.F1) 1864 nend Dec 1, Skirmish at Millen Brutal, Georgia. (MC, 12/1/01) 1864 nend Dec 1, Franklin-Nashville Campaign began. (HN, 12/1/98) 1864 nend Dec 1, Raid at Stoneman: Knoxville, Ten., to Saltville, Va. (MC, 12/1/01) 1864 nend Dec 2, Major General Grenville M. Dodge was named to replace General Rosecrans as Commander of the Department of Missouri. (HN, 12/2/98) 1864 nend Dec 2, Skirmish at Rocky Creek Church, Georgia. (MC, 12/2/01) 1864 nend Dec 3, Major General William Tecumseh Sherman met up with some resistance from Confederate troops at Thomas Station on his march to the sea. (HN, 12/3/98) 1864 nend Dec 4, Battle of Waynesborough (Brier Creek) Ga. (MC, 12/4/01) 1864 nend Dec 4, Romanian Jews were forbidden to practice law. (MC, 12/4/01) 1864 nend Dec 5, Confederate General Hood sent Nathan Bedford Forrest?s cavalry and a division of infantry towards Murfreesboro, Tenn. (HN, 12/5/98) 1864 nend Dec 10, General Sherman's armies reached Savannah and a 12 day siege began. (MC, 12/10/01) 1864 nend Dec 13, Battle of Ft. McAllister, Ga. (MC, 12/13/01) 1864 nend Dec 15, The battle at Nashville began. (HN, 12/15/98) 1864 nend Dec 16, Union forces under General George H. Thomas won the battle at Nashville, Tenn. There were 4,400 casualties. (HFA, ?96, p.20)(HN, 12/16/98)(MC, 12/16/01) 1864 nend Dec 20, Confederate forces evacuated Savannah, Ga., as Union Gen. William T. Sherman continued his "March to the Sea." (AP, 12/20/97) 1864 nend Dec 20-27, Battle of Ft. Fisher, NC. (MC, 12/20/01) 1864 nend Dec 22, During the Civil War, Gen?l. Sherman telegraphed Pres. Lincoln from Georgia, saying: "I beg to present to you, as a Christmas gift, the city of Savannah with 150 guns and plenty of ammunition." In 2008 Noah Andre Trudeau authored ?Southern Storm: Sherman?s March to the Sea.? (SFEC,11/30/97, p.T4)(AP, 12/22/97)(WSJ, 8/4/08, p.A11) 1864 nend Dec, In the 1864 Harper's Weekly Christmas issue, Thomas Nast drew Abraham Lincoln, Jefferson Davis and Robert E. Lee along with his traditional Santa Claus. The Santa Claus created by Nast for the 1862 Christmas issue of Harper's Weekly, played a prominent role in all the wartime holiday centerfolds and annual Christmas issues except the 1864 illustration "The Union Christmas Dinner." In that image Abraham Lincoln is pictured welcoming Jefferson Davis and Robert E. Lee back into the Union, with Santa Claus, his sleigh and reindeer appearing in silhouette before a rising moon behind the word Christmas. (HNQ, 12/24/98) 1864 nend Fitz Hugh Lane, American landscape artist, painted "Brace?s Rock, Brace?s Cove." (WSJ, 3/21/02, p.A20) 1864 nend Composer Eugen D'Albert was born in Glasgow. He considered himself a German and set only German text in his works, which included his Cello Concerto and the operas "Tiefland" and the 1916 "Die Toten Augen" (The Dead Eyes). (SFEC, 1/30/00, DB p.33) 1864 nend Gustave Moreau, French painter, created his work "Oedipus and the Sphinx." His students included Georges Rouault, Albert Marqyet, and Henri Matisse. (WSJ, 6/1/99, p.A20) 1864 nend In 1994 Prof. Jenny Franchot (d.1998 at 45) of UC Berkeley published "Road to Rome: The Antebellum Protestant Encounter with Catholicism." Franchot specialized in American literature before 1865. (SFC, 10/17/98, p.C2) 1864 nend Henry David Thoreau authored ?The Maine Woods? (1864), based on 3 previous visits to Maine in 1846, 1853 and 1857. (SSFC, 7/29/07, p.G8)(http://thoreau.eserver.org/mewoods.html) 1864 nend Jules Verne wrote "Journey to the Center of the Earth." It was made into a film in 1959. (SFEC, 11/17/96, BR p.4)(WSJ, 9/10/99, p.W11C) 1864 nend The most popular song of the year was "Tenting on the Old Camp Ground." (NH, 10/98, p.16) 1864 nend Tchaikovsky composed the overture "The Storm." (WSJ, 8/11/98, p.A16) 1864 nend Frederick Olmsted designed the Mountain View Cemetery in Oakland, Ca. (SFC, 7/6/99, p.C1) 1864 nend The Clemens House was built in Carson City, Nev., by Orion Clemens, brother of author Samuel Clemens, better known as Mark Twain. Orion served as the first and only Territorial Secretary (1861-1864), and at times, acting governor of the Nevada Territory. (SSFC, 11/19/06, p.F10)(www.cr.nps.gov/nr/travel/nevada/ori.htm) 1864 nend Pope Pius IX issued the encyclical "Quanta cura," which included a syllabus of 70 errors in contemporary beliefs. The Syllabus of Errors included 80 negative points condemning modern ideas such as freedom of speech and religion and separation of church and state. (PTA, 1980, p.510)(SFC, 9/1/00, p.D4) 1864 nend In Connecticut the West Cornwall Bridge was built over the Housatonic River. The covered bridge connected the 2 rural communities of Sharon and Cornwall. (SSFC, 1/7/07, p.G10) 1864 nend The Knights of Pythias, a secret fraternal order for philanthropic purposes, was founded in Washington, DC. (AHD, 1971, p.724) 1864 nend Congress banned private coinage but private paper currency was still allowed. (SFEC, 7/5/98, Par p.17) 1864 nend Congress gave to California the lands known as Yosemite with the understanding that the state would preserve them for public enjoyment. (SFEC, 10/18/98, p.T4) 1864 nend The Geneva Convention initially met to improve the lot of the wounded and sick of Armies in the field and later added revisions. It established a code of conduct for the treatment in wartime of the sick and wounded and prisoners of war. It also said that an occupying power must guarantee the protection of civilians in the area it occupies. (WSJ, 2/26/96, p.A-10)(SFC, 4/11/97, p.A12) 1864 nend Andersonville Confederate prison held 32,000 Union prisoners in southwestern Georgia in a pen designed for 8,000. The setting was made into a film for TV by John Frankheimer in 1996 based on an original script by David Rintels. Of the 45,000 Union prisoners of war that were brought to Andersonville, 29% i.e. 12,914, died there. (WSJ, 2/26/96, p.A-10)(SFC, 4/28/96, p.T-10) 1864 nend The Confederate War Dept. organized the Indian tribes of eastern Oklahoma and western Arkansas into the Indian Division. Cherokee Gen?l. Stand Watie commanded the Cherokee Mounted Rifles. (WSJ, 6/9/97, p.A19) 1864 nend Union General William Tecumseh Sherman surrounded and burned Atlanta, Georgia. The city was a Confederate supply depot with a population of around 10,000, 1/10 the size of New Orleans. (WSJ, 4/9/96, p.A-1)(WSJ, 8/9/96, p.A10) 1864 nend The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was repealed. (SFC, 2/21/97, p.A25) 1864 nend A federal law permitted any woman to divorce her husband if he was in the military. (SFEC, 6/28/98, Z1 p.8) 1864 nend The US Congress pushed Idaho?s northeastern border back to the Bitterroot Mountains after Sidney Edgerton of the Idaho Territory went to Washington with $2,000 in gold. Edgerton wound up as the territorial governor of newly created Montana. (WSJ, 5/31/08, p.W9) 1864 nend Ruel C. Gridley (d.1870), owner of the Gridley Store in Austin, Nevada, lost an election bet and had to carry a 50 lb. sack of flour the length of Austin to the tune of ?John Brown?s Body.? The sack was auctioned and the proceeds went to the Sanitary Fund, a forerunner to the Red Cross, to help relieve suffering created by the Civil War. The sack was resold many times and soon other towns called for a similar auction. The last auction was at the St. Louis World?s Fair. (ACC, 2004) 1864 nend Oregon adopted its first death penalty. (SFC, 9/6.96, p.A11) 1864 nend Grover Cleveland, a lawyer and politician in Buffalo, New York, dodged the draft by provided a substitute when he was drafted. Andrew Johnson was a brigadier general of volunteers before becoming a military governor and then vice president. James Garfield began as a lieutenant colonel and rose to become a major general before resigning upon being elected to Congress in 1863. Benjamin Harrison started as a second lieutenant in the 70th Indiana eventually mustering out as a brevet brigadier general in 1865. William McKinley enlisted as a private in 1861 and was mustered out a brevet major four years later. (HNQ, 8/4/00) 1864 nend Hertwig and Co. of Thuringia, Germany, introduced ceramic figurines called Snow Babies made from bisque (unglazed clay) covered with crushed bisque ?snowflakes.? The first Snow Babies had been made of sugar candy and used as Christmas decorations. (SFC, 9/12/07, p.G7) 1864 1865 Army Col. Kit Carson, directed by Brig. Gen. James Carleton, forced the move of some 9,000 Dineh Navajo from Canyon de Chelly in Arizona to the Bosque Redondo reservation near Fort Sumner, New Mexico. About half the people survived in what came to be known as the Long Walk. In 2006 Hampton sides authored ?Blood and Thunder: An epic of the American West,? an account of the Navaho move. (SFC, 1/3/97, p.A26)(SFEC, 5/4/97, z1 p.4)(SSFC, 1/7/01, p.T9)(WSJ,10/7/06, p.P12) 1864 nend UC Medical Center in San Francisco, Ca. was founded as Toland Medical College. (SFC, 5/12/96, p.A-10) 1864 nend Adolphus Busch (1839-1913), German immigrant married to Eberhard Anheuser?s daughter (1861), began working at his father-in-law?s brewery in St. Louis. (WSJ, 5/27/08,p.A18)(www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/laborhall/2007_busch.htm) 1864 nend G.J. Bourdin patented the first successful instant camera called the Dubroni. (SFC, 6/12/96, Z1 p.5) 1864 nend The Enterprise Manufacturing Co. was founded. They made many kinds of coffee grinders, meat choppers, irons and other products. (SFC, 3/3/99, Z1 p.4) 1864 nend Surveyors thought they found the US Continental Divide and marked the boundary between Montana and Idaho at the Bitterroot Range. (SFEC, 10/6/96, zone 1 p.4) 1864 nend A meteorite was found near Orgueil, France, that was later believed to be a fragment of a comet. It was later found to show traces of amino acids. (SFC, 12/19/01, p.A8) 1864 nend Henry Plummer, sheriff, was hanged by vigilantes in Bannock, Montana. In 1920 Frank Bird Linderman authored the novel, "Henry Plummer." (HND, 7/21/98)(SFEC, 7/23/00, Par p.16) 1864 nend George Boole, Irish mathematician and inventor of Boolean algebra, died. (SFC, 12/2/97, p.C3) 1864 nend The Imperial State Manufactory Vienna, a maker of porcelains since 1744, closed. The royalty owned firm used the beehive or shield mark. (SFC, 10/17/07, p.G2) 1864 nend In Britain Scottish servant John Brown began to attend to Queen Victoria and drew the widowed queen out of a severe depression. He remained with her until his death in 1883. The 1997 film "Mrs. Brown" suggested an affair between the two. (SFEC, 7/13/97, Par p.2) 1864 nend Elie Abel Carriere wrote an account in the French journal Revue Horticole of a journey to the beech forest at Verzy, southeast of Reims, to see the monster beech, Fagus sylvatica Tortuosa. (NH, 6/96, p.45) 1864 nend Phylloxera was 1st noted on grapevines in Roquemaure, France. It ravaged the vineyards there for nearly 20 years. In 1872 it reached Austria and Portugal. In 1875 it appeared in Australia and in 1886 in South Africa. In 1987 George Ordish authored ?The Great Wine Blight.? In 2004 Christy Campbell authored ?Phylloxera: How Wine was Saved for the World.? In 2011 George Gale authored ?Dying on the Vine: How Phylloxera Transformed Wine.? (SSFC, 3/27/05, p.E3)(Econ, 7/23/11, p.81) 1864 nend In the Netherlands Gerard Adriaan Heineken founded a beer brewery. In 2002 it was the world?s 3rd largest brewery. (SFC, 1/5/02, p.A22) 1864 nend In Sweden the Alfred Nobel factory for the manufacture of nitroglycerin accidentally blew up, killing Nobel?s youngest brother and four others. (HNPD, 10/21/98) c 1864 1865 Following newspaper editor Horace Greeley?s attempt to broker an end to the Civil War, President Lincoln?s Secretary of Navy, Gideon Welles, said he had "found himself involved in the meshes of his own frail net." Greeley attempted to act as a go-between between the Lincoln administration and some Confederate representatives waiting at Niagara Falls just over the Canadian border. "I just thought I would let him go up and crack that nut for himself," Lincoln later reportedly said of the meddlesome editor. (HNQ, 5/22/99) 1864 1900 Richard Hovey, US poet. (WUD, 1994, p.689) 1864 1903 Martha Jane Canary (aka Calamity Jane) skilled horsewoman and rifle shot. Calamity was a scout during the Sioux campaign of 1876 and was known for getting into fights, heavy drinking and prostitution. She and James Butler "Wild Bill" Hickok apparently worked together as outriders for a wagon train of prostitutes on its way to the gold-mining town of Deadwood, South Dakota. (HNPD, 8/28/99) 1864 1903 Napa County was one of California?s leading producers of cinnabar. (WCG, 7/95, p.22) 1864 1910 Jules Renard, French educator and author: "Talent is like money; you don?t have to have some to talk about it." (AP, 4/16/97) 1864 1926 Israel Zangwill, English dramatist: "Take from me the hope that I can change the future, and you will send me mad." (AP, 4/9/00) 1864 1933 Fred Holland Day, photographer, publisher and book-collector. He was a leading representative of the New School of American Photography. He did a photo documentation of all the places that Keats had inhabited or visited in his life. He was a member of an amateur society of Orientalist called the Visionists and helped produce the group?s weekly art journal, The Mahogany Tree. He published works by William Butler Yeats, Walter Pater and Stephen Crane in his firm Copeland & Day. Also published were John Lane?s anthology The Yellow Book, the bible for decadents, and Oscar Wilde?s Salome with illustrations by Aubrey Beardsley (Civilization, July-Aug. 1995, p.40-47) 1864 1936 Miguel de Unamuno, Spanish philosopher: "La vida es duda, y la fe sin la duda es solo muerte." (Life is doubt, and faith without doubt is nothing but death.) (AP, 2/4/01) 1865 nend Jan 4, The New York Stock Exchange opened its first permanent headquarters at 10-12 Broad Street near Wall Street in NYC. The Corinthian-style structure would serve the Exchange until 1903 when more spacious quarters opened at 18 Broad Street. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R43)(http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/jan04.html) 1865 nend Jan 7, Cheyenne and Sioux warriors attacked Julesburg, Colo., in retaliation for the Sand Creek Massacre. (HN, 1/7/99) 1865 nend Jan 10, Sinclair Lewis (d.1951), American author of 23 novels and 3 plays, was born in Sauk Centre, Minn. (HNQ, 5/18/98)(WSJ, 1/18/02, p.W8) 1865 nend Jan 11, Battle of Beverly, WV. (MC, 1/11/02) 1865 nend Jan 13-14, Union fleet bombed Fort Fisher, NC. (AH, 2/05, p.16) 1865 nend Jan 15, Union troops captured Fort Fisher at Wilmington, North Carolina. It was the last major Confederate port open to blockade runners. (AH, 2/05, p.16) 1865 nend Jan 16, General Sherman began a march through the Carolinas. During the march Sherman issued Field Order No. 15 that set aside land, "40 acres and a mule," in Georgia and South Carolina for freed slaves. (HN, 1/16/99)(SFC, 6/20/00, p.A6)(SFC, 4/5/02, p.H4) 1865 nend Jan 17, The 170-foot sailing ship Sir John Franklin, a clipper out of Baltimore with 16 people aboard, wrecked near Pescadero, Ca. Capt. Desperaux and 11 crew members were lost. (SFC, 8/10/02, p.A13)(Ind, 8/10/02, 5A) 1865 nend Jan 18, Battle of Ft. Moultrie, SC. (MC, 1/18/02) 1865 nend Jan 23-25, Battle of City Point, VA (James River, Trent's Reach). (MC, 1/23/02) 1865 nend Jan 31, House of Representatives approved a constitutional amendment (121-24) abolishing slavery. It was the 13th amendment to the US Constitution. (HN, 1/31/99)(WSJ, 7/16/01, p.A10)(MC, 1/31/02) 1865 nend Jan 31, Gen. Robert E. Lee was named general-in-chief of the Confederate armies. (AP, 1/31/98) 1865 nend Feb 1, Lincoln's home state of Illinois became the first to ratify the Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery throughout the United States. President Abraham Lincoln had issued the Emancipation Proclamation two years earlier, but it had not effectively abolished slavery in all of the states--it did not apply to slave-holding border states that had remained with the Union during the Civil War. After the war, the sentiment about blacks was mixed even among anti-slavery Americans: some considered Lincoln's address too conservative and pushed for black suffrage, arguing that blacks would remain oppressed by their former owners if they did not have the power to vote. After the amendment was passed, the Freedmen's Bureau was created to help blacks with the problems they would encounter while trying to acquire jobs, education and land of their own. (HNPD, 2/1/99) 1865 nend Feb 2, Confederate raider William Quantrill and his bushwackers robbed citizens, burned a railroad depot and stole horses from Midway, Kentucky. (HN, 2/2/01) 1865 nend Feb 3, The Hampton Roads Conference was attended by President Abraham Lincoln and the Vice President of the Confederacy, Alexander H. Stephens, in an attempt to end the American Civil War. The four-hour meeting aboard the Union steamboat River Queen anchored in Hampton Roads in Virginia, also included Lincoln's Secretary of State, William H. Seward, Confederate Assistant Secretary of War John Campbell and Senator R.M.T. Hunter. Lincoln?s peace offer required rebel states to return to the Union, accept the freedom of their slaves and to disband their army. Even though military defeat was imminent, the Confederate representatives did not have the authority to accept any peace offer without a guarantee of independence for the Confederacy, therefore, no agreement was reached. (HFA, ?96, p.22)(AP, 2/3/97)(HNQ, 2/5/00) 1865 nend Feb 4, Robert E. Lee was named commander-in-chief of Confederate Army. (MC, 2/4/02) 1865 nend Feb 5, Three-day Battle of Hatcher's Run, Va., began. (HN, 2/5/99) 1865 nend Feb 7, John Henry Winder (b.1800), US Confederate brig-gen and provost marshal, died. He was in charge of all Union prisoners east of the Mississippi River. (www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USACWwinder.htm) 1865 nend Feb 8, Confederate raider William Quantrill and men attacked a group of Federal wagons at New Market, Kentucky. (HN, 2/8/00) 1865 nend Feb 8, Martin Robinson Delany became the 1st black major in US army. (MC, 2/8/02) 1865 nend Feb 9, Wilson Bentley (d.1931) was born on a farm near Jericho, Vermont. His interest in snow flakes led him to make the 1st photographs of snow crystals on Jan 15, 1885. (ON, 11/04, p.4) 1865 nend Feb 9, Mrs. [Beatrice] Patrick Campbell, actress (Pygmalion), was born in England. (MC, 2/9/02) 1865 nend Feb 12, Henry Highland Garnet, became the 1st black to speak in US House of Reps. (MC, 2/12/02) 1865 nend Feb 13, The Confederacy approved the recruitment of slaves as soldiers, as long as the approval of their owners was gained. (HN, 2/13/98) 1865 nend Feb 16, Columbia, S.C., surrendered to Federal troops. (HN, 2/16/98) 1865 nend Feb 17, The South Carolina capital city, Columbia, was half destroyed by fire as the Confederates evacuated and Union forces under Major General William Tecumseh Sherman marched through. It's not known which side set the blaze. Sherman had made a swift and steady advance through Georgia and South Carolina, and by late February 1865, his army was approaching Charlotte, North Carolina. (HN, 2/17/98)(AP, 2/17/98) 1865 nend Feb 17, Union forces regained Fort Sumter. (HFA, ?96, p.22) 1865 nend Feb 17-18, Battle of Charleston SC. (MC, 2/17/02) 1865 nend Feb 18, Union troops forced the Confederates to abandon Fort Anderson, N.C. (HN, 2/18/98) 1865 nend Feb 18, Battle of Ft. Moultrie, SC. (MC, 2/18/02) 1865 nend Feb 18, Columbia, SC, was evacuated and Sherman's troops burned the city. (MC, 2/18/02) 1865 nend Feb 20, MIT was formed as the 1st US collegiate architectural school. (MC, 2/20/02) 1865 nend Feb 22, Federal troops captured Wilmington, N.C. (Fort Anderson). (HN, 2/22/98)(MC, 2/22/02) 1865 nend Feb 22, Tennessee adopted a new constitution abolishing slavery. (HN, 2/22/98)(AP, 2/22/99) 1865 nend Feb 25, General Joseph E. Johnston replaced John Bell Hood as Commander of the Confederate Army of Tennessee. Arthur Fremantle made a breathtaking tour of the Confederacy. Within three months he had met most of the top Confederate leaders, including Robert E. Lee, James Longstreet, Joseph Johnston and Jefferson Davis. (HN, 2/25/98) 1865 nend Feb 27, Confederate raider William Quantrill and his bushwhackers attacked Hickman, Kentucky, shooting women and children. (HN, 2/27/00) 1865 nend Feb 27, A Civil War skirmish took place near Sturgeon, Missouri. (MC, 2/27/02) 1865 nend Feb, Major General William Tecumseh Sherman had made a swift and steady advance through Georgia and South Carolina, and by late February 1865, his army was approaching Charlotte, North Carolina. (HN, 2/8/98) 1865 nend Mar 1, Anna Paulowna Romanova (70), great monarch of Russia, died. (SC, 3/1/02) 1865 nend Mar 2, Freedman's Bureau was founded for Black Education. (SC, 3/2/02) 1865 nend Mar 2, General Lee proposed peace to Grant. President Abraham Lincoln rejected Confederate General Robert E. Lee's plea for peace talks, demanding unconditional surrender. (HFA, ?96, p.22)(HN, 3/2/99) 1865 nend Mar 2, General Early's army was defeated at Waynesborough, Va. (SC, 3/2/02) 1865 nend Mar 2, British newspaper "Morning Chronicle" began publishing. (SC, 3/2/02) 1865 nend Mar 3, US Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands was established to help destitute free blacks. (SC, 3/3/02) 1865 nend Mar 4, President Lincoln was inaugurated for his 2nd term as President. It was held at the Patent Office, the site of a military hospital. (SC, 3/4/02)(WSJ, 2/12/04, p.D12) 1865 nend Mar 4, Confederate congress approved the final design of "official flag." (SC, 3/4/02) 1865 nend Mar 6, President Lincoln's 2nd Inaugural Ball was held. (MC, 3/6/02) 1865 nend Mar 6, The last Confederate victory of the Civil War occurred at Natural Bridge crossing near Tallahassee, Fla., when the forces of Union Gen?l. John Newton were routed by entrenched southerners. (HT, 3/97, p.10)(HN, 3/6/98) 1865 nend Mar 7-10, Battles were fought around Kingston, NC. (MC, 3/7/02) 1865 nend Mar 8, Frederick William Goudy, US printer, type designer, was born. (MC, 3/8/02) 1865 nend Mar 8, Battle of Kingston, NC (Wilcox's ridge, Wise's Forks). (MC, 3/8/02) 1865 nend Mar 10, Battle of Monroe's Crossroads, NC. (MC, 3/10/02) 1865 nend Mar 11, General Sherman and his forces occupied Fayetteville, N.C. Union General William Sherman considered Judson Kilpatrick, his cavalry chief, "a hell of a damn fool." At Monroe?s Cross Roads, N.C., his carelessness and disobedience of orders proved Sherman?s point. (HN, 3/11/98) 1865 nend Mar 13, Lt. Col. William M. Graham was given a brevet brigadier generalcy. Unfortunately, Graham had been killed in action some days before--6,396 days to be precise--at the head of the old U.S. 11th Infantry at the Battle of Molino del Rey on August 8, 1847. (HNQ, 4/1/01) 1865 nend Mar 15, Lincoln delivered his Second Inaugural Address. In 2002 Ronald C. White Jr. authored "Lincoln?s Greatest Speech: The Second Inaugural." (HFA, ?96, p.28)(WSJ, 2/8/02, p.W9) 1865 nend Mar 16, Union troops pushed past Confederate blockers at the Battle of Averasborough, N.C., and left 1,500 causalities. (HN, 3/16/99)(MC, 3/16/02) 1865 nend Mar 18, The Congress of the Confederate States of America adjourned for the last time. (HN, 3/18/98) 1865 nend Mar 18, Battle of Wilson's raid to Selma, AL. (MC, 3/18/02) 1865 nend Mar 19, Battle of Bentonville: Confederates retreated from Greenville, NC. [see Mar 20-21] (MC, 3/19/02) 1865 nend Mar 20, Battle of Bentonville, N.C. (HN, 3/20/98) 1865 nend Mar 20, Michigan authorized workers' cooperatives. (MC, 3/20/02) 1865 nend Mar 21, The Battle of Bentonville, N.C. ended, marking the last Confederate attempt to stop. Union General William Sherman considered Judson Kilpatrick, his cavalry chief, ?a hell of a damn fool.? At Monroe?s Cross Roads, N.C., his carelessness and disobedience of orders proved Sherman?s point. (HN, 3/21/98) 1865 nend Mar 22, Theophile Ysaye, composer, was born. (MC, 3/22/02) 1865 nend Mar 22, Raid at Wilson's: Chickasaw, AL, to Macon, GA. (MC, 3/22/02) 1865 nend Mar 23, General Sherman and Cox's troops reached Goldsboro, NC. (SS, 3/23/02) 1865 nend Mar 25, Battle of Mobile, AL (Spanish Fort, Fort Morgan, Fort Blakely). (MC, 3/25/02) 1865 nend Mar 25, Battle of Bluff Spring, FL. (MC, 3/25/02) 1865 nend Mar 25, Confederate forces captured Fort Stedman during the siege of Petersburg, Va., but were forced to withdraw by counterattacking Union troops. (AP, 3/25/97)(HN, 3/24/01) 1865 nend Mar 27, Siege of Spanish Fort, AL. It was captured by Federals. (MC, 3/27/02) 1865 nend Mar 29, Battle of Quaker Road, Va. (MC, 3/29/02) 1865 nend Mar 29-Apr 9, The Appomattox campaign in Virginia left 7582 killed. (MC, 3/29/02) 1865 nend Mar 31, Battle of Boydton, VA (White Oaks Roads, Dinwiddie Court House). (MC, 3/31/02) 1865 nend Mar 31, Gen. Pickett moved to 5 Forks, abandoning the defense of Petersburg. (MC, 3/31/02) 1865 nend Mar, Thomas Sutherland of Scotland founded the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC) to finance trade in the Far East. It established the Shanghai branch on April 3, 1865. no_source 1865 nend Apr 1, At the Battle of Five Forks in Petersburg, Va., Gen. Robert E. Lee began his final offensive. (HN, 4/1/98)(OTD) 1865 nend Apr 1-9, Battle at Blakely Alabama. (MC, 4/1/02) 1865 nend Apr 2, Confederate President Davis and most of his Cabinet fled the Confederate capital of Richmond, Va. Grant broke Lee?s line at Petersburg. President Jefferson Davis moved his government headquarters to Danville, Va., when its previous capital, Richmond, became engulfed in flames. Though it would have been safer to secure a location further south, Danville was naturally protected by the Dan and Staunton rivers, and it was in close proximity to Gen. Robert E. Lee?s army to the north and Gen. Joseph E. Johnston?s army to the south. The Piedmont Railroad connected Danville and Greensboro, N.C. and offered easy access to supplies. (AP, 4/2/97)(HN, 4/2/98)(HNQ, 11/1/01) 1865 nend Apr 2, Battle of Petersburg, Va. (Ft Gregg, Sutherland's Station). (MC, 4/2/02) 1865 nend Apr 2, Battle of Ft. Blakely, AL. and Selma, AL. (MC, 4/2/02) 1865 nend Apr 2, Ambrose Powell Hill (39), Confederate general, was killed in action. (MC, 4/2/02) 1865 nend Apr 3, Union forces captured the Confederate capital of Richmond, Va. (HFA, ?96, p.28)(AP, 4/3/97)(HN, 4/3/98) 1865 nend Apr 3, Battle at Namozine Church, Virginia (Appomattox Campaign). (MC, 4/3/02) 1865 nend Apr 4, Lee's army arrived at the Amelia Courthouse. (MC, 4/4/02) 1865 nend Apr 5, As the Confederate army approached Appomattox, it skirmished with Union army at Amelia Springs and Paine's Cross Road. (HN, 4/5/99) 1865 nend Apr 6, At the Battle of Sayler's Creek, a third of Lee's army was cut off by Union troops pursuing him to Appomattox. Skirmish at High Bridge, VA, (Appomattox). (HN, 4/6/99)(MC, 4/6/02) 1865 nend Apr 6, Reuben B. Boston, US and Confederate cavalry colonel, died in battle. (MC, 4/6/02) 1865 nend Apr 7, Battle of Farmville, VA. (MC, 4/7/02) 1865 nend Apr 8, General Robert E. Lee's retreat was cut off near Appomattox Court House. Lee requested to meet with Gen Ulysses Grant to discuss possible surrender. (HN, 4/8/98)(MC, 4/8/02) 1865 nend Apr 9, Erich Ludendorff, German general during World War I, was born. (HN, 4/9/99) 1865 nend Apr 9, Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee surrendered to Gen. Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, and ended the Civil War. A lifelong friend and trusted aide of Ulysses S. Grant, Seneca Indian Ely Parker was at his general?s side at the surrender at Appomattox. The Union 20th Maine Infantry Unit was designated as one of the regiments to receive the surrender of Lee?s Army of Northern Virginia. One in four Southern men of military age died vs. one in ten for the Yankees. In 1998 Bevin Alexander published "Robert E. Lee?s Civil War." In 2001 Jay Winik authored "April 1865: the Month That Saved America." (A&IP, p.92)(AP, 4/9/97)(WSJ, 4/2/98, p.A20)(HN, 4/9/98)(WSJ,7/24/98, p.W10)(WSJ, 4/2/01, p.A20) 1865 nend Apr 9, Federals captured Ft. Blakely, Alabama. (MC, 4/9/02) 1865 nend Apr 10, At Appomattox Court, Va, General Robert E. Lee issued Gen Order #9, his last orders to the Army of Northern Virginia. Seneca Indian Ely Parker was at his general's side at Appomattox. In 2001 William C. Davis authored "An Honorable Defeat." (HN, 4/10/99)(WSJ, 6/13/01, p.A18)(MC, 4/10/02) 1865 nend Apr 11, Lincoln urged a spirit of generous conciliation during reconstruction. (MC, 4/11/02) 1865 nend Apr 11, Battle of Mobile, AL., evacuated by Confederates. (MC, 4/11/02) 1865 nend Apr 13, Union forces under Gen. Sherman began their devastating march through Georgia. Sherman's troops took Raleigh, NC. (HN, 4/13/98)(MC, 4/13/02) 1865 nend Apr 14, On the evening of Good Friday, just after 10 p.m., Pres. Lincoln was shot and mortally wounded by John Wilkes Booth while attending the comedy "Our American Cousin" at Ford's Theater in Washington DC. Southern sympathizer John Wilkes Booth burst into the presidential box and shot Lincoln behind the ear. Booth shouted out ?sic semper tyrannis? (thus always to tyrants), Virginia?s state motto, after shooting Pres. Lincoln. He leaped to the stage, breaking his left leg on impact, and escaped through a side door. Lincoln was carried to a nearby house where he remained unconscious until his death at 7:22 the following morning. Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, who had kept vigil at Lincoln's bedside, said, "Now he belongs to the ages." As I would not be a slave, so I would not be a master. This expresses my idea of democracy.? (V.D.-H.K.p.277)(AP, 4/14/97)(AP, 4/14/98)(HNPD, 4/14/00)(WSJ,10/13/06, p.W13) 1865 nend Apr 14, A 2nd assassin stabbed the Sec. of State 5 times. George Atzerodt, a 3rd assassin for the vice president, got cold feet. (SSFC, 4/8/01, Par p.12)(WSJ, 2/2/05, p.B1) 1865 nend Apr 14, Mobile, Alabama, was captured. (MC, 4/14/02) 1865 nend Apr 15, President Lincoln died, several hours after he was shot at Ford?s Theater in Washington by John Wilkes Booth. Andrew Johnson, Vice-President under Lincoln, became the 17th President (1865-1869) of the US upon the assassination. The first Mourning Stamp was issued after his assassination, a 15-cent black commemorative. In 1999 Allen C. Guelzo authored "Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President," an intellectual biography. In 2002 William Lee Miller authored "Lincoln?s Virtues: An Ethical Biography." In 2004 Ronald C. White Jr. authored ?The Eloquent President.? In 2005 Doris Kearns Goodwin authored ?Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln.? In 2006 Douglas L. Wilson authored ?Lincoln?s Sword: The Presidency and the Power of Woods.? (http://condor.stcloudstate.edu/~brixr01/NYTAPR151865.html)(WSJ,12/29/99, p.A16)(WSJ, 2/8/02, p.W9)(WSJ, 1/20/05, p.D9) (SSFC, 11/27/05,p.M3)(SFC, 11/27/06, p.C2) 1865 nend Apr 15, Otto von Bismarck was elevated to earl. (MC, 4/15/02) 1865 nend Apr 17, Mary Surratt was arrested as a conspirator in the Lincoln assassination. (HN, 4/17/98) 1865 nend Apr 18, Dr. Samuel A. Mudd originally claimed to have never met Booth during his initial interview with investigating detectives. Presidential assassin John Wilkes Booth, injured and fleeing Ford's Theatre, had knocked on the door of Dr. Mudd for help. (HNQ, 8/26/01) 1865 nend Apr 18, Confederate Gen Joseph Johnston surrendered to Gen W.T. Sherman in North Carolina. (MC, 4/18/02) 1865 nend Apr 20, Chicago's Crosby Opera House opened. (MC, 4/20/02) 1865 nend Apr 21, Abraham Lincoln?s funeral train left Washington. (HN, 4/21/98) 1865 nend Apr 23, Union cavalry units continued to skirmish with Confederate forces in Henderson, North Carolina and Munsford Station, Alabama. (HN, 4/23/99) 1865 nend Apr 26, Battle of Ft. Tobacco, VA. (MC, 4/26/02) 1865 nend Apr 26, Confederate Gen. Joseph E. Johnston surrendered the Army of Tennessee at Durham, NC, to Union Gen. W.T. Sherman. Sherman considered Judson Kilpatrick, his cavalry chief, ?a hell of a damn fool.? At Monroe?s Cross Roads, N.C., his carelessness and disobedience of orders proved Sherman?s point. (HN, 4/26/98)(MC, 4/26/02) 1865 nend Apr 26, John Wilkes Booth (27) was tracked to a Virginia farm near Bowling Green, and shot in the neck by federal troops when he tried to escape from a burning barn. At some time prior to this Booth?s leg was operated on by Dr. Samuel Mudd, ancestor of news commentator Roger Mudd, who obtained a presidential pardon for Dr. Mudd?s financial ruin. Dr. Mudd served time at the Fort Jefferson Prison in the Dry Tortugas. [see Apr 27] (SFC, 6/7/96, p.A8)(WP, 6/29/96, p.A16)(AP, 4/26/98) 1865 nend Apr 27, John Wilkes Booth was killed by Federal Cavalry in Virginia. In 2004 Michael W. Kauffman authored ?American Brutus.? In 2006 James L. Swanson authored ?Manhunt: The 12-Day Chase for Lincoln?s Killer. [see Apr 26] (HN, 4/27/98)(WSJ, 2/11/06, p.P10)(WSJ, 1/28/07, p.P10) 1865 nend Apr 27, The steamer Sultana caught fire and burned after one of its boilers exploded on the Mississippi River near Memphis, Tenn., killing more than 1,400 paroled Union prisoners on their way home. One account reported 1,547 people dead. At least 1,238 of the 2,031 passengers, mostly former Union POWs, were killed. (AP, 4/27/97)(SFC, 3/13/99, p.E6)(HN, 4/27/99)(MC, 4/27/02) 1865 nend Apr 28, Giacomo Meyerbeer's opera "L'Africaine," premiered in Paris. (MC, 4/28/02) 1865 nend Apr 30-May 1, Gen Sherman's "Haines's Bluff" at Snyder's Mill, Virginia. (MC, 4/30/02) 1865 nend Apr, Henry James (1843-1916), reportedly had a love relationship with Oliver Wendall Holmes, the future US Supreme Court Justice. (SFEC, 11/3/96, BR p.1) 1865 nend May 1, In Charleston, SC, some 10,000 people paraded to a mass grave site of Union soldiers at a former race track. This was likely the 1st large-scale US Memorial Day event. [see May 5, 1866] (SFC, 5/26/03, p.A1) 1865 nend May 2, President Johnson offered a $100,000 reward for the capture of Confederate President Jefferson Davis. (HN, 5/2/98) 1865 nend May 3, President Lincoln?s funeral train arrived in Springfield, Illinois. (HN, 5/3/98) 1865 nend May 4, Abraham Lincoln was buried in a temporary tomb in Oak Ridge Cemetery in Springfield, Illinois. (SFEC, 3/22/98, p.T4)(www.state.il.us/HPA/hs/Tomb.htm) 1865 nend May 4, Battle of Mobile, AL. [see Apr 11,14] (MC, 5/4/02) 1865 nend May 5, The Thirteenth Amendment was ratified, abolishing slavery, except for "duly convicted" prisoners. (HN, 5/5/98)(WSJ, 7/16/01, p.A10) 1865 nend May 9, August de Boeck, composer, was born. (MC, 5/9/02) 1865 nend May 10, Confederate Pres. Jefferson Davis was captured by Union troops in Irwinville, Georgia. (HN, 5/10/98)(AP, 5/10/08) 1865 nend May 12, The last land action of the Civil War was fought at Palmito Ranch in Texas. It was a Confederate victory. (SC, Internet, 5/12/97)(HN, 5/12/02) 1865 nend May 21, C.J. Thomsen, archaeologist who named the Stone, Iron and Bronze Ages, was born in Denmark. (MC, 5/21/02) 1865 nend May 23, The American flag was flown at full staff over White House for the 1st time since Lincoln was shot. Union Army's Grand Review began in Washington DC. (MC, 5/23/02) 1865 nend May 25, Frederick Augustus III, King of Saxon (1904-18), was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1865 nend May 25, John Raleigh Mott, organizer (YMCA, Nobel 1946), was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1865 nend May 25, Pieter Zeeman, Dutch physicist (Zeeman effect, Nobel 1902), was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1865 nend May 26, Arrangements were made in New Orleans for the surrender of Confederate forces west of the Mississippi. The last Confederate Army surrendered in Shreveport, La. (AP, 5/26/97)(HN, 5/26/99) 1865 nend May 26, At the Battle of Galveston, TX., Edmund Kirby Smith surrendered. (MC, 5/26/02) 1865 nend May 29, Amnesty for the Confederates was granted. (HFA, ?96, p.30) 1865 nend May, E.L. Godkin announced the start of a new magazine called The Nation and asked William James to be a contributor. (WSJ, 10/17/96, p.A20) 1865 nend Jun 2, At Galveston, Confederate General Kirby-Smith surrendered the Trans-Mississippi Department to Northern Forces. (HN, 6/2/98) 1865 nend Jun 3, George V, Saksen-Coburg [Windsor], King of Great Britain, was born. (MC, 6/3/02) 1865 nend Jun 6, Confederate raider William Quantrill (b.1837) died in Louisville, Ky., from a shot in the spine he received escaping a Union patrol near Taylorsville, Kentucky. (HN, 6/6/99)(www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/QQ/fqu3.html) 1865 nend Jun 9, Carl Nielsen, Danish composer, was born. (HN, 6/9/01) 1865 nend Jun 10, The opera "Tristan und Isolde" by Richard Wagner premiered in Munich, Germany. Wagner had begun the work in 1857. (AP, 6/10/97)(WSJ, 3/12/99, p.W2) 1865 nend Jun 13, William Butler Yeats (d.1939), Irish poet and playwright, was born to an Anglo-Irish family in a Dublin suburb. He is best remembered for his poems "Byzantium" and "Easter 1916." He won the Nobel Prize in 1923. The first volume of his autobiography was "Reveries Over Childhood and Youth" (1915). Richard Ellman published a biography in 1948. The book "W.B. Yeats: A Life, Vol. 1: The Apprentice Mage 1865-1914," by R.F. Foster covered this period of Yeats? life. "The Lake Isle of Innisfree" is his best known poem. "Too long a sacrifice / Can make a stone of the heart. / O when may it suffice?" (V.D.-H.K.p.365)(WSJ, 4/2397, p.A1)(AP, 4/29/98)(HN, 6/13/98)(SFEC,8/8/99, p.T6)(MC, 6/13/02) 1865 nend Jun 17, Edmund Ruffin (b.1794), Virginia-born secessionist, writer, committed suicide after Confederacy defeat. For most of his life, Ruffin was a farmer and a renowned agricultural reformer. Increasingly, however, he turned his attention in the 1850s to politics, especially the defense of slavery and secession. Plagued by ill health, family misfortunes, and the rapid collapse of Confederate forces in 1865, Ruffin proclaimed "unmitigated hatred to Yankee rule," and on June 17, 1865, at his estate of Redmoor, in Amelia county, Virginia, he pulled the trigger on his silver-mounted gun and joined other fallen Confederate soldiers, the casualty of what some call the ?last shot of the Civil War.? . His act, sometimes considered the "last shot" of the Civil War, become identified with the Confederacy's defeat and a symbol of the lost cause. (www.famousamericans.net/edmundruffin/) 1865 nend Jun 19, Emancipation Day, also known as Juneteenth, was the day that Union General Granger informed Texas slaves that they were free. Blacks came to celebrate the day as Juneteenth Freedom Day. (SFEC, 6/21/98, p.D3)(SFC, 6/18/04, p.B2) 1865 nend Jun 23, Confederate General Stand Watie, who was also a Cherokee chief, surrendered the last sizable Confederate army at Fort Towson, in the Oklahoma Territory. (WSJ, 6/9/97, p.A19)(HN, 6/23/98) 1865 nend Jun 26, Bernard Berenson, art critic (Italian Painters of the Renaissance), was born. (MC, 6/26/02) 1865 nend Jun 29, William E. Borah, Republican senator from Idaho, proponent of the League of Nations, was born. (HN, 6/29/98) 1865 nend Jun 30, Eight alleged conspirators in assassination of Lincoln were found guilty after kangaroo court-martial and brutal treatment by military officers. (MC, 6/30/02) 1865 nend Jul 2, Lili Braun, feminist, socialist writer (Im Schatten Titanen), was born in Prussia. (SC, 7/2/02) 1865 nend Jul 4, 1st edition of "Alice in Wonderland" was published. English mathematician Charles Lutwidge Dodgson is best known for writing the children?s book Alice?s Adventures in Wonderland under the pen name Lewis Carroll. Born in 1832, Also a skilled portrait photographer, Dodgson pioneered in the art of photographing children. (SFEM, 11/24/96, p.59)(HNQ, 6/12/98)(Maggio, 98) 1865 nend Jul 5, The US Secret Service began operating under the Treasury Department. The Secret Service Division began in Washington, D.C., to suppress counterfeit currency. Chief William P. Wood was sworn in by Secretary of the Treasury Hugh McCulloch. (MC, 7/5/02)(http://www.ustreas.gov/usss/history.shtml) 1865 nend Jul 5, Great Britain imposed world?s 1st maximum speed laws. (MC, 7/5/02) 1865 nend Jul 5, William Booth founded the Salvation Army in east London to serve the poor and homeless. [see Jul 23] (AP, 7/5/97)(SFC, 9/15/98, p.A9) 1865 nend Jul 7, The trap doors of the scaffold in the yard of Washington?s Old Penitentiary were sprung, and Mary Surratt, Lewis Paine, David Herold and George Atzerodt dropped to their deaths. The four had been convicted of "treasonable conspiracy" in the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln, and had learned that they were to be hanged only a day before their execution. Shortly after 1 p.m. the prisoners were led onto the scaffold and prepared for execution. The props supporting the platform were knocked away at about 2 p.m. Assassin John Wilkes Booth had been killed on April 26, 12 days after Lincoln?s assassination. Other convicted conspirators?Edman Spangler, Dr. Samuel Mudd, Samuel Arnold and Michael O?Laughlin?were imprisoned. (AP, 7/7/97)(HNPD, 7/7/98) 1865 nend Jul 8, C.E. Barnes of Lowell, MA, patented the machine gun. (MC, 7/8/02) 1865 nend Jul 13, Horace Greeley advised his readers to "Go west young man." (MC, 7/13/02) 1865 nend Jul 14, The Chickasaw Indian Nation under Winchester Colbert was the last military force to surrender in the Civil War. (WSJ, 6/9/97, p.A19) 1865 nend Jul 14, Whymper, Hudson, Croz, Douglas & Hadow became the 1st to climb Matterhorn. (MC, 7/14/02) 1865 nend Jul 19, Charles Horance Mayo (d.1939), American surgeon and co-founder of the Mayo Clinic Foundation for Medical Education and Research, was born. "I have never known a man who died from overwork, but many who died from doubt." (HN, 7/19/98)(AP, 12/11/00) 1865 nend Jul 21, Wild Bill Hickok killed gunman Dave Tutt in Springfield, Illinois, in the first formal quick-draw duel. (HN, 7/21/98) 1865 nend Jul 23, William Booth founded the Salvation Army. [see Jul 5] (HN, 7/23/98) 1865 nend Jul 25, Dr. James Barry (b.1795), British military medical officer and senior inspector general, died. It was soon revealed that Dr. Barry was likely a female. In 2003 Rachel Holmes authored ?Scanty Particulars: the Scandalous Life and Astonishing Secret of Queen Victoria?s Most Eminent Military Doctor.? (NYTBR, 2/2/03,p.21)(www.geocities.com/hotsprings/2615/medhist/barry.html) 1865 nend Jul 30, The worst US steamship disaster occurred. The Brother Jonathon, a paddle wheel steamer, sank off the coast of Northern California near Crescent City. 221 [166] people died after the ship hit a rock near Crescent City. There were 19 survivors. The 220-foot, side-wheeled steamer was onroute to Puget Sound and reportedly carried as much as $2 million in gold. In the 1990s Deep Sea Research found and salvaged 1,207 gold coins from the ship. California received 20% of the treasure and the rest was put up for auction in 1999. (HFA, '96, p.28)(SFC, 7/18/96, p.A18)(SFC, 6/10/97, p.A4)(SFC,4/23/98, p.A6)(SFC, 5/28/99, p.D7)(SSFC, 4/21/02, p.A27) 1865 nend Aug 2, Irving Babbitt, founder of modern humanistic movement, was born. (HN, 8/2/98) 1865 nend Aug 2, A trans Atlantic Cable being laid by SS Great Eastern snapped and was lost. (MC, 8/2/02) 1865 nend Aug 4, Blacks celebrate this date as the day "on which Nicodemus? master laid aside his whip." The year is called the "Year of Jubilee." (NH, 7/98, p.31) 1865 nend Aug 10, Alexander K. Glazunov, composer (Chopiniana), was born in St. Petersburg, Russia. (MC, 8/10/02) 1865 nend Aug 13, Ignaz Semmelweis (47), Hungarian gynecologist, died. [see Jul 1, 1818] (MC, 8/13/02) 1865 nend Aug 15, Sir Joseph Lister discovered the antiseptic process. [see Sep 1] (MC, 8/15/02) 1865 nend Aug 20, Pres. Johnson proclaimed an end to the "insurrection" in Texas. (MC, 8/20/02) 1865 nend Aug 31, The US Federal government estimated the American Civil War had cost about eight-billion dollars. Human costs have been estimated at more than one-million killed or wounded. (MC, 8/31/01) 1865 nend Aug, A national military cemetery was dedicated at Andersonville, Georgia, by Clara Barton and the Red Cross for the 13,000 men who died at Camp Sumter. (AHHT, 10/02, p.22) 1865 nend Sep 1, Joseph Lister performed his 1st antiseptic surgery. (MC, 9/1/02) 1865 nend Sep 2, William Rowan Hamilton, Ireland's greatest man of science who made contributions in the study of optics and applications of algebra to geometry, died. (Internet) 1865 nend Sep 3, Army commander in SC ordered Freedmen's Bureau to stop seizing land. (MC, 9/3/01) 1865 nend Sep 6, Russia forbade the use of Latin letters in the Lithuanian language. Following the 1863 uprising the Czarist authorities prohibited the publication of Lithuanian books in Roman letters. Books in Cyrillic were allowed but not accepted by the people. Secret book couriers smuggled in Latin lettered books until 1904. (DrEE, 9/14/96, p.4)(LC, 1998, p.24) 1865 nend Sep 17, In San Francisco Mark Twain and ?Mousetrap Man? (Tremenheere Lanyon Johns) were seen walking up Clay street under the influence of hashish. At this time concentrated cannabis was commonly available in tincture or solid form in drug stores. (SSFC, 10/2/11, p.E9) 1865 nend Sep 23, Emmuska Orczy (d.1947), baroness and writer, was born in Tarnaors, Hungary. Her family moved to London in 1880. Her books included "The Scarlet Pimpernel" (1905). (HN, 9/23/00)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroness_Orczy) 1865 nend Sep 24, James Cooke walked a tightrope from the San Francisco Cliff House to Seal Rocks. (MC, 9/24/01) 1865 nend Oct 1, Paul Abraham Dukas, composer (Sorcerer's Apprentice), was born in Paris, France. (MC, 10/1/01) 1865 nend Oct 2, Former Confederate General Robert E. Lee became president of Washington and Lee University in Virginia. (MC, 10/2/01) 1865 nend Oct 5, George Calvert Yount (b.1794), founder of Yountville, died in Napa Valley, Ca. (www.sfmuseum.org/hist1/vets.html) 1865 nend Oct 8, Heinrich Wilhelm Ernst, composer, died at 51. (MC, 10/8/01) 1865 nend Oct 10, Raffaele Merry del Val, Spanish cardinal, was born. (MC, 10/10/01) 1865 nend Oct 10, John Wesley Hyatt patented a new method for manufacturing billiard balls. He used melted glue and cloth as an alternative to the ivory balls in use, but his 1st products did not work well. [see Apr 6, 1869] (MC, 10/10/01)(ON, 11/03, p.3) 1865 nend Oct 11, President Johnson paroled CSA VP Alexander Stephens. (MC, 10/11/01) 1865 nend Oct 25, The S.S. Republic was carrying 59 passengers and 20,000 $20 gold coins from New York to New Orleans when it sank in a hurricane off Savannah, Ga. All the passengers boarded life boats and got off alive. In 2003 explorers found the ship. (AP, 8/17/03)(AP, 11/29/03) 1865 nend Oct, financial pressures exerted negative market influences as noted in a letter to the Economist. (WSJ, 9/28/95, p.A-18) 1865 nend Nov 2, Warren Gamaliel Harding, the 29th president of the United States (1921-29), was born near Corsica, Ohio. Harding was owner and publisher of the Marion Star. (SFEC, 1/12/97, zone 3 p.4)(AP, 11/2/97)(HNQ, 10/21/98) 1865 nend Nov 5, The Union Pacific started construction on its western railroad from Omaha, Nebraska. The city was originally Fort Atkinson. (SFC, 7/8/96, p.D2)(SFC, 9/7/96, p.B4) 1865 nend Nov 10, Captain Henry Wirz (b.1822), commandment of Camp Sumter, Ga., (known as ?Andersonville? by the North) was hanged outside Washington, D.C., after being found guilty of war crimes. (www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USACWwirz.htm)(AHHT, 10/02, p.22) 1865 nend Nov 11, Dr. Mary Edward Walker, 1st Army female surgeon, was awarded the Medal of Honor by Pres. Andrew Johnson for her work as a field doctor, for outstanding service at the Battle of Bull Run, the Battle of Chickamauga, the Battle of Atlanta, and as a Confederate prisoner of war in Richmond, Va. Her medal was rescinded 1917 along with 910 others, but restored by President Carter June 10, 1977. (SFC, 7/17/96, p.E10)(HNQ, 3/12/02)(www.army.mil/cmh-pg/mohciv2.htm) 1865 nend Nov 13, PT Barnum's New American museum opened in Bridgeport, Conn. (MC, 11/13/01) 1865 nend Nov 18, Mark Twain's first story "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County" was published in the New York Saturday Press. Biologists later thought that the frog named Dan?l Webster by Twain was a California red-legged frog and currently endangered. (SFC, 5/18/96, p.A-6)(HN, 11/18/00) 1865 nend Nov 26, "Alice in Wonderland" by Lewis Carroll was published in US. (MC, 11/26/01) 1865 nend Dec 6, 13th Amendment was ratified, abolishing slavery. [see Dec 18] (MC, 12/6/01) 1865 nend Dec 8, Jean Sibelius (d.1957), composer (Valse Triste, Finlandia), was born as Johan Julius Christian in Tavastehus, Finland: "Pay no attention to what critics say. There has never been set up a statue in honor of a critic. (SFC,10/14/97,p.B3)(WUD,1994, p.1323)(SFEC,11/16/97, Z1 p.5)(MC,12/8/01) 1865 nend Dec 18 The Thirteenth Amendment to the US Constitution, abolishing slavery, was declared in effect. (V.D.-H.K.p.276)(AP, 12/18/07) 1865 nend Dec 20, Maude Gonne, Irish nationalist (Irish Joan of Arc), was born. (MC, 12/20/01) 1865 nend Dec 24, Several veterans of the Confederate Army formed a private social club in Pulaski, Tenn., called the Ku Klux Klan. In three short years the organization had members in every former Confederate state and was responsible for terrorist acts against Reconstruction. (AP, 12/24/97)(HNQ, 8/4/99) 1865 nend Dec 25, Evangeline Cory Booth, Salvation Army general (1904-34), was born. (MC, 12/25/01) 1865 nend Dec 26, James H. Nason (Mason) of Franklin, Mass., received a patent for a coffee percolator. (AP, 12/26/97)(MC, 12/26/01) 1865 nend Dec 30, Rudyard Kipling (d.1936), British author and poet, best known for "Jungle Book" and "Soldiers Three," was born in Bombay, India. "There are only two classes of mankind in the world -- doctors and patients." He won the Nobel prize for literature in 1907. (AP, 12/30/97)(HN, 12/30/98)(AP, 2/7/00)(MC, 12/30/01) 1865 nend Baroness Emmuska Orczy (d.1947), Hungarian-British author (?Scarlet Pimpernel? 1905), was born in Tarna-Ors, Hungary. (www.kirjasto.sci.fi/orczy.htm) 1865 nend Frederic Bazille painted "Beach at Sainte-Adresse." (WSJ, 3/9/99, p.A20) 1865 1867 Honore Daumier created his painting "The Strong Man" during this period. (SFC, 3/24/00, p.B1) 1865 nend Edgar Degas painted the portrait of his sister and brother-in-law: "Monsieur and Madame Edmondo Morbilli." (SFC, 10/13/97, p.E1) 1865 nend Edward Burne-Jones, painter, began his "St. George and the Dragon" series. (WSJ, 6/11/98, p.A20) 1865 nend Monet painted "A Cart on the Snowy Road at Honfleur." (SFC, 1/29/99, p.D6) 1865 1866 Edouard Manet painted "The Tragic Actor (Rouviere as Hamlet)" about this time. (WSJ, 4/16/03, p.D10) 1865 nend Bret Harte edited the 1st collection of California poetry from newspaper clippings of poems compiled by Mary Tingley of San Francisco. (SSFC, 1/4/04, p.M1) 1865 nend Union Brig. Gen. August Kautz authored "The 1865 Customs of Service: A Handbook for the Rank and File of the Army. (AH, 10/01, HT p.9) 1865 nend The Dante Club formed in Boston to help Henry Wadsworth Longfellow complete the 1st top-notch English translation of Dante?s "Inferno." (SSFC, 2/2/03, p.M6) 1865 nend Jules Verne published his book: "From the Earth to the Moon." In the book a rocket is launched from Florida to the moon and safely returns to Earth by landing in the ocean. Verne, the father of science fiction, uncannily predicted through his 19th-century writing many of the scientific and technological accomplishments of the 20th century. (SFEC, 4/19/98, Par p.10)(HNQ, 2/6/99) c 1865 nend The late 20th century book "Been in the Storm So Long" by Leon F. Litwack focused on the aftermath of slavery in the mid 1860s and won a Pulitzer Prize. (SFEC, 4/19/98, BR p.4) 1865 nend The McKendrick-Breaux House at 1474 Magazine St., a 3-story, masonry home, was built in New Orleans. (Hem., Dec. ?95, p.145) 1865 nend William Butterfield?s auction business was founded in SF. In 1970 Butterfield & Butterfield was sold to Bernard Osher. In 1999 the operation was acquired by EBay, a San Jose-based online auction house. (SFC, 4/27/99, p.B1)(SFC, 3/8/08, p.F6) 1865 nend Charles and Michael de Young started a free theater-program sheet in SF called the Dramatic Chronicle. (SFC, 7/18/96, p.A1)(SFEC, 3/8/98, BR p.1) 1865 nend The first known baseball card depicts the Brooklyn Atlantics in a team portrait. (SFEC, 8/17/97, Par p.2) 1865 nend Pres. Lincoln dispatched Gen?l. Lew Wallace to the Mexican border to stop the flow of contraband. Wallace was appointed vice-president of the trial over those accused of conspiring to assassinate Lincoln. He then presided over the trials of Confederate Capt. Henry Wirz, commander of the Andersonville prison camp. He served as governor of New Mexico for 4 years and then served as US minister to Turkey. (HT, 3/97, p.66) 1865 nend In Kansas Fort Dodge was set up to protect the Santa Fe Trail. No liquor was allowed within 5 miles. (SFC, 6/13/98, p.E4) 1865 nend At Fort Wagner in South Carolina the first Civil War regiment of emancipated black slaves, led by Robert Gould Shaw, was destroyed. The event was later memorialized by Augustus Saint-Gaudens in a bronze relief on display in Boston Commons. The 1989 film "Glory" also portrayed the events. (SFC,10/15/97, p.D3) 1865 nend Newly freed slaves founded a community called Freedom Hill or Liberty Hill on the south side of the Tar River in North Carolina. It was chartered in 1885 as Princeville. (SFC, 2/3/97, p.A8) c 1865 nend The term scalawag referred to Southerners who cooperated with carpetbaggers-a pejorative term given to Northerners who, after the American Civil War, went into the Southern states to participate in political and civic affairs. During Reconstruction in the former Confederacy, a scalawag?a scamp or rascal?was a white Southerner who cooperated with the so-called carpetbaggers or supported the Republican policies. The name carpetbagger was intended to portray these Northerners as roaming opportunists who carried all of their belongings in cheap satchels constructed of carpet?carpetbags?seeking to take advantage of the situation. During Reconstruction, the South was under military rule and the former governing class disqualified from holding official positions. (HNQ, 12/30/99) 1865 nend Machine-made left and right shoes replaced the "straights" that fit on either foot. [see 1818, and May 19, 1885] (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R40) c 1865 nend Silverware makers began making silver-plated holders and lids for glass and pottery biscuit jars, and some were covered entirely by silver plate. (SFC, 2/11/98, Z1 p.6) 1865 nend The Howe Machine Co. of Bridgeport, Conn., was established and its sewing machine won a gold medal at the 1867 Paris Exhibition. [see Elias Howe 1819-1867] (HNQ, 2/27/02) 1865 nend Benjamin Altman founded B. Altman & Co., a big department store at Fifth Avenue and 34th Street in NYC. It expanded to a chain of stores but filed for bankruptcy in 1989. (SFC, 6/11/08, p.G3) 1865 nend Daniel C. Ripley founded a lamp manufacturing firm in Pittsburgh, Pa. the following year he joined with 5 partners to form Ripley & Co. Ripley was granted a patent in 1868 for a glass oil lamp. The company merged with others in 1891 to form the U.S. Glass Co. of Pittsburgh. (SFC, 12/14/05, p.G4)(SFC, 4/4/07, p.G2) 1865 nend Swiss furniture craftsmen formed the Chair Makers Union of Tell City, Indiana. This later became the Tell City Chair Co. (SFC, 11/23/05, p.G2) 1865 nend Spiegel began as a Chicago home-furnishing store. It branched into mail order for rural customers in 1905 and abandoned its retail outlets in 1954. In 1982 it was purchased by the German Otto family. (WSJ, 3/2/04, p.A6) 1865 nend Cornell Univ., the youngest member of the Ivy League, was founded by Ezra Cornell and Andrew Dickson White as a coeducational, non-sectarian institution where admission was offered irrespective of religion or race. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornell_University) 1865 nend The Univ. of Michigan celebrated its 25th birthday with 1,205 students and 32 faculty members. It surpassed Harvard as the largest university in the US. (LSA, Fall/04, p.53) 1865 nend The Matterhorn was climbed by a team of 7 climbers led by Whymper, an obsessive English illustrator. Four of the climbers fell to their death on the descent. (SFEM, 10/13/96, p.38) 1865 nend After the Civil War some southerners moved to Brazil where slavery was still permitted. (NH, 7/96, p.74,75) 1865 nend James Clerk Maxwell, British physicist, unified the partial theories for electricity and magnetism. (BHT, Hawking, p.19) 1865 nend The SF Elevator, a weekly black newspaper edited by Philip Bell, was established. (SFC, 7/2/07, p.B2) 1865 nend An earthquake hit SF. (SFC, 4/14/96, p.Z1, p.3) 1865 nend In California a surprise attack by settlers wiped out nearly all the Indians of the Yahi tribe, south of Mt. Lassen. Remnants hid in the mountains for 40 years until there was but one survivor, Ishi, who emerged in 1911. (SFC, 2/19/99, p.A1) 1865 nend Samuel Cunard (b.1787), founder of the 1st regular Atlantic steamship line, died. In 2003 Stephen Fox authored "Transatlantic," a chronicle of Cunard. (MC, 11/21/01)(WSJ, 7/1/03, p.D8) 1865 nend Matthew Dowdy Shiell, a sea-trader, landed on an uninhabited part of Redonda Island, part of Antigua and Barbuda, and declared it his kingdom. Title passed out of the Shiell family in 1947. (Econ, 12/24/05, p.85)(www.redonda.org/redonda.html#1869) 1865 nend In Argentina 153 settlers from Wales arrived on the ship Mimosa and founded the coastal city of Puerto Madryn, named after Sir Parry Madryn, a nobleman who assisted them. (SFEC, 5/9/99, Z1 p.6) 1865 nend In Argentina Leonardo Villa made the first attempt at oil exploration and production. Since the subsurface resources were owned by the government he had to seek a permit and was denied. (WSJ, 10/4/96, p.A9) 1865 nend In Belgium King Leopold II ascended to the throne. (SFEC, 9/27/98, BR p.1) 1865 nend The East London Railway Company bought the Thames Tunnel. It later became part of the London Underground subway system. (ON, 4/06, p.9) 1865 nend Robert Fitzroy (b.1805), British sea captain, died. He commanded the H.M.S. Beagle and co-authored a 4-volume account of the ship?s 1831-1836 circumnavigation. In 2004 John and Mary Gribbin authored the biography ?Fitzroy.? (WSJ, 10/8/04, p.W8) 1865 nend Viscount Palmerston (80), Britain's prime minister, died. (PC, 1992, p.273) 1865 nend A commercial treaty was established between Britain and the German zollverein. (G&M, 7/31/97, p.A20) 1865 nend BASF was founded in Germany as Badische Anilin & Soda Fabrik. Anilin was important in making dyes and soda was used in glass, soaps and textiles. (Econ, 11/4/06, p.80) 1865 nend In Finland the Nokia Co. began making wood and paper products. Later it diversified to cellular phones. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42)(Econ, 12/6/08, p.85) 1865 nend Emile Zola wrote a diatribe against the annual French state-sponsored art show called the Salon. He mocked the jurors who had rebuffed Edouard Manet amongst others. (WSJ, 8/1/96 p.A13) 1865 nend Eduard Rene Lefebvre de Laboulaye, a French scholar, proposed a monument for America's centennial and strengthen the democratic cause in France. The monument took form as the Statue of Liberty. (SFEC, 6/20/99, p.T10) 1865 nend The St. Anne Prison was built in Avignon, France, atop the ruins of a 13th century insane asylum. The prison was closed in 2003 and in 2007 the government offered to sell it for transformation to a luxury hotel. (SFC, 12/28/07, p.A18) 1865 nend A Latin Monetary Union was established amongst France, Belgium, Italy, Switzerland and Greece, but quickly weakened as members pursued their own economic policies. (WSJ, 1/13/98, p.A1) 1865 nend During the Orissa famine in India the British political secretariat of the Bengal government refused to import rice to the stricken areas because it was ?a breach of the laws of political economy.? (WSJ, 2/23/06, p.D8) 1865 nend In Milan, Italy, the Galleria, one of the world?s first shopping malls, was constructed. (SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T12) 1865 1866 Gustave Courbet, French painter, painted his "Reclining Woman." It features a plump, red-haired nude slumbering by herself in a forest. (WSJ, 4/6/95, p.A-12) 1865 1866 Lord John Russel served as Prime Minister of England for a 2nd time. (HN, 8/18/98) 1865 1867 Thomas Bard and Josiah Stanford found oil in California?s Ojai Valley. Drilling produced the first gusher. (SSFC, 10/29/06, p.F6) 1865 1868 Oppressive taxes levied on cotton drained some $70 million from the US southern economy. (WSJ, 7/22/96, p.A15) 1865 1869 Some 12,000 Chinese workers were brought to the US to help complete the transcontinental railroad. 15,000 Chinese worked on the transcontinental railroad. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25)(SFEC, 2/6/00, Rp.10) 1865 1870 South America?s War of the Triple Alliance saw Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay aligned against Paraguay. The Triple Alliance believed Paraguay was undermining the region?s political stability. The war ended in crushing defeat of Paraguay with 90% of its adult male population killed. (HNQ, 6/22/99)(WSJ, 4/10/00, p.A1) 1865 1871 Dostoevsky wrote three of his greatest novels. The era was documented by Joseph Frank in his work "Dostoevsky: The Miraculous Years." This book was the fourth volume of Frank?s biographical project. From a review by James H. Billington, librarian of Congress. (WSJ, 3/28/95, p.A-24) 1865 1875 Texas, like other Confederate states, was subjected to a federal army of occupation for a decade. (WP, 6/29/96, p.A15) 1865 1876 Gen. Luigi Palma di Cesnola served as the American Consul in Lanarca, Cyprus. He collected antiquities and later sold them to the NY Metropolitan Museum of Art. In 1879 he became the director of the museum. (WSJ, 4/10/00, p.A44) 1865 1877 This was the US period of ?Reconstruction? following the Civil War, when the South was occupied by northern troops. (Econ, 3/3/07, SR p.4) 1865 1877 In eastern Pennsylvania the Molly McGuires, a secret society of Irish miners, waged a war with arson, murders and beatings, on coal-mine owners. (WSJ, 10/7/97, p.A20) 1865 1900 In 2007 Jack Beatty authored ?Age of Betrayal: The Triumph of Money in America, 1865-1900,? a look at the failures of American government during the Gilded Age. (SFC, 5/8/07, p.E2) 1865 1929 Robert Henri, American artist: "The individual says, 'My crowd doesn't run that way.' I say, don't run with crowds." (AP, 8/22/99) 1865 1939 William Butler Yeats, Irish poet and playwright. The first volume of his autobiography was "Reveries Over Childhood and Youth" (1915). Richard Ellman published a biography in 1948. "Too long a sacrifice / Can make a stone of the heart. / O when may it suffice?" (V.D.-H.K.p.365)(WSJ, 4/2397, p.A1)(AP, 4/29/98) 1865 1943 William Lyon Phelps, American educator and journalist: "The fear of life is the favorite disease of the 20th century." (AP, 12/11/97) 1865 1946 Logan Pearsall Smith, Anglo-American author: If you are losing your leisure, look out; you may be losing your soul. "How awful to reflect that what people say of us is true." (AP, 9/19/97)(AP, 1/27/99) 1865 1959 Bernard Berenson, Lithuanian-American art critic and author: "Life has taught me that it is not for our faults that we are disliked and even hated, but for our qualities." (AP, 7/17/00) 1866 nend Jan 2, Gilbert Murray, Australian born scholar who became the chairman of the League of Nations, 1923 through 1928, was born. (HN, 1/2/99) 1866 nend Jan 11, Steamship London sank in storm off Land's End England and 220 people died. (MC, 1/11/02) 1866 nend Feb 4, Mary Baker Eddy "cured" her injuries by opening a bible. (MC, 2/4/02) 1866 nend Feb 13, Jesse James took part in his 1st bank holdup. At least a dozen former Southern guerrilla soldiers, including Frank James and Cole Younger, held up the Clay County Savings Association in Liberty, Missouri, of $15,000. Jesse James was recovering from wounds suffered as a Confederate guerrilla and probably wasn?t able to help brother Frank and Cole, but the Liberty bank job is considered the James-Younger Gang?s first robbery. Another outlaw legend, Charles "Black Bart" Boles baffled Wells Fargo detectives during an eight year stint of 27 stagecoach robberies. (HN, 2/13/98)(HN, 7/18/00)(MC, 2/13/02) 1866 nend Feb 21, Lucy B. Hobbs became the first woman to graduate from a dental school, the Ohio College of Dental Surgery in Cincinnati. (AP, 2/21/98) 1866 nend Feb 26, Herbert Henry Dow, pioneer in US chemical industry (Dow Chemical), was born. (SC, 2/26/02) 1866 nend Feb 26, New York Legislature established the NYC Metropolitan Board of Health. (SC, 2/26/02) 1866 nend Mar 1, Paraguayan canoes sank 2 Brazilian ironclads on Rio Parana. (SC, 3/1/02) 1866 nend Mar 2, Excelsior Needle Company of Wolcottville, Connecticut, began making sewing machine needles, the 1st US company to make sewing needles. (HC, Internet, 2/3/98)(SC, 3/2/02) 1866 nend Mar 10, Antonio Francesco Gaetano S. Pacini (87), composer, died. (MC, 3/10/02) 1866 nend Mar 19, The immigrant ship Monarch of the Seas sank in Liverpool; 738 died. (MC, 3/19/02) 1866 nend Mar 21, The US Congress authorized national soldiers' homes. (MC, 3/21/02) 1866 nend Mar 27, President Andrew Johnson vetoed the civil rights bill, which later became the 14th amendment. (HN, 3/27/98) 1866 nend Mar 27, Andrew Rankin patented the urinal. (MC, 3/27/02) 1866 nend Mar 31, Fred. Law Olmsted, New York City landscape architect, wrote a long piece on city planning for parks with special reference to San Francisco. (SFEM, 7/27/97, p.30) 1866 nend Apr 1, Ferruccio D.M.B. Busoni, pianist, composer, conductor (Arlecchino), was born in Italy. (MC, 4/1/02) 1866 nend Apr 1, US Congress rejected presidential veto and gave all equal rights. (MC, 4/1/02) 1866 nend Apr 2, Pres. Johnson ended war in Ala, Ark, Fla, Ga, Miss, La, NC, SC, Ten and Va. (MC, 4/2/02) 1866 nend Apr 6, Butch Cassidy, [Robert Parker], US desperado (Wild Bunch Passage), was born. [see Apr 13,15] (HN, 4/6/98)(MC, 4/6/02) 1866 nend Apr 6, Joseph Lincoln Steffens (d.1936), American political philosopher, investigative reporter and muckraker journalist (Shame of the Cities), was born in San Francisco: "Nothing is done. Everything in the world remains to be done or done over." "Never practice what you preach. If you?re going to practice it, why preach it?" (AP, 5/16/97)(HN, 4/6/98)(AP, 4/24/98)(HNQ, 10/4/98) 1866 nend Apr 6, G.A.R. was formed (Grand Army of the Republic). It was composed of men who served in the US Army and Navy during the Civil War. The last member died in 1956. (WUD, 1994 p.614)(MC, 4/6/02) 1866 nend Apr 9, A Civil Rights Bill passed over Pres Andrew Johnson's veto to secure for former slaves all the rights of citizenship intended by the 13th Amendment. The president was empowered to use the Army to enforce the law. This formed the basis for the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. (MC, 4/9/02)(PC, 1992, p.502) 1866 nend Apr 10, The American Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) was incorporated. (AP, 4/9/97) 1866 nend Apr 13, Butch Cassidy [Robert LeRoy Parker], American western outlaw and leader of the Wild Bunch, was born in Beaver, Utah. [see Apr 6,15] (HN, 4/13/99) 1866 nend Apr 14, Anne Mansfield Sullivan, teacher who educated Helen Keller, was born. (HN, 4/14/98) 1866 nend Apr 15, Robert LeRoy Parker, a.k.a. "Butch Cassidy," was born in Beaver, Utah. [see Apr 6,13] (MesWP) 1866 nend Apr 15, William Jackson (51), composer, died. (MC, 4/15/02) 1866 nend Apr 16, Karakozov attempted to assassinate Tsar Alexander II of Russia. (MC, 4/16/02) 1866 nend Apr 17, Ernest Henry Starling, British physiologist, was born. (HN, 4/17/01) 1866 nend May 2, Jesse Lazear, American physician and researcher of yellow fever. (HN, 5/2/02) 1866 nend May 3, The first submarine in the Americas, a 39-foot vessel designed in the 1860s by German immigrant Karl Flach, sank in the Bay of Valparaiso off the coast of Chile. The crew, two Chileans, two Frenchmen and seven Germans, including Flach and his 15-year-old son, all died. In 2007 a search team found the vessel. (Reuters, 5/3/07) 1866 nend May 5, Villagers in Waterloo, NY, held their 1st Memorial Day service. In 1966 Pres. Johnson gave Waterloo, NY, the distinction of holding the 1st Memorial Day. On Apr 13, 1862, volunteers led by Sarah J. Evans had paid homage to the graves of Civil War soldiers in the Washington area. (SFC, 5/26/03, p.A2) 1866 nend May 7, German premier Otto von Bismarck was seriously wounded in an assassination attempt. (MC, 5/7/02) 1866 nend May 11, Confederate President Jefferson Davis became a free man after spending two years in prison for his role in the American Civil War. (HN, 5/11/99) 1866 nend May 11, The Overend Gurney, known as the 'bankers bank,' suspended payments and went into liquidation owing £11 million to shareholders and the public. Overend Gurney began collapsing in the early months of 1866. The bank run on Overend Gurney was the last in the UK until 2007. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overend,_Gurney_and_Company)(Econ,9/22/07, p.16) 1866 nend May 16, US Congress authorized the minting of the first five-cent piece, also known as the "Shield nickel." The Shield nickel was quite effective in replacing the half dime, as its base metal composition discouraged hoarding and caused it to circulate very widely. (AP,5/16/07)(http://en.allexperts.com/q/Coin-Collecting-2297/dime-small.htm) 1866 nend May 16, Charles Elmer Hires invented root beer. (MC, 5/16/02) 1866 nend May 17, Erik Alfred Leslie Satie, French composer, was born. (HN, 5/17/01) 1866 nend May 18, French Government of De Putte resigned. (SC, 5/18/02) 1866 nend May 24, Founders of UC Berkeley named their town after Bishop George Berkeley due to a line Berkeley?s poem: On the Prospect of Planting Arts and Learning in America: "Westward the course of empire takes its way." (SFC, 3/28/03, p.A3) 1866 nend May 29, US Gen'l. Winfield Scott (79) died at West Point, New York. Union General Winfield Scott was the originator of the military strategy known as the "Anaconda Plan." Scott's plan for defeating the Confederacy featured a naval blockade of the South designed to slowly "strangle" the fledgling country. The Union did impose such a blockade, but by 1861 Scott was considered too old to lead the federal armies and he retired that November. Although a Virginian born on June 13, 1786, Scott-popularly called "Old Fuss and Feathers"-remained loyal to the Union and its army he commanded when war broke out. (HNQ, 2/19/99)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winfield_Scott) 1866 nend May 30, Bederich Smetana's Opera "The Bartered Bride" premiered in Prague. (MC, 5/30/02) 1866 nend Jun 2, Renegade Irish Fenians surrendered to US forces. (SC, 6/2/02) 1866 nend Jun 7, Irish Fenians raided Pigeon Hill, Quebec. (SC, 6/7/02) 1866 nend Jun 8, Prussia annexed the region of Holstein. (HN, 6/8/98) 1866 nend Jun 15, Prussia attacked Austria. (HN, 6/15/98) 1866 nend Jun 20, Lord George ESMH Carnarvon, Egyptologist (Tutankhamen), was born in England. (MC, 6/20/02) 1866 nend Jul 4, Firecracker thrown in wood started a fire that destroyed Portland, Me. (Maggio, 98) 1866 nend Jul 10, The Indelible pencil was patented by Edson P. Clark of Northampton, Mass. (MC, 7/10/02) 1866 nend Jul 13, Great Eastern began a two week voyage to complete a 12-year effort to lay telegraph cable across the Atlantic between Britain and the United States. Massachusetts merchant and financier Cyrus West Field first proposed laying a 2,000-mile copper cable along the ocean bottom from Newfoundland to Ireland in 1854, but the first three attempts ended in broken cables and failure. Field?s persistence finally paid off in July 1866, when Great Eastern, the largest ship then afloat, successfully laid the cable along the level, sandy bottom of the North Atlantic. As messages traveled between Europe and America in hours rather than weeks, Cyrus Field was showered with honors. Among the honors was this commemorative print referring to the cable as the Eighth Wonder of the World. (HN, 7/13/98)(HNPD, 7/29/98)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R22) 1866 nend Jul 21, A cholera-epidemic killed hundreds in London. (MC, 7/21/02) 1866 nend Jul 23, Francesco Cilea, composer, was born. (MC, 7/23/02) 1866 nend Jul 24, Tennessee became the first state to be readmitted to the Union after the Civil War. (AP, 7/24/97) 1866 nend Jul 25, Ulysses S. Grant was named General of the Army, the first officer to hold the rank. (AP, 7/25/97) 1866 nend Jul 27, Cyrus W. Field finished laying out the first successful underwater telegraph cable between North America and Europe. A previous cable in 1858 burned out after only a few weeks of use. (AP, 7/27/08) 1866 nend Jul 28, Beatrix Potter (d.1943), English author of children's stories (The Tale of Peter Rabbit), was born. (HN, 7/28/98) 1866 nend Jul 28, Metric system became a legal measurement system in US. It defined the meter as exactly 39.37 inches and was later superceded. (SC, 7/28/02)(SFC, 10/13/03, p.E2) 1866 nend Jul 29, Barbe-Nicole Clicquot (b.1777), head of the Clicquot champagne business, died. She was widowed at age 27 and transformed her husbands struggling business into one of the great champagne houses of France. In 2008 Tilar J. Mazzeo authored ?The Widow Clicquot.? (WSJ, 11/5/08,p.A21)(http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbe-Nicole_Clicquot-Ponsardin) 1866 nend Jul, The Sioux war on the Powder river commenced. When it commenced General St. George Cook, in command at Omaha, forbade within the limits of his command the sale of arms and ammunition to Indians. (http://facweb.furman.edu/~benson/docs/peace.htm) 1866 nend Aug 8, African-American Matthew Alexander Henson was born in Maryland. He and four Inuits accompanied U.S. Naval Commander Robert E. Peary when he planted the U.S. flag at the North Pole on April 6, 1909. Henson became an Arctic expert during Peary's first two failed expeditions. By the third attempt, which began in July 1908, Henson's strength, knowledge of the Eskimo language and dog driving skills made him an essential member of the team. Whether Peary's party actually reached the North Pole or missed it by as much as 60 miles due to a navigational miscalculation remains controversial to this day. (HNPD, 8//99)(Internet) 1866 nend Aug 11, The world's 1st roller rink opened at Newport, RI. (MC, 8/11/02) 1866 nend Aug 12, Jacinto Benavente y Martinez, Spanish dramatist (Nobel 1922), was born. (SC, 8/12/02) 1866 nend Aug 20, President Andrew Johnson formally declared the Civil War over, even though the fighting had stopped months earlier. After the Civil War Congress voted to give freed slaves 40 acres and a mule but Pres. Johnson killed the plan with a veto. (AP, 8/20/97)(SFC, 6/29/99, p.A7) 1866 nend Aug 23, Treaty of Prague ended the Austro-Prussian war. (MC, 8/23/02) 1866 nend Sep 1, James J. Corbett, "Gentleman Jim," heavyweight champion boxer (1892-97), was born. He was the boxer who beat the legendary John L. Sullivan. After his boxing career he became an actor and lecturer. (MC, 9/1/02)(SC, 9/1/02) 1866 nend Sep 1, Manuelito, the last Navaho chief, turned himself in at Fort Wingate, New Mexico. (MC, 9/1/02) 1866 nend Sep 6, Frederick Douglass became the 1st US black delegate to a national convention. (MC, 9/6/01) 1866 nend Sep 8, Siegfried Sassoon, British author and poet famous for his anti-war writing about World War I, was born. His work included "Counterattack." (HN, 9/8/98)(MC, 9/8/01) 1866 nend Sep 12, The first burlesque show opened in New York City (NYC). The show was a four act performance called "The Black Crow", running for 475 performances and made a reported $1.3 million for its producers. (MC, 9/12/01) 1866 nend Sep 21, Charles Jean Henri Nicolle, bacteriologist, was born. He discovered that typhus fever is transmitted by body louse and was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1928. (HN, 9/21/98)(MC, 9/21/01) 1866 nend Sep 21, H.G. Wells (d.1946), English novelist and historian was born as Herbert George Wells in Bromley, Kent, England. His work included the novel "Marriage" and "The Time Machine" (1895). The science fiction writer is best known for "The Time Machine" (1895), "The Invisible Man" and "The War of the Worlds." (WSJ, 11/21/96, p.A20)(www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/Jwells.htm) 1866 nend Sep 25, (Leonard W) Jerome Park opened in Bronx for horse racing. (MC, 9/25/01) 1866 nend Oct 2, J. Osterhoudt patented a tin can with key opener. (MC, 10/2/01) 1866 nend Oct 6, The Reno brothers?Frank, John, Simeon and William?committed the country?s first train robbery near Seymore, In., netting $10,000. (HN, 10/6/98) 1866 nend Oct 15, A great fire in Quebec destroyed 2,500 houses. (MC, 10/15/01) 1866 nend Oct 30, Jesse James gang robbed a bank in Lexington, Missouri, of $2000. (MC, 10/30/01) 1866 nend Nov 1, Belle Starr [née Myra Maybelle Shirley], ?Bandit Queen? and wild woman of the west, married James C. Reed (d.1874) in Collins County, Texas. (www.thehistorynet.com/we/blbanditqueenbellestar/) 1866 nend Nov 1, 1st Civil Rights Bill passed. (MC, 11/1/01) 1866 nend Nov 12, Sun Yat-Sen (d.1925), Chinese statesman and revolutionary leader, was born (trad). Born to a Christian peasant near Macao, he attended an Anglican grammar school in Hawaii, and went on to graduate from Hong Kong School of Medicine in 1892. While there he became involved in revolutionary activities and was forced to leave China in 1895. He organized a revolutionary secret society in 1905. In 1911 he returned to China after a successful revolution in the south and became provisional president of a republican government there before stepping aside for Yuan Shih-k?ai. Sun formed the nationalist Kuomintang party in 1912.: "To understand is hard. Once one understands, action is easy." (HFA, ?96, p.18)(AP, 6/22/97)(HNQ, 6/3/98) 1866 nend Nov 17, Ambroise Thomas' opera "Mignon" was produced (Paris). (MC, 11/17/01) 1866 nend Nov 19, The sailing ship Coya, a Welsh coal ship out of Sidney with passengers bound for SF, wrecked near Pigeon Point, Ca. 26 people perished and 3 survived. (SFC, 8/10/02, p.A13) 1866 nend Nov 20, Pierre Lalemont patented a rotary crank bicycle. (MC, 11/20/01) 1866 nend Nov 28, Henry Bacon, architect (Lincoln Memorial), was born. (MC, 11/28/01) 1866 nend Nov 30, Work in Chicago began on 1st US underwater highway tunnel. (MC, 11/30/01) 1866 nend Dec 4, Wassily Kandinsky (d.1944), Russian artist, was born. He is credited with the invention of abstract art. (WUD, 1994, p.778)(WSJ, 8/13/99, p.W10)(HN, 12/4/00) 1866 nend Dec 6, Chicago?s water supply tunnel into Lake Michigan was completed. (SSFC, 8/18/02, p.C12)(http://tinyurl.com/7zmyr6v) 1866 nend Dec 14, Roger Fry, English art critic, was born. (HN, 12/14/00) 1866 nend Dec 20-21, The Lakota Sioux Indians called this night "The moon when the Deer shed their horns." A bright full moon occurred due to a confluence of 3 celestial events. The moon reached perigee with Earth on the solstice with the sun at its closest point. The event occurred again on Dec 22, 1999. (WSJ, 12/16/99, p.A1) 1866 nend Dec 21, Indians led by Red Cloud and Crazy Horse killed Captain William J. Fetterman and 79 other men who had ventured out from Fort Phil Kearny to cut wood. U.S. Army Captain William J. Fetterman once boasted, "Give me 80 men and I'll march through the whole Sioux nation!" When Lakota warriors under the overall leadership of Chief Red Cloud gathered around Fort Phil Kearny (in what is now Wyoming), Fetterman got command of his 80 men. Disobeying the orders of his commander, Colonel Henry B Carrington, not to proceed beyond the Lodge Trail Ridge, Fetterman pursued a band of retreating Indians--and rode right into a waiting trap, allegedly laid by the Ogallala warrior Crazy Horse. Fetterman, his executive officer and 78 troopers were wiped out. (HNPD, 12/21/98)(HN, 12/21/98) 1866 nend Dec 26, Brig. Gen. Philip St. George Cooke, head of the Department of the Platte receives word of the Dec 21 Fetterman Fight in Powder River County in the Dakota territory. (HN, 12/26/99) 1866 nend Albert Bierstadt created his painting "Storm in the Rocky Mountains: Mt. Rosalie." (WSJ, 9/19/02, p.D12) 1866 nend Gustave Courbet, French artist, painted "The Waterspout" and ?Origin of the World.? (WSJ, 11/28/06, p.D8) 1866 nend Edouard Manet painted "Young Lady in 1866." The painting helped pave the way for Impressionism. (WSJ, 8/3/01, p.W2) 1866 nend Jean-Francois Millet painted "Flight of Crows." (WSJ, 7/12/99, p.A26) 1866 nend Louisa May Alcott wrote her novel "A Long Fatal Love Chase." It was then deemed too sensational for publication. (SFC, 4/30/96, p. B-3) 1866 nend Samuel Baker authored "The Albert N?yanza, Great Basin of the Nile, and Explorations of the Nile Sources." (ON, 10/01, p.12) 1866 nend Dostoevsky wrote his "Crime and Punishment." (WSJ, 3/28/95, p.A-24) 1866 nend Edouard Seguin (1812-1880), French physician, authored ?Idiocy and Its Treatment.? He had established schools in France and the US for the intellectually handicapped, which stressed the importance of developing self-reliance and independence. (ON, 3/07, p.3)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edouard_Seguin) 1866 nend Bedrich Smetana wrote his opera "The Bartered Bride." (MC, 5/16/02) 1866 nend San Francisco established The Almshouse on the grounds of what later became Laguna Honda Hospital, providing shelter for the city?s unemployed and homeless men. (SFC, 8/26/08, p.B5) 1866 nend Henry Casebolt, San Francisco transit tycoon, built a house at 2727 Pierce St. (SFC, 5/5/07, p.B3) 1866 nend The word "ecology" was coined by German zoologist Ernst Haeckel from the Greek oikos, for house, and logos, for discourse. It meant the study of the relations between living organisms and their environment. (NH, 2/97, p.4) 1866 nend The Boston Yacht Club was founded. (SFEC, 7/13/97, p.T7) 1866 nend The New York Yacht Club hosted the 1st-ever transatlantic race. (Econ, 5/28/05, p.35) 1866 nend A group of NY sportsmen purchased some 4,000 acres on Long Island centered around Snedecor?s Tavern and established the Southside Sportsmen?s Club. Around 1963 the land was turned into a state preserve. (WSJ, 10/9/07, p.D6) 1866 nend The veteran organization Grand Army of the Republic (GAR) was formed in Springfield, Illinois, in 1866. The patriotic organization of U.S. Civil War veterans who served in Federal forces was formed to protect the interests of the veterans. The GAR had a peak membership of more than 400,000 in 1890 and was a powerful political influence. The organization was dissolved in 1956. (HNQ, 8/30/98) 1866 nend The Ku Klux Klan is generally acknowledged to have started in Pulaski, Tenn., in this year. [see Dec 24, 1865] (WSJ, 7/15/96, p.A1) 1866 nend Pres. Andrew Johnson signed an executive order that removed the Shoalwater Bay Indians in Washington state from their villages and onto a 1-sq. mile reservation. By 2000 erosion took away over half the tribal land and miscarriages stood at 4 times the expected rate. (SFEC, 3/26/00, p.A8) 1866 nend The US coined some silver dollars without the inscription "In God We Trust." Only 2 coins were known to exist in 2004. In Oct 1867, one was stolen along with some 7,000 other rare coins from the Florida collection of Willis H. du Pont. It turned up in 2004. (ST, 3/2/04, p.A8) 1866 nend The US government bought land around northern California?s Golden Gate for harbor defense. The area was turned into the Old Lime Point military reservation. (SFC, 6/13/08, p.A22) 1866 nend Freed Cherokee slaves were adopted into the tribe under a treaty with the US government. In 2007 the Cherokee Nation voted to revoke citizenship to descendants of the slaves. (SFC, 3/5/07, p.A2) 1866 nend In Mississippi a fifth of the state?s revenues were spent on artificial arms and legs for Confederate veterans. (SFEC, 7/6/97, Z1 p.6) 1866 nend A white mob rushed a courthouse in Carroll County, Miss., after 2 black men filed a lawsuit against a white man. Over 20 blacks were murdered. (WSJ, 10/17/08, p.A14) 1866 nend Western Union introduced the ticker system to supply New York Stock Exchange prices to brokers around the country. (SFC, 2/2/06, p.A13) 1866 nend The Hopland, Ca., hops industry began. The damp soils of the Russian River floodplains were suitable for the cultivation of hops, whose flowers determine the bitterness and aromatic properties of beer. (WCG, 7/95, p.91) 1866 nend Oliver F. Winchester, a Connecticut shirt maker, began making Winchester rifles in New Haven, spearheading the development of rifles for multiple shots. (WSJ, 6/15/06, p.B2) 1866 nend The Moretti and Respini families settled coastal property north of Santa Cruz, Ca., and developed their Coast Dairies. (SFC, 7/28/06, p.A1) 1866 nend Pacific Rolling Mills opened the first big iron and steel mill in the West at what became known as Pier 70 in SF. (SSFC, 9/14/08, p.A11) 1866 nend The railroad land grant corporations in Montana, led by J.P. Morgan and James Hill, grabbed off 40 million acres. (SFC, 4/28/96, B-9) 1866 nend When the transcontinental railroad reached Abilene, Kansas, Chicago livestock buyer J.G. McCoy saw the possibilities of linking the unwanted herds of Texas longhorns with the meat-packing centers of Chicago. McCoy built a series of holding pens in Abilene and convinced south Texas ranchers to drive the cattle north along the Chisholm Trail to the railhead. (HNPD, 1/4/99) 1866 nend Jasper Daniel (Jack Daniel) started distilling whiskey in Lynchburg, Tenn. (SFC, 2/04/04, p.D2) 1866 nend James Vernor, a Detroit pharmacist, began marketing a new soft drink. (SFEC, 2/21/99, Z1 p.8) 1866 nend Mendel published two mathematical papers wherein he established that the offspring of a pair of different plants would evince the working of simple statistical laws. (V.D.-H.K.p.330) 1866 nend Richard Owen published his monograph on the Dodo bird: "Memoir on the Dodo (Didus ineptus)." (NH, 11/96, p.23,28) 1866 nend Weather records began to be officially kept. (SFC, 1/23/99, p.E4) 1866 nend The first 124 leprosy patients were dropped off on the Kalaupapa peninsula of the Hawaiian island of Molokai. (SFEC, 9/8/96, T3) 1866 nend The Calaveras skull, from a mining shaft in Altaville near Angels Camp in Calaveras County, Ca., was one of the most notorious archaeological hoaxes perpetrated in the nineteenth century. (RFH-MDHP, p.177) 1866 nend Colonel John O'Neill of the Fenian Brotherhood--formerly of the U.S. cavalry--led a force of Irish-Americans against this British-ruled Canada. A year after America's Civil War ended, scores of Irish Americans who had once fought for the Union or the Confederacy joined forces against a new enemy. (HNQ, 4/17/01) 1866 nend The West Pier at Brighton, England, was built by Eugenius Birch. It was closed in 1975. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Pier) 1866 nend In England Hyde Park was trashed by citizens who were outraged that it could no longer be used for public demonstrations or speech. The government relaxed restrictions against free speech and orators began preaching at Speakers Corner near the Marble Arch in Hyde Park. [see 1872] (BS, 5/3/98, p.1R)(SFEM, 3/21/99, p.24) 1866 nend Henry Wickham (1846-1928) ventured from Britain to South America hoping to shoot exotic birds and ship home feathers for lady?s hats. This venture failed as the birds exploded from the rifle shots. He returned to the Amazon region and in 1876 gathered seeds of the Hevea brasiliensis tree, which produced latex. Less than 4% of some 70,000 seeds germinated, but this was enough to ship seedlings to Ceylon, India, Malaya and Singapore and begin a global rubber plantation boom. (WSJ, 2/27/08, p.D10) 1866 nend French colonial officials sent an expedition to explore the Mekong River and check its commercial potential. (Econ, 1/3/04, p.29) 1866 nend Diamonds were discovered in South Africa. [see 1867] (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1866 nend In Sweden Alfred Nobel invented dynamite, a safe and manageable form of nitroglycerin. A pacifist by nature, Nobel hoped that the destructive power of his invention would bring an end to wars. (HNPD, 10/21/98) 1866 nend Venice joined the Kingdom of Italy. (WSJ, 9/19/97, p.A13) 1864 nend Missionaries settled in Zanzibar following a call by David Livingstone for volunteers to fight the slave trade and help spread Christianity across Africa. (SSFC, 6/9/02, p.C13) 1866 1868 When the US government tried to force the Sioux back to Fort Laramie, the Indians responded with attacks that culminated in Red Cloud?s War of this period. Red Cloud?s War of 1866-?68 was waged in opposition to the development by the U.S. government of a trail through Wyoming and Montana to the Montana gold camps. The two-year war was waged between the Lakota Sioux, led by Ogallala chief Red Cloud, and the U.S. Army. On December 21, 1866, the Sioux won a major victory, wiping out the entire command of 80 men under Capt. William J. Fetterman. The war ended with the signing of the Laramie Treaty, which included the closure of the Bozeman Trail and U.S. abandonment of three forts. (HT, 3/97, p.43)(HNQ, 8/22/98) 1866 1886 Dr. John Kirk, a Scottish botanist, served as the British representative on the island of Zanzibar. He made great effort to abolish the local slave trade. In 2011 Alastair Hazell authored ?The Last Slave Market: Dr John Kirk and the Struggle to End the African slave Trade. (Econ, 8/6/11, p.72) 1866 1890 During the Indian Wars, the black Buffalo Soldiers of the 9th Cavalry represented 20% of Army personnel involved. (SFEC, 4/5/98, p.C14) 1866 1926 Aby Warburg, a wealthy independent scholar. He later authored "The Renewal of Pagan Antiquity." (SFEC, 12/12/99, BR p.10) 1866 1939 Philander Chase Johnson, American author: "Cheer up! The worst is yet to come!" (AP, 8/19/99) 1866 1944 George Ade, American humorist. (AHD, 1971, p.15) 1866 1944 Vasily Kandinsky, Russian born painter. He is considered the originator of abstract art. He lived with painter Gabriele Munter in Munich from 1903 until the outbreak of WW I when he was forced to leave Germany. His work includes "Composition VII" (1913). (WUD, 1994, p.778)(SFC, 7/7/96, BR p.9) 1866 1947 Richard Le Gallienne, English poet and essayist: "It is only on paper that one moralizes?just where one shouldn?t." (AP, 6/21/98) 1866 1954 Ernest Dimnet, French priest, lecturer and author: "The happiness of most people we know is not ruined by great catastrophes or fatal errors, but by the repetition of slowly destructive little things." (AP, 9/6/98) 1866 1959 Abraham Flexner, American educator and author: "Comfort, opportunity, number and size are not synonymous with civilization." (AP, 11/14/99) 1867 nend Jan 8, Legislation gave suffrage to DC blacks, despite Pres. Johnson's veto. (MC, 1/8/02) 1867 nend Jan 8, Japan?s Emperor Osahito died. The Tokugawa Shogunate gave up power as a revolutionary movement overthrew Shogun Iyesada. Rebels introduced a representative government under the name of Emperor Maiji (1852-1912). (www.uq.net.au/~zzhsoszy/states/japan/japan.html)(ON, 11/04, p.12) 1867 nend Jan 14, Jean-August-Dominique Ingres, a French neo-classical painter, and one of the major portrait painters of the 19th century, died. (http://tinyurl.com/cheny) 1867 nend Feb 7, Laura Ingalls Wilder, author, was born. She wrote "Little House in the Big Woods" which was basis for television's "Little House on the Prairie." (HN, 2/7/99) 1867 nend Feb 11, August W. Messer, German philosopher, educator, psychologist, was born. (MC, 2/11/02) 1867 nend Feb 12, A committee of students at the Univ. of Michigan presented the colors Azure blue and Maize as the emblematic colors for the school. (MT, Fall ?96, p.10) 1867 nend Feb 13, Johann Strauss' "Blue Danube" waltz premiered in Vienna. (MC, 2/13/02) 1867 nend Feb 14, Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection & Insurance Co. issued its 1st policy. (MC, 2/14/02) 1867 nend Feb 15, Fyodor Dostoevsky married his stenographer Anna Snitkina in St. Petersburg. (SFEM, 1/25/98, p.45) 1867 nend Feb 17, William Cadbury, chocolate manufacturer, was born. (HN, 2/17/98) 1867 nend Feb 17, The 1st ship passed through the Suez Canal. (MC, 2/17/02) 1867 nend Feb 21, Otto Hermann Kahn (d.1934), banker who the organized Metropolitan Opera Co, was born. (MC, 2/21/02)(WSJ, 8/13/02, p.D4) 1867 nend Mar 1, Most of Nebraska became the 37th state. It was expanded later. (AP, 3/1/98)(SC, 3/1/02) 1867 nend Mar 2, The first Reconstruction Act was passed by Congress. (HN, 3/2/99) 1867 nend Mar 2, Congress abolished peonage in New Mexico. (SC, 3/2/02) 1867 nend Mar 2, US Congress created the Department of Education. (SC, 3/2/02) 1867 nend Mar 2, Howard University, Washington DC, was incorporated. General Oliver Otis Howard, Union Civil War commander, co-founded Howard Univ. (http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/nov20.html)(ON, 4/07, p.8) 1867 nend Mar 2, Jesse James-gang robbed a bank in Savannah MO, 1 dead. (SC, 3/2/02) 1867 nend Mar 5, An abortive Fenian uprising against English rule took place in Ireland. The unsuccessful rebellion by the Irish Republican Brotherhood, known as the Fenians, gave Australia it final generation of convicts. The 1999 book "The Great Shame and the Triumph of the Irish in the English-Speaking World" by Thomas Keneally tells the story of the Irish shipped to Australia. (AP, 3/5/98)(SFEC, 9/26/99, BR p.1,6) 1867 nend Mar 11, Great Mauna Loa volcano eruption in Hawaii. (MC, 3/12/02) 1867 nend Mar 23, Congress passed a 2nd Reconstruction Act over President Johnson's veto. (SS, 3/23/02) 1867 nend Mar 25, Gutzon Borglum, sculptor of Mount Rushmore, was born. (HN, 3/25/01) 1867 nend Mar 25, Arturo Toscanini (d.1957), Italian-US temperamental conductor (NBC), was born in Parma, Italy. (MC, 3/25/02) 1867 nend Mar 29, Cy Young, major league baseball pitcher with the most wins (509 or 511 total) , was born. (HN, 3/29/02) 1867 nend Mar 29, Congress approved the Lincoln Memorial. (MC, 3/29/02) 1867 nend Mar 29, The British Parliament passed the North America Act (later known as the Constitution Act) to create the Dominion of Canada. (HN, 3/29/98)(AP, 3/29/07) 1867 nend Mar 30, US Secretary of State William H. Seward signed an agreement with Russia?s Baron Edouard de Stoeckl to purchase the territory of Alaska for $7.2 million, two cents an acre, a deal roundly ridiculed as "Seward's Folly," "Seward's icebox," and President Andrew Johnson's "polar bear garden." (AP, 3/30/97)(HN, 3/30/01)(Reuters, 5/24/11) 1867 nend Apr 1, Blacks voted in the municipal election in Tuscumbia, Alabama. (OTD) 1867 nend Apr 1, The International Exhibition, Exposition Universelle, opened in Paris. (OTD)(ON, 9/06, p.11) 1867 nend Apr 1, Singapore, Penang & Malacca became British crown colonies. (OTD) 1867 nend Apr 9, The treaty authorizing the purchase was ratified. Alaska became a state in 1959. The per-acre purchase price for Alaska paid by the U.S. to Russia in 1867 was two cents. Through the negotiations of Secretary of State William H. Seward the purchase of the 591,000 square miles (more than 375 million acres) of Russian America territory cost $7.2 million. (HNQ, 9//98) 1867 nend Apr 10, A.E. (George William Russell), Irish poet and mystic, was born. (HN, 4/10/01) 1867 nend Apr 16, Wilbur Wright, designer, builder and flyer of first airplane, was born. (HN, 4/16/98) 1867 nend Apr 24, Fannie Thomas, oldest known American (113 years, 273 days at death), was born. (HN, 4/24/98) 1867 nend Apr 24, Black demonstrators staged ride-ins on Richmond, Va., streetcars. (MC, 4/24/02) 1867 nend Apr 25, Tokyo was opened for foreign trade. (HN, 4/25/98) 1867 nend Apr 27, Charles Gounod's Opera "Romeo et Juliette" was produced in Paris. (MC, 4/27/02) 1867 nend Apr, George N. Jaquith was killed during an expedition against the Bannock Indians in the Steen Mountains of Oregon. (SFC, 8/27/98, p.A9) 1867 nend May 1, Reconstruction in the South began with black voter registration. (HN, 5/1/98) 1867 nend May 5, Nellie Bly, [Elizabeth Cochran Seaman], journalist, was born. (MC, 5/5/02) 1867 nend May 5, At the Battle of Puebla, the Mexican Juarez forces under Mariano Escobedo defeated Maximilian's forces at Gueratero. (HN, 5/5/98)(PCh, 1992, p.505) 1867 nend May 13, Frank Brangwyn, painter, muralist, cartoonist (Willam Morris), was born in Wales. (MC, 5/13/02) 1867 nend May 14, Kurt Eisner, German premier of revolutionary Bavaria (1918-19), was born. (MC, 5/14/02) 1867 nend May 20, British parliament rejected John Stuart Mill?s law on women suffrage. (MC, 5/20/02) 1867 nend May 21, Frances Densmore, ethnomusicologist, was born. (HN, 5/21/01) 1867 nend May 23, Jesse James gang robbed a bank in Richmond, Missouri, with 2 killed and $4,000 taken. (MC, 5/23/02) 1867 nend May 26, Mary, queen of Great Britain-North Ireland, was born. (MC, 5/26/02) 1867 nend May 27, Arnold Bennett (d.1931), English novelist, playwright and critic, was born. His books included ?Riceyman Steps? (1923) in which he probes the unsettling and symbolic depths of a marriage that becomes too close. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_Bennett) 1867 nend May 30, Arthur Vining Davis, American industrialist, was born. His foundation later gave money to the arts. (HN, 5/30/99) 1867 nend Jun 4, Carl Gustaf Mannerheim, president of Finland, was born. (HN, 6/4/98) 1867 nend Jun 8, Frank Lloyd Wright (d.1959), American master architect and builder, was born. He created "organic architecture" which included the Guggenheim Museum in New York and the Robie House in Pennsylvania. WUD says 1869 for birthdate. "Give me the luxuries of life and I will willingly do without the necessities." (CFA, '96, p.48)(WUD, 1994, p.1647)(HN, 6/8/99)(AP, 5/6/01) 1867 nend Jun 11, Charles Fabry, found ozone layer in upper atmosphere, was born. (SC, 6/11/02) 1867 nend Jun 17, John Robert Gregg, inventor (shorthand), was born in Ireland. (MC, 6/17/02) 1867 nend Jun 19, The first running of the Belmont Stakes horserace in the US. It later became part of the Triple Crown. Oldest of the three U.S. horse races that constitute the Triple Crown. The Belmont is named after August Belmont. The stakes is held in early June at Belmont Park, near Garden City, Long Island; the course is 1.5 mi (2,400 m). (HFA, ?96, p.32)(SFEC, 5/30/99, Z1 p.8)(YB) 1867 nend Jun 19, Mexican Emperor Maximillian (35) was executed on the orders of Benito Juarez by a firing squad in Queretaro. The event was immortalized in a painting by Manet. (HN, 6/19/98)(SFEC, 11/7/99, p.T10)(PCh, 1992, p.505)(WSJ, 5/5/00, p.17) 1867 nend Jun 20, Pres. Andrew Johnson announced the purchase of Alaska. (MC, 6/20/02) 1867 nend Jun 25, The 1st barbed wire was patented by Lucien B. Smith of Ohio. [see Illinois, Oct 27, 1873] (MC, 6/25/02) 1867 nend Jun 27, The Bank of California opened its doors. (SC, 6/27/02) 1867 nend Jun 28, Luigi Pirandello, Italian playwright (Six Characters in Search of an Author), was born, was born. He won the Nobel Prize in 1934. (HN, 6/28/01)(MC, 6/28/02) 1867 nend Jun, 2,000 Chinese workers on the western railroad struck because they had not been paid in weeks. They also demanded that whippings stop and that hours spent in hot tunnels be limited to 8 hours per day. Central Pacific Railroad co-founder, Charles Crocker, who was in charge of construction, cut off the striker?s food supply and threatened to fire the workers. The strike collapsed after a week. (SFC, 7/8/96, p.D2) 1867 nend Jul 1, Canada became a self-governing dominion of Great Britain as the British North America Act took effect. The Dominion of Canada included New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario and Quebec. A dispute with Manitoba on territory in northwest Ontario was settled in 1889 on behalf of Ontario. John Alexander Macdonald became the 1st prime minister. (AP,7/1/97)(www.canadiana.org/citm/themes/constitution/constitution13_e.html) 1867 nend Jul 2, The 1st US elevated railroad began service in NYC. (SC, 7/2/02) 1867 nend Jul 5, Andrew Ellicott Douglass, astronomer and archaeologist, was born. (HN, 7/5/01) 1867 nend Jul 5, James M. Wayne (b.1770), US Supreme Court Justice, died after serving over 32 years. (AP, 7/24/98)(www.oyez.org/oyez/resource/legal_entity/23/) 1867 nend Jul 16, D.R. Averill patented a ready-mixed paint. (MC, 7/16/02) 1867 nend Jul 16, Joseph Monier patented reinforced concrete. (MC, 7/16/02) 1867 nend Jul 19, The US enacted reconstruction. (MC, 7/19/02) 1867 nend Jul 20, Imperial troops in Guise, China, killed 20,000 Mao rebels. (HN, 7/20/98) 1867 nend Jul 25, President Andrew Johnson signed an act creating the territory of Wyoming. [see Jul 25, 1868] (HN, 7/25/98) 1867 nend Jul 27, Enrique Granados, composer (Maria del Carmen), was born in Lerida, Spain. (MC, 7/27/02) 1867 nend Jul 31, S.S. Kresge, American businessman who owned five-and-ten stores across the country, was born. (HN, 7/31/98) 1867 nend Jul, In Fiji Rev. Thomas Baker was murdered and eaten by cannibals at Nubutatau, a remote community high in the hills of the South Pacific island of Viti Levu. Baker had made the mistake of touching a chief?s head. Residents later complained of bad luck and called in descendants to lift a curse. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Baker_%28missionary%29)(AP,11/11/03)(SSFC, 8/14/11, p.N2) 1867 nend Aug 3, Stanley Earl Baldwin, (C) British Prime Minister (1923-24, 1924-29, 1935-37), was born. (HN, 8/3/98)(SC, 8/3/02) 1867 nend Aug 12, Edith Hamilton, US writer (Mythology), was born. (SC, 8/12/02) 1867 nend Aug 12, President Andrew Johnson sparked a move to impeach him as he defied Congress by suspending Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton. (AP, 8/12/97) 1867 nend Aug 14, John Galsworthy (d.1933), English novelist and dramatist (Forsyth Saga, Nobel 1932), was born in England. He was reported to have thrown a brick through a glass window in order to be arrested so that he could have time to write. His play "Justice" was the result of this experience. (WUD, 1994, p.581)(SFC, 12/5/98, p.E4)(MC, 8/14/02) 1867 nend Aug 25, Michael Faraday (b.1791), discoverer of electromagnetic induction (1831), died. In 2004 James Hamilton authored ?A Life of Discovery: Michael Faraday, Giant of the Scientific Revolution.? (www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/faraday_michael.shtml)(WSJ,12/14/04, p.D10) 1867 nend Aug 28, The US occupied the Midway Islands in Pacific. (SFEC, 3/29/98, Z1 p.8)(MC, 8/28/01) 1867 nend Aug 31, [Pierre-]Charles Baudelaire (46), French poet (Journaux Intimes), died. (MC, 8/31/01) 1867 nend Sep 5, The first shipment of cattle left Abilene, Kansas, on a Union Pacific train headed to Chicago. (HN, 9/5/98) 1867 nend Sep 7, President Andrew Johnson extended amnesty to all but a few of the leaders of the Confederacy. (MC, 9/7/01) 1867 nend Sep 9, Luxembourg gained independence. (MC, 9/9/01) 1867 nend Sep 13, Gen. E.R.S. Canby ordered South Carolina courts to impanel blacks as jurors. (MC, 9/13/01)( www.tsha.utexas.edu) 1867 nend Sep 14, Charles Dana Gibson, illustrator, was born. He was the creator of the ?Gibson Girl.? (HN, 9/14/00) 1867 nend Sep 25, Congress created the 1st all black university, Howard Univ. in Wash DC. (MC, 9/25/01) 1867 nend Oct 3, Elias Howe, one of the inventors of the sewing machine, died. In 1968 Grace Rogers Cooper authored ""The Invention of the Sewing Machine." (ON, 11/00, p.9)(HNQ, 2/27/02) 1867 nend Oct 9, The Russians formally transferred Alaska to the US. The U.S. had bought Alaska for $7.2 million in gold. (MC, 10/9/01) 1867 nend Oct 13, Pierre Bonnard (d.1947), French painter and illustrator, was born. He wrote that he wanted to "show what one sees when one enters a room all of a sudden." He married Marthe de Meligny in 1925 and during his life painted some 384 images of her. In 1998 John Elderfield and Sarah Whitfield published "Bonnard." (WUD, 1994, p.169)(WSJ, 6/24/98, p.A16)(SFEC, 8/2/98, BR p.9)(MC,10/13/01) 1867 nend Oct 18, The rules for American football were formulated at meeting in New York among delegates from Columbia, Rutgers, Princeton and Yale universities. (HN, 10/18/00) 1867 nend Oct 18, The United States took formal possession of Alaska from Russia. (AP, 10/18/97) 1867 nend Oct 21, Many leaders of the Kiowa, Comanche and Kiowa-Apache signed a peace treaty at Medicine Lodge, Kan. Comanche Chief Quanah Parker refused to accept the treaty terms. (HN, 10/21/98) 1867 nend Oct 27, Garibaldi marched on Rome. (MC, 10/27/01) 1867 nend Oct 31, William Parson (b.1800), 3rd Earl of Rosse and maker of large telescopes, died. Parsons, an Irish astronomer, built the largest reflecting telescope of the 19th century. He learned to polish metal mirrors (1827) and spent the next few years building a 36-inch telescope. He later completed a giant 72-inch telescope (1845) which he named "Leviathan," It remained the largest ever built until decades after his death. He was the first to resolve the spiral shape of objects, previously seen as only clouds, which were much later identified as galaxies independent of our own Milky Way galaxy and millions of light-years away. His first such sighting was made in 1845, and by 1850 he had discovered 13 more. In 1848, he found and named the Crab Nebula (he thought it resembled a crab), by which name it is still known. (www.todayinsci.com) 1867 nend Oct, Karl Marx (1818-1883), London-based German philosopher, sociologist, economic historian, journalist, and revolutionary socialist, published Volume 1 of ?Das Kapital, Kritik der politischen Okonomie? (Capital: Critique of Political Economy). The first English edition was published in 1887. It is a critical analysis of capitalism as political economy, meant to reveal the economic laws of the capitalist mode of production, and how it was the precursor of the socialist mode of production. Volumes II and III remained mere manuscripts upon which Marx continued to work for the rest of his life and were published posthumously by Engels. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx) 1867 nend Nov 1, "Harpers Bazaar" published. (MC, 11/1/01) 1867 nend Nov 7, Marie Curie (d.1934), Polish-born French scientist, was born in Warsaw as Marya Salomee Sklodowska. Her discoveries included polonium, radium, which she isolated from pitchblende, and the radioactivity of thorium. She was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 1903 with her husband, and in chemistry in 1911. "You cannot hope to build a better world without improving the individuals. To that end each of us must work for his own improvement, and at the same time share a general responsibility for all humanity." (AHD, 1971, p.323)(AP, 10/26/98)(HN, 11/7/98) 1867 nend Nov 12, Mount Vesuvius erupted. (HN, 11/12/98) 1867 nend Nov 25, US Congress commission looked into impeachment of President Andrew Johnson. (MC, 11/25/01) 1867 nend Nov 25, Alfred Nobel patented dynamite. (MC, 11/25/01) 1867 nend Nov 26, A refrigerated railroad car was patented by JB Sutherland of Detroit. [see Jan 16, 1868] (MC, 11/26/01) 1867 nend Dec 2, People waited in mile-long lines to hear Charles Dickens give his first reading in New York City. (HN, 12/2/00) 1867 nend Dec 4, The Order of Patrons of Husbandry, more commonly known as the National Grange, was founded by Oliver Kelley, a traveling clerk with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The original purpose of the Grange was to provide enrichment opportunities for isolated farm families, but its purpose quickly became economic and political. Farmers, particularly in the Midwest and South, were frequently victimized by railroad monopolies that charged exorbitant rates and storage fees. By 1872, 14 states had Grange chapters and membership had risen to about 800,000. Grangers took the lead in organizing farmers' cooperatives to successfully distribute their own produce and in just a few years, Grangers had won enough political support to influence national legislation regulating railroads. The Grange was succeeded by the Farmers' Alliances and in 1891, farmers and labor organizers formed the influential People's Party, or the Populist Party. (HFA, ?96, p.44)(WUD, 1994, p.615)(HNPD, 12/4/98) 1867 nend Dec 6, Giovanni Pacini (71), composer, died. (MC, 12/6/01) 1867 nend Dec 9, The capital of Colorado Territory was moved from Golden to Denver. (HN, 12/9/98) 1867 nend Dec 23, Entrepreneur Madam C.J. Walker (d.1919), the first black American woman millionaire, was born Sarah Breedlove to former slaves on a Louisiana cotton plantation. In 1906 she married Charles Joseph Walker, who became her business partner. Madam Walker had developed her own line of hair care products for black women. Business boomed and Madam Walker became well known to black and white Americans as she traveled the country to market her products, speak at conventions and donate to organizations like the NAACP and the YMCA. Her company made economic independence a reality for the many black women she hired. When Madam C.J. Walker died she left thousands of dollars to schools, orphanages, the Tuskegee Institute, retirement homes and other organizations. (HNPD, 12/23/98)(SFEC, 2/7/99, Par p.7) 1867 nend Dec 30, Simon Guggenheim, philanthropist and US Senator for Colorado, was born. He died aboard the Titanic. (HN, 12/30/98)(MC, 12/30/01) 1867 nend Arturo Toscanini, conductor, was born in Parma. (SFEC, 9/15/96, p.T6) 1867 nend Denton True Young (Cy Young), baseball pitching star, was born near Gilmore, Ohio. Cy was short for cyclone. (AH, 10/01, p.20) 1867 nend Francesco Hayez (1791-1882), Italian Romantic artist, painted his conception of the 70AD sacking of the Temple in Jerusalem. (Econ, 1/20/07, p.90)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Hayez) 1867 nend Claude Monet painted "The Beach at Sainte Adresse" and "Road by Saint-Simeon Farm Winter" while living in Normandy. (DPCP 1984)(SFC, 1/29/99, p.D6)(SFC, 6/17/06, p.E10) 1867 nend Walter Bagehot (1826-1877), British economist, authored ?The English Constitution.? (Econ, 4/1/06, p.13)(http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Walter_Bagehot) 1867 nend Australian poet Adam Lindsay Gordon published his poem: "Ye Weary Wayfarer." (SFEC, 11/24/96, Par p.4) 1867 nend The household guidebook "Six Hundred Dollars a Year" was published. It allotted $10 for a white granite dinner set and $5 for a French China tea set. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.49) 1867 nend Henrik Ibsen, Norwegian writer, wrote his poetic drama "Peer Gynt." He took his main figure from a character in Norwegian folklore who flees from his difficult mother, Ase, gets swept up in a world of trolls, grows up, gets engaged in a variety of nefarious enterprises, and returns home where he is redeemed by a woman who always loved him. (WSJ, 1/28/98, p.A16) 1867 nend Anthony Trollope authored ?Phineas Finn,? the 2nd of his 6 Palliser novels, which chronicled political life in Victorian England. (WSJ, 8/18/07, p.P14) 1867 nend Mark Twain was commissioned to report on the voyage of the steamship Quaker City, which sailed for the Middle East. In 1869 he authored ?The Innocents Abroad,? an account of his observations. (WSJ, 6/2/07, p.P8) 1867 nend Emile Zola (27) authored his novel "Theresa Raquin." It was produced as a Broadway musical in 2001 titled "Thou Shalt Not." (WSJ, 10/25/01, p.A18) 1867 nend The French opera comedy "La Grande? tante," was composed by Jules Massenet. (WSJ, 11/9/00, p.A24) 1867 nend The opera ?The Fair Maid of Perth? by Georges Bizet premiered in France. (ON, 5/06, p.11) 1867 nend The Paris Opera commissioned Verdi to write a five act French version of the opera Don Carlos for the Universal Exposition. It was based on the a play by Friedrich Schiller based on the succession of King Philip to the Spanish throne in 1556 when his father, Emp. Charles V, retired to a monastery. (WSJ, 3/21/96, p.A-12) 1867 nend The facade of the new Paris Opera House, built to the glory of Emperor Napoleon III, was completed. (SFC, 6/21/00, p.E5)(ON, 9/06, p.11) 1867 nend The Tabernacle, home of the Mormon Tabernacle Choir, was completed in Salt Lake City, Utah. (THM, 4/27/97, p.N2) 1867 nend The Reformed Protestant Dutch Church, established by settlers in New York, became the Reformed Church of America. (SFEC, 4/20/97, Par p.18)(SFC, 7/21/97, p.A11) 1867 nend In Washington state Croatian immigrants founded the area that came to be known as Gig Harbor after Captain Charles Wilkes brought in his small boat there for safety from a storm. (SSFC, 9/2/07, p.D8) c 1867 nend In NYC restaurateur and entrepreneur Charles Feltman, who owned a pie wagon at Coney, was looking for something simple he could prepare and serve in a confined space. He hit on the idea of putting a hot sausage in a hard roll. Another version puts Feltman in his German restaurant, Feldman's Ocean Pavilion, when at some point a sausage ended up between two slices of bread. Feltman called it a frankfurter, and cartoonists labeled it a "hot dog." (HNQ, 7/10/01) 1867 nend William Arthur Cummings (Candy Cummings) was credited to be the first baseball pitcher to throw a curve ball. (SFEC, 8/11/96, Z1, p.6)(SFC, 4/15/00, p.D3) 1867 nend US Secret Service responsibilities were broadened to include "detecting persons perpetrating frauds against the government." This appropriation resulted in investigations into the Ku Klux Klan, non-conforming distillers, smugglers, mail robbers, land frauds, and a number of other infractions against the federal laws. (www.ustreas.gov/usss/history.shtml) 1867 nend Anton Burlingame resigned his diplomatic post as US ambassador to China and was named High Minister Plenipotentiary and Envoy Extraordinary from the Court of Peking. (Ind, 8/11/01, 5A) 1867 nend The St. Paulus Lutheran church in SF was founded. The original church building burned down in 1995. In 2007 it moved from Gough and Eddy to join quarters with the St. Coltrane African Orthodox Church on Fillmore. (SFC, 5/28/07, p.D1) 1867 nend There was anti-Chinese violence in SF and Chinese laborers were driven from work and their homes were destroyed by whites angry over the economic conditions. (SFEC, 9/20/98, Z1 p.4) 1867 nend The Cigar Makers Int'l. became the first union in the US to admit women. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1867 nend Trans-Pacific trade was pioneered when the Pacific Mail Steamship Co. dispatched the 300-foot steamship Colorado from SF to Yokohama and Hong Kong. (SFEC, 11/22/98, p.B1) 1867 nend James McCreery (1826-1903) opened a silk retailing operation in NYC. Within 3 years he bought a large building on Broadway and expanded with more departments. McCreery?s close in 1953. (SFC, 9/5/07, p.G5) 1867 nend Jacob Leinenkugel, an immigrant from Bavaria, founded Leinenkugel Beer to supply the lumberjack community of Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin. In 1988 the family business agreed to be acquired by the Miller Brewing Co. (WSJ, 9/27/08, p.A16)(http://tinyurl.com/4epavl) 1867 nend The US Playing Card Co. began business. In 2003 its brands included Bee, Hoyle, Aviator and Bicycle (b.1885). (WSJ, 4/29/03, B12) 1867 nend Edward Calahan of American Telegraph Company developed the first stock ticker. (WSJ, 12/29/07, p.A8) 1867 nend Ernest Michaux, a Parisian blacksmith, added pedals and brakes to an iron ?velocipede,? a 2-wheeled machine that used wooded wheels and was nicknamed ?the boneshaker.? (WSJ, 10/22/04, p.A1)(Econ, 2/5/05, p.77) 1867 nend Adelia Waldron patented the washing machine. (SFC, 2/1/02, p.D13) 1867 nend J.G. McCoy shipped 35,000 cattle to Chicago to end up on American dinner tables. (HNPD, 1/4/99) 1867 nend Christopher Latham Sholes, Carlos Glidden and Samuel Soule invented the typewriter in the 1860s. Charles E. Weller coined the phrase "Now is the time for all good men to come to the aid of the party" to check out the first typewriter built in Milwaukee. (SFC, 1/29/97, z-1 p.2)(SFEC, 3/22/98, Z1 p.8) 1867 nend There was a yellow-fever epidemic in the US. (SSFC, 2/25/01, BR p.5) 1867 nend British surgeon Joseph Lister, Professor of Surgery at Glasgow University, published the results of his antiseptic system in the Lancet medical journal. (ON, 7/00, p.8) 1867 nend Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell first imagined an atom-size device dubbed Maxwell's Demon. (Reuters, 1/31/07) 1867 nend Charles Wolf and Georges Rayet, astronomers at the Paris observatory, spotted a very unusual star. The star showed broad, bright emission lines superimposed on a somewhat fainter continuous background. They are now called Wolf-Rayet stars. It was later proposed that the bright emission lines are due to gasses being expelled at tremendous velocities of 3,000 km per second. It is estimated that the surface temp. of the central Wolf-Rayet star is 100,000°K as compared to 6,000°K for the Sun. (SCTS, p.176) 1867 nend There were 10,000 recorded divorces in the US. (SFEM, 6/28/98, p.39) 1867 nend An American hunter claimed that the ruins of an ancient kingdom lay hundreds of miles in the interior of Africa. (ATC, p.145) 1867 nend The sailing ship Hellespont, a Welsh coal ship with passengers, wrecked near Pescadero, Ca. (SFC, 8/10/02, p.A13) 1867 nend The 2nd Earl of Pomfret died. The family property, the Easton Neston estate, built around 1700 by Nicholas Hawksmoor, in Northamptonshire, England, passed to Sir Thomas George Fermor-Hesketh. (SFC, 5/11/05, p.G6) 1867 nend Lacrosse was declared the national game of Canada. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1867 nend Bismarck unified Germany. (WSJ, 12/2/98, p.A20) 1867 nend German businessman named Augusto R. Berns purchased land across from Machu Picchu, Peru, and an 1887 document showed he set up a company to plunder the site. (AP, 6/5/08) 1867 nend In Japan Ryoma Sakamoto, a samurai, helped topple the feudal government system. Ryoma means Dragon Horse. (WSJ, 6/14/00, p.A1) 1867 nend The Tokugawa Shogunate of Japan gave up power. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215) 1867 nend In South Africa diamonds were discovered. This and the later discovery of gold prompted the end of Boer isolation. [see 1866] (NG, Oct. 1988, p. 564) 1867 1871 In Mexico Benito Juarez served his 2ndt term as president. (WUD, 1994, p.772)(SFC, 4/5/01, p.A12) 1867 1873 Sir John A. MacDonald, Conservative Party, serves as the first Prime Minister of Canada. (CFA, ?96, p.81) 1867 1875 The Suez Canal Co. issued bonds for some hundred million francs to keep afloat. The Khedive went bankrupt and the British under Disraeli snapped up the Khedive's shares for £4 million. (WSJ, 7/10/03, p.D8) 1867 1912 Wilbur Wright, aeronautical inventor, was born. (WUD, 1994, p.1647) 1867 1922 Nellie Bly, famed muckraking reporter for the New York World. She was sent on a trip around the world by Joseph Pulitzer?s New York World and completed the trip in 72 days in1889-90. At 30 she married a 70-year-old industrialist and gave up journalism. In 1997 a TV documentary "Around the World in 72 Days" aired on the "The American Experience." (WSJ,2/11/97, p.A20)(SFC, 4/28/97, p.B1) 1867 1931 Arnold Bennett, English poet, author and critic: "Good taste is better than bad taste, but bad taste is better than no taste at all." (AP, 11/5/97) 1867 1936 Finley Peter Dunne, American humorist: "A fanatic is a man that does what he thinks th' Lord wud do if He knew th' facts in th' case." (AP, 1//99) 1867 1944 Amy Beach, American composer. She employed frequent modulations and liberal doses of chromaticism, which took her a few steps beyond Chopin and Brahms. Her output was immense and included 64 choral works (many for use in Episcopal Church worship), 131 songs and 40 piano pieces, and a chamber opera: Cabildo. (WSJ, 8/16/95, p. A-8) 1867 1944 American illustrator Charles Dana Gibson was born. He began contributing pen and ink drawings of tall, patrician women with spectacular upswept hair to the humorous weekly Life in the early 1890s. Gibson's illustrations took America by storm, creating an ideal of American womanhood--aloof, athletic, socially adept and forever being wooed by unworthy men. Above all, the Gibson Girl was beautiful and thousands of American women emulated her distinctive hairstyle. "You can always tell when a girl is taking the Gibson Cure," wrote one observer, "by the way she fixes her hair." So great was the popularity of Gibson's creation that lithographs of his work decorated parlors and adorned various products throughout the country. Until the outbreak of World War I Gibson was said to be America's highest paid illustrator, earning $55,000 per year. (HNPD, 11/27/98) 1867 1947 Irving Fisher, Yale professor of economics. He developed principles of monetary theory and the new field of econometrics, which used statistical methods. He developed the concept of the relationship between the quantity of money and changes in the general level of prices. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R20) 1867 1948 The American art of this period is covered in the 2001 book: "Painting American: The Rise of American Artists" by Annie Cohen-Solal. (WSJ, 1/3/02, p.A7) 1868 nend Jan 3, Emperor Meiji ascended the throne and assumed power. The Meiji Restoration re-established the authority of Japan?s emperor and heralded the fall of the military rulers known as shoguns. The feudal clan system was abolished and industrialism was started. Japan opened itself up to the West, thereby obtaining the benefits of western technology. (V.D.-H.K.p.243,286)(Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215)(AP, 1/3/98) 1868 nend Jan 7, A US Indian Peace Commission filed a report to the Pres. Johnson. (http://facweb.furman.edu/~benson/docs/peace.htm) 1868 nend Jan 8, Frank Dyson was born. He proved Einstein right that light is bent by gravity. (MC, 1/8/02) 1868 nend Jan 16, The refrigerated railroad car was patented by William Davis, a fish dealer in Detroit. [see Nov 26, 1867] (MC, 1/16/02) 1868 nend Jan 31, Theodore William Richards (d.1928), chemist (atomic weights, Nobel-1914), was born. (WUD, 1994 p.1231)(MC, 1/31/02) 1868 nend Feb 11, Jean Bernard Leon Foucault (b.1819), French physicist, died. He discovered the 1st physical proof of Earth's rotation (1851) and invented the gyroscope. (WUD, 1994 p.560)(MC, 2/11/02)(WSJ, 8/28/03, p.D18) 1868 nend Feb 16, The Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks (B.P.O.E.) was organized in New York City by members of the theatrical profession. Later, men in other professions were permitted to join the social organization. The letters E.L.K. are repeated in the titles of some of its officers, such as Esteemed Leading Knight and Esteemed Loyal Knight.. (AP, 2/16/98)(HNQ, 10/15/99) 1868 nend Feb 21, Pres. Johnson told Gen. Lorenzo Thomas (63) to go the War Dept. with orders to remove Edwin Stanton from office and to assume the responsibilities of Sec. of War. (ON, 9/01, p.6) 1868 nend Feb 23, William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (DuBois, d.1963) was born in Great Barrington, Massachusetts. W.E.B. Du Bois was the first African American to earn a doctorate from Harvard University. As a sociologist, he focused on the problem of race for blacks in the United States. He became an influential leader of black Americans, presenting an alternative to Booker T. Washington, whose policies Du Bois considered too conservative and too accommodating to whites. Du Bois, believing that blacks could achieve progress only through protest, encouraged black nationalism and supported Pan-Africanism. He founded the National Negro Committee which eventually became the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Du Bois also founded the Niagara Movement, served as the NAACP's director of research and editor of its magazine Crisis, and taught and published his philosophy at Atlanta University. W.E.B. Du Bois died at the age of 95 in 1963. (HNPD, 2/23/99) 1868 nend Feb 24, Impeachment proceedings against President Andrew Johnson began. The House of Representatives voted vote 126 to 47 to impeach President Andrew Johnson following his attempt to dismiss Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton; the Senate later acquitted Johnson. Sen. Edmund G. Ross of Kansas cast the last deciding vote against impeachment. Democrats defended Johnson. 7 Republicans cast "no" votes. (HN, 2/24/98)(AP, 2/24/98)(WSJ, 12/11/98, p.A14)(SFC, 12/21/98,p.A3)(MC, 2/24/02) 1868 nend Feb 24, The 1st US parade with floats was at the Mardi Gras in Mobile, Alabama. (MC, 2/24/02) 1868 nend Feb 29, British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli formed his first cabinet. (HN, 2/29/00) 1868 nend Mar 2, University of Illinois opened. (SC, 3/2/02) 1868 nend Mar 5, Arrigo Boito's opera "Mefistofele," premiered in Milan. (MC, 3/5/02) 1868 nend Mar 5, The Senate was organized into a court of impeachment to decide charges against President Andrew Johnson, who was later acquitted. (AP, 3/5/08) 1868 nend Mar 5, A stapler was patented in England by C.H. Gould. (MC, 3/5/02) 1868 nend Mar 9, Ambrois Thomas' opera "Hamlet" premiered in Paris. (MC, 3/9/02) 1868 nend Mar 13, The impeachment trial of President Andrew Johnson began in the U.S. Senate. (AP, 3/13/97)(ON, 9/01, p.7) 1868 nend Mar 16(OS), Maxim Gorkei (Aleksvey Maksimovich Pyeshkov [aka Gorky], d.1936], Russian dramatist, was born. "A good man can be stupid and still be good. But a bad man must have brains." [see Mar 28] (WUD, 1994 p.611)(HN, 3/16/98)(AP, 2/23/01) 1868 nend Mar 17, Postage stamp canceling machine patent was issued. (HN, 3/17/98) 1868 nend Mar 20, The Jesse James Gang robbed a bank in Russellville, Kentucky, of $14,000. (MC, 3/20/02) 1868 nend Mar 22, Robert A. Millikan, US physicist (photoelectric effect; Nobel 1923), was born. (MC, 3/22/02) 1868 nend Mar 23, Gov. Henry Haight signed an act that created the Univ. of California and wed the insolvent College of California to the state with the promised backing of 150,000 acres of federal land. The line "Westward the course of empire takes its way" from a 1752 poem by Irish Bishop Berkeley had earlier inspired the founders of Berkeley, Ca., to name their city and university after Berkeley. (SFEC, 4/18/99, Z1 p.2) 1868 nend Mar 23, University of California was founded in Oakland, CA. Legislator John W. Dwinelle helped establish the Univ. of California and Dwinelle Hall was named for him. The first chancellor was Clark Kerr, for whom the Clark Kerr campus was named. Its first president was Henry Durant for whom Durant Hall was named. Its 8th president was Benjamin Ide Wheeler and the 17th president was Robert Gordon Sproul, for whom Sproul Plaza was named. Later the Haas family of SF contributed $23.75 million on behalf of Walter A. Haas Sr., who ran Levi Strauss & Co. for several decades. The Doreen B. Townsend Center for the Humanities was started with a $5 million pledge from Ms. Townsend, a UC alumna. (SFC, 12/30/96, p.A15)(SS, 3/23/02) 1868 nend Mar 26, Fuad I, king of Egypt (1922-36), was born. (SS, 3/26/02) 1868 nend Mar 27, John Muir (30) arrived by steamer in San Francisco and almost immediately set off on a 300-mile journey to Yosemite Valley along with Englishman Joseph Chilwell. (SSFC, 4/2/06, p.B1)(SSFC, 5/14/06, p.B3) 1868 nend Mar 28(NS), Maxim Gorki, Russian writer, was born. [see Mar 16] (HN, 3/28/98) 1868 nend Mar 30, The trial of President Johnson began with opening statements. Supreme Court Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase was the presiding judge in the impeachment trial of President Andrew Johnson. Chief Justice Chase insisted on the observance of legal procedure, attempting to maintain some semblance of non-partisanship. (HNQ, 1/6/99) 1868 nend Mar 31, Anson Burlingame, head of the Chinese Embassy, arrived in SF for a month-long stay. (Ind, 8/11/01, 5A) 1868 nend Apr 1, Edmond Rostand, French dramatist (Cyrano de Bergerac), was born. (HN, 4/1/01) 1868 nend Apr 1, The Hampton Institute was founded in Hampton, Va. (HN, 4/1/99) 1868 nend Apr 3, Franz Adolf Berwald (71), Swedish composer, died. (MC, 4/3/02) 1868 nend Apr 6, Brigham Young married his 27th and final wife (I am done with wifery). (MC, 4/6/02) 1868 nend Apr 10, 1st performance of Johannes Brahms' "Ein Deutches Requiem." (MC, 4/10/02) 1868 nend Apr, The US government and the Sioux Indians signed another treaty that ended Red Cloud?s War, but did not last long. The treaty made the Black Hills part of the Great Sioux Reservation. (HT, 3/97, p.43)(Econ, 8/2/08, p.37) 1868 nend Apr 13, Tewodros II (1818-1868), also known as Theodore II, committed suicide at Magdala while under British siege. He was Emperor of Ethiopia from 1855-1868. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tewodros_II) 1868 nend Apr 26, Robert Herrick, US writer (Common lot), was born. (MC, 4/26/02) 1868 nend May 6, Gaston Leroux, French novelist (The Phantom of the Opera), was born. (HN, 5/6/01) 1868 nend May 9, Anton Bruckner's 1st Symphony in C premiered. (MC, 5/9/02) 1868 nend May 13, Paolo Gallico, composer, was born. (MC, 5/13/02) 1868 nend May 16, Bedrich Smetana's opera "Dalibor," premiered in Prague. (MC, 5/16/02) 1868 nend May 16, The U.S. Senate failed by one vote, cast by Edmund G. Ross, to convict President Andrew Johnson as it took its first ballot on one of 11 articles of impeachment against him. Johnson, who came to office on Abraham Lincoln's assassination in April 1865, was an honest but tactless man who made many enemies in the Radical Republican Congress. In response to Johnson's recurrent interference with Radical Reconstruction, the U.S. House of Representatives drew up 11 articles of impeachment against the chief executive in March 1868. Although the charges against him were weak, Johnson was tried by the Senate as the Constitution provides. (AP, 5/16/97)(HNPD, 5/16/99) 1868 nend May 18, Nicholas II, the last Russian czar (1894-1917), was born. He and his family, were assassinated by revolutionaries. (HN, 5/18/99)(SC, 5/18/02) 1868 nend May 20, The Republican National Convention met in Chicago and nominated Grant. (MC, 5/20/02) 1868 nend May 22, The Great Train Robbery took place near Marshfield, Ind., as seven members of the Reno gang made off with $96,000 ($98k) in cash, gold and bonds. (AP, 5/22/97)(HN, 5/22/02) 1868 nend May 23, Kit Carson (b.1809), American scout and frontiersman, died at Fort Lyon, Colorado. In 1999 David Roberts authored "A Newer World: Kit Carson, John C. Freemont and the Claiming of the American West." (WUD, 1994, p.227)(SFEC, 2/13/00, BRp.5)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kit_Carson) 1868 nend May 26, The Senate impeachment trial of President Andrew Johnson ended with his acquittal as the Senate fell one vote short of the two-thirds majority required for conviction. Edward Ross of Kansas cast the deciding vote. (AP, 5/26/97)(SFC, 2/12/99, p.A12) 1868 nend May 26, Michael Barrett, Irish nationalist, was executed in the last British public execution. (MC, 5/26/02) 1868 nend May 29, Frederic baron d'Erlanger, French composer, banker, was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1868 nend May 30, Memorial Day began when two women placed flowers on both Confederate and Union graves. Memorial Day, which began in 1868 as Decoration Day, was set aside to remember those who have died in the service of their country. Celebrated on May 30 for the first 100 years, Memorial Day was officially changed to the last Monday in May in 1968. (HN, 5/30/98)(HNPD, 5/31/99) 1868 nend May 31, The 1st Memorial Day parade was held in Ironton, Ohio. (MC, 5/31/02) 1868 nend Jun 1, The Texas constitutional convention met in Austin. (DTnet, 6/1/97) 1868 nend Jun 1, James Buchanan (b. Apr 23, 1791), the 15th president of the United States, died near Lancaster, Pa. He was the only US president to have never married. In 1961 Philip Shreiver Klein authored "President James Buchanan: A Biography." (AP, 6/1/97)(ON, 12/00, p.12) 1868 nend Jun 6, Robert F. Scott, British explorer, was born. (HN, 6/6/01) 1868 nend Jun 21, The first performance of Wagner?s opera Die Meistersinger took place in Munich. (Camelot, 6/21/99) 1868 nend Jun 22, Arkansas was re-admitted to the Union. (AP, 6/22/97) 1868 nend Jun 23, Christopher Latham Sholes received a patent for an invention he called a "Type-Writer." (HFA, ?96, p.32)(SFC, 1/29/97, z-1 p.2)(AP, 6/23/97) 1868 nend Jun 25, Florida, Alabama, Louisiana, Georgia, North Carolina and South Carolina were re-admitted to the Union. (AP, 6/25/97) 1868 nend Jun 25, Congress enacted legislation granting an eight-hour day to workers employed by the Federal government. (HN, 6/25/98) 1868 nend Jul 4, In Japan the last Tokugawa armies were defeated at the Battle at Ueno. (Maggio, 98) 1868 nend Jul 14, Alvin J. Fellows patented a tape measure. (MC, 7/14/02) 1868 nend Jul 15, William Thomas Morton (b.1819), dentist, died in NYC. He was responsible for the first successful public demonstration of ether as an inhalation anesthetic. Morton's accomplishment was the key factor to the medical and scientific pursuit that we now refer to as anesthesiology. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomas_Green_Morton) 1868 nend Jul 15, The Torrent sank in Alaska?s Cook Inlet after tidal currents, among the world's most powerful, rammed it into a reef south of the Kenai Peninsula. About 130 Army soldiers had come north on the Torrent to build the first US military fort in south-central Alaska. About 20 sailors and 15 of the soldiers wives and children were also on board. All 155 people on board survived. Remnants of the wreckage were found in 2007. (AP, 10/8/07)(www.adn.com/life/story/9364436p-9278126c.html) 1868 nend Jul 20, The 1st use of tax stamps on cigarettes. (MC, 7/20/02) 1868 nend Jul 23, The 14th Amendment was ratified, granting citizenship to African Americans. It gave freed slaves full citizenship and equal protection under the laws, however it did not spell out the extent of integration with white America. (HN, 7/23/98) 1868 nend Jul 25, Congress passed an act creating the Wyoming Territory. [see Jul 25, 1867] (AP, 7/25/97) 1868 nend Jul 28, The 14th Amendment to the Constitution, guaranteeing due process of law, was certified in effect by Secretary of State William H. Seward. The amendment was aimed primarily at assuring citizenship to blacks freed from slavery by the Civil War. (HN, 7/28/98)(AP, 7/28/08) 1868 nend Jul 28, Pres. Johnson signed the Burlingame Treaty. It was negotiated by Anson Burlingame, who represented the interests of China, and committed the US to a policy of noninterference in Chinese affairs. It also established commercial ties and provided unrestricted immigration of Chinese to the US. (Ind, 8/11/01, 5A) 1868 nend Aug 11, Thaddeus Stevens (76), architect of Radical Reconstruction, died. (MC, 8/11/02) 1868 nend Aug 16, Bernard McFadden, publisher responsible for the magazine True Story, was born. (HN, 8/16/98) 1868 nend Aug 16, Charles Sanford Skilton (d.1941), composer, was born. (MC, 8/16/02) 1868 nend Aug 23, Edgar Lee Masters (d.1950), poet, novelist, was born in Garnett, Kansas. (http://www.nybooks.com/articles/3088) 1868 nend Sep 8, The NY Athletic Club formed. (MC, 9/8/01) 1868 nend Sep 17, The Battle of Beecher?s Island began, in which Major George "Sandy" Forsyth and 50 volunteers held off 500 Sioux and Cheyenne in eastern Colorado. (HN, 9/17/98) 1868 nend Sep 22, Race riots took place in New Orleans, La. (MC, 9/22/01) 1868 nend Sep 23, Grito de Lares proclaimed Puerto Rico's independence. It was crushed by Spain. (MC, 9/23/01) 1868 nend Sep 28, In the Opelousas Massacre at St. Landry Parish, Louisiana, 200 blacks were killed. (MC, 9/28/01) 1868 nend Oct 1, Rama IV, [Phra Chomklao Chaoyuhua], died at 63. He served as king of Siam (Thailand) from 1851-68. His son Chulalongkorn, Rama V (d.1910), took over and encouraged the beginnings of a modern state. (MC, 10/1/01)(Econ, 1/10/04, p.76) 1868 nend Oct 6, Leon Charles Francois Kreutzer, composer, died at 51. (MC, 10/6/01) 1868 nend Oct 7, Cornell University was inaugurated in Ithaca, N.Y. (AP, 10/7/97) 1868 nend Oct 10, Cuba revolted for independence against Spain. This was the first day of open rebellion for liberty, which was led by the man who is now known as the "Father of Cuba," Carlos Manuel de Cespedes. (http://tinyurl.com/ycthzj) 1868 nend Oct 11, Thomas Edison patented his 1st invention, an electric voice machine. (MC, 10/11/01) 1868 nend Oct 12, Charles Sumner Greene, architect, was born. (HN, 10/12/00) 1868 nend Oct 16, Denmark ended its involvement in India by selling the rights to the Nicobar Islands to the British. (SFC, 11/3/11, p.A2) 1868 nend Oct 21, An major earthquake, later estimated at magnitude 7, took place on the Hayward Fault in northern California. It destroyed the top of the San Mateo County Courthouse. At this time only 265,000 people lived in the Bay Area. (SMMB)(SFC, 6/13/96, p.C3)(SFC, 10/18/07, p.A15) 1868 nend Oct 22, Jacques Offenbach's opera "Genevieve de Brabant," premiered in NYC. (MC, 10/22/01) 1868 nend Oct 26, Whites killed several blacks in St. Bernard Parish, La. (MC, 10/26/01) 1868 nend Nov 3, Republican Ulysses S. Grant was elected 18th president. He won the election over Democrat Horatio Seymour by 27,000 votes. He used the 1867 typewriter phrase "Now is the time for all good men to come to the aid of the party" for his campaign. (AP, 11/3/97)(SFEC, 3/22/98, Z1 p.8)(HN, 11/3/98)(WSJ, 2/17/99, p.A22) 1868 nend Nov 9, The Colorado, a Pacific Mail side-wheeler steamer, was snagged off the West coast at Montara, Ca. The shoal was later named Colorado Reef. (SFEC, 5/25/97, p.T3)(Ind, 3/31/01, 5A) 1868 nend Nov 13, Gioachino (Antonio) Rossini (76), prolific composer (Barber of Seville, William Tell), died. (MC, 11/13/01) 1868 nend Nov 19, William Sidney Mount (b.1807), American genre painter, died. His work included: ?Eel Spearing at Setauket? (1845). (www.britannica.com/eb/article-9054008/William-Sidney-Mount) 1868 nend Nov 23, Louis Ducos du Hauron patented trichrome color photo process. (MC, 11/23/01) 1868 nend Nov 24, Scott Joplin was born in Texas. By the time he was a teenager, Joplin could play the banjo and the piano, and had begun to work as a saloon musician. In the late 1890s, he was performing and composing at the Maple Leaf Club in Sedalia, Missouri, and in 1899 his "Maple Leaf Rag" made ragtime popular. Ragtime was a mixture of classical European and African-American styles of music, and it influenced the later development of jazz. Joplin was not considered a serious composer until ragtime resurfaced in the 1970s, when his composition "The Entertainer" was the theme to the movie The Sting. The first grand opera composed by an African American was Joplin's Treemonisha (1911), which was not very successful at the time. In 1976, however, more than 50 years after Joplin died, Treemonisha won the Pulitzer Prize. (HNPD, 11/24/98)(WSJ, 7/5/00, p.A20) 1868 nend Nov 27, Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer?s 7th Cavalry killed Chief Black Kettle (b.1801) and about 100 Cheyenne (mostly women and children) on the Washita River near present day Cheyenne, Oklahoma. (www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/people/a_c/blackkettle.htm) 1868 nend Nov 28, Mt. Etna in Sicily erupted violently. (HN, 11/28/98) 1868 nend Dec 1, John D. Rockefeller began anti oil war. (MC, 12/1/01) 1868 nend Dec 5, 1st American bicycle college opened in NY. (MC, 12/5/01) 1868 nend Dec 7, Jesse James gang robbed a bank in Gallatin, Missouri, and killed 1 person. (MC, 12/7/01) 1868 nend Dec 12, In Indiana 56 hooded men entered New Albany jail. Frank Reno was the first to be dragged from his cell to be lynched. He was followed by his two brothers, William and Simeon. Another gang member, Charlie Anderson, was also hanged in the prison. [see May 22] (www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/WWvigilantes.htm) 1868 nend Dec 20, Harvey Firestone, industrialist, was born. (HN, 12/20/98) 1868 nend Dec 22, John Nance Garner, (VP-D-1933-41), was born in Texas. (MC, 12/22/01) 1868 nend Dec 24, Emanuel Lasker, world chess champion (1894-21), was born in Germany. (MC, 12/24/01) 1868 nend Dec 25, President Andrew Johnson granted an unconditional pardon to all persons involved in the Southern rebellion that resulted in the Civil War. (AP, 12/25/97) 1868 nend Maud Humphrey, artist, was born in Rochester, N.Y. She worked as a watercolorist and specialized in portraits of children dressed in Victorian fashions. One of her children was movie star Humphrey Bogart. (SFC, 7/1/98, Z1 p.6) 1868 nend Martin Johnson Heade painted "Thunderstorm Over Narragansett Bay." (SFC, 9/20/97, p.E1) 1868 nend Jean-Francois Millet painted "Path Lined With Trees Near Vichy." (WSJ, 7/12/99, p.A26) 1868 nend Claude Monet painted "The River." It shows the water of the Seine and was an early attempt by the artist to depict shimmering light on water. (DPCP 1984) 1868 nend Louisa May Alcott (d.1888) authored "Little Women." In 1998 "Little Women" premiered in Houston as an opera by Mark Adomo. (WSJ, 8/29/01, p.A12)(SSFC, 9/18/05, p.E2) 1868 nend Susan B. Anthony, the suffrage leader, put out the first issue of "The Revolution" in New York City. (HN, 11/5/98) 1868 nend Darwin published "The Variation of Plants and Animals Under Domestication." (NH, 6/96, p.24) 1868 nend Dostoevsky wrote "The Idiot." (WSJ, 3/28/95, p.A-24)(SFC, 5/12/96, p.A-6) 1868 nend Tigran Tcukhatjian (Tchukhadjian) composed "Arshak II," a pseudo-European grand opera. (WSJ, 1/25/00, p.A18)(WSJ, 10/9/01, p.A20) 1868 nend Ambroise Thomas composed his opera "Hamlet." (WSJ, 9/19/96, p.A18) 1868 nend Frederick Law Olmsted began laying out the planned Riverside community outside Chicago over 1,600 acres of Illinois prairie. (WSJ, 5/25/99, p.A26) 1868 nend The Virginia and Truckee railroad line was built to serve Virginia City, Nv., site of the richest silver strike in history. Ted Wurm (d.2004) later co-authored with Harre W. Demoro "Silver Short Line," a history of the line. (SSFC, 2/29/04, p.A25) 1868 nend Alpheus Hardy, a Boston merchant enriched by his clipper ships, built the first cottage at Birch Point, Bar Harbor, Maine. (HT, 3/97, p.12) 1868 nend St. Peter?s Episcopal Church was built in Carson City, Nev. (SSFC, 11/19/06, p.F10) 1868 nend Gen. John Bidwell built Bidwell mansion on his 26,000-acre ranch in Chico, Ca. Bidwell was the founder of Chico and had made his fortune working for John Sutter. He had been a New York farmer and crossed the continent penniless in 1841. (SFC, 3/9/01, p.WBb 7)(SFC, 4/21/07, p.B5) 1868 nend In Syracuse NY the Everson Museum of Art was founded. (WSJ, 6/20/97, p.A16) 1868 nend Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902), a social reformer and militant feminist, said, "The male element is a destructive force" in an address to the Women?s Suffrage Convention in Washington, D.C. (AP, 11/12/97)(HNQ, 5/17/98) 1868 nend The first "chocolate box" was introduced by Richard Cadbury. It depicted his daughter holding a kitten. (SFC, 2/10/99, Z1 p.5) 1868 nend The first known bicycle race was held in Paris. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1868 nend The US established Memorial Day to honor Union soldiers killed in the Civil War. It was first called Decoration Day. It was later expanded to honor all the 2.8 million soldiers killed in the service of the country. (SFC, 5/27/96, p.A18) (SFC, 5/26/97, p.A18) 1868 nend California decided to sell state-owned tidelands. In 1879 the state constitution was amended to prevent the sale of tidelands to private parties within 2 miles of a city. (SFC, 6/15/06, p.B4) 1868 nend In California Fort Bidwell in Modoc Ct. was established as a cavalry outpost to protect settlers from Indians. (SFEC, 5/10/98, p.T9) 1868 nend Balboa Park in San Diego was established as a 1,200-acre recreational area. (BS, 5/3/98, p.5R) 1868 nend Riggs National Bank supplied the $7.2 million in gold bullion for the purchase of Alaska. (WSJ, 4/7/04, p.A1) 1868 nend The "Ohio Idea," promulgated by Ohio congressman George Pendleton, called for payment of the national debt with greenbacks. This position was adopted by the Democrats at their 1868 convention. The "Ohio Idea" was in opposition to the "hard money" proponents who called for payments in gold. The 1869 Public Credit Act officially repudiated the "Ohio Idea" with its provision for the payment of government obligations in gold. (HNQ, 5/14/99) 1868 nend A treaty between the government and Native Americans was signed that was later interpreted by some Native Americans as an entitlement to surplus federal lands. [perhaps the April treaty with the Sioux] (G, Summer ?97, p.4) 1868 nend Navaho Indians living under confinement near Fort Sumner, New Mexico, were allowed to return to their homelands in Arizona following a visit by Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman. Some 7,100 survivors of the 1864 Long Walk had been released onto a New Mexico reservation of 5,500 acres. The Navajo returned to Hopi land where 3.5 million acres, 1/6th of their former homeland, was returned. (SFC, 1/3/97, p.A26)(SFEC, 5/4/97, z1 p.4)(WSJ, 10/7/06, p.P12) 1868 nend Charlotte "Charley" Parkhurst was the first woman to vote for US president in California. The Santa Cruz female stagecoach driver impersonated a man. In 1998 Pam Munoz Ryan wrote her biography: "Riding Freedom." (SFEC, 7/26/98, BR p.8) 1868 nend In Nevada the Central Pacific Railroad came through Reno. The town had been founded on the banks of the Truckee River by Myron Lake and was named after a Civil War general. Lake's land was bought up by Charles Crocker, who had surveyors lay out streets and a town for which he sold lots. The Crocker land eventually came under the control of the Pacific Improvement Co., controlled by Crocker, Huntington, Hopkins and Stanford. (SFC, 2/16/00, p.A12) 1868 nend The SF-San Jose railroad line joined the Southern Pacific Railroad and became a part of the statewide system. (GTP, 1973, p.73) 1868 nend Gustav and Albert Goelitz, German emigrants, started the Goelitz candy business in Illinois. The company later moved to California and invented the all natural Jelly Belly jelly bean in 1976. (SFC, 8/11/99, Z1 p.3) 1868 nend Greenwood China was organized and by 1886 impressed its mark on ironstone or white granite. Its mark used the New Jersey coat of arms and the company produced dishes. It and Greenwood Pottery advertised together but went out of business in 1933. (SFC, 12/30/96, z-1 p.2) 1868 nend Edwards Sands Frost of Biddeford Maine made his first designs for hooked rugs. He devised a method of stenciling the designs on burlap and was credited as the first person to mass produce hooked rugs. (SFC, 8/14/96, z-1 p.5) 1868 nend Over 100,000 Texas longhorn cattle came up the Chisholm Trail to the Abilene, Ka., stockyards. (ON, 4/01, p.12) 1868 nend Helium was detected in the Sun?s spectrum during a total solar eclipse. (NH, 7/02, p.34) 1868 nend In 2008 scientists, using NASA?s Chandra X-Ray Observatory, reported that a supernova took place in the Milky Way about this time. (SFC, 5/15/08, p.A3) 1868 nend Emily and Elizabeth Blackwell opened the world?s 1st medical school for women, the Women?s Medical College of the New York Infirmary.? (ON, 4/03, p.3) 1868 nend Thomas Huxley delivered his lecture On a Piece of Chalk to the working men of Norwich during the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. (OAPOC-TH, p.71) 1868 nend Mrs. Thomas Smith of New South Wales, Australia, dumped a gin carton full of rotten Tasmanian apples into her backyard. The seeds of one spoiled apple took hold and Granny Smith was so impressed that she took some to a commercial grower. (T&L, 10/1980, p.42) 1868 nend The cottony-cushion scale was accidentally introduced from Australia to California and began wreaking havoc on the citrus crops. The pest was not controlled until it was found that the lady bug beetle, Rodolia cardinalis, fed on the scale in the 1880s. (HFA, ?96, p.102) 1868 nend In England a collection of photos by Gustave Le Gray was donated to the Victoria and Albert Museum. (WSJ, 3/24/98, p.A20) 1868 nend The St Pancras station opened in London. It was known as the ?Cathedral of the Railways? and for a time was the largest enclosed space in the world. (Econ, 11/10/07, p.71) 1868 nend In England the Anglican church began to hold conferences for bishops. The conferences were then convened every ten years. (SFEC, 8/2/98, p.A23) 1868 nend Britain?s first fully diversified managed fund (mutual fund), appeared. (WSJ, 1/3/07, p.R6) 1868 nend Ludwig II (1845-1886) of Bavaria began the construction of his fairy-tale-style castle at Neuschwanstein. (SFEC, 4/9/00, p.T5) 1868 nend In Darjeeling, India, English tea planters formed the Darjeeling Planters Club. (SSFC, 7/15/07, p.G5) 1868 nend In Japan Ryoma Sakamoto, the rebel who helped topple the feudal government system in 1967, was assassinated. In 1966 Ryotaro Shiba authored the historical novel "Ryoma on the Move" in 8 paperback volumes. Between 1987 and 1996 a comic series on Ryoma ran in magazines and a 23-volume compilation was later made. (WSJ, 6/14/00, p.A1,16) 1868 nend Lesotho in Southern Africa was annexed by the British. (WSJ, 3/25/98, p.A11) 1868 nend Edvard Hagerup Grieg (1843-1907), Norwegian composer, completed his ?Piano Concerto in A Minor.? (Econ, 8/13/11, p.81) 1868 1870 Cathy Williams disguised herself as a man and served with distinction with the Buffalo Soldiers, black soldiers in Army units on the frontier. (SFEC, 4/5/98, BR p.5) 1868 1871 Bret Harte edited the SF-based magazine "Overland Monthly." (SFEC, 9/3/00, BR p.6) 1868 1912 The Meiji Period of Japan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215) 1868 1919 Henry "Marse" Watterson ran the Louisville Courier-Journal. He was known to have a good recipe for mint juleps. (WSJ, 5/3/96, p.A-8) 1868 1926 Gertrude Bell, adventurer, advisor to kings, ally of Lawrence of Arabia. She wrote "The Desert and the Sown" and spent much of her life in the Arab world whilst spying for Britain in Egypt and Mesopotamia. Her 1996 biography by Janet Wallach is: "Desert Queen, The Extraordinary Life of Gertrude Bell." (SFEC, 9/15/96, BR p.5)(Hem., 5/97, p.99) 1868 1930 : "Kin Hubbard" (Frank McKinney), American humorist: "There seems to be an excess of everything except parking space and religion." (AP, 9/26/97) 1868 1933 In Trenton, New Jersey, the Greenwood China Co. made ironstone and white granite pottery. (SFC,12/17/97, Z1 p.16) 1868 1934 Mary Hunter Austin, American novelist and playwright: "I am not sure that God always knows who are His great men; He is so very careless of what happens to them while they live." (AP, 11/29/00) 1868 1938 E.V. Lucas, English author and critic: "The art of life is to show your hand. There is no diplomacy like candor. You may lose by it now and then, but it will be a loss well gained if you do. Nothing is so boring as having to keep up a deception." (AP, 7/31/98) 1868 1841 Emile Bernard, French poet. He founded the Pont-Aven Group of Symbolists. (SFCM, 10/14/01, p.34) 1868 1944 William Allen White, American journalist: "Consistency is a paste jewel that only cheap men cherish." (AP, 2/8/99) 1868 1952 Norman Douglas, Scottish [British] author: Justice is too good for some people and not good enough for the rest. "You can tell the ideals of a nation by its advertisements." (AP, 11/3/97)(AP, 5/22/99) 1868 1955 Paul Claudel, French author: "Why must all the churches be closed at night? How often has the wanderer groaned in front of those closed doors?" (AP, 12/27/98) 1869 nend Jan-May, Chinese laborers on the Central Pacific set a one-day record when they laid ten miles of track in one day across the Utah desert. This beat the 4 mile record accomplished by Irish workers on the Union Pacific line. (SFC, 7/8/96, p.D2) 1869 nend Feb 2, James Oliver invented the removable tempered steel plow blade. (MC, 2/2/02) 1869 nend Feb 6, Harper's Weekly published the 1st picture of Uncle Sam with chin whiskers. (MC, 2/6/02) 1869 nend Feb 6, Carlo Cattaneo (b.1801), Italian politician, died in Switzerland. His writings significantly shaped the Italian Risorgimento. His journal, Il Politecnico (?The Polytechnic?), not only served as a vehicle for his political views but also was influential in introducing new scientific and technical improvements into Italy. (www.ohio.edu/chastain/ac/cattaneo.htm) 1869 nend Feb 15, Charges of treason against Jefferson Davis were dropped. Jefferson Davis? Mexican War exploits had led him directly to the Confederate White House. (HN, 2/15/98) 1869 nend Feb 20, Tenn. Gov. W.C. Brownlow declared martial law in Ku Klux Klan crisis. (MC, 2/20/02) 1869 nend Feb 26, Nadezjda K. Krupskaja, Russian revolutionary, wife of Lenin, was born. (SC, 2/26/02) 1869 nend Feb 26, 15th Amendment, guaranteeing right to vote, was sent to states. (SC, 2/26/02) 1869 nend Mar 1, Postage stamps showing scenes were issued for 1st time. (SC, 3/1/02) 1869 nend Mar 1, Alphonse MLP de Lamartine (78), French poet (History of Girondins), died. (SC, 3/1/02) 1869 nend Mar 3, University of South Carolina opened to all races. (SC, 3/3/02) 1869 nend Mar 4, Ulysses S. Grant was sworn in as the 18th president of the US. (ON, 9/01, p.7) 1869 nend Mar 8, Louis Hector Berlioz (b.1803), French composer (Symphony Fantastic), died. He was later hailed as the most blazing musical innovator of the early 19th century. In 1969 David Cairns translated his memoirs ?The Memoirs of Hector Berlioz.? (WSJ, 4/8/03, p.D4)(WSJ, 3/1/08,p.W8)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hector_Berlioz) 1869 nend Mar 13, Arkansas legislature passed anti-Klan law. (MC, 3/13/02) 1869 nend Mar 15, Cincinnati Red Stockings became the 1st pro baseball team. (MC, 3/15/02) 1869 nend Mar 18, Neville Chamberlin, British Prime Minister (1937-40), was born. He tried to make peace "in our time" with German Chancellor Adolf Hitler, but instead made it easier for Hitler to take over continental Europe. (HN, 3/18/99) 1869 nend Mar 21, Albert Kahn, the architect who originated modern factory design, was born. (HN, 3/21/98) 1869 nend Mar 21, Florenz Ziegfeld, creator of the Ziegfeld Follies, was born. In 1974 Randolph Carter (d.1998 at 90) authored "The World of Flo Ziegfeld." (HN, 3/21/98)(SFC, 10/24/98, p.A22) 1869 nend Apr 6, John and Isaiah Hyatt applied for a new patent using collodion to manufacture billiard balls. They later named their product celluloid. It was similar to that made by English inventor Alexander Parkes, who patented the process in England in 1855. The new plastic could be molded and mass produced, but was very flammable and exploded when struck with excessive force. [see Jun 15] (HNQ, 5/8/98)(WSJ, 1/11/98, p.R18)(MC, 4/6/02)(PCh, 1992, p.467)(ON,11/03, p.3) 1869 nend Apr 8, Harvey Cushing, US neurosurgeon (blood pressure studied), was born. (MC, 4/8/02) 1869 nend Apr 8, American Museum of Natural History opened in NYC. (MC, 4/8/02) 1869 nend Apr 9, The Hudson Bay Company ceded its territory to Canada. (MC, 4/9/02) 1869 nend Apr 10, The US Congress increased the number of Supreme Court judges from 7 to 9. (MC, 4/10/02) 1869 nend Apr 12, Henri-Desire Landru (Bluebeard), French sex murderer, was born. (MC, 4/12/02) 1869 nend Apr 12, North Carolina legislature passed an anti-Klan Law. (MC, 4/12/02) 1869 nend Apr 13, Steam power brake was patented by George Westinghouse. (MC, 4/13/02) 1869 nend Apr 20, Johann Carl Gottfried Loewe (72), composer, died. (MC, 4/20/02) 1869 nend Apr 30, Hawaiian YMCA was organized. (MC, 4/30/02) 1869 nend Apr, France?s Emp. Louis Napoleon ordered the dissolution of the Public Works Fund. (ON, 9/06, p.12) 1869 nend May 1, Folies Bergere opened in Paris. (MC, 5/1/02) 1869 nend May 6, A special Southern Pacific train left Sacramento bound for Utah to drive the final spike connecting the SP to the Union Pacific on May 8. The UP train did not arrive until May 10. (WSJ, 8/25/00, p.W10) 1869 nend May 10, In the desert near Promontory, Utah, railway official Leland Stanford, drove down a golden spike to unite the tracks from the east and the west. The first transcontinental railroad was completed when the Union Pacific Railroad--building west from Omaha, Nebraska--and the Central Pacific--building east from Sacramento, California--met at Promontory Point, Utah. Recognizing that transportation was essential to the economic development of the nation, the U.S. Congress passed legislation in 1862 that provided for the construction of a railroad linking the east and west coasts. A depression followed the completion of the railroad and the Chinese became a target of ill-will as unemployment soared. Engine 350 was the first one down the Union Pacific line and commemorative platters were made for the occasion. In 1999 David Howard Bain published "Empire Express: Building the First Transcontinental Railroad." In 2000 Stephen E. Ambrose authored "Nothing Like It in the World, The Men Who Built the Transcontinental Railroad 1863-1869." In 2007 Richard Rayner authored ?The Associates: Four Capitalists Who Created California. (SFC, 7/8/96, p.D2)(SFC,1/22/97, Z1 p.7)(HN, 5/11/99)(WSJ, 11/4/99,p.A28)(WSJ, 8/25/00, p.W10)(SSFC, 12/17/00, BR p.10)(SSFC, 1/20/08, p.M1) 1869 nend May 24, John Wesley Powell departed Green River City, Wyoming, with 9 men on an expedition to explore the canyons of the Green and Colorado River. Over 3 years he led two expeditions to explore the Grand Canyon. Three members of the first expedition were killed, reportedly by Indians. His written account was suspected to be inflated if not fictitious. A 1997 novel by Oakley Hall, "Separations," depicted the events. (HFA, ?96, p.127)(SFC, 4/23/97, p.D5)(ON, 5/02, p.1) 1869 nend May 29, Philippe Vandermaelen (73), Flemish cartographer, publisher, died. (SC, 5/29/02) 1869 nend Jun 1, The Electric Voting Machine was patented by Thomas A. Edison. (DTnet, 6/1/97) 1869 nend Jun 6, Siegfried Wagner, German opera composer, conductor, son of Richard Wagner (who composed "Siegfried Idyll" to commemorate his birth), was born. (MC, 6/6/02) 1869 nend Jun 8, Lloyd Wright (d.1959), American architect. He designed Taliesin West near Scottsdale, Arizona on 600 acres in the foothills of the McDowell Mountains. He also designed the beehive building of the Guggenheim Museum on 5th Ave in NYC. "Give me the luxuries of life and I will willingly do without the necessities." [see Jun 8,1867] (WUD, 1994, p.1647)(AAM, 3/96, p.43)(WSJ, 6/14/96, p.A7) 1869 nend Jun 8, Ives W. McGaffey of Chicago patented the 1st vacuum cleaner. (MC, 6/8/02) 1869 nend Jun 9, Charles Elmer Hires sold his 1st root beer in Phila. (MC, 6/9/02) 1869 nend Jun 15, Celluloid was patented in the USA. [see Apr 6] (HT, 6/15/00) 1869 nend Jun 24, Mary Ellen "Mammy" Pleasant officially became the Voodoo Queen in San Francisco, California. (HN, 6/24/99) 1869 nend Jun 27, Emma Goldman, Lithuanian born American anarchist, feminist and birth control advocate, was born. She was deported to the Soviet Union for inciting World War I draft riots in New York. (HN, 6/27/99) 1869 nend Jul 8, William Vaughan Moody, poet and playwright (The Great Divide), was born. (HN, 7/8/01) 1869 nend Jul 15, Margarine was patented by Hippolye Mega-Mouriss for use by French Navy. (MC, 7/15/02) 1869 nend Jul 29, Booth Tarkington (d.1946), US dramatist and novelist (17, Magnificent Ambersons), was born. "Mystics always hope that science will some day overtake them." (AP, 1/31/00)(MC, 7/29/02) 1869 nend Jul, John Augustus Roebling, inventor of the steel wire cable and designer of the Brooklyn Bridge, was killed in a construction accident at the outset of construction of the Brooklyn Bridge. Roebling died of a tetanus infection from a foot injury. He had earlier completed the first suspension bridge over the Niagara gorge linking the US and Canada. His son and partner, Washington A. Roebling, supervised the Brooklyn Bridge to its completion in spite of a debilitating illness. (HFA, '96, p.30)(AP, 5/24/97)(HNPD, 5/23/99)(WSJ, 6/10/99,p.A24)(ON, 4/01, p.9) 1869 nend Aug 10, O.B. Brown patented a moving picture projector. (MC, 8/10/02) 1869 nend Aug 17, Oxford beat Harvard on the Thames River in the 1st international boat race. (SC, 8/17/02) 1869 nend Aug 24, Cornelius Swarthout of Troy, New York, patented the waffle iron. (HN, 8/24/00) 1869 nend Aug 27, Karl Haushofer, soldier, geographer, was born. (MC, 8/27/02) 1869 nend Sep 6, 110 miners, a number of them young boys, were killed in coal mine disaster which occurred early in the morning in Avondale, Pennsylvania, when a fire broke out in a mineshaft, cutting off the miners' escape route and their only source of air. (MC, 9/6/01) 1869 nend Sep 10, A Baptist minister invented the rickshaw in Yokohama, Japan. The jinrikisha, or rickshaw, was developed as a cheap alternative to horse power in 1870. In 1998 Tony wheeler wrote "Chasing Rickshaws" with photographs by Richard I?Anson. (SFEC, 10/11/98, p.T9)(MC, 9/10/01) 1869 nend Sep 12, Peter M. Roget, English physician and lexographer, died. In 2008 Joshua Kendall authored ?The Man Who Made Lists: Love, Death, Madness, and the Creation of Roget?s Thesaurus? (1852). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Roget)(WSJ, 3/22/08, p.W10) 1869 nend Sep 13, Jay Gould and James Fisk attempted to control the US gold market. (MC, 9/13/01) 1869 nend Sep 22, Richard Wagner's opera "Das Rheingold" premiered in Munich. (MC, 9/22/01) 1869 nend Sep 22, The Cincinnati Red Stockings, the first professional baseball team, arrived in San Francisco after a rollicking, barnstorming tour of the West. (HN, 9/22/98) 1869 nend Sep 23, Edgar Lee Masters, poet and novelist (Spoon River Anthology), was born. (MC, 9/23/01) 1869 nend Sep 24, Black Friday. Thousands of businessmen were ruined in a Wall Street panic after financiers Jay Gould and James Fisk attempted to corner the gold market. (AP, 9/24/97)(MC, 9/24/01) 1869 nend Sep 27, Wild Bill Hickok, sheriff of Hays City, Kan., shot down Samuel Strawhim, a drunken teamster causing trouble. (HN, 9/27/98) 1869 nend Oct 1, Austria issued the world's first postal card, the Correspondenz Karte, a plain-line card printed with a 2-kreuzer stamp. (Hem, 6/96, p.97)(http://shilohpostcards.com/webdoc2.htm) 1869 nend Oct 2, Mohandas Karamchad Gandhi (d.1948), called Mahatma, Hindu nationalist, political and spiritual leader was born in Porbandar, India. His nonviolent actions helped to eradicate British rule in India. He was assassinated in 1948. "Love is the strongest force the world possesses, and yet it is the humblest imaginable." "To enjoy life one should give up the lure of life." [see Oct 3] (AHD, 1971, p.542)(HFA, ?96, p.40)(SFC, 1/31/97, p.A13)(AP,10/2/97)(AP, 1/12/98)(HN, 10/2/98)(AP, 1/12/98)(AP, 1/20/99) 1869 nend Oct 3, Mohandas Karamchad Gandhi (d.1948), called Mahatma, Hindu nationalist and spiritual leader was born. He was later assassinated. [see Oct 2] (AHD, 1971, p.542)(HFA, ?96, p.40)(SFC, 1/31/97, p.A13) 1869 nend Oct 6, Johannes Brahms' "Liebeslieder Walzes," premiered. (MC, 10/6/01) 1869 nend Oct 8, Franklin Pierce (64), the 14th president (1853-1857) of the United States, died in Concord, N.H. (AP, 10/8/97)(MC, 10/8/01) 1869 nend Oct 13, Charles-Augustin Sainte-Beuve, French writer (Tableau Historique), died. (MC, 10/13/01) 1869 nend Oct 16, A hotel in Boston became the 1st to have indoor plumbing. (MC, 10/16/01) 1869 nend Oct 21, The 1st shipment of fresh oysters came West overland from Baltimore. (MC, 10/21/01) 1869 nend Oct 23, John Heisman, American college football coach from 1892 to 1927, was born. He had a trophy for best college player named after him. (HN, 10/23/98) 1869 nend Oct 25, August Otto Halm, composer, was born. (MC, 10/25/01) 1869 nend Nov 1, Louis Riel seized Fort Garry, Winnipeg, during the Red River Rebellion. Louis Riel, Metis leader, helped stage an uprising against the influx of white settlers in Manitoba that resulted in a provisional government that he led. Manitoba was admitted as Canada?s 5th province and the Metis were allocated 1.4 million acres of land, but Riel fled charged with failing to stop the execution of Thomas Scott, an English Protestant captured during the fighting. (SFC, 1/22/98, p.B2)(HN, 11/1/98)(Reuters, 11/22/02) 1869 nend Nov 2, Sheriff Wild Bill Hickok lost his reelection bid in Ellis County, Kan. (HN, 11/2/98) 1869 nend Nov 8, The transcontinental railway arrived in Oakland, Ca., with a stop at Suisun City. The Mariposa pulled 6 coaches into Oakland at 7th and Broadway. (SFEC, 3/8/98, p.W27)(SFC, 9/3/99, p.A4)(SFC, 5/3/02, p.A20) 1869 nend Nov 11, Victor Emmanuel III, king of Italy (1900-46) and Ethiopia, was born. (MC, 11/11/01) 1869 nend Nov 17, The Suez Canal was opened in Egypt, linking the Mediterranean and the Red seas. The 100 mile canal eliminated a 4000-mile trip around Africa. Empress Eugenie, the wife of Napoleon III, together with Ferdinand de Lesseps, chief architect of the canal, led the first file of ships from on board the French imperial yacht Aigle. It was financed by the Rothschild banking empire. In 2003 Zacharay Karabell authored "Parting the Desert: The Creation of the Suez Canal." (I&WWI, p.1041)(SFC, 7/12/96, p.A11)(AP, 11/17/97)(MC,11/17/01)(WSJ, 7/10/03, p.D8) 1869 nend Nov 22, Andre Gide (d1951), French novelist and critic (Lafcadio's Adventures- Nobel 1947), was born. "There are very few monsters who warrant the fear we have of them." "Believe those who are seeking the truth; doubt those who find it." "The color of truth is gray." (AP, 10/31/97)(AP, 3/24/98)(SFEC, 6/28/98, Z1 p.8)(MC, 11/22/01) 1869 nend Dec 10, Governor John Campbell signed a bill that granted women in the Wyoming Territory the right to vote as well as hold public office. Esther Morris had pressed state senator William Bright to sponsor the suffrage bill. Wyoming became the 1st US state to enfranchise women. (AP, 12/10/97)(HN, 12/10/98)(USAW, 5/19/02, p.8) 1869 nend Dec 14, Nathan Meeker, agricultural editor of the New York Tribune, wrote a column appealing to readers of high moral character to join him in building a utopian community by the South Platte River near the foot of the Rocky Mountains. He selected 700 of some 3000 applicants and founded Greeley, Colo., named after his publisher Horace Greeley. (Sm, 2/06, p.99) 1869 nend Dec 18, Louis Moreau Gottschalk (b.1829), American composer, died in Brazil. (http://w3.rz-berlin.mpg.de/cmp/gottschalk.html) 1869 nend Dec 22, Edwin Arlington Robinson (d.1935), American poet, was born. "Christmas has come and gone, and I?to speak selfishly?am glad of it. The season always gives me the blues in spite of myself, though I manage to get a good deal of pleasure from thinking of the multitudes of happy kids in various parts of the world." (AP, 12/26/97)(SFEC, 4/23/00, BR p.6) 1869 nend Dec 24, Edwin M[cMasters] Stanton (55), US Secretary of War (1861-65), died. (MC, 12/24/01) 1869 nend Dec 28, William Finley Semple of Mount Vernon, Ohio, patented chewing gum. (MC, 12/28/01) 1869 nend Dec 31, Henri Matisse (d.1954), French artist best known for his paintings "Woman with a Hat" and "The Red Studio," was born. His work included the "Dance II," now at the Hermitage in Moscow. In 1998 Hilary Spurling authored "The Unknown Matisse: A Life of Henri Matisse, Vol 1: 1869-1908." (WSJ, 7/5/96, p.A5)(SFEC, 12/13/98, BR p.9)(HN, 12/31/98) 1869 nend Johann Friedrich Overbeck (b.1789), German Nazarene artist, was born. (SSFC, 1/27/02, p.C7) 1869 nend Gustave Courbet painted "The Rock of Hautepierre." (DPCP 1984) 1869 nend Edgar Degas painted "Madame Camus at the Piano." (SFC,11/19/97, p.E6) 1869 nend Jules-Elie Delaunay created his painting "The Plague in Rome." (WSJ, 9/9/03, p.D6) 1869 nend Claude Monet painted "The Seine at Bougival, Evening." (SFC, 7/11/01, p.D1) 1869 nend Renoir and Monet sat side by side and painted views of the bathing house, La Grenouillleres and its patrons. (WSJ, 9/10/96, p.A16)(SFC, 10/30/96, p.E2) 1869 nend Camille Pissarro painted "The Versailles Road at Louveciennes." (SFEM, 1/31/99, p.18) 1869 nend Francis Galton, British psychologist, authored ?Hereditary Genius,? in which he argued that natural abilities are derived by inheritance. (Econ, 9/17/05, p.32)(www.thoemmes.com/psych/galton.htm) 1869 nend John Stuart Mill authored his essay ?On Liberty? in which he argued that the state should repress man?s acts only if they harm others. (Econ, 4/8/06, p.67) 1869 nend Rangawarsita, a Javanese royal courtier, compiled the "Books of Kings," which mentioned an event from the middle of the first millennium that sounded like a major eruption. In about 535 there was some evidence that the Krakatoa volcano had a major eruption. (WSJ, 5/15/00, p.A46) 1869 nend Catherine Esther Beecher and sister Harriet Beecher Stowe authored ?American Woman?s Home,? in which they recommended a scientific approach to household management. (Econ, 12/22/07, p.125) 1869 nend Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913), British field biologist, authored ?The Malay Archipelago.? He had gone to Indonesia in 1852 looking for the origin of species. (WSJ, 3/29/08,p.W10)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace) 1869 nend Johannes Brahms composed his "German Requiem." (WSJ, 12/3/97, p.A20) 1869 nend Thomas Henry Huxley, English biologist, naturalist and writer, coined the term "agnostic" after he got tired of being called an atheist. [2nd source says 1870] (SFEC, 2/15/98, Z1 p.8)(SFEC, 9/3/00, Z1 p.2) 1869 nend Railroad companies built the first bridge across the Missouri River at Kansas City. (SSFC, 11/12/06, p.G6) 1869 nend The US federal government took 7,500 acres within the Cheyenne-Arapaho reservation of Oklahoma for a military fort, Fort Reno. In 1997 the closed fort was under control of the Agriculture Dept. and used for a small research project. (SFC, 3/10/97, p.A2) 1869 nend Daniel E. Sickles was appointed minister to Spain. A newspaper summed up his career: "mail robber, spy, murderer, confidence man, general, satrap, politician." In 2002 Thomas Keneally authored "American Scoundrel," a biography of Sickles. (WSJ, 3/29/02, p.W10) 1869 nend Gambling in Nevada was legalized. (SFEC, 5/10/98, DB p.64) 1869 nend John Brown - of the banking firm of Brown Brothers & Co. - put all of his bank?s capital on the line to block a cornering of the gold market by Jay Gould and Jim Fisk. (WSJ, 5/8/95, p.A-14) 1869 nend 100,000 young evergreens were sold at Christmas in New York City. (NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.53) 1869 nend In NYC Hart Island became the city?s graveyard. The island had also been used as a Union training camp, a Confederate prison, a yellow-fever quarantine, a lunatic asylum, a workhouse for aged inmates, a prison for WW II German soldiers, an antiaircraft missile base, a rehab center for the homeless and drug addicts, and a driving school for chronic traffic offenders. (WSJ, 8/26/98, p.10) 1869 nend In Connecticut the Meriden Silver Plate Co. was founded. (SFC,12/10/97, Z1 p.9) 1869 nend Alexander Turney Stewart (d.1860), Irish-born entrepreneur, founded Garden City, NJ. (www.lowermanhattan.info/history) 1869 nend Dr. Thomas Bramwell Welsh, a wine steward at a church in Vineland, pasteurized Concord grape juice to produce an unfermented sacramental wine. He later came to be known as the father of the fruit juice industry. (SFEC, 8/8/99, Z1 p.8) 1869 nend Henry J. Heinz partnered with L.C. Noble to form Heinz & Noble in Sharpsburg, Pa., selling fruit and vegetable preserves. They produced tomato and walnut ketchup for 24 cents per gallon and sold them from whiskey barrels. (SFC, 8/27/03, p.E4)(www.hfp.heinz.org/aboutus/heinzhistory.html) 1869 nend About this time Edmund McIlhenny, banker, traveled to New Orleans and acquired some pepper seeds from a man on the street, which he grew and used to develop a hot sauce that he called Tabasco, after peppers from Mexico?s state of Tabasco. In 2007 Jeffrey Rothfeder authored McIlhenny?s Gold: How a Louisiana Family Built the Tabasco Empire.? (SFC, 4/5/99, p.A3)(WSJ, 10/9/07, p.D11) 1869 nend Marcus Goldman, son of a German peasant, began to broker credit to diamond and leather merchants near Wall Street. He later offered a partnership to his son-in-law Sam Sachs. In 1999 Lisa Endlich published "Goldman Sachs: The Culture of Success." In 2008 Charles D. Ellis authored ?The Partnership: The Making of Goldman Sachs.? (WSJ, 2/23/99, p.A20)(WSJ, 10/1/08, p.A23) 1869 nend Wells Fargo allowed Leland Stanford, Charles Crocker, Henry Huntington and mark Hopkins (the Big Four) to gain controlling interest in exchange for the exclusive rights to carry express over the Transcontinental Railroad. (SFC, 6/9/98, p.A10) 1869 nend The Pacific Lumber Company was founded. It was headquartered in San Francisco. (SFC, 9/4/96, p.A4) 1869 nend Pillsbury was founded as a US flour milling company. (WSJ, 5/5/99, p.B1) 1869 nend Western Union formed Western Electric to make apparatus for the telegraph. It was later subsumed into AT&A and then spun off as Lucent. (WSJ, 10/5/04, p.D8) 1869 nend George Westinghouse (1846-1914) introduced the railroad airbrake. The device enabled the engineer to brake a train from the locomotive. Westinghouse secured a patent for the first air brake, an invention that had a revolutionary impact on railroad transportation, making high-speed travel safe. Westinghouse already held patents for a rotary steam engine and other railroad equipment when he incorporated the Westinghouse Air Brake Co. in 1869. He later invented an automatic air brake for long freight trains. Westinghouse, who eventually held more than 400 patents, turned his interest to electricity in 1885 and later formed the Westinghouse Electric. (THC, 12/2/97)(HNQ, 5/28/00) 1869 nend The transcontinental railway arrived in Oakland. (SFEC, 3/8/98, p.W27) 1869 nend Margarine was invented. (NW, 9/16/02, p.34D) 1869 nend Carbon paper was first patented. (SFC, 6/3/00, p.D4) 1869 nend Frederick Marriott flew his unmanned Aviator Hermes Jr. over a field near Millbrae and Burlingame in California. The machine was a gasbag filled with hydrogen, and a steam engine turning rotors with attached delta wings guided by men on the ground with ropes. (SFC, 6/5/98, p.A23) 1869 nend John Boyle O?Reilly, Irish nationalist, spy, convict, and poet, escaped by sea from an Australian prison camp and settled in Boston. (Smith., 4/1995, p.146) 1869 nend The first Univ. of Mich. University Hospital opened in Ann Arbor. It was the only university owned teaching hospital in the US. (MT, Sum. ?98, p.15) 1869 nend The petrified man hoax known as the "Cardiff Giant" was promoted in New York, Boston, Albany and Syracuse. A 10 foot 4 œ inch limestone statue of a man was claimed to have been dug up in Cardiff, N.Y. (SFC, 11/18/00, p.B3) 1869 nend Ludwig Karl Kahlbaum in Innsbruck, Austria, described for the 1st time the medical condition of catatonia. He compiled a list of almost 40 signs involving unusual movements. For decades it was thought to be a type of schizophrenia. By 2006 it was still not well understood. (SSFC, 12/24/06, p.B6) 1869 nend Etienne Leopold Trouvelot (1827-1895), French artist, amateur entomologist and immigrant to the US, imported gypsy-moth eggs to set up a silk production project in the backyard of his Medford, Mass., home. The moth became a national pest. (WSJ, 5/1/01, p.A24)(SSFC, 5/22/05, Par p.4) 1869 nend Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleyev (1834-1907), Russian chemist, formulated the periodic table of elements [see 1871]. In 2001 Paul Strathern authored "Mendeleyev?s Dream," a history of chemistry. (V.D.-H.K.p.324)(HN, 2/8/01)(WSJ, 8/21/01, p.A17) 1869 nend New York Herald reporter Henry Morton Stanley was instructed to travel to Africa for the opening of the Suez Canal and to locate David Livingstone, the British missionary doctor who had been missing since 1866. Livingstone's final expedition to central Africa had been undertaken to bring Christianity to the natives, to help eradicate the slave trade and to locate the source of the Nile. (HNPD, 11/10/98) 1869 nend A fire at Yellow Jacket Mine near Virginia City, Nevada, killed 45 people. (SFEC, 6/25/00, p.T7) 1869 nend Roger Fenton (b.1819), British photographer, died. In 2004 Gordon Baldwin, Malcolm Daniel and Sarah Greenough authored ?All the Mighty World: The Photographs of Roger Fenton 1852-1860.? (SSFC, 11/14/04, p.E1) 1869 nend Henri Jomini, military theorist, died. He had used the campaigns of Napoleon to formulate theories of warfare that influenced military commanders through much of the 19th century. Jomini began his military career in 1798, volunteering his services to the French Army. With the peace of Amiens, he left the army and wrote his "Treatise of Grand Military Operations." The book impressed Napoleon enough to have Jomini appointed a staff colonel in 1805, Jomini having volunteered again in 1804. Jomini rose to become chief of staff under Marshall Ney, but left the French army to fight for Russia in 1813 as a general and aide-de-camp of Alexander I. By the time of his death in 1869, he had written several other works, organized the Russian military academy and advised kings on tactics for their various military campaigns. (HNQ, 9/1/00) 1869 nend Henry J. Raymond, founder of the New-York Daily Times, died of a heart attack in the apartment of his lover, actress Rose Eytinge. (SFEM, 1/16/00, p.17) 1869 nend The Austrian government introduced the first postcard, the Correspondenz Karte, a plain-line card printed with a 2-kreuzer stamp. (Hem, 6/96, p.97) 1869 nend The Giant Panda of China was first made known to the West by the French missionary Armand David. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_Panda) 1869 nend The Benedictine monastery on the Croatian island of Sveta Marija was abandoned. (SSFC, 6/20/04, p.D8) 1869 nend In England the grandparents of Alan Sainsbury (1902-1998) founded a family grocery in London that grew to become a supermarket empire. (SFC, 10/27/98, p.B6) 1869 nend In France Pierre and Ernest Michaux built the first motorcycle. It was powered by a steam engine. (SFEC, 7/27/97, Z1 p.7) 1869 nend In Paris the Bon Marche department store, founded by Aristide and Marguerite Boucicaut, began displaying its wares for customers to inspect and introduced price tags. (Econ, 10/2/04, p.18)(Econ, 7/15/06, p.15) 1869 nend In Hungary Mark Pick founded a sausage company in Szeged. (SFC, 3/21/97, p.D2) 1869 nend Japan?s Yasukuni shrine was dedicated to the Japanese who died in wars since 1853. The name, which means ?peaceful country,? was bestowed by Emperor Meiji in 1879. (Econ, 10/8/05, Survey p.15) 1869 nend In Yokohama, Japan, Baptist missionary Jonathan Scobie put together the first jinriksha to cart around his invalid wife. (SFC, 5/24/97, p.E3) 1869 nend In Scotland the tea clipper Cutty Sark was launched. The name referred to the Scottish word for short shift or dress. (SSFC, 6/19/05, p.E6) 1869 1870 The first Vatican Council. The doctrine of papal infallibility was declared. The council was interrupted by the Franco-Prussian war. (CU, 6/87) 1869 1876 In Britain the Midland Railway Company built the 70-mile Settle-Carlisle railway. (Hem., 1/97, p.114) 1869 1877 Ulysses S. Grant served as the 18th President of the US. (A&IP, ESM, p.96b) 1869 1877 Elihu Washburne (1816-1887) served as America?s minister to France and was influential in negotiating the armistice for the Franco-Prussian War. During the 2 months of the Paris Commune (1870) he arranged passports for Americans to escape the siege. (Econ, 6/4/11, p.95) 1869 1886 St. Francis Cathedral was built in Santa Fe, New Mexico, under the direction of French priest (later bishop) Jean-Baptiste Lamy. (SSFC, 6/10/01, p.T8) 1869 1921 Of the 11 U.S. presidents serving between 1869 and 1921, seven of them were born in Ohio. The presidents and their places of birth were: Ulysses S. Grant, Point Pleasant; Rutherford B. Hayes, Delaware; James A. Garfield, Orange; Benjamin Harrison, North Bend; William McKinley, Niles; William H. Taft, Cincinnati; Warren G. Harding, Morrow County. These were the only Ohio-born presidents. Three of them, Garfield, McKinley and Harding died in office. (HNQ, 5/9/98) 1869 1934 Marie Dressler, Canadian actress: "Never one thing and seldom one person can make for a success. It takes a number of them merging into one perfect whole." (AP, 4/19/99) 1869 1940 Emma Goldman, American anarchist: "Show me the country in which there are no strikes and I?ll show you that country in which there is no liberty." (AP, 9/7/98) 1869 1944 Stephen Leacock, Canadian humorist-educator: "If youth only had a chance or old age any brains." (AP, 4/28/98) 1869 1949 Hans Erich Pfitzner, German composer and conductor. He became a Nazi sympathizer and an enthusiastic anti-Semite. (WUD, 1994, p.1078)(WSJ, 7/29/97, p.A12) 1869 1951 Andre Gide, French author and critic: "There are very few monsters who warrant the fear we have of them." "Believe those who are seeking the truth; doubt those who find it." "The color of truth is gray." (AP, 10/31/97)(AP, 3/24/98)(SFEC, 6/28/98, Z1 p.8) 1869 1955 Calouste Gulbenkian, Armenian oil merchant. By 1907 he combined Royal Dutch Oil and Shell Oil and emerged with a large block of stock in the combined company. He later brokered all the oil sold in Iran to the West for a 5% commission and earned the nickname Mr. Five percent. He collected old master paintings, Turkish carpets, illuminated manuscripts and left a fortune valued at $1 billion. (WSJ, 1/11/98, p.R18) 1869 1984 Paul Mayewski and Willi Dansgaard analyze ice-core from south Greenland covering this time period and found that the sulfate concentration had tripled since around 1900. the nitrate concentration showed to double. (NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.65) 1870 nend Jan 3, Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge began. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooklyn_Bridge) 1870 nend Jan 9, Alexander Herzen (b.1812), Russian author, died in France. In 1961 US Prof. Martin Malia (1924-2004) authored ?Alexander Herzen and the Birth of Russian Socialism (1812-1855). (www.bookrags.com/biography/aleksandr-ivanovich-herzen/)(SFC,11/24/04, p.B6) 1870 nend Jan 10, John D. Rockefeller (1839-1937) and his brother William incorporated the Standard Oil Company of Ohio. The original Standard Oil Company, founded by John D. Rockefeller and three partners in 1870, was incorporated in the state of Ohio. (WSJ, 7/15/97, p.A16)(AP, 1/10/98)(HN, 1/10/99)(HNQ, 1/23/00) 1870 nend Jan 10, Victor Noir (22), French journalist, was killed by Prince Pierre Bonaparte. Noir "had called on him with a companion to present his editor's challenge to a duel because of a journalistic dispute concerning Corsican politics.? Public sentiment over Noir's death forces Napoleon III to abdicate. A statue of Noir?s prostrate figure became a magnet for infertile women rubbing themselves against him as a sexual charm. (SSFC, 10/31/04, p.F9)(www.alsirat.com/silence/cemtime/time4.html) 1870 nend Jan 15, The Democratic party was represented as a donkey in a cartoon by Thomas Nast in Harper?s Weekly. (Hem, 8/96, p.84)(AP, 1/15/98) 1870 nend Jan 19, Nathaniel Langford, agent of the Northern Pacific Railroad Co., presented a lecture in Wash. DC on the challenges of building a RR through the northern Rockies and reported that Yellowstone Valley contained dozens of geysers. This prodded Ferdinand Hayden to seek Congressional support for a scientific expedition to the valley. (ON, 11/02, p.2) 1870 nend Jan 23, American army forces, looking for Mountain Chief's band of hostile Blackfoot Indians, fell instead upon Heavy Runner's peaceable Piegan band in Montana and killed 173, many of them women and children. (www.legendsofamerica.com/NA-Blackfoot.html)(SSFC, 12/25/05, p.M2) 1870 nend Jan 26, Virginia rejoined the Union. (AP, 1/26/98) 1870 nend Feb 2, Samuel Clemens, Mark Twain, married Olivia Langdon in Elmira, New York. He fell in love with her photograph during an 1867 trip to the Holy Land with her brother Charles. (SFEM, 1/25/98, p.31) 1870 nend Feb 2, The press agencies Havas, Reuter and Wolff signed an agreement whereby between them they would cover the whole world. (HN, 2/2/99) 1870 nend Feb 2, The "Cardiff Giant," supposedly the petrified remains of a human discovered in Cardiff, N.Y., was revealed to be nothing more than carved gypsum. (AP, 2/2/97) 1870 nend Feb 3, 15th Amendment on Black suffrage was passed. [see Mar 30] (MC, 2/3/02) 1870 nend Feb 5, The 1st motion picture was shown to a theater audience in Philadelphia. (MC, 2/5/02) 1870 nend Feb 7, Alfred Adler, psychiatrist (Inferiority Complex), was born in Austria. (MC, 2/7/02) 1870 nend Feb 9, The U.S. Army established the US National Weather Service. Congress under continued petition from Smithsonian secretary Joseph Henry and colleagues, passed a military appropriation enabling the US Army Signal Service to make standardized weather observations. (AP, 2/9/99)(ON, 2/06, p.7) 1870 nend Feb 12, Women in the Utah Territory gained the right to vote. However, that right was taken away in 1887. (AP, 2/12/07) 1870 nend Feb 12, An official proclamation set April 15 as last day of grace for US silver coins to circulate in Canada. (MC, 2/12/02) 1870 nend Feb 13, Leopold Godowsky, virtuoso pianist, composer, was born in Lithuania. (MC, 2/13/02) 1870 nend Feb 14, Esther Morris became the world?s first female justice of the peace. (HN, 2/14/98) 1870 nend Feb 15, Ground was broken for Northern Pacific Railway near Duluth, Minn. (440 Int?l., 2/15/99) 1870 nend Feb 16, The clipper ship Cutty Sark left London on its first voyage, proceeding around Cape Hope to Shanghai 3 1/2 months later. The ship made only eight voyages to China in the tea trade, as steam ships replaced sail on the high seas. (AP, 5/21/07) 1870 nend Feb 17, Mississippi became the 9th state readmitted to US after Civil War. [see Feb 23] (MC, 2/17/02) 1870 nend Feb 17, Nebraska, the last state needed to secure ratification, approved the 15th Amendment to the US Constitution, guaranteeing the right to vote regardless of race. (AH, 2/05, p.17) 1870 nend Feb 23, Mississippi was readmitted to the Union. [see Feb 17] (AP, 2/23/98) 1870 nend Feb 23, Anton Burlingame, former Mass., legislator, former US ambassador to China and current Chinese diplomat, died in Russia. He was returned to Boston for burial. (Ind, 8/11/01, 5A) 1870 nend Feb 25, Hiram Revels (Sen-R-MS) was sworn in as the 1st black member of Congress. (MC, 2/25/02) 1870 nend Feb 26, New York City's first pneumatic-powered subway line was opened to the public. The tunnel was only a block long, and the line had only one car. (AP, 2/26/07) 1870 nend Feb 26, Wyatt Outlaw, black leader of Union League in North Carolina, was lynched. (SC, 2/26/02) 1870 nend Mar 1, Francisco S. Lopez (43), President of Paraguay (1862-70), was killed in the War of the Triple alliance. (http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/L/Lopez-Fr.html) 1870 nend Mar 5, Frank Norris, novelist (McTeague, The Octopus), was born. (HN, 3/5/01) 1870 nend Mar 6, Oscar Strauss, composer (Ein Walzertraum), was born in Vienna, Austria. (MC, 3/6/02) 1870 nend Mar 17, the Massachusetts Legislature authorized the incorporation of Wellesley Female Seminary. It later became Wellesley College. (AP, 3/17/97) 1870 nend Mar 18, The 1st US National Wildlife Preserve was Lake Meritt in Oakland, Calif. Lake Merritt, actually a tidal lagoon, was named after Samuel Merritt, a physician and one of the 1st mayors of Oakland. (SFEC, 3/8/98, p.W31)(SFC, 1/5/01, WBb p.8)(MC, 3/18/02)(SFCM,8/17/03, p.3) 1870 nend Mar 19, The opera "Guarany," premiered in Milan. (MC, 3/19/02) 1870 nend Mar 30, The 15th Amendment to the US Constitution, guaranteeing the right to vote regardless of race, was declared in effect by Secretary of State Hamilton Fish. (HN, 3/30/98)(AP, 3/30/08) 1870 nend Mar 30, Texas was the last Confederate state readmitted to the Union. (AP, 3/30/97)(HN, 3/30/98) 1870 nend Apr 2, Victoria Claflin Woodhull (1838-1927) became the first woman to run for president of the United States when she announced her candidacy for the 1872 election, but she spent Election Day in jail for sending obscene literature through the mail. Woodhull challenged convention in Victorian-era America. Victoria and her sister, Tennessee Claflin, got their start as spiritual advisors to financier Cornelius Vanderbilt. With his backing, the sisters became the first women to open their own successful brokerage firm. (HNPD, 4/28/99) 1870 nend Apr 9, The American Anti-Slavery Society dissolved. (MC, 4/9/02) 1870 nend Apr 9, Heinrich Schliemann, German archeologist, with neither a permit nor the consent of the Turkish landowners, had his hired men sink trenches on the summit of the mound of Hissarlik, the spur of a limestone plateau on the northwest coast, where he suspected that the ancient ruins of Troy lay buried. Schliemann was hired by Frank Calvert (1828-1908), US Consular Agent at the Dardanelles, to excavate at Thymbra. In 1999 Susan Heuck Allen authored ?Finding the Wall of Troy: Frank Calvert and Heinrich Schliemann at Hisarlik.? (www.lib.duke.edu/lilly/artlibry/dah/schliemannh.htm)(Nat. Hist.,4/96, p.44)(Arch, 11/04, p.8) 1870 nend Apr 13, The Metropolitan Museum of Art was incorporated in New York. The museum opened in 1872. (AP, 4/13/08) 1870 nend Apr 22, Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (d.1924), also known as Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, Russian revolutionary leader and first communist leader of USSR, was born. It was later learned that he was a hereditary noble and that he had a French mistress named Inessa Armand. In 1996 Richard Pipes edited "The Unknown Lenin: From the Secret Archive." (V.D.-H.K.p.260)(WSJ, 10/23/96, p.A19)(SFC, 3/27/97, p.A15)(HN, 4/22/98) 1870 nend Apr 27, Heinrich Schliemann discovered Troy. (MC, 4/27/02) 1870 nend Apr 30, Franz Lehár, operetta composer, was born. He is best known for "The Marry Widow" and "The Land of Smiles." (HN, 4/30/99) 1870 nend May 7, Marcus Loew, film executive, was born. He consolidated studios to create MGM. (HN, 5/7/02) 1870 nend May 8, In France a national plebiscite voted confidence in the Empire with about 84% of votes in favor. On the eve of the plebiscite members of the Paris Federation were arrested on a charge of conspiring against Napoleon III. This pretext was further used by the government to launch a campaign of persecution of the members of the International throughout France. (www.marxists.org/history/france/paris-commune/timeline.htm) 1870 nend May 12, An act creating the Canadian province of Manitoba was given royal assent, to take effect in July. (AP, 5/12/08) 1870 nend May 25, Irish Fenians raided Eccles Hill, Quebec. (SC, 5/25/02) 1870 nend Jun 5, A fire in Constantinople killed some 900 people. (MC, 6/5/02) 1870 nend Jun 9, Washington: Pres Grant met with Sioux chief Red Cloud. (MC, 6/9/02) 1870 nend Jun 9, Charles Dickens (58), writer, died in Gad?s Hill, England. His work included the "Pictures from Italy" and ?Oliver Twist.? In 2009 Michael Slater authored ?Charles Dickens.? In 2011 Claire Tomalin authored ?Charles Dickens: A Life.? (www.lang.nagoya-u.ac.jp/~matsuoka/CD-Chro.html)(AP, 6/9/07)(Econ,9/12/09, p.92)(SSFC, 11/27/11, p.F5) 1870 nend Jun 11, William Gilmore Simms (b.1806), American Southern writer, died. His books included ?Guy Rivers? (1834) and ?The Yemassee? (1835). (WSJ, 6/5/06, p.D8)(http://famousamericans.net/williamgilmoresimms/) 1870 nend Jun 17, George Cormack, cereal inventor (Wheaties), was born. (MC, 6/17/02) 1870 nend Jun 22, The US Congress created the Department of Justice. (AP, 6/22/97) 1870 nend Jun 25, Richard Wagner's opera "Die Walkure" was produced in Munich. (MC, 6/25/02) 1870 nend Jun 26, The first section of the famous boardwalk in Atlantic City, N.J., was opened to the public. (AP, 6/26/97) 1870 nend Jun 30, Ada H. Kepley of Effingham, Ill., became America?s first female law school graduate. (AP, 6/30/97) 1870 nend Jul 11(Jun 11), 1st-stone Amstel Brewery opened in Amsterdam. (MC, 7/11/02) 1870 nend Jul 15, Georgia became the last of the Confederate states to be admitted to the Union. (AP, 7/15/97) 1870 nend Jul 15, Manitoba entered confederation as the fifth Canadian province. (AP, 7/15/07) 1870 nend Jul 18, Pontifical infallibility was proclaimed at the Vatican Council. It proclaimed as dogma that the Pope when speaking ex cathedra can make no mistake in solemn declarations of what must be believed in matters of faith and morals. The 20th ecumenical council, soon adjourned due to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War. (PTA, 1980, p.510)(MC, 7/18/02) 1870 nend Jul 19, The Franco-Prussian War began. Napoleon declared war on Bismarck. Emperor Napoleon III of France declared war on Germany under Otto von Bismarck. Napoleon was defeated in three months and abdicated. (WSJ, 3/14/95, p.A-16)(V.D.-H.K.p.260)(AP, 7/19/07) 1870 nend Jul 20, Vladimir D. Nabokov, Russian jurist, minister of Justice (1918-19), was born. (MC, 7/20/02) 1870 nend Jul 21, Josef Strauss (42), Austrian composer (Dynamids), died. (MC, 7/21/02) 1870 nend Jul 23, In France Marx completed what will become known as his "First Address." (www.marxists.org/history/france/paris-commune/timeline.htm) 1870 nend Jul 24, The 1st trans-US rail service began. (MC, 7/24/02) 1870 nend Jul 27, Hilaire Belloc, French writer (Cautionary Tales), was born. (HN, 7/27/01) 1870 nend Aug 6, White conservatives suppressed the black vote and captured Tenn. Legislature. (MC, 8/6/02) 1870 nend Aug 6, Battle at Spicheren: Prussia beat France. (MC, 8/6/02) 1870 nend Aug 14, David [James] Glasgow Farragut, admiral, died. (MC, 8/14/02) 1870 nend Aug 17, Frederick Russell, developer of the 1st successful typhoid fever vaccine, was born. (SC, 8/17/02) 1870 nend Aug 17, The 1st ascent of Mt. Rainier in Washington state. (SC, 8/17/02) 1870 nend Aug 17, Esther Morris was named a justice of the peace in South Pass City, the first woman to hold public office in the US. (SFC, 8/18/98, p.A8)(SC, 8/17/02) 1870 nend Aug 18, Prussian forces defeated the French at the Battle of Gravelotte during the Franco-Prussian War. (HN, 8/18/98) 1870 nend Aug 19, Bernard Baruch, U.S. representative to the U.N. Atomic Energy Commission, was born. "Let us not deceive ourselves: we must elect world peace or world destruction." (HN, 8/19/98)(MC, 8/19/02) 1870 nend Aug 25, Richard Wagner married Cosima von Bulow. Cosima was the illegitimate daughter of Franz Liszt and had married Hans von Bulow. She and Wagner already had 3 children by the time they married. (LGC, 1970, p.266) 1870 nend Aug 31, Maria Montessori (d.1952), educator and physician, was born in Chiaravalle, Italy. She opened her 1st Montessori school in San Lorenzo, Italy in 1907. (HN, 8/31/00)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Montessori) 1870 nend Sep 1, The Prussian army crushed the French under Marshal MacMahon at Sedan, the last battle of the Franco-Prussian War. (HN, 9/1/99)(PCh, 1992, p.516) 1870 nend Sep 2, Samuel Augustus Maverick (b.1803), Texas lawyer, politician, land baron and signer of the Texas Declaration of Independence, died. His name is the source of the term "maverick", first cited in 1867, which means independent minded. Maverick was considered independent minded by his fellow ranchers because he refused to brand his cattle. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Augustus_Maverick) 1870 nend Sep 2, Napoleon III with 80,000 men capitulated to the Prussians at Sedan, France. (PCh, 1992, p.516)(WSJ, 3/14/95, p.A-16)(HN, 9/2/98) 1870 nend Sep 4, At news of Sedan, Paris workers invaded the Palais Bourbon and forced the Legislative Assembly to proclaim the fall of the Empire. Emperor Louis Napoleon III was overthrown in a bloodless coup. The 3rd French Republic was proclaimed in Paris and a government of national defense was formed. (HN, 9/4/98)(ON, 9/06,p.12)(www.marxists.org/history/france/paris-commune/timeline.htm) 1870 nend Sep 5, Author Victor Hugo returned to Paris from the Isle of Guernsey where he had lived in exile for almost 20 years. (HN, 9/5/00) 1870 nend Sep 6, The last British troops to serve in Austria were withdrawn. (HN, 9/6/98) 1870 nend Sep 19, Two Prussian armies began a 135-day siege of Paris as the 2nd Empire collapsed. This forced the people of the city to eat Castor and Pollux, the 2 elephants in the zoo. (PCh, 1992, p.516)(SFC, 4/17/99, p.B3) 1870 nend Sep 20, Mayor William Tweed was accused of robbing the NY treasury. (MC, 9/20/01) 1870 nend Sep 20, Italian troops under Victor Emmanuel II took control of the Papal States from France, leading to the unification of Italy. Pope Pius IX surrendered. (WSJ, 9/13/96, p.A6)(SFEM, 1/19/96, p.10)(AP, 9/20/97)(MC 9/20/01) 1870 nend Sep 23, Prosper Merimee (66), French playwright (Carmen), died. (www.kirjasto.sci.fi/merimee.htm) 1870 nend Sep 24, George Claude, French engineer, was born. He invented the neon light. (HN, 9/24/00) 1870 nend Sep 27, Henry T.P. Comstock (50), Canadian silver prospector, died. (MC, 9/27/01) 1870 nend Oct 2, The papal states voted in favor of union with Italy. The capital was moved from Florence to Rome. (HN, 10/2/98) 1870 nend Oct 7, French Minister of the Interior Leon Gambetta escaped besieged Paris by balloon, hoping to reach the French provisional government in Tours. Gambetta was slightly wounded when his balloon drops dangerously low over Prussian held territory, only rising to safety after the pilot jettisons the ballast. (HN, 10/7/98) 1870 nend Oct 8, Louis Vierne, composer, was born. (MC, 10/8/01) 1870 nend Oct 12, Gen. Robert E. Lee (63) died in Lexington, Va. In 1998 David J. Eicher published "Robert E. Lee: A Life Portrait." In 2001 Michael Fellman authored "The Making of Robert E. Lee." In 2007 Elizabeth Brown Pryor authored ?Reading the Man: A Portrait of Robert E. Lee Through His Private Letters.? (AP, 10/12/97)(SFEC, 4/19/98, Par p.20)(SSFC, 1/28/01, Parp.12)(WSJ, 5/15/07, p.D6) 1870 nend Oct 13, Gustav Mahler (10) gave his 1st public piano concert. (MC, 10/13/01) 1870 nend Oct 19, The 1st blacks (4) were elected to House of Reps. (MC, 10/19/01) 1870 nend Oct 19, The British SS Cambria left for the North Sea coast. 196 were killed. (MC, 10/19/01) 1870 nend Oct 20, The Summer Palace in Beijing, China, was burnt to the ground by a Franco-British expeditionary force. (HN, 10/20/98) 1870 nend Oct 20, Michael William Balfe (62), composer (Bohemian Girl), died. (MC, 10/20/01) 1870 nend Oct 25, Postcards were 1st used in US. (MC, 10/25/01) 1870 nend Oct 25, The Pimlico Race Course in Baltimore, Md., opened and a horse named Preakness won the first stakes race on the program. 3 years later Pimlico honored that horse by naming a race for him. (www.hickoksports.com/history/preaknes.shtml) 1870 nend Oct 27, The French fortress of Metz surrendered to the Prussian Army. (HN, 10/27/98) 1870 nend Oct 30, French National Guard was defeated at Le Bourget. (www.marxists.org/history/france/paris-commune/timeline.htm) 1870 nend Nov 1, The U.S. Weather Bureau made its first meteorological observations, using reports gathered by telegraph from 24 locations. (AP, 11/1/97) 1870 nend Nov 18, Dorthea Dix, pseudonym for Elizabeth Gilman, who wrote syndicated advice, was born. (HN, 11/18/98) 1870 nend Nov 27, Joe Mack was born. He became a builder of gasoline-powered delivery wagons, which eventually evolved into the Mack Truck Company. (HN, 11/27/00) 1870 nend Nov 29, Compulsory education was proclaimed in England. (MC, 11/29/01) 1870 nend Dec 12, Joseph H. Rainey became the first black lawmaker sworn into the U.S. House of Representatives. Rainey, a Republican from South Carolina, filled the seat made vacant by the expulsion of Representative Benjamin F. Whittemore. Rainey served for 10 years. (AP, 12/12/97)(MC, 12/12/01) 1870 nend Dec 18, Saki, [Hector Hugo Munro], author (Reginald, When William Came), was born in Burma. (MC, 12/18/01) 1870 nend Dec 25, Rosa Luxemburg (d.1919), Polish-German revolutionary and founder of the German Communist Party, was born: "Freedom is always and exclusively freedom for the one who thinks differently." (HN, 12/25/98)(AP, 7/6/99) 1870 nend Dec 25, The Tiber broke its banks in a terrible flood in Rome. (Econ, 7/25/05, p.72) 1870 nend Dec 28, Alexey Fyodorovich L'vov (72), composer, died. (MC, 12/28/01) 1870 nend Harry Longabaugh (aka "the Sundance Kid") was born in Lancaster County, PA. (MesWP) 1870 nend Cecil Charles Windsor Aldin, popular British artist, was born in London. His "Fallowfield Hunt" scenes were published in 1900 for home decoration. The Buffalo Pottery Co. of NY used the prints on dishes from 1908-1909. (SFC, 1/8/97, z-1 p.6) 1870 nend Edward Burne-Jones, artist, painted his "Phyllis and Demophoon." (WSJ, 6/11/98, p.A20) c 1870 nend Adolphe Braun made his carbon print of the landscape photograph: "Glacier de Morteratch." (SFEC, 11/29/98, DB p.22) 1870 nend Frederic Edwin Church painted "Jerusalem from the Mount of Olives." (WSJ, 8/11/00, p.W6) 1870 nend Renoir painted the portrait "Rapha Maitre." (SFC, 8/29/01, p.E1) 1870 nend The Rev. Ebenezer Cobham Brewer published his "Dictionary of Phrase and Fable." (WSJ, 10/10/96, p.A20) 1870 nend William Robinson (1838-1935), Irish gardener and journalist, authored ?The Wild Garden.? His most famous contribution to gardening was his book The English Flower Garden, (1883). no_source 11 nend /19/08, p.G8) no_source 1870 nend Leo Delibe wrote his ballet "Coppelia." It was based on a tale by E.T.A. Hoffman and was first produced this year in Paris. (WSJ, 7/16/96, p.A9)(WSJ, 6/10/97, p.A16) 1870 nend The opera "Il Guarany" by Carlos Gomes had its premiere at La Scala. It was based on the book "O Guarani" by Jose de Alencar. (WSJ, 11/5/96, p.A20)(WSJ, 11/14/96, p.A20) c 1870 nend The ukulele, invented by Manuel Nunez of Portugal, turned up in the Hawaiian islands. (SFC, 9/2/00, p.B3) 1870 nend The first road was built to Stinson Beach from Sausalito, Ca. The area then became known as Willow Camp after a tent settlement sprang up among the willow trees. (SFC, 11/27/07, p.A13) 1870 nend On the Oregon coast the Blanco Lighthouse was constructed at Cape Blanco. (SFEC, 7/27/97, p.T3) 1870 nend Harold Robinson, an ex-slave from Missouri, founded the Hotel Robinson in Julian, Ca., a former gold-mining town near Anza Borrego Desert State Park. It was later renamed the Julian Hotel. (SSFC, 11/17/02, p.C5) 1870 nend US Secret Service headquarters relocated to New York City. (http://www.ustreas.gov/usss/history.shtml) 1870 nend A US Mint began operations in Carson City, Nev., and continued to 1893, after which it was turned into the Nevada State Museum. (SSFC, 11/19/06, p.F10) 1870 nend The pottery firm Knowles, Taylor and Knowles began operations in East Liverpool, Ohio, and continued to 1931. They were best known for their Lotus Ware (1891-1898). (SFC, 3/14/07, p.G2) 1870 nend Alta, Utah, couched in a glacial-cut schism in the Wasatch Range, boomed with silver mining and counted 5,000 inhabitants, 26 saloons, five breweries, and one murder a night. (Hem, Dec. 94, p.78) 1870 nend George Grant (d.1910) became the 1st black graduate from Harvard Dental School. He got the 1st patent for a golf tee in 1899. (ST, 2/20/04, p.C1) 1870 nend By this time San Francisco was the 10th largest US city. (SFEC, 2/9/97, p.W4) 1870 nend George Dickel (d.1894), purchased a site in Cascade Hollow, Tenn., and soon began producing Cascade Tennessee Whisky. (SFC, 2/04/04, p.D2) 1870 nend E.H. Harriman (22) bought a seat on the new York Stock Exchange. (WSJ, 3/21/00, p.A24) 1870 nend Frederick August Otto Schwartz (FAO Schwartz) opened up his 1st NYC store on Broadway called Schwartz Toy Bazaar. (WSJ, 11/21/03, p.B1) 1870 nend Two-thirds of all teachers in public and private schools were women. (SFEM, 6/28/98, p.29) 1870 nend Charles Adams of New York began manufacturing his chewing gum "Charles Adams Gum No 1" in a Manhattan warehouse. (SFC, 1/13/98, p.A19) c 1870 nend The first whistle was pealess and made of solid brass. (WSJ, 3/30/00, p.A1) 1870 nend William Lyman of the US invented the home can opener, with a cutting wheel that rolls around the rim. (www.ideafinder.com/history/inventions/story080.htm) 1870 nend Woodsmen marched west to Michigan clearing forests of white pine, yellow birch, hemlock, maple, and oak. (NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.51) 1870 nend The US census categorized the population as "White, Black, Mulatto, Chinese and Indian." The census counted employed women for the first time with four-fifths tallied as working on farms or in domestic service. (SFC,12/26/97, p.A21)(SFEM, 6/28/98, p.29) 1870 nend Federal census data of the southern end of Mulberry St. in New York City showed 39 Italian men employed as organ grinders. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.49) 1870 nend The population of Chicago reached 300,000. (Econ, 3/18/06, Survey p.12) 1870 nend The Chinese population in California grew to 50,000. (SFEC, 9/20/98, Z1 p.4) 1870 nend There was an earthquake in Lone Pine, Ca., and some people died. (SFEC, 8/17/97, p.T3) 1870 nend Frederic Bazille (29), artist and friend of Claude Monet, died. (WSJ, 3/9/99, p.A20) 1870 nend Alexandre Dumas (b.1802), French novelist and dramatist who wrote "The Count of Monte Cristo" and "The Three Musketeers," died. In 1851 he wrote "A Gil Blas in California" (A Year Along the Banks of the San Joaquin and Sacramento"). "I need several mistresses. If I only had one, she?d be dead inside of eight days." (SFC, 7/24/02, p.D3) 1870 nend In Queensland, Australia Henry Redford rustled a thousand head of cattle from near Fairfield and drove them over a thousand miles across uncharted desert to market in South Australia. (NG, 12/97, p.56) 1870 nend By this time the British government had begun attempts to regulate firearms. (WSJ, 8/6/02, p.D6) 1870 nend The Vanemuine Theater was founded in Tartu, Estonia. (Hem, 4/96, p.23) 1870 nend In France the Hotel du Cap on the French Riviera was commercially opened as the Villa Soleil. This is the hotel described in F. Scott Fitzgerald?s opening of "Tender is the Night." (CNT, Nov.,1994, p.218) 1870 nend In France Madame Pomeroy introduced the first brut champagne. Until this time champagne was sweet. (Hem., 10/97, p.104) 1870 nend Sophus Lie (1842-1899), Norwegian mathematician, became a media sensation after he was found outside Paris with a backpack filled with undecipherable mathematical notes and arrested as a spy. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophus_Lie) 1870 nend In Japan Yataro Iwasaki began Mitsubishi as a steamship company. (WSJ, 7/15/97, p.A16)(Econ, 5/29/04, p.67) 1870 nend Baseball was brought to Japan by American missionaries. (http://tinyurl.com/6xjluk)(Econ, 3/29/08, p.83) 1870 nend In Mexico Tequila Herradura began producing tequila at the Hacienda San Jose del Refugio in the highlands of Jalisco state. Their tequila was made from 100% blue-agave juice. (WSJ, 5/3/99, p.A1) 1870 nend Sweden produced the Brunsviga mechanical calculator. (SFC, 10/29/96, p.F1) 1870 nend The abolition of the Papal States freed the Jews from restrictions in Rome?s ghetto. (SFC, 9/1/00, p.D4) 1870 nend Antonio Guzman Blanco (1830-1899) became president of Venezuela. (www.famousamericans.net/antonioguzmanblanco/) 1870 nend s The California Point Reyes Lighthouse was built on the foggiest point of the entire Pacific coast. (SFEC, 8/22/98, p.T7) 1870 nend s Anthony Comstock (1844-1915), self-appointed anti-vice crusader, devoted a lifetime to battling wickedness, to purify America and protect its youth from sin. Armed with exhibits showing young lives wrecked by pornography, Comstock shepherded through the U.S. Congress with little opposition a stringent anti-obscenity law known as the "Comstock Law." Pornography was outlawed, but so was anything that could be described as "lewd, obscene, lascivious, or filthy"--terms even modern courts find difficult to define. Over the years, targets of Comstock's rigid definition of obscene have been abortionists, sellers of contraceptive devices and even those merely disseminating information about contraception, including medical doctors. After his appointment as special postal agent in 1873, Comstock boasted that he had seized thousands of pounds of obscene materials. By the time of his death in 1915, Victorian ideals of propriety were changing and Comstock had become a parody of himself, but the Comstock Law and its impact on American culture outlived him. (HNPD, 2/5/99) 1870 nend s The CP railroad advertised for farmers to come west to the Central Valley of California. They promised land for $2.50 to $5 per acre, and not more than $10. Furthermore settlers would not have to pay until the railroad conveyed title. (SFC, 7/8/96, p.D2) 1870 nend s A depression hit the US following the Civil War. (SFEC, 9/21/97, p.C7) 1870 nend s George Hearst (d.1891) built the Charcoal Kilns in Death Valley. (CHA, 1/2001) 1870 nend s The technology for thin steel cable allowed the creation of wire objects such as fencing, outdoor furniture and other small objects. (SFC,11/5/97, Z.1 p.3) 1870 nend s Some 400 Hutterites, a sect of Anabaptists, migrated from Europe to the US. They settled on three communal farms in South Dakota. (NH, 9/98, p.14) 1870 nend s Anti-Semitism flourished in France among men of the left who held Jewishness to be synonymous with capitalism. (WSJ, 8/1/96 p.A13) 1870 nend s Edgar Degas, French painter journeyed to New Orleans. His time in New Orleans is covered in the 1997 book "Degas in New Orleans: Encounters in the Creole World of Kate Chopin and George Washington Cable" by Christopher Benfey. (SFEC, 1/4/98, BR p.9) 1870 nend s The Russian explorer, Colonel Nicholas Prjevalski, traveled through Mongolia. The wild horses of the Mongolian steppes are named after him. [see 1880] (SFC, 4/14/96, T-1) 1870 1871 The best book on this period is Emile Zola?s historical novel The Debacle. In reference to the days of the Paris Commune. (WSJ, 3/14/95, p.A-16) 1870 1871 Brahms composed his "Triumphlied" to celebrate Germany?s victory over France and the foundation of the German Empire. It is dedicated to the German Emperor but is really written for Prince Bismarck. (BLW, Geiringer, 1963 ed., p.107,318) 1870 1871 During the Franco-Prussian War there was a shortage of beef and horse meat began to be used. Germany annexed Alsace after the war. (SFEC, 8/3/97, Z1 p.2)(SFEC, 1/31/99, p.T4) 1870 1880 Golfers discovered that nicked gutta percha balls flew farther and ball manufacturers began to pound the ball covers in an even pattern. (SFEC, 6/14/98, p.A12) 1870 nend s-1880s Clarence E. Dutton, Army engineer, surveyed the Colorado Plateau and wrote his "Tertiary History of the Grand Canyon District." (SFEC, 10/4/98, BR p.12) 1870 1882 Alexander Conrad was a stoneware manufacturer in southwestern Pennsylvania during this time. (SFC, 4/15/98, Z1 p.6) 1870 1893 New mines sharply boosted silver supplies and caused severe inflation around the globe. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42) 1870 1910 Some 60 million Europeans, mostly young males with few job skills, emigrated to the US, Canada, Australia and Argentina. (WSJ, 3/29/04, p.A8) 1870 1913 Hannah Barlow, artist, worked for the Doulton Co., now known as the maker of Royal Doulton wares. She was the first female artist to work for the company and her designs featured animals in motion. She lost the use of her right hand in 1876 but learned to use her left hand and continued working. (SFC, 6/25/97, Z1 p.6) 1870 1913 During this period the world GDP per head increased an average of 1.3% a year. (Econ, 9/16/06, Survey p.4) 1870 1920 s The heyday of news boards lasted from 1870 through the 1920s, when they were supplanted by the advent of radio transmission of breaking news directly into American homes. In large cities around the turn of the 20th century, people learned the latest news by reading the day?s headlines posted on large slates in front of the newspaper building. (HNPD, 6/18/99) 1870 1937 Alfred Adler, Austrian psychoanalyst: "There is a Law that man should love his neighbor as himself. In a few hundred years it should be as natural to mankind as breathing or the upright gait; but if he does not learn it he must perish." "It is the individual who is not interested in his fellow men who has the greatest difficulties in life and provides the greatest injury to others. It is from among such individuals that all human failures spring." (AP, 4/19/97)(AP, 2/24/98) 1870 1938 Benjamin Cardozo, US Supreme Court Justice. He was an early proponent of the school of jurisprudence called Legal Realism. In 1998 Andrew L. Kaufman published his biography: "Cardozo." (WSJ, 7/16/98, p.A16) 1870 1942 Alice Caldwell Rice, American humorist: "Life is made up of desires that seem big and vital one minute, and little and absurd the next. I guess we get what's best for us in the end." (AP, 4/20/99) 1870 1948 Franz Lehar, Hungarian composer of operettas. His work included "The Merry Widow." (WUD, 1994, p.819)(WSJ, 6/10/97, p.A16) 1870 1949 Studies in the Economic History of Late Imperial China and "The Chinese Economy" by Albert Feuerwerker was published in 2 volumes in 1996. (MT, Fall ?96, p.14) 1870 1963 Herbert Samuel, English political leader: "The world is like a mirror; frown at it, and it frowns at you. Smile, and it smiles, too." (AP, 1/5/00) 1870 1965 Bernard M. Baruch, American businessman and statesman: "During my eighty-seven years I have witnessed a whole succession of technological revolutions. But none of them has done away with the need for character in the individual or the ability to think." (AP, 6/17/00) 1870 1966 Maxfield Parrish, American artist. He achieved fame for his murals, advertisements, and book and magazine illustrations. (WSJ, 3/27/00, p.A46) 1870 1996 In Canada an estimated 150,000 indigenous children were wrenched from their homes over this period and sent to Christian boarding schools, where many were sexually and physically abused. In 2008 PM Stephen Harper delivered an unqualified public apology. (Econ, 6/14/08, p.50) 1871 nend Jan 1, Sir Henry Durand (b.1812), British lord of the frontier between India and Afghanistan, died after an elephant he was riding reared and brained him on a stone archway in Tonk (later Tank, Pakistan). (Econ, 1/2/10, p.18)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Marion_Durand) 1871 nend Jan 3, Henry W. Bradley patented oleomargarine in Binghamton, NY. (AH, 2/06, p.14) 1871 nend Jan 8, Prussian troops began to bombard Paris during the Franco-Prussian War. (HN, 1/8/99) 1871 nend Jan 17, The 1st cable car patented by Andrew S. Hallidie. It began service in 1873. (MC, 1/17/02) 1871 nend Jan 18, The German Empire (Deutsches Kaiserreich) was proclaimed in Versailles. William I of Prussia was proclaimed "German Emperor" (which was not the same thing as "Emperor of Germany"). The unification of Germany was the greatest geopolitical transformation of the period. Germany went on to adopt the mark as its common currency. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42)(AP,1/18/07)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany)(WSJ, 5/6/08, p.A21) 1871 nend Jan 26, A US income tax, established during the Civil War, was repealed. (MC, 1/26/02)(WSJ, 9/25/02, p.D8) 1871 nend Jan 28, France, under a provisional republican government, continued the war against Germany, but was forced to surrender in the Franco-Prussian War. Surrounded by Prussian troops and suffering from famine, the French army in Paris surrendered. During the siege, balloons were used to keep contact with the outside world. (V.D.-H.K.p.260)(AP, 1/28/98)(HN, 1/28/99) 1871 nend Jan, The bombardment of Paris began. (WSJ, 3/14/95, p.A-16) 1871 nend Feb 7, Karl Wilhelm Eugen Stenhammer, composer, was born. (MC, 2/7/02) 1871 nend Feb 7, Henry Steinway (b.1797), German-American piano maker, died. In 2006 James Barron authored ?Piano,? a history of the development of the modern piano. (WSJ, 7/15/06, p.P8)(http://tinyurl.com/qn6dy) 1871 nend Feb 9, Howard T. Ricketts, pathologist, was born. (HN, 2/9/01) 1871 nend Feb 12, In France the new National Assembly opened at Bordeaux. Two-thirds of members were conservatives and wished the war to end. (www.marxists.org/history/france/paris-commune/timeline.htm) 1874 nend Feb 21, The Tribune of Oakland, Ca., was founded by George Staniford and Benet A. Dewes. The Oakland Daily Tribune was first printed at 468 Ninth St. as a 4-page, 3-column newspaper, 6 by 10 inches. Staniford and Dewes gave out copies free of charge. The paper had news stories and 43 advertisements. (SFEC, 5/17/98, BR p.5)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland_Tribune) 1871 nend Feb 26, France and Prussia signed a preliminary peace treaty at Versailles. (HN, 2/26/99) 1871 nend Feb 28, The 2nd Enforcement Act set federal control of congressional elections. (MC, 2/28/02) 1871 nend Mar 1, Germans paraded down the Champs-Elysses, Paris, France during the Franco-Prussian War. (HN, 3/1/99)(WSJ, 3/14/95, p.A-16) 1871 nend Mar 1, J. Milton Turner was named US minister to Liberia. (SC, 3/1/02) 1871 nend Mar 3, Congress passed the Indian Appropriation Act, which revoked the sovereignty of Indian nations and made Native Americans wards of the American government. The act eliminated the necessity of treaty negotiating and established the policy that tribal affairs could be managed by the U.S. government without tribal consent. (HNQ, 5/15/98) 1871 nend Mar 3, Congress established the civil service system. (SC, 3/3/02) 1871 nend Mar 5, In Brazil Maria do Carmo Jeronimo was born as a slave in the town of Carmo de Minas in Minas Gerais state under the rule of Emperor Pedro II. Jeronimo died in 2000, but the lack of a birth certificate prevented her being recognized as the world's oldest woman. (SFC, 6/16/00, p.A34) 1871 nend Mar 21, Journalist Henry M. Stanley began his famous expedition to Africa to locate the missing Scottish missionary David Livingstone. (HNPD, 11/10/98)(AP, 3/21/02) 1871 nend Mar 21, Otto von Bismarck became the 1st Chancellor of the German Empire. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck) 1871 nend Mar 22, William Holden of NC became the 1st US governor removed by impeachment. (MC, 3/22/02) 1871 nend Mar 26, Serafín Alvarez Quintéro, Spanish dramatist, playwright (El Flechazo), was born. (SS, 3/26/02) 1871 nend Mar 26, Paris Commune was founded. The Parisians revolted against their government and tried to secede by electing their own government. The Commune of Paris refused to obey Adolphe Thiers, the elected president of the country. Thiers asked the Germans to release thousands of French prisoners and organized a powerful force to overcome the Commune. (V.D.-H.K.p.260)(SS, 3/26/02) 1871 nend Mar 27, Heinrich Mann, Germany, novelist, essayist (Blue Angel); brother of Thomas Mann, was born. (MC, 3/27/02) 1871 nend Mar 28, Willem Mengelberg, conductor (NY Philharmonic 1922-30), was born in Utrecht, Neth. (MC, 3/28/02) 1871 nend Mar 29, Queen Victoria opened Albert Hall in London. (MC, 3/29/02) 1871 nend Mar, Pres. Grant sent federal troops to South Carolina to suppress violence instigated by the Ku Klux Klan. (AH, 6/03, p.28) 1871 nend Apr 15, 'Wild Bill' Hickok became the marshal of Abilene, Kansas. (HN, 4/15/99) 1871 nend Apr 16, John Millington Synge (d.1909), dramatist and poet, was born in Ireland. (HN, 4/16/99)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Millington_Synge) 1871 nend Apr 16, German Empire ended all anti-Jewish civil restrictions. (MC, 4/16/02) 1871 nend Apr 20, The US 3rd Enforcement Act, also known as the Ku Klux Klan Act, allowed the President to suspend writ of habeas corpus. no_source 6 nend /03, p.31) no_source 1871 nend Apr 21, Leo Blech, composer, conductor, was born. (MC, 4/21/02) 1871 nend Apr 30, Anglo and Mexican vigilantes killed 118 Apaches at Camp Grant, Arizona, and kidnapped 28 children. (www.desertusa.com/mag98/april/stories/campgrant1.html) 1871 nend May 9, In southern California debt-ridden Rancho Cucamonga was foreclosed on by Isaias Hellman. (www.sbsun.com/ci_7323066) 1871 nend May 12, Segregated street cars were integrated in Louisville, Ky. (MC, 5/12/02) 1871 nend May 12, Daniel-Francois-Esprit Auber (89), French opera composer, died. (MC, 5/12/02) 1871 nend May 17, Gen. Sherman, Indian fighter, escaped in ambulance from the Comanches. (MC, 5/17/02) 1871 nend May 21-July 28, French government troops attacked the Commune of Paris; 17,000 died. (MC, 5/21/02) 1871 nend May 23, In France extremists burned the Tuileries Palace. (SFC, 10/8/07, p.A12)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuileries_Palace) 1871 nend May 28, The last French communards of the Paris commune were shot against the Mur des Federes in Pere Lachaise cemetery by troops from Versailles. The Parisians had revolted against their government and tried to secede by electing their own government. The Commune of Paris refused to obey Adolphe Thiers, the elected president of the country. Thiers asked the Germans to release thousands of French prisoners and organized a powerful force to overcome the Commune. (V.D.-H.K.p.260)(HN, 5/28/98) 1871 nend Jun 1, Korea?s Yongdu Fortress fired at a US fleet as it sailed up the Ganghwa Straits, which leads to the Han river. Some 650 Marines launched the first US invasion of Korea following a failed attempt by diplomats to open the Hermit Kingdom to trade. In the end, the Americans won the battle militarily, but lost diplomatically. (www.shinmiyangyo.org/nsynopsis.html)(AH, 10/07, p.57) 1871 nend Jun 3, Jesse James and his gang robbed Obocock Bank in Corydon, Iowa, of $15,000. (MC, 6/3/02) 1871 nend Jun 10, A landing force of 110 U.S. Marines came ashore on Korea's Kangwha Island, a fortress island guarding the approaches to Seoul. The Korean Punitive Expedition was launched from an American fleet, which anchored in the Han River after the isolationist Korean government rejected U.S. diplomatic demands for an explanation of the fate of an American ship and her crew believed killed by the Koreans. In two days of fighting, the Marines and sailors captured the defensive forts on the Island, leaving 243 Koreans dead. Nevertheless, the expedition failed to open Korea to foreign trade. (HNQ, 6/10/98) 1871 nend Jun 17, James Weldon Johnson, African American poet and novelist who wrote "The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man," was born. (HN, 6/17/98) 1871 nend Jun 27, The yen became the new form of currency in Japan. (HN, 6/27/98) 1871 nend Jun, The California Historical Society was founded with 25 members. Many of its records were destroyed in the 1906 SF earthquake and fire. (SFEC,10/26/97, DB p.55) 1871 nend Jul 3, William Henry Davies, Welsh poet, was born. (HN, 7/3/01) 1871 nend Jul 3, Jesse James robbed a bank in Corydon, Iowa, of $45,000. (MC, 7/3/02) 1871 nend Jul 10, Marcel Proust (d.1922), French novelist was born. His masterpiece was "Remembrance of Things Past." In 1998 it was turned into a comic book series. In 1999 Edmund White published the biography "Marcel Proust" for the Penguin Lives series. "We are healed of a suffering only by experiencing it to the full." (SFC, 9/16/98, p.A10)(SFEC, 2/7/99, Par p.14)(AP, 8/2/99)(HN, 7/10/01) 1871 nend Jul 20, British Columbia joined Confederation as a Canadian province. Canada?s government promised BC a railroad link to the eastern provinces as it joined the nation. (AP, 7/20/97)(ON, 11/07, p.9) 1871 nend Jul 25, A carrousel was patented by Wilhelm Schneider in Davenport, Iowa. (SC, 7/25/02) 1871 nend Jul 26, Ferdinand Hayden (1830-1887) and his government sponsored team arrived at the Yellowstone Lake and the geyser fields. (ON, 11/02, p.3) 1871 nend Jul 29, [Gregory Efimovich] Rasputin, mad Russian monk, seer, was born. (MC, 7/29/02) 1871 nend Aug 3, Vernon Louis Parrington, critic, educator, author (Pulitzer 1928), was born. (SC, 8/3/02) 1871 nend Aug 19, Orville Wright (d.1948), aviation pioneer, was born in Dayton, Oh. His birthday is celebrated as National Aviation Day. (HN, 8/19/00)(WUD, 1994, p.1647)(MC, 8/19/02) 1871 nend Aug 26, The Boston Revere Railroad Depot collision left 32 people dead on a single track railroad with no telegraph communications. (THC, 12/2/97) 1871 nend Aug 27, Theodore Dreiser (d.1945), American novelist (Sister Carrie), was born. "Our civilization is still in a middle stage, no longer wholly guided by instinct, not yet wholly guided by reason." (AP, 1/4/00)(HN, 8/27/00) 1871 nend Aug 30, Ernest Rutherford (d.1937), physicist who discovered and named alpha, beta and gamma radiation and was the first to achieve a man-made nuclear reaction, was born in New Zealand. (HN, 8/30/98) 1871 nend Aug, Joseph became chief of Nez Perce Indians in the Wallowa Valley, Oregon. (ON, 3/04, p.1) 1871 nend Aug, Heinrich Schliemann obtained a permit to excavate the ruins of Troy. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.45) 1871 nend Sep 7, Cowper Phipps Coles, English inventor (Steel warships), drowned. (MC, 9/7/01) 1871 nend Sep 11, The 1st passenger train passed through the Mount Cenis Tunnel between France and Italy. Work on the 8-mile tunnel had begun in 1861 under the direction of French engineer Germain Sommeiller (d.7/11/1871). (ON, 2/03, p.9) 1871 nend Sep 19, President Abraham Lincoln's body was transferred to a partially completed permanent tomb at Springfield, Il. (www.state.il.us/HPA/hs/Tomb.htm) 1871 nend Sep, John Wesley Powell began a 2nd expedition to survey the Grand Canyon, this time with a congressional grant of $10,000. (ON, 5/02, p.5) 1871 nend Oct 2, Cordell Hull, Secretary of State for President Franklin Roosevelt who promoted cooperation with the Soviet Union against Adolf Hitler, was born. (HN, 10/2/98) 1871 nend Oct 2, Mormon leader Brigham Young, 70, was arrested for polygamy. He was later convicted, but the U.S. Supreme Court overturned the conviction. (HN, 10/2/98) 1871 nend Oct 8, Around 9 p.m. on Sunday a fire broke out in or near Patrick and Catherine O'Leary's barn in the crowded southwestern section of Chicago. Fanned by high winds, the fire burned out of control in the tinder-dry city for more than 24 hours, until rain on Tuesday morning finally extinguished the flames. Three and a half square miles were leveled wiping out one-third of the city. The business district, the courthouse and the central water pumping station, burned to the ground. Thousands of Chicagoans fled the flames over the Randolph Street Bridge. Approximately 250 people were killed in the fire; 98,500 people were left homeless; 17,450 buildings were destroyed. The original Emancipation Proclamation was destroyed. Yet in spite of the devastation, the city was so quickly rebuilt that by 1875, few traces of the fire remained. Many people still believe that Mrs. O'Leary's cow kicked over a lantern which started the fire. The Chicago City Council once passed a resolution exonerating the cow and apologizing to the O'Leary family. Pegleg O'Sullivan kicked over a lantern after breaking into the O'Leary dairy barn to steal milk for a whiskey punch party. (HNPD, 10/8/98)(HN, 10/8/98)(MC, 10/8/01)(SFC, 1/11/03, p.D6) 1871 nend Oct 8, The 1938 film "In Old Chicago," with Tyrone Power and Alice Faye, was a musical that built up to the Chicago fire. (HFA, '96, p.40)(Hem., 7/95, p.83)(AP, 10/8/97)(TVM, 1975,p.276)(SFEC, 5/10/98, p.C8) 1871 nend Oct 8-14, In Peshtigo, Wisc., some 1,500 people were killed in the nation?s worst forest fire, which burned across six counties and into Michigan. Fires also broke out in the Michigan communities of Holland, Manistee and Port Huron. (WSJ, 9/13/01, p.B11)(WSJ, 8/4/04, p.B1)(SSFC, 9/4/05, p.A7)(AP,10/8/08) 1871 nend Oct 11, The Great Chicago Fire was finally extinguished after 3 days. Over 300 were killed. [see Oct 8] (MC, 10/11/01) 1871 nend Oct 12, President Grant ordered the South Carolina Ku Klux Klan to disperse and disarm in five days. (AH, 6/03, p.31) 1871 nend Oct 14, Alexander von Zemlinsky (d.1942), composer (Schneeman), was born in Vienna, Austria. His work included "Frulingsbegrabnis" (a cantata from 1897), "Die Seejunbfrau" (1902-1903), "Eine Florentinische Tragodie" (an opera from 1914-1915), "Symphonic Songs" (1929), and "Der Zwerg" (The Dwarf, an opera from 1921) and 7 other operas. (WSJ, 6/11/98, p.A20)(MC, 10/14/01) 1871 nend Oct 17, President Grant suspended writ of habeas corpus in South Carolina in response to violence by the KKK. It applied to all arrests made by US marshals and federal troops in nine of the state?s western counties. By the end of November some 600 arrests were made. (AH, 6/03, p.31) 1871 nend Oct 18, Charles Babbage (b.1792), English mathematician and inventor of a calculating machine, died. In 2001 Doron Swade authored ?The Difference Engine: Charles Babbage and the Quest to Build the First Computer.? (www.thocp.net/biographies/babbage_charles.html)(WSJ, 3/7/09, p.W8) 1871 nend Oct 24, Anti Chinese rioting took place in Los Angeles. A mob in Los Angeles hanged 16 Chinese men and one woman. (SFEC, 2/6/00, Rp.10)(SSFC, 6/3/07, p.M5) 1871 nend Oct 27, Boss Tweed (William Macy Tweed), Democratic leader of Tammany Hall, was indicted on charges of fraud and grand larceny after NY Times exposed his corruption. The conviction were overturned but civil charges sent him to prison. (MC, 10/27/01)(Arch, 7/02, p.24) 1871 nend Oct 30, Paul Valery (d.1945), French poet and essayist, was born in Sete. "Two dangers constantly threaten the world: order and disorder." (HN, 10/30/00)(AP, 6/10/00)(SSFC, 6/17/01, p.T10) 1871 nend Nov 1, Steven Crane, poet and novelist, was born. He is best remembered as the author of "The Red Badge of Courage" (1895), a realistic portrayal of one soldier's Civil War battle experience. Crane's novels and short stories, which were influenced by the French Naturalistic writers, showed individuals at the mercy of natural and social forces. In the early 1890s Crane became a freelance writer in the Bowery area of New York City and, resulting from his firsthand observation of poverty in the slums, he wrote "Maggie: A Girl of the Streets" (1893), a book considered shocking at the time. Crane covered the Greco-Turkish War in 1897 and the Spanish-American War in 1898 as a news correspondent. His later short-story collections, such as "The Open Boat" and "Other Tales of Adventure" (1898), are recognized as masterpieces of the form. Stephen Crane died of tuberculosis in 1900 at the age of 28. (WSJ, 8/6/98, p.A13)(HNPD, 11/1/98)(HN, 11/1/98) 1871 nend Nov 10, Journalist-explorer Henry M. Stanley found missing Scottish missionary David Livingstone in Central Africa at Ujiji near Unyanyembe on Lake Tanganyika. Stanley delivered his famous greeting: "Dr. Livingstone, I presume?" Livingstone replied: "Yes, and I feel thankful that I am here to welcome you." The two explored Lake Tanganyika, but did not find the source of the Nile. When Stanley left on March 14, 1872, he begged the doctor to return to England with him, but Livingstone refused. He died in May 1873. Stanley returned to Africa a year later, the first of many subsequent African explorations. (HFA, '96, p.42)(AP, 11/10/97)(HN, 11/10/98)(HNQ, 6/2/98)(HNPD,11/10/98) 1871 nend Nov 21, Moses F. Gale patented a cigar lighter in NYC. (MC, 11/21/01) 1871 nend Nov 21, The 1st human cannonball, Emilio Onra, was fired from a cannon. (MC, 11/21/01) 1871 nend Nov 24, The National Rifle Association was incorporated in NYC, and its first president named: Maj. Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside. (AP, 11/24/97)(MC, 11/24/01) 1871 nend Nov 27, Ku Klux Klan trials began in Federal District Court in Columbia, SC. (AH, 6/03, p.32) 1871 nend Dec 19, Albert L. Jones patented corrugated paper in NYC. (MC, 12/19/01) 1871 nend Dec 24, Giuseppe Verdi's opera "Aida" had its world premiere in Cairo, Egypt. He completed it too late to celebrate the 1869 opening of the Suez Canal. (SFC, 7/12/96, p.A11)(AP, 12/24/97)(PCh, 1992, p.522) 1871 nend Dec 27, World's 1st cat show took place at the Crystal Palace, London. (MC, 12/27/01) 1871 nend Emily Carr (d.1945), Canadian artist and author, was born in Victoria. "You come into the world alone and you go out of the world alone yet it seems to me you are more alone while living than even going and coming." (AP, 7/11/98)(SSFC, 9/23/01, p.T2) 1871 nend Mary Edmonia Lewis, African-American sculptress, created her marble work "Hiawatha's Marriage." (WSJ, 8/8/00, p.A20) 1871 nend Degas painted "Racehorses at Longchamp." (SFEC, 6/21/98, BR p.8) 1871 nend Edouard Manet made his lithograph "Civil War." (LSA, fall/96, p.21) 1871 nend Thomas Moran of England was the artist on a US government expedition to Yellowstone and painted "Nearing Camp, Evening on the Upper Colorado River." The painting sold for $2.2 million in 1999 to the municipal art gallery in Bolton, Lancashire. (SFC, 1/18/99, p.B2) 1871 nend In France James McNeill Whistler completed his best known work: "Arrangement in Grey and Black: Portrait of the Painter's Mother," aka ?Whistler's Mother.? His mother, Anna McNeill Whistler (d.1881), had moved into his apartment displacing his Irish model and sweetheart, Jo Heffernan. When his mother died Whistler borrowed £50 to get her portrait back from a pawn shop. (WSJ, 5/31/95, p. A-14)(SFEC, 5/10/98, p.C6) 1871 nend Charles Darwin (1809-1882) published his "Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex." no_source 1871 nend St. George Mivart published "The Genesis of Species," a critique of Darwinism. (NH, 5/96, p.54) 1871 nend John Tyndall, Irish scientist, authored ?Fragments of Science.? He was in effect the first science popularizer. (WSJ, 4/14/07, p.P10) 1871 nend Euphemia Allen, 16, composed "Chopsticks," a one finger piano tune. (SFEC, 3/23/97, z1 p.7) 1871 nend In Utah the Mormon temple in St. George was completed. This was the 3rd Mormon temple to be built in the US and the first one in Utah. (WSJ, 5/12/07, p.R10) 1871 nend The Salt Lake Tribune was founded by dissident Mormons. (WSJ, 10/6/00, p.A1) 1871 nend The California Historical Society was founded. It is now located in SF at 678 Mission near Third. 415-357-1848. Open Tuesday-Saturday 11-5. (SFC, 8/30/96, p.D5) 1871 nend The San Francisco Art Association was founded. (SFEM, 11/24/96, p.8)(SFC, 5/30/03, p.E7) 1871 nend P.T. Barnum (Phineas Taylor Barnum,1810-1891), US showman, founded "The Greatest Show On Earth" in Delavan, Wis. He presented General Tom Thumb and Jenny Lind (1820-1870), "The Swedish Nightingale," to the public. He also introduced 3 rings to the circus. (WUD, 1994, p.121)(WSJ, 1/7/97, p.A19)(WUD, 1994, p.832)(AP, 6/10/07) 1871 nend Steel plants and coal mines began to open up in Birmingham, Alabama. (SFC, 6/15/96, p.A6) 1871 nend The College of California was acquired by the state and became the Univ. of California. (SFEC, 2/9/97, p.W4) 1871 nend In San Francisco William Hammond Hall, Superintendent of Golden Gate Park stated: "Destroy a public building and it can be rebuilt in a year; destroy a city woodland park and all the people living at the time will have passed away before its restoration can be effected." (SFC, 7/28/97, p.A8) 1871 nend Fr. Joseph Neri, SJ, demonstrated the 1st electric light in SF from a window of St. Ignatius on San Francisco?s Market St. He used a large electro-magnetic device, the Alliance Machine, that had been used in the 2nd Siege of Paris during the Franco-Prussian War for lighting defensive work. (SFCM, 2/6/05, p.3)(GenIV, Winter 04/05) 1871 nend Robert Knight, Rhode Island textile mill owner, secured patent number 418 for the brand Fruit of the Loom. (SSFC, 11/29/09, p.N6)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit_of_the_Loom) 1871 nend Catharine Beecher traveled around the US and found "a terrible decay of female health all over the land." (SFEM, 6/28/98, p.31) 1871 nend Baseball's National Association was formed and marks the beginning of the US major leagues. (WSJ, 1/30/04, p.A1) 1871 nend The US federal government created the Life-Saving Service (LSS). It later became the US Coast Guard. (ON, 1/02, p.1) 1871 nend The US Congress appropriated $50,000 to the new Department of Justice (DOJ) to form a suborganization devoted to "the detection and prosecution of those guilty of violating federal law." The amount was insufficient for the DOJ to fashion an integral investigating unit, so the DOJ contracted out the services to the Pinkerton National Detective Agency. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinkerton_National_Detective_Agency) 1871 nend In NYC the Black Laborer's Union and the Fenian O'Donovan Rossa paraded up Baxter St. to fight for the 8-hour day. (SFC, 7/29/98, p.A19) 1871 nend The Knights of Labor organization was started as a secret order at a meeting of tailors called by Uriah Stephens in Philadelphia. The Knights of Labor was organized on a national basis in 1878. It was an industrial union open to all gainfully employed skilled or unskilled workers and headed by a General Assembly. By 1886 there were 5,892 local assemblies and more than 700,000 members. Among other reforms, the Knights supported an 8-hour day, graduated income tax, boycotts, arbitration, and consumer and producer cooperatives. The organization began to decline after 1886. [other sources give 1869 as the founding year.] (HNQ, 9/5/99) 1871 nend US state insurance regulators created the National Association of Insurance Commissioners (NAIC) to address the need to coordinate regulation of multistate insurers. Headquarters was later established in Kansas City, Mo. (Econ, 8/12/06, p.62)(www.naic.org/index_about.htm) 1871 nend Haeger Potteries of Dundee, Ill., dates to this time. (SFC, 1/4/06, p.G2) 1871 nend Mississippi purchased the property of Oakland College and renamed it Alcorn University in honor of James L. Alcorn, governor of the state. The college had closed its doors at the beginning of the Civil War so that its students could answer the call to arms. (www.alcorn.edu/about/history.htm) 1871 nend A glass plant was built in a Missouri town that was named Crystal City. By 1895 the factory was acquired by Pittsburgh Plate Glass, later PPG Industries, which added a glass factory billed as the largest in the world. In 1990 it was closed and bulldozed, leaving lingering environmental contamination at the 250-acre site. (WSJ, 9/16/08, p.A22) 1871 nend Phil D. Beckwith founded the Round Oak Stove Co. in Dowagiac, Mich. (SFC, 1/4/06, p.G2) 1871 nend J. Pierpont Morgan joined with a friend to form the banking firm Drexel, Morgan. (WSJ, 3/30/99, p.A24) 1871 nend Western Union started handling money transfers. (SFC, 2/2/06, p.A13) 1871 nend Luther Burbank developed the Russet Burbank potato, later identified with Idaho. (SFC, 7/14/99, p.4) 1871 nend Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev developed the periodic classification system of the elements, presenting a periodic table listing the elements in 1871. [see 1869] Born in Siberia, the last of 17 children, Mendeleyev eventually found success in academia. While writing a basic textbook on chemistry in the 1860s, he attempted to find a way to classify the elements. His periodic system gained acceptance over time. His periodic table left gaps for elements as yet undiscovered, but he correctly predicted the properties of three of those elements. The table and his concepts of periodic law gained more acceptance with the approach of the 20th century, forming the basis for modern chemistry. (HNQ, 1/4/01)(WSJ, 8/21/01, p.A17) 1871 nend America added 6,000 miles of railway track this year in an endeavor that occupied a tenth of its industrial labor force. (Econ, 8/19/06, p.64) 1871 nend The number of cattle shipped to Chicago grew to 600,000. Abilene may have been the first cow town, but disease and rowdy cowboys shifted the cow capital first to Wichita, then to Dodge City, Kansas. The profits to be made were immense, with a $5 steer in Texas bringing up to $45 in Kansas. In fact, the profitability of the cattle kingdom was one of the factors contributing to its demise in 1886. Greedy ranchers dangerously overstocked the grasslands with cattle by the mid-1880s. (HNPD, 1/4/99) 1871 nend In Alaska a whaling fleet of 32 ships was abandoned off Icy Cape in the Chukchi Sea. Seven other vessels escaped with all the crew members saved. In 1998 an attempt was made to locate the shipwreck site. (SFC, 7/24/98, p.A3) 1871 nend The Great Chicago Fire killed hundreds and left some 100,000 people homeless. Debris from the fire was dumped into a lagoon between downtown and the shore of lake Michigan and the landfill became Grant Park. (WSJ, 8/21/96, p.A6) 1871 nend Brit Johnson, a black Texas ranch foreman, was killed by Kiowa raiders. His home life had been shattered in 1864 when an Indian raiding party killed his son and captured his wife along with 2 of their other children. He reportedly ransomed back his family in 1865 and continued searching for other stolen children before he was killed. Author Alan Le May (1899-1964) later used his story as a model in his novel ?The Searchers? (1954). (AH, 6/07, p.64)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Searchers_%28film%29) 1871 nend Tad Lincoln (18), son of Abraham Lincoln, died. Pneumonia was suspected. (SSFC, 3/20/05, Par p.2) 1871 nend In Australia Sister Mary MacKillop (1842-1909) was briefly dismissed from the Roman Catholic Church after her order of nuns exposed a pedophile priest. She and 47 other nuns were thrown onto the streets of Adelaide, relying on the charity of friends to survive. In 2010 MacKillop was canonized as Australia's first saint. (AP, 10/15/10)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_MacKillop) 1871 nend Belize was declared a Crown Colony. (SFC, 11/2/00, p.A12) 1871 nend The government of Costa Rica hired Minor C. Keith (23), an engineer from Brooklyn, to build a rail line. Keith grew bananas on the right of way to help finance the project. His enterprise grew to become the United Fruit Company, later Chiquita. (WSJ, 8/9/99, p.A1) 1871 nend In Denmark the Jutland-based Jyllands-Posten newspaper was founded. (AP, 2/8/06) 1871 nend The Rothschild banking empire bankrolled France's reparations to Germany. (SFC, 7/12/96, p.A11) 1871 nend Charles Joseph Minard, French civil engineer, died. In 1861 he used techniques, which he had invented to display flows of people, to create a graphic display of Napoleon?s 1812-1813 march to and from Russia. (Econ, 12/22/07, p.74) 1871 nend B. Bloch & Co. was founded in Eichwald, Germany, for the manufacture of earthenware, porcelain dinnerware, household items and decorative pieces. The name was changed after World War I to Eichwalder Porcelain and Stove Factory Bloch & Co. (SFC, 8/16/06, p.G7) 1871 nend In India the Leopold Café opened in Bombay (later Mumbai). It became an institution very popular with foreign tourists trading India stories over beer. (AP, 11/27/08) 1871 nend In India the Raj introduced the Criminal Tribes Act, under which members of some 150 tribes were forced to register with the police, forbidden to move around freely and in many cases herded into barbed-wire camps. (Econ, 4/24/10, p.42) 1871 nend In Russia Alexander Ostrovsky wrote "The Forest." It was a comedy play of bad manners and greed that featured the character Raissa Pavlovna, a cousin to Turgenev's Natalia Petrovna. (SFC, 7/29/97, p.E1) 1871 nend David O?Keefe (d.1901), an Irish sea captain, was shipwrecked on Yap Island. He hitched a ride to Hong Kong, found a new ship and returned to Yap. He made a fortune using a Chinese junk and metal cutting tools to bring stone money from Palau to Yap. (SSFC, 11/26/00, p.T6)(AM, 3/04, p.22) 1871 1872 George Eliot (1819-1880), English writer born as Mary Ann Evans, published her novel "Middlemarch" in 8 parts. (WSJ, 2/10/07, p.P8)(www.kirjasto.sci.fi/gelliot.htm) 1871 1909 James Burrill Angell (1829-1916) served as the president of the Univ. of Mich. (www.britannica.com/eb/article-9002271/James-Burrill-Angell)(MT,Fall. ?97, p.23) 1871 1909 John Millington Synge, Irish playwright. He wrote such plays as The Shadow of the Glen, The Well of the Saints, Riders to the Sea, The Playboy of the Western World, The Tinker's Wedding, and the unfinished Deirdre of the Sorrows. He died on March 24. A biography of his life was written by David M. Kiely in 1995 titled: John Millington Synge: A Biography. (WSJ, 12/6/95, p.A-18) 1871 1914 Robert Hugh Benson, English author and clergyman: "You can love a person deeply and sincerely whom you do not like. You can like a person passionately whom you do not love." (AP, 9/16/98) 1871 1946 Florine Stettheimer, American painter, was born in Rochester, N.Y. She was a friend of Marcel Duchamp, her circle included Marsden Hartley, Arthur Dove and Elie Nadelman. She was also close to Alfred Stieglitz, Henry McBride and Georgia O'Keeffe. "She keeps the comedy of her era alive for our own." (WSJ, 7/18/95, p.A-12) 1871 1947 Louise Homer, American opera singer. She is discussed in the 1997 book "The American Opera Singer" by Peter G. Davis. (WSJ, 11/6/97, p.A20) 1871 1951 Olive Fremstad, American opera singer. She is discussed in the 1997 book "The American Opera Singer" by Peter G. Davis. (WSJ, 11/6/97, p.A20) 1872 nend Jan 6, Alexander N. Scriabin, composer (Prometheus), was born in Moscow. (MC, 1/6/02) 1872 nend Jan 12, Russian Grand Duke Alexis began a gala buffalo hunting expedition with Gen. Phil Sheridan and Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer. (HN, 1/12/99) 1872 nend Jan 31, Zane Grey, American West novelist (Riders of the Purple Sage), was born. (MC, 1/31/02) 1872 nend Jan, US Attorney Gen?l. Amos T. Akerman (1821-1880), ardent prosecutor of KKK activities, resigned at the request of Pres. Grant. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amos_T._Akerman)(AH, 6/03, p.33) 1872 nend Feb 5, Lafayette Benedict Mendel, biochemist, was born. (HN, 2/5/01) 1872 nend Feb 6, Sir Thomas Phillips (b.1792), English book collector, died. He had declared that he wanted a copy of every book in the world. (www.kingkong.demon.co.uk/ngcoba/ph.htm)(Econ, 12/24/05, p.110) 1872 nend Feb 7, Alcorn A & M College opened. (MC, 2/7/02) 1872 nend Feb 20, Metropolitan Museum of Art, incorporated in 1870, opened in NYC. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art) 1872 nend Feb 20, A hydraulic electric elevator was patented by Cyrus Baldwin. (MC, 2/20/02) 1872 nend Feb 20, Luther Crowell patented a machine for manufacturing paper bags. (MC, 2/20/02) 1872 nend Feb 20, Silas Noble and JP Cooley patented a toothpick manufacturing machine. (MC, 2/20/02) 1872 nend Mar 1, President Ulysses S. Grant signed a measure creating Yellowstone National Park (Idaho, Montana, Wyoming). The act of Congress creating Yellowstone National Park was based on a report from an expedition led by Ferdinand Hayden. The 2.2 million-acre preserve was the first step in a national park system. Nathaniel Pitt Langford (39) was appointed the 1st Superintendent. (SFC, 5/19/96, Z1, p.2)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34)(ON, 11/02, p.4)(PCh,1992, p.526)(AP, 3/1/08) 1872 nend Mar 1, Doc Holliday received his Doctor of Dental Surgery. (MesWP) 1872 nend Mar 5, George Westinghouse Jr. patented triple air brake for trains. (MC, 3/5/02) 1872 nend Mar 7, Piet Mondrian (d.1944), Dutch abstract painter, was born. He was born in Amersfoort, near Amsterdam. His two principal styles date from before and after 1907. His Red Tree in 1908 reflects the stance of a Van Gogh. In 1911 he went to Paris and quickly changed his style in response to Cubism. He emigrated to New York in 1940. His Broadway Boogie Woogie was done in 1942-1943. He was labeled as a degenerate by the Nazis and was sent to New York to continue working. He went through a number of styles i.e. fauvist, neoimpressionist Dutch landscapes, to total abstractions in a manner of his own that he called neoplasticism. He was a pioneer of abstract painting. (WSJ, 6/6/95, p.A-14)(WSJ, 10/3/95, p.A-18)(SFC, 10/4/97, p.E1)(HN,3/7/98) 1872 nend Mar 10, Giuseppe Mazzini (66), Italian revolutionary (Giovane, Italy), died. (MC, 3/10/02) 1872 nend Mar 13, Oswald Garrison Villard, American journalist, was born. (MC, 3/13/02) 1872 nend Mar 19, Sergei Diaghilev, ballet director, was born in Gruzino Novgorod, Russia. [see Mar 31] (MC, 3/19/02) 1872 nend Mar 22, Illinois became 1st state to require sexual equality in employment. (MC, 3/22/02) 1872 nend Mar 25, Vito Pardo, Italian sculptor (Columbus monument in Argentina), was born. (MC, 3/25/02) 1872 nend Mar 26, Thomas J. Martin patented a fire extinguisher. (SS, 3/26/02) 1872 nend Mar 26, A 7.8 earthquake shook the Owens Valley, California. (SS, 3/26/02) 1872 nend Mar 31, Sergei Pavlovich Diaghilev, dance master (Imperial Ballet), was born in Russia. [see Mar 19] (MC, 3/31/02) 1872 nend Mar, Joshua Norton, aka Emperor Norton, ordered SF and Oakland citizens to build a suspension bridge across the bay. His similar Aug 19, 1869, proclamation was later considered a forgery. (SFC, 12/15/04, p.A1)(www.notfrisco.com/nortoniana/) 1872 nend Apr 1, The first edition of The Standard was published. (OTD) 1872 nend Apr 2, George B. Brayton patented a gasoline powered engine. (MC, 4/2/02) 1872 nend Apr 2, Samuel F.B. Morse (80), developer of the electric telegraph, died in New York. In 2003 Kenneth Silverman authored "Lightning Man: The Accursed Life of Samuel F.B. Morse." (AP, 4/2/99)(MC, 4/2/02)(WSJ, 10/28/03, p.A1)(SSFC, 11/23/03, p.M2) 1872 nend Apr 9, Samuel R. Percy patented dried milk. (MC, 4/9/02) 1872 nend Apr 12, Jesse James gang robbed bank in Columbia, Kentucky, of $1,500 with 1 person killed. (MC, 4/12/02) 1872 nend Apr 24, Mt. Vesuvius erupted. (MC, 4/24/02) 1872 nend May 1, Hugo Alfvjen, composer (Midsommarvaka), was born in Stockholm, Sweden. (MC, 5/1/02) 1872 nend May 10, Victoria Woodhull became the first woman nominated for U.S. president. Thomas Nast depicted her as "Mrs. Satan." Woodhull adhered to a diet prescribed by Sylvester Graham, known for his ginger-colored crackers. Sylvester preached against demon rum and died at age 57 after administering himself a medicinal treatment with considerable liquor. Frederick Douglas, African-American statesman, was nominated as vice president on the Equal Rights Party ticket. (SFEC, 3/8/98, Par p.14-16)(SFC, 10/17/98, p.E5)(HN, 5/10/98)(WSJ,3/13/09, p.W2) 1872 nend May 12, J.C. Watson discovered asteroid #121, Hermione. (SC, Internet, 5/12/97) 1872 nend May 18, Bertrand Russell (d.1970), English mathematician, philosopher and social reformer, was born. (WSJ, 9/27/96, p.A16)(AP, 1/7/99)(HN, 5/18/99) 1872 nend May 22, The Amnesty Act restored civil rights to Southerners. (HN, 5/22/98) 1872 nend May, Don Carlos (24), Spanish pretender, entered Navarre. King Amadeo I routed his forces at Oroquista and forced him to take refuge in the Pyranees. (PCh, 1992, p.523) 1872 nend Jun 4, Harvey Flint (d.1882) patented his Quaker Bitters, a general cure-all with 21.4% alcohol. He had recently left a family furniture business in Providence, Rhode Island, and began making Quaker Bitters under the name Flint & Co. (SFC, 8/8/07, p.G2)(www.bottlebooks.com/temperance/temperance.htm) 1872 nend Jun 5, The Republican National Convention, the first major political party convention to includes blacks, commenced. (HN, 6/5/98) 1872 nend Jun 6, Alexandra Fjodorovna Romanova, the last Russian Tsarina (1894-1918), was born. She was later killed with her husband by revolutionaries. (HN, 6/6/99)(MC, 6/6/02) 1872 nend Jun 17, Canadian George Hoover hauled in a wagon load of whiskey and set up a tent shop called Hoover?s Bar five miles west of Fort Dodge, Kansas. It was the founding business of Dodge City. The town up to this time had been dry. (SFC, 6/13/98, p.E4)(HN, 6/17/98) 1872 nend Jun 27, Paul Laurence Dunbar, African-American poet and writer, was born in Dayton, Ohio. His poems include "Oak and Ivory" and "Majors and Minors." (HN, 6/27/99)(SC, 6/27/02) 1872 nend Jul 2, Jacob W. Davis of Reno, Nevada, sent Levi Strauss & Co. in San Francisco a sample of his work pants and a business proposal for Strauss to apply for a patent in exchange for a half share in the patent. Davis soon sold his half share to Strauss and moved to San Francisco to supervise the manufacture of the work pants. (ON, 4/05, p.11) 1872 nend Jul 4, John Calvin Coolidge (d.1933) 30th President of the United States (1923-29), was born in Plymouth, Vermont. Calvin Coolidge, also known as 'Silent Cal,' was a Republican; Vice President from 1921-23 and succeeded to the Presidency on the death of Warren Harding in 1923; elected President in 1924 and served a full term. He was especially known for his economy of language. A lady dinner companion during his presidency told him she had a bet she could get him to say more than two words; he replied: "You lose." "Little progress can be made by merely attempting to repress what is evil. Our great hope lies in developing what is good." (AP, 7/4/97)(HN, 7/4/98)(IB, Internet, 12/7/98)(AP, 12/26/99) 1872 nend Jul 16, Roald Amundsen (d.1928), Norwegian explorer, discoverer of the South Pole, was born. (Ind, 4/27/02, 5A)(MC, 7/16/02) 1872 nend Jul 18, Britain introduced the Ballot Act for voting by secret ballot. [see Aug. 15] (AP, 7/18/97)(HN, 7/18/98) 1872 nend Jul 18, Benito Juarez (66), general (battle of Acapulco) and Pres. of Mexico (1858-1872), died of a heart attack in the National Palace. (MC, 7/18/02)(WSJ, 8/13/97, p.A12) 1872 nend Jul 20, Mahlon Loomis patented a wireless radio. (MC, 7/20/02) 1872 nend Aug 1, The first long-distance gas pipeline in the U.S. was completed. Designed for natural gas, the two-inch pipe ran five miles from Newton Wells to Titusville, Pennsylvania. (HN, 8/1/00) 1872 nend Aug 3, Haakon VII, King of Norway, was born in Charlottenlund, Denmark. (SC, 8/3/02) 1872 nend Aug 14, Chief Joseph met in council with some 40 settlers in the Wallowa Valley and ordered them to leave the Nez Perce Indian land. (ON, 3/04, p.2) 1872 nend Aug 15, The first ballot voting in England was conducted. [see July 18] (HN, 8/15/98) 1872 nend Aug 19, Eugene-Prosper Prevost (63), composer, died. (MC, 8/19/02) 1872 nend Aug 21, Aubrey Beardsley (d.1898), English artist (Salome), was born in Brighton. (SC, 8/21/02) 1872 nend Aug 23, The 1st Japanese commercial ship visited SF carrying tea. (MC, 8/23/02) 1872 nend Aug 24, Max Beerbohm (d.1956), critic, caricaturist, writer, wit (Saturday Review), was born in England. His work included "Nobody ever died of laughter." (AP, 4/9/97)(MC, 8/24/02) 1872 nend Sep 14, Britain paid US $15 million for damages during Civil War. The British government paid £3 million in damages to the United States in compensation for building the Confederate commerce-raider Alabama. The confederate navy?s Alabama was built at the Birkenhead shipyards. Despite its official neutrality during the American Civil War, Britain allowed the warship to leave port, and it subsequently played havoc with Federal shipping. The U.S. claimed compensation, and a Court of Arbitration at Geneva agreed, setting the amount at £3 million. (HNQ, 9/2/00)(ON, 9/01, p.12) 1872 nend Sep 17, Phillip W. Pratt patented his sprinkler system for extinguishing fires. (MC, 9/17/01) 1872 nend Sep 21, John Henry Conyers of SC became the 1st black student at Annapolis. (MC, 9/21/01) 1872 nend Oct 3, Bloomingdale's department store opened in NYC. (MC, 10/3/01) 1872 nend Oct 9, Aaron Montgomery Ward (1844-1913), a young traveling salesman of dry goods, started his mail-order business. The catalog of Aaron Montgomery Ward was the first to be called a "Wish Book." The 1871 Chicago fire had destroyed his initial inventory. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron_Montgomery_Ward)(SFC, 7/8/97,p.A1)(SFEC, 5/30/99, Z1 p.8)(SFC, 12/29/00, p.A12) 1872 nend Oct 11, Harlan Fiske Stone, Supreme Court (1925-41) Chief Justice (41-46), was born in New Hampshire. (MC, 10/11/01) 1872 nend Oct 12, Ralph Vaughan Williams, composer (Hugh the Drover), was born in Down Amp, England. (MC, 10/12/01) 1872 nend Oct 12, Chiricahua Apache leader Cochise (d.1874) signed a peace treaty with Special Indian Commissioner, General Oliver Otis Howard (1830-1909), in the Arizona Territory. (HN, 10/12/98)(ON, 4/07, p.8) 1872 nend Oct 17, The Aculeo, a British square-rigged sailing ship, struck rocks near Montara. All 21 crew survived. The ship broke up in a week with her cargo of sheet iron, steel wire and coal from Liverpool. (SFEC, 5/25/97, p.T3)(Ind, 3/31/01, 5A) 1872 nend Oct 19, World's largest gold nugget (215 kg) was found in New South Wales, Australia. (MC, 10/19/01) 1872 nend Oct 21, The U.S. Naval Academy admitted John H. Conyers, the first African American to be accepted. (HN, 10/21/98) 1872 nend Oct 23, Theophile Gautier (61), French poet, writer, historian, and critic, died. (MC, 10/23/01) 1872 nend Oct 29, J.S. Risdon patented a metal windmill. (MC, 10/29/01) 1872 nend Nov 5, Ulysses S. Grant was re-elected US president. (http://tinyurl.com/hdvqv) 1872 nend Nov 5, Horace Greeley (1811-1872), the New York editor who helped found the Republican Party, was badly defeated when he ran with Benjamin Gratz Brown as a Democrat against Ulysses S. Grant. He died two weeks later. Greeley's political aspirations were realized when he was named by the Liberal Republican Party to run for, but he lost the election, even though he polled almost as many popular votes as the hero of Vicksburg. His running mate, Missouri Governor Benjamin Gratz Brown, was a drunk. Greeley was in favor of graham crackers and opposed to women's corsets. He had also proposed to change the name of the country to Columbia. (SFC, 10/22/96, p.E8)(HNPD, 2/3/99)(WSJ, 6/5/96, p.A12) 1872 nend Nov 5, Suffragist Susan B. Anthony was arrested for trying to vote. On June 18, 1873, she was fined $100 for attempting to vote in the presidential election. She never paid the fine. (AP, 11/5/97)(HN, 11/5/98) 1872 nend Nov 7, US cargo ship Mary Celeste set sail from NY on a journey which ended when it was found mysteriously abandoned the following month. (MC, 11/7/01) 1872 nend Nov 9, Fire destroyed nearly 800 buildings in Boston. (AP, 11/9/08) 1872 nend Nov 15, In California the 115 foot Pigeon Point Light Station near Pescadero started operation. It was built due to a series of shipwrecks in the area. Service ended in the 1980s and in 2004 it was transferred to the Peninsula Open Space Trust and the Calif. Dept. of Parks. On May 25, 2005 ownership was transferred from the US Coast Guard to the California State Parks. A 5-year, $5 million restoration campaign was begun. (SFEC, 5/25/97, p.T3)(SFEC,11/16/97, p.A2)(SFC, 3/23/04, p.B4)(SFC,5/26/05, p.B1) 1872 nend Nov 28, The Modoc War of 1872-73 began in Siskiyou County, northern California when fighting broke out between Modoc Chief Captain Jack and a cavalry detail led by Captain James Jackson. At Lava Beds National Monument in northern California 52 [60] Modoc warriors held off over 1,000 US Army troops for five months. The 4 year conflict was described in the 1997 book "Hell with the Fire Out" by Arthur Quinn, a re-creation of the war from eye-witness accounts. (SFC,10/16/96,zz1p.1)(SFEC, 4/6/97, BR p.5)(SFEC, 10/25/98,p.T9)(HN, 11/28/98) 1872 nend Nov 29, Horace Greeley (b.1811), founder of the New York Tribune, died. The daily paper reflected much of the morality of his New England upbringing and he partnered a high standard of news gathering with printed arguments and urges against drinking, gambling, capital punishment and?increasingly in the 1850s?slavery. The slavery issue and his lifelong desire for high political office led him away from his political party, the Whigs, and to the newly emerging Republican Party. He usually sided with the radical wing of the Republicans, advocating early emancipation of slaves. Still unsuccessful in state and national bids, he eventually joined a group of Republican dissenters who formed the Liberal Republican Party to oppose Grant. While he received almost 44% of the popular vote, he received only 18% of the electoral vote, which were cast for other candidates due to his death. In 2006 Robert C. Williams authored ?Horace Greeley. (HNQ, 11/3/00)(WSJ, 5/25/06, p.D8) 1872 nend Dec 4, The U.S. brigantine Marie Celeste was found adrift and deserted with its cargo intact, in the Atlantic Ocean between the Azores and Portugal. (HN, 12/4/00) 1872 nend Dec 9, P.B.S. Pinchback became the first African American Governor of Louisiana. [see Dec 11] (HN, 12/9/98) 1872 nend Dec 11, America's first black governor took office as Pinckney Benton Stewart Pinchback became acting governor of Louisiana. [see Dec 9] (AP, 12/11/97) 1872 nend Dec 12, Edwin Forrest (b.1806), American actor, died in Philadelphia. (WSJ, 6/5/06, p.D8)(http://famousamericans.net/edwinforrest/) 1872 nend Dec 21, The HMS Challenger, under Captain George Nares, sailed from Portsmouth, England, on a 4-year journey to survey the world?s oceans. (Econ, 4/17/10, SRp.13)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challenger_expedition) 1872 nend Dec 26, The 4th largest snowfall in NYC history reached 18 inches. (MC, 12/26/01) 1872 nend Dec 28, A U.S. Army force defeated a group of Apache warriors at Salt River Canyon, Arizona Territory, with 57 Indians killed but only one soldier. (HN, 12/28/98) 1872 nend Dec, "Texas Jack" Omohundro, a genuine frontier scout, joined the more famous Western scout William "Buffalo Bill" Cody on a Chicago stage as the stars of Ned Buntline's melodrama The Scouts of the Prairie. John Burwell "Texas Jack" Omohundro was a Virginian who served with the Confederate Army and later fought a few Indians in Texas before helping to drive Longhorn cattle to North Platte, Neb. He met Buffalo Bill Cody there in 1870, and Cody persuaded Texas Jack to become a scout at nearby Fort McPherson. The two scouts resigned in the fall of 1872 and headed for the bright lights of the stage. The Scouts of the Prairie was a success, and they took the action-packed act on the road. In 1873, Buffalo Bill and Texas Jack began starring in a similar melodrama called The Scouts of the Plains. They were joined for a short time by another frontier legend, Wild Bill Hickok, who had a lesser role because he was said to have "a voice like a girl." (HNQ, 10/10/01) 1872 nend Julia Morgan (d.1957), architect, was born in San Francisco and raised in Oakland. (SFC, 7/18/00, p.A8)(SFC, 6/18/04, p.F4) 1872 nend Edgar Degas, French painter, journeyed to New Orleans where his mother was born. He made 22 paintings there. His time in New Orleans is covered in the 1997 book "Degas in New Orleans: Encounters in the Creole World of Kate Chopin and George Washington Cable" by Christopher Benfey. (SFEC, 1/4/98, BR p.9)(SFC, 3/5/99, p.W12) 1872 nend John Gast, American painter, created his "American Progress." (AH, 10/01, p.18) 1872 nend Winslow Homer painted the calendar favorite: "Snap the Whip." (WSJ, 4/2/96, p.A-12) 1872 nend Thomas Moran painted "Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone," a work that helped Congress decide to designate Yellowstone as the first national park. (WSJ, 12/30/97, p.A8) 1872 nend Mihaly von Munkacsy painted his oil "The Prisoner." It captured the despair and resignation of a ragged prisoner and his guard. (WSJ, 3/19/97, p.A16) 1872 nend Pissarro painted "Louveciennes." (SFC, 1/20/99, p.E1) 1872 nend Auguste Renoir painted a portrait of Camille Monet. In 1998 it was part of Steve Wynn's collection at the Nevada Bellagio casino. (SFEM, 11/29/98, p.13) 1872 nend Darwin wrote his "Expressions of the Emotions in Man and Animals." Also a 6th and last edition of "Origin of the Species" was published. (NH, 8/96, p.56)(NH, 5/96, p.54) 1872 nend Alphonse Daudet (1840-1897), French novelist, authored ?Tartarin of Tarascon,? the comic story of a big-hearted braggart. (WSJ, 8/30/08, p.W7) 1872 nend Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821-1881), Russian author, completed his novel ?The Possessed,? also known as ?Besy? or ?The Devils.? In it he foresaw political terrorism on the eve of its birth among revolutionary groups. (WSJ, 1/28/06, p.P12) 1872 nend William Dean Howells authored his novel: "Their Wedding Journey." (ON, 4/02, p.6) 1872 nend Friedrich Nietzsche published his first book: "The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music," in which Greek tragedy was interpreted along Wagnerian lines with Appolonian and Dionysian opposites. ( LGC, 1970, p.266)(WSJ, 2/4/99, p.A20) 1872 nend English author Marie Louise de la Ramee published ?A Dog of Flanders? under her pseudonym "Ouida." It is about a Flemish boy named Nello and his dog Patrasche. Film versions were produced in 1914, 1924, 1935, 1959, 1975, 1992, 1995 and 1999. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Dog_of_Flanders)(SFC, 6/11/10, p.C7) 1872 nend Leo Tolstoy wrote "Anna Karenina." (SFEM, 11/24/96, p.58) 1872 nend Mark Twain?s "Roughing It" was published. It chronicles the night he and 2 friends spent in a blizzard only 15 steps from the Desert Wells Trading Station in Nevada. (SFEM, 9/15/96, p.24)(AM, Jul/Aug '97 p.19)(http://tinyurl.com/2wvbxd) 1872 nend Jules Verne published his novel "A Journey to the Center of the Earth." (PacDisc. Spring/'96, p.26) 1872 nend The French opera "Djamilah," composed by Georges Bizet, was set in Turkish-ruled Egypt. It told the story of a Muslim pasha who buys a young mistress in the Cairo slave market. (WSJ, 11/9/00, p.A24)(ON, 5/06, p.11) 1872 nend The opera "La Fille de Madame Angot" was written by Charles Lecocq. An English version in 1998 by David Scott Marley was titled "Daughter of the Cabinet." (SFC, 7/17/98, p.D5) 1872 nend A brick lighthouse was erected on St. Simons Island off the US coast of Georgia. The island is one of 4 barrier islands called the Golden Isles. (SSFC, 2/11/07, p.G7) 1872 nend The New Market Theater in Portland, Oregon, was built at a cost of $100,000. A huge produce market occupied its ground floor. (Exc, 6/96, p.71) 1872 nend The International Bible Students Association was founded in Pittsburgh by Charles Taze Russell. During the 1870s, Charles Taze Russell established himself as an independent and controversial Adventist teacher. Russell was succeeded as president in 1917 by Joseph Franklin Rutherford (Judge Rutherford; 1869?1942), who changed the group?s name to Jehovah?s Witnesses in 1931 to emphasize its members? belief that Jehovah, or Yahweh, is the true God and that the Witnesses were his specially chosen followers. (AH, 4/07,p.30)(www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/302393/Jehovahs-Witness) 1872 nend The German Evangelical Synod of North America was established. (SFC, 7/21/97, p.A11) 1872 nend The Butter and Cheese Exchange opened in NYC. It later became known as the New York Mercantile Exchange (Nymex). (WSJ, 9/28/05, p.C3) 1872 nend In Cambridge, Mass., the Metaphysical Club was founded as a discussion group and included Oliver Wendall Holmes, Charles Sanders Pierce, William James and Chauncy Wright. In 2001 Louis Menand authored "The Metaphysical Club: A Story of ideas in America," which traced the American development of pragmatism. (SSFC, 6/10/01, DB p.70)(SFC, 6/15/01, p.C15) 1872 nend Peter French (23) rode from Ca. to Oregon with 1,200 head of shorthorn cattle for Dr. Hugh Glenn and settled in what is now called Frenchglen. (SFEC, 7/6/97, p.T5) 1872 nend The 1st place golf prize for the British Open at the Old Course in St. Andrew's, a red leather belt with a silver buckle, was retired and replaced with a silver claret jug. (WSJ, 7/21/00, p.W9) 1872 nend The federal government of the United States became more involved with education by granting public land to the states for the purpose of establishing agricultural and mechanical arts colleges. The initiative resulted in 68 of such land-grant colleges. (HNQ, 9/4/00) 1872 nend A US Mining Act law was passed that let anyone claim public land for hardrock mining for as little as $2.50 per acre with no royalties to the federal government. The law was used by a Danish mining firm in 1995 for 110 acres of public land in Idaho that may contain a billion dollars worth of minerals. (WSJ, 9/7/95, p.A-1)(SFC, 2/28/97, p.A6)(SFC, 5/22/02, p.A7) 1872 nend A US law was passed to prevent bar owners from luring sailors offshore with booze and prostitutes. In 2002 it was used against Greenpeace activists. (SFC, 12/30/03, p.A1) 1872 nend US Congress passed legislation forbidding advertisements on American currency and postage. The law regarding postage was amended in Jan, 2006. (SFC, 6/1/06, p.A1) 1872 nend The Osage Indians purchased close to 2,300 square miles in the Oklahoma Territory from the Cherokee and created the Osage Reservation. (SFCM, 3/9/08, p.20) 1872 nend The high chief of the tribes of the eastern Samoan islands gave America permission to establish a naval base in exchange for military protection. (SFCM, 10/14/01, p.45) 1872 nend Little Rock, Arkansas, blasted huge chunks of its namesake rock to make room for a railway bridge. In 2009 the city launched a $650,000 project to excavate the remains of the neglected ?Little Rock,? estimated to be 300 million years old. (WSJ, 1/28/09, p.A1) 1872 nend A group of New Orleans businessmen invented a King of Carnival -- Rex -- to parade in the first daytime parade. They introduced the Mardi Gras colors of purple, green and gold; the Mardi Gras song, and the Mardi Gras flag. (www.mardigrasneworleans.com/history.html) 1872 nend In New Hampshire workers digging fence post hole, for businessman and naturalist Seneca Ladd (d.1892), discovered a lump of clay that contained a 4x2œ-inch egg-shaped stone with a variety of carved features. It came to be known as the ?Mystery Stone.? Ladd?s daughter donated the stone to the New Hampshire Historical Society in 1927. (SFC, 7/24/06, p.E3) 1872 nend Jesse Hiatt on his farm in Winterset, Iowa, discovered a wild apple tree that he named the Hawkeye. It was later bought by the Stark brothers nursery in Louisiana, Missouri, and renamed the Delicious Apple. (T&L, 10/1980, p.42) 1872 nend The Ransom and Randolph Co. was founded in Ohio for the manufacture of supplies to dentists, doctors and barbers. (SFC, 8/24/05, p.G6) 1872 nend Andrew Carnegie built a steel plant and revolutionized the American steel industry. A few years after being hired by the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1852, he began to invest in railroads, receiving huge dividends. When a new steel-making process made cheap steel possible, Carnegie built his own plant. (HNPD, 8/11/98) 1872 nend Kaposi's sarcoma was first described by the Austro-Hungarian dermatologist, Moritz Kaposi. (Ligand Corp. PB, 5/17/00) 1872 nend Jane Wells of Chicago invented the baby jumper, a hanging canvas saddle for tots to bounce in place. (SFC, 2/28/98, p.B4) 1872 nend The San Francisco Bohemian Club was founded by 5 newspapermen, a Shakespearean actor, a vintner and a local merchant. The Bohemian grove, a 2,700 acre redwood grove on the Russian River, became their summer encampment. In 1974 John van der Zee authored ?The Greatest Men?s Party on Earth.? (SFC, 1/24/02, p.A18)(WSJ, 7/15/04, p.A1)(SSFC, 7/18/04, p.A18) 1872 nend Rev. Ellsworth Jerome Hill of Kankakee crossed the river to Langham Island, 40 miles southwest of Chicago and found a number of rare native plants and a new plant that was not named until 1906 by botanist Edward Lee Greene as Iliamna remota, or the Kankakee mallow. A related plant, found 800 miles to the east in 1927, was named the Peters Mountain mallow. (Nat. Hist., 3/96, p.57-58) 1872 nend At a Memphis warehouse, a cask of molasses burst open on a loading dock and a wall of goo eight feet tall slowly surged downhill toward the Mississippi River. It caught a dozen slow-moving pedestrians unawares. (HFA, '96, p.71) 1872 nend In Nevada Francis Marion "Borax" Smith (d.1931) found borax in Peel?s Marsh. In 1890 he developed the Pacific Coast Borax Company to transport the borax on a 1-day, 169-mile trip from Death Valley to a railhead at Mohave with the famed 20-mule team. He later consolidated the SF Bay Area trolley lines into the Key System. (SFC, 11/6/98, p.D5)(SSFC, 10/20/02, p.A19) 1872 nend The US had 61,000 miles of railroads and about 15,000 acres of prime woodland were cut for rail ties in this year alone. (NOHY, 3/90, p.51) 1872 nend Robert S. Duncanson, American painter, died. Duncanson was a black painter who lived in Cincinnati, Canada and Detroit. He had established himself in Cincinnati with portraits of abolitionist leaders and landscapes of the Hudson Valley. His paintings include: Land of the Lotus Eaters (1861), Blue Hole, Flood Waters, Little Miami River, and View of Cincinnati, Ohio, from Covington, Kentucky (1851). (WSJ, 11/1/95, p.A-12) 1872 nend William Henry Seward (b.1801), former US Sec. of State (1861-1869), died. In 1900 Frederic Bancroft authored "The Life of William H. Seward." (WUD, 1994 p.1307) 1872 nend In England the right of assembly was established and the first lawful public meetings were held at the Reformer's Tree in Hyde Park. (SFEM, 3/21/99, p.24) 1872 nend C.P. Scott began editing the Guardian in England and continued for almost 60 years. Scott was a friend of Zionist Chaim Weizmann. In 2004 Daphna Baram authored ?Disenchantment: The Guardian and Israel.? (Econ, 7/31/04, p.71) 1872 nend The British Consulate building, a colonial style house with an arcaded veranda was built along the banks of the Huang Pu River in Shanghai, and is now occupied by the Shanghai Foreign Investment Co. (Hem. 1/95, p. 84) 1872 nend Zey, king of the Asante (Ghana), wrote to the British monarch asking for the slave trade to be renewed. (Econ, 2/24/07, p.73) 1872 nend Hawaii?s King Kamehameha V asked the Kaiser of Prussia to send a music teacher for the Royal Hawaiian Band. Henry Berger, a Prussian military band leader, arrived and led the group for 43 years. He was later considered the father of Hawaiian music. (WSJ, 3/10/05, p.A1) 1872 nend A census, begun in 1867, was completed in India under the direction of the British. (Econ, 2/26/11, p.48)(http://tinyurl.com/5wdrbws) 1872 nend A Japanese government decree struck down ancient conventions that kept women off many of the country?s mountains. In 2004 a 1,300-year tradition against women climbers on Mount Omine continued. (SSFC, 9/5/04, p.A2) 1872 nend A police raid in Glasgow, Scotland, found only 2 pubs in 30 serving real Scotch whiskey. (WSJ, 1/4/02, p.A7) 1872 1874 More than 4 million buffalo were killed by white hunters. (HNPD, 8/21/98) 1872 1873 Vincenzo Gemito, Italian sculptor, makes terra-cotta busts of Giuseppi Verdi and his wife, Giuseppina Strepponi, during their stay in Naples. (Civil., Jul-Aug., '95, p.90) 1872 1873 The Modoc War was fought in Siskiyou County, Ca. 60 Indian men, outnumbered 20 to 1, held off an army for nearly 6 months. In 1977 Arthur J. Quinn wrote "Hell With the Fire Out," a re-creation of the war from eye-witness accounts. (SFC, 5/17/97, p.A20)(SFEC, 10/25/98, p.T9) 1872 1933 Addison Mizner, American architect and playwright: "Misery loves company, but company does not reciprocate." "God gives us relatives; thank God, we can choose our friends." In 2003 the Sondheim play "Bounce" was based on Addison and Wilson Mizner. (AP, 12/2/97)(AP, 1/24/98)(WSJ, 7/3/03, p.D8) 1872 1945 Gottardo Piazzoni, Swiss-born artist. He moved to Marin, Ca. and painted landscapes. (SFC, 7/5/96, p.D1) 1872 1949 Georges Gurdjieff, Armenian author and explorer: "Awakening begins when a man realizes that he is going nowhere and does not know where to go." (AP, 9/12/98) 1872 1950 Leon Blum, French statesman: "Life does not give itself to one who tries to keep all its advantages at once. I have often thought morality may perhaps consist solely in the courage of making a choice." (AP, 8/22/98) 1872 1951 Dr. Albert Barnes amassed a large collection of impressionist art (Renoir, Cezanne, Matisse) and locked the doors to his collection when art critics of the 1920s called the work "lunatic art." His story is documented on a new CD titled Passion for Art by Continuum (Corbis Publ.) and priced at $40-50. He made his money just after the turn of the century with Argyrol, a medical compound for treating infections. (New Media, 2/95, p.84)(Civil., Jul-Aug., '95, p.84) 1872 1960 Ellery Sedgwick, American editor: "In America, getting on in the world means getting out of the world we have known before." (AP, 4/30/98) 1872 1961 Judge Learned Hand, American jurist: "A society in which men recognize no check upon their freedom soon becomes a society where freedom is the possession of only a savage few." (AP, 12/13/97) 1872 1964 Alexander Meiklejohn, American educator: "There is, I think, nothing in the world more futile than the attempt to find out how a task should be done when one has not yet decided what the task is." (AP, 2/19/98) 1872 1970 Bertrand Russell, English philosopher and mathematician: "Why is propaganda so much more successful when it stirs up hatred than when it tries to stir up friendly feeling?" (AP, 1/7/99) 1873 nend Jan 7, Adolph Zukor, movie producer, director, executive (Paramount), was born in Hungary. (MC, 1/7/02) 1873 nend Jan 7, Charles Peguy (d.1914), French poet and writer, was born. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_P%C3%A9guy) 1873 nend Jan 13, William Pitt Kellogg (1830-1918), American politician and carpetbagger, began serving as the governor of Louisiana and continued to 1877. He was the state's last Republican governor until the inauguration of David C. Treen in 1980. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_P._Kellogg) 1873 nend Jan 14, "Celluloid" was registered as a trademark. (MC, 1/14/02) 1873 nend Jan, Ann Eliza Young (b.1844), one of the many wives of Mormon leader Brigham Young, revolted against the indignities and hypocrisy of polygamy. Her divorce was granted in January, 1875. (SFC, 8/12/08, p.E5)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Eliza_Young) 1873 nend Feb 1, Matthew Fontaine Maury (b.1806), American astronomer, died. He was also a historian, oceanographer, meteorologist, cartographer, author, geologist, and educator. Maury proposed that the US invite the maritime nations of the world to a conference to establish a ?universal system? of meteorology, and he was the leading spirit of that pioneer scientific conference when it met in Brussels in 1853. Within a few years, nations owning three fourths of the shipping of the world were sending their oceanographic observations to Maury at the Naval Observatory, where the information was evaluated and the results given worldwide distribution. (Econ, 2/27/10, SRp.10)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Fontaine_Maury) 1873 nend Feb 2, Baron Konstantin von Neurath, German secretary of State (1932-38), was born. After WW II he was tried as war criminal and received jail sentence. (MC, 2/2/02) 1873 nend Feb 12, The US Congress abolished bimetallism and authorized $1 & $3 gold coins. (MC, 2/12/02) 1873 nend Feb 12, The 1st Spanish Republic was proclaimed. King Amadeo I abdicated following a 2-year reign. Emilio Cistelar y Ripolo (40) became prime minister, but the Carlist civil war continued. (PCh, 1992, p.527) 1873 nend Feb 13, Feodor Chaliapin, opera singer, was born. (HN, 2/13/01) 1873 nend Feb 27, Enrico Caruso (d.1921), was born. He was the Italian operatic lyric tenor who excelled in operas such as Pagliacci. (Internet) 1873 nend Mar 1, E. Remington and Sons (1816?1896), a firearms manufacturer founded in 1816 by Eliphalet Remington in Ilion, New York, started manufacturing the first commercial typewriter. James Densmore and George Yost contracted Remington to build 1,000 machines designed by Christopher Latham Sholes. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._Remington_and_Sons)(ON, 12/10, p.8) 1873 nend Mar 3, William Green, President of the American Federation of Labor (1924-52), was born. (HN, 3/3/99)(SC, 3/3/02) 1873 nend Mar 3, US Congress authorized federal departmental postage stamps. (SC, 3/3/02) 1873 nend Mar 3, US Congress and government raised their own salary, retroactively. (SC, 3/3/02) 1873 nend Mar 4, Pres. Ulysses S. Grant accepted the oath of office, administered by Chief Justice Salmon Chase, for his 2nd term. At the inauguration ceremony 150 canaries, whose chirping was to amuse guests, froze to death in their cages. (SFC, 1/20/09, p.A7)(www.bartleby.com/124/pres34.html) 1873 nend Mar 4, New York Daily Graphic, 1st illustrated daily newspaper in US, was published. (SC, 3/4/02) 1873 nend Mar 9, Royal Canadian Mounted Police founded. [see May 23] (MC, 3/9/02) 1873 nend Mar 10, Jakob Wassermann (d.1934), novelist (My Life as German & Jew), was born in Germany. "In every person, even in such as appear most reckless, there is an inherent desire to attain balance." (AP, 3/25/97)(MC, 3/10/02) 1873 nend Mar 19, Max Reger, composer, pianist, prof. (Leipzig Univ), was born in Brand, Bavaria. (MC, 3/19/02) 1873 nend Mar 20, Sergei V. Rachmaninov, Russian-US pianist, composer (Aleko), was born. [see Apr 1] (MC, 3/20/02) 1873 nend Mar 22, Slavery was abolished in Puerto Rico. (MC, 3/22/02) 1873 nend Mar 30, Benedict Augustin Morel (63), psychologist (dementia praecox), died. (MC, 3/30/02) 1873 nend Apr 1, M. Namik Kemal's play " Vatan yahut Silistre" premiered in Constantinople. (OTD) 1873 nend Apr 1, Composer Sergei Rachmaninoff (d.1943) was born in Novgorod Province, Russia. [see Mar 20] (AP, 4/1/98) 1873 nend Apr 1, The British White Star steamship Atlantic, enroute to NYC from Liverpool with 811 passengers under Capt. James Agnew Williams (33), sank off Nova Scotia killing 565 people, mostly women and children. A court of inquiry suspended Williams for 2 years. (ON, 4/03, p.7) 1873 nend Apr 13, In the Colfax Massacre in Grant Parish, Louisiana, some 105 blacks were killed on Easter Sunday. Many bodies, hidden or dumped into the Red River; were recovered and found to have been mutilated. In the end, only nine men were arrested, and they were charged with the murder of only one man. Among those arrested was William J. Cruikshank. In 2007 Lalita Tademy authored her novel ?Red River? based on the massacre. no_source 1873 nend Apr 22, Ellen Glassgow, American novelist, was born. (HN, 4/22/01) 1873 nend Apr 25, Howard R. Garis, children's writer, was born. (HN, 4/25/01) 1873 nend Apr 25, Walther de la Mare, poet and novelist (Memoir of a Midget, Come Hither), was born. (HN, 4/25/01) 1873 nend Apr 28, A. Manzoni (88), writer, died. Giuseppi Verdi dedicated his "Requiem" to his memory. (MC, 4/28/02) 1873 nend May 1, David Livingstone (60), British physician, explorer (Africa), died in Chitambo, Zambia. His body passed through Zanzibar for a funeral in London in Apr 18, 1874. (www.heroesofhistory.com/page55.html)(SSFC, 7/13/03, p.C9) 1873 nend May 3, Nikolay N. Tcherepnin, composer of ballets, songs, was born in St. Petersburg. (MC, 5/3/02) 1873 nend May 7, US marines attacked Panama. (MC, 5/7/02) 1873 nend May 8, Melvil Dewey (d.1931) presented the 1st draft of his decimal classification system to the Amherst College Library Committee. [see 1876] (ON, 3/04, p.12) 1873 nend May 9, Howard Carter, discoverer of King Tutankhamen's tomb, was born. (HN, 5/9/98) 1873 nend May 10, Belgian priest Joseph de Veuster (d.1889), aka Father Damien, arrived on Molokai, Hawaii, to tend the spiritual needs of the lepers. The Catholic priest spent his life ministering to the lepers and built homes, churches and moved the whole colony to a more sheltered area. Damien was beatified in 1995. The settlement peaked at about 1200. A film about him was shot in 1998 with Peter O?Toole and Kris Kristofferson. (www.whirledwydeweb.com/kalaupapa/chronology.html)(SFEC, 9/8/96,p.T3)(WSJ, 8/14/98, p.A1) 1873 nend May 12, The penny postal card, issued by the Post Office Department, was first put on sale in Springfield, Mass., and in other cities a day later. (www.dailymail.com/static/specialsections/lookingback/lb0201.htm) 1873 nend May 15, Nikolay N. Tcherepnin, composer of ballets, songs, was born in St Petersburg, Russia. (MC, 5/15/02) 1873 nend May 20, Levi Strauss of San Francisco and Jacob Davis of Reno, Nevada, received a patent for miners? work pants that included rivets to reinforce the pockets. (SFC, 4/29/03, B1)(SFC, 1/23/04, p.A10)(ON, 4/05, p.12) 1873 nend May 23, Canada's North West Mounted Police force was established. The North West Mounted Police was formed by the Canadian government to protect new settlers in the territory between Manitoba and British Columbia. [see Mar 9] (AP, 5/23/97)(HNQ, 5/5/98) 1873 nend May 24, Leo Delibes' opera "Le Roi l'a Dit," premiered in Paris. (MC, 5/24/02) 1873 nend May 27, The first Preakness [horserace] was held at Pimlico, Md. It later became part of the Triple Crown. Edward R. Bradley's Kalitan was the 1st winner. (HFA, '96, p.30)(SFEC, 5/30/99, Z1 p.8)(WSJ, 11/21/00, p.A24) 1873 nend Jun 2, Ground was broken on Clay St. in SF for the world's 1st cable railroad. (SC, 6/2/02) 1873 nend Jun 5, Sultan Bargash closed the slave market of Zanzibar. Missionaries bought the site and began building an Anglican cathedral. (SSFC, 6/9/02, p.C13)(MC, 6/5/02) 1873 nend Jun 16, Pres. Grant signed an executive order that permitted Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce to live in the Wallowa Valley, Oregon, to perpetuity. (SFEC, 6/15/97, Par. p.5)(ON, 3/04, p.2) 1873 nend Jun 18, Suffragist Susan B. Anthony (1815-1906) was fined $100 in Canandaigua, NY, for attempting to vote in the 1872 presidential election. The fine was never paid [see Nov 5, 1872]. (AP, 6/18/97)(HN, 6/18/98)(ON, 12/09, p.4) 1873 nend Jun 28, Alexis Carrel, French surgeon and biologist, was born. He won a Nobel Prize in 1912 for the development of blood vessel suture technique. (HN, 6/28/99)(MC, 6/28/02) 1873 nend Jul 1, Prince Edward Island became the 7th Canadian province. (MC, 7/1/02) 1873 nend Jul 10, French poet Paul Verlaine (1844-1896) wounded Arthur Rimbaud (1854-1891) with a pistol. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Rimbaud) 1873 nend Jul 21, At Adair, Iowa, more than seven years after the Liberty holdup, the James-Younger gang made their first train robbery. See 1866 for the 1st US train robbery. (OGA, 11/24/98)(HN, 7/18/00) 1873 nend Aug 2, Inventor Andrew S. Hallidie successfully tested a cable car he had designed for the city of San Francisco. Various references give the date of this event as Aug. 1, but more recent research points to Aug. 2. Hallidie made the first cable car trip aboard his Nob Hill Line at 4 a.m. It traveled down Clay St. from Knob Hill to Kearney. (SFC, 8/1/98, p.A16)(AP, 8/2/06) 1873 nend Aug 18, Leo Slezak, Austria tenor, actor (Othello), was born. (MC, 8/18/02) 1873 nend Aug 18, Otto Harbach, songwriter (Smoke Gets in Your Eyes), was born. (MC, 8/18/02) 1873 nend Aug 26, Lee De Forest (d.1961), inventor of the audion vacuum tube, was born in Council bluffs, Iowa. He is considered the father of radio. (WUD, 1994 p.379)( http://www.britannica.com) 1873 nend Aug, The cannibalized remains of 5 men were found on the banks of the Gunnison River, Colorado. Alfred Packer (d.1907), one of a 6-man prospecting party, had emerged from the area 3 months earlier. Packer was arrested but escaped for 9 years. He then spent 18 years in jail and was paroled in 1901. [see Apr 13, 1883] (AM, 5/01, p.50) 1873 nend Sep 18, Jay Cooke & Co. announced that it was suspending trading due to bankruptcy. The firm had pioneered the sale of war bonds. (WSJ, 10/7/98, p.A22) 1873 nend Fall, Leaders of the Northern California 1872 Modoc War were executed and survivors were exiled to Oklahoma. (SFEC, 6/18/00, p.T7) 1873 nend Sep 20, A financial panic hit the NY Stock Exchange when the high-flying bond dealer, Jay Cooke, granted too many loans to the railroads. Panic spread to Europe as London and Paris markets crashed and the New York Stock Exchange closed for the first time for 10 days. The economy went into a 6 year depression. Philadelphia banker and newspaperman Anthony Drexel teamed up with J.P. Morgan to depose a rival bank run by Jay Cooke. They published allegations to undermine confidence and cause a run that led to a panic. (WSJ, 2/27/95, p.A-10)(WSJ, 7/8/96, p.C1)(WSJ, 10/7/98, p.A22)(SSFC,7/14/02, p.G2) 1873 nend Oct 3, Captain Jack and three other Modoc Indians were hanged in Oregon for the murder of General Edward Canby. (HN, 10/3/98) 1873 nend Oct 9, Charles Rudolph Walgreen, "the father of the modern drugstore" was born. (HN, 10/9/00) 1873 nend Oct 19, Yale, Princeton, Columbia and Rutgers universities drafted the first code of football rules. (HN, 10/19/98) 1873 nend Oct 20, The P.T. Barnum Hippodrome featuring the "Greatest Show on Earth," opened in NYC. (MC, 10/20/01) 1873 nend Oct 27, Farmer Joseph F. Glidden applied for a patent on barbed wire. Glidden eventually received five patents and is generally considered the inventor of barbed wire. [see Nov 24, 1874] Joseph Glidden and Isaac Ellwood formed a company in De Kalb, Illinois to manufacture barbed wire, an essential product of old West. Patents on barbed wire were granted as early as 1867, but Glidden was the first to devise a commercially viable way of producing it after seeing a sample of barbed wire at a fair in 1873. Glidden and Ellwood?s product greatly increased the use of barbed wire to protect crops and livestock from roaming cattle. Open ranges dramatically dwindled in the face of new fencing over the next two decades. (HN, 10/27/98)(HNQ, 2/12/01) 1873 nend Oct 27, Emily Post (d.1960), authority on social behavior and writer, was born into high society in Baltimore. Md. (WSJ, 10/16/08, p.A13) 1873 nend Oct 30, P T Barnum's circus, "Greatest Show on Earth," debuted in NYC. (MC, 10/30/01) 1873 nend Nov 4, Dentist John Beers of SF patented the gold crown. (MC, 11/4/01) 1873 nend Nov 16, William Christopher Handy, W.C. Handy, father of the blues famous for "St. Louis Blues," was born in Alabama. (HN, 11/16/98)(MC, 11/16/01) 1873 nend Nov 19, James Reed and two accomplices robbed the Watt Grayson family of $30,000 in the Choctaw Nation. (HN, 11/19/98) 1873 nend Nov 20, Budapest was formed from 2 Rival cities, Buda and Obuda on the west bank of the Danube and Pest on the east bank. (WUD, 1994, p.193)(MC, 11/20/01) 1873 nend Dec 7, Willa Cather (d.1947), American author famous for "O Pioneers" and "My Antonia," was born. "I like trees because they seem more resigned to the way they have to live than other things do." (HN, 12/7/98)(AP, 10/26/99) 1873 nend Leon Czolgosz (d.1901), anarchist and assassin of Pres. McKinley (1901), was born to Polish parents in Detroit. (AH, 10/01, p.25) 1873 nend Degas painted ?Degas Blanchisseuses souffrant des dent? (Laundry women with toothache). It was stolen in 1973 while on loan from the Louvre and recovered at a NYC Sotheby?s auction in 2010. (Econ, 11/27/10, p.83) 1873 nend Edgar Degas painted "Cotton Merchants in New Orleans." (SFEC, 1/4/98, BR p.9) 1873 nend Claude Monet painted "Sunrise," a depiction of the port of La Havre with ships in the Spring. Monet moved from Paris to Giverny in this year. (SFC, 11/13/98, p.C8)(SSFC, 5/20/01, p.T8) 1873 nend Pissaro painted "Street in Pontoise, Winter." (SFC, 1/29/99, p.D1) 1873 nend Renoir painted "Woman in a Garden." It sold for $6.7 million in 2000. (SFC, 11/10/00, p.W13) 1873 nend Repin created his painting "The Volga Barge." (SSFC, 11/3/02, p.M6) 1873 nend Walter Bagehot (1826-1877), British economist, authored ?Lombard Street: A Description of the Money Market.? The 1st edition was dated Dec 31, 1872. (Econ, 8/18/07, p.68)(www.econlib.org/Library/Bagehot/bagLom.html) 1873 nend Mrs. H.W. Beecher published her "Motherly Talks With Young House-Keepers." (SFC, 2/19/96, zz-1 p.2) 1873 nend James Fitzjames Stephen, journalist and jurist, authored "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity," a devastating attack on the liberalism of John Stuart Mill. (WSJ, 10/18/02, p.W17) 1873 nend Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner authored ?The Gilded Age,? a novel set in the scandalous Grant administration. (WSJ, 9/16/06, p.P10) 1873 nend Gen'l. Lew Wallace wrote "The Fair God." (HT, 3/97, p.66) 1873 nend The original Harford pier was built at Port San Luis Harbor, Ca. It was rebuilt in 1915 following a tidal wave and became known as the Avila Beach Pier. (SSFC, 9/17/06, p.G8) 1873 nend In SF the city?s International Hotel, built in 1854, moved from Jackson Street to 848 Kearny. (SSFC, 8/19/07, p.B1) 1873 nend The Hamilton-Turner House on Lafayette Square in Savannah, Georgia was built. It now sports a horse from a carousel on its roof, placed there by its current owner Ms. Nancy Hillis, author of the Savannah Map of Good and Evil. (SFC, 6/25/95, p.T-6) 1873 nend In NYC a long brick building, 9œ feet by 42 feet, was built on Bedford Street in Greenwich Village on land used as an alley. Poet Edna St. Vincent Millay later lived there, as did anthropologist Margaret Mead. It was dubbed NYC?s skinniest house and in 2010 sold for $2.1 million. (SFC, 1/14/10, p.A4) 1873 nend Hope, Arkansas, was founded to accommodate the newly emerging Cairo & Fulton Railroad. It was named after Hope Loughborough, the daughter of one of the executives. Later Pres. Bill Clinton spent 4 childhood years at 117 South Hervey St. with his grandparents Eldridge and Edith Cassidy. (SFC, 3/13/99, p.A3) 1873 nend Modern lawn tennis made its debut. It was a variation of a game played for centuries by royals. Major Walter Clopton Wingfield, a British army officer, devised the game for the entertainment of guests at his country estate. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34)(Econ, 4/24/04, p.81) 1873 nend Baseball was banned in Cuba under Spanish rule, but was never completely quelled and came back strong after the Spanish-American War. (SFC, 5/29/99, p.B5) 1873 nend The "franking privilege" of sending mail free of charge, initiated in 1776 and extended to war veterans, became too widespread and was abolished because it had become too widespread and abused. In 1874 Congress began to gradually reinstate to federal agencies and representatives. (HNQ, 9/19/00) 1873 nend The US Comstock Act was passed. It declared the public dissemination of information about contraception illegal. Until this time newspapers and magazines were filled with ads for birth-control devices and services. Anthony Comstock, morals crusader, successfully lobbied for a strict federal law on obscenity and established the New York Society for the suppression of Vice. (SFEM, 6/28/98, p.39)(SFC, 1/21/04, p.D2) 1873 nend The US Supreme Court in the Slaughter-House cases limited the Privileges or Immunities in the 14th Amendment to a few minor federal prerogatives. (WSJ, 3/14/09, p.W3)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaughterhouse_Cases) 1873 nend Boston, Mass., established a mounted police unit, the first such unit in the country. The unit was disbanded in 2009 due to budget cuts. (SFC, 6/29/09, p.A4) 1873 nend In SF Mifflin Gibbs, the owner of a boot shop at 636 Clay St., was elected as San Francisco?s 1st black judge. (SFC, 7/2/07, p.B2) 1873 nend In Yosemite Valley the Cosmopolitan, a bath house and saloon, began its ?Grand Register of Yo-Semite Valley? and continued with entries until 1884. In 2007 Bill Lane, former publisher of Sunset Magazine, purchased the book from the family of the owners of the Cosmopolitan for $130,000 and donated to Yosemite National Park. (SFC, 12/15/07, p.A1) 1873 nend Booksellers Barnes & Noble began business. (WSJ, 9/3/96, p.A6) 1873 nend In Chicago bonds were issued for the Saginaw & Canada Railroad Co. The operation built 40 miles of track and went broke in 1876. The worthless bonds were later found and given to the Public Museum of Grand Rapids in 1992, where they were sold in the gift shop for $22.95. Scam artists acquired a large quantity in bulk and sold them as real bonds to investors for a total scam of some $12 million. (WSJ, 2/25/99, p.A1,8) 1873 nend Adam Schaaf opened a piano company in Chicago. Pianos were made at his 6-story building on Wabash Ave until 1926. (SFC, 2/22/06, p.G6) 1873 nend In Marblehead, Mass., Lydia Pynkham, a Quaker and women's rights advocate, developed and began to produce and sell the Lydia Pynkham Vegetable Compound for problems that ailed women. (SFEC, 7/13/97, p.A10) 1873 nend James Edmond Scripps (1835-1906), the son of a prominent British book binder, tapped the growing class of working men and women by launching a newspaper, The Evening News (later, The Detroit News). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_E._Scripps) 1873 nend The firm of Drexel, Morgan moved to 23 Wall Street. The firm grew by shifting its business from government finance in the 1870s to railroads in the 1880s. (WSJ, 3/30/99, p.A24) 1873 nend Adolph Coors selected the waters of Clear Creek, Colorado, for his dream of high producing a high quality beer. (SFEC, 4/30/00, BR p.4) 1873 nend In Wisconsin the Racine Silver Plate Co. was founded. (SFC,11/26/97, Z1 p.7) 1873 nend The Univ. at Berkeley became part of the Univ. of California and was required by law to admit women. The first roofed halls including south Hall opened at Berkeley and Daniel Coit Gilman from Yale served as the first president of the new state university until 1875, when he accepted an offer at Johns Hopkins. (PacDis, Winter ?97, p.24)(SFEM, 1/30/00, p.8) 1873 nend Color photography was devised. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1873 nend Asa T. Soule of Rochester, NY, concocted the alcohol laced Hop Bitters patent medicine and made a fortune. The Univ. of Rochester later declined a $100,000 offer to change its name to Hops Bitters Univ. (SFC, 12/11/99, p.B6) 1873 nend James D. Dana, American geologist, rejected Hall's theory of subsidence by loading of the crust. He offered a new interpretation, namely that the down-warping of the crust was a cause not a result of the thick column of sediment. A long, deep depression in the crust offered a site for the accumulation of sands, silts and other sediments over a long period. This phase of down-warping and sedimentation gave way to one of uplift and compression. The trough was referred to by Dana as a geosyncline and the association of geosynclines with mountain building has now been demonstrated in many parts of the world. (DD-EVTT, p.32) 1873 nend The Peshtigo inferno burned huge stretches of forest along the border of northern Wisconsin and Minnesota. (HFA, '96, p.71) 1873 nend The "Big Bonanza," a huge silver deposit, was found by miners working for the Comstock Kings in Virginia City. The 1999 book "The Roar and the Silence" by Ronald James described the silver boom in Virginia City. (SFEC, 2/14/99, Z1 p.4) 1873 nend Heinrich Schliemann, German archeologist, discovered a hoard of magnificent treasure within the ruins of Troy. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.42) 1873 nend The ship Ironsides, a 219-foot long steamship, sank in 110 feet of water about four miles from her destination at Grand Haven, Michigan. (LSA, Spring 1995, p.8) 1873 nend Jean Louis Agassiz (b.1807), Swiss naturalist and educator, died. He wrote a succession of papers [1840] outlining continental glaciation not only of Europe but of North America. (DD-EVTT, p.129)(AHD,1971, p.24)(HN, 5/28/01) 1873 nend The four Martin brothers began making stoneware in London and continued to 1923. In 1885 they introduced jugs modeled with human faces on each side. (SFC, 12/19/06, p.G3) 1873 nend British army officers brought back from India the game of poona. They played it on the country estate of the Duke of Beaufort. The estate was named Badminton and thus poona became known as badminton. (WSJ, 7/23/96, p.A6) 1873 nend Britain sent an agent, Henry Wickham, to Brazil to get rubber seeds. The Seedlings were cultivated in Kew Gardens and transplanted to Malaysia. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R50) 1873 nend Hancock & Whittingham made earthenware in Stoke, Staffordshire, England, and continued to 1879. (SFC, 1/23/08, p.G5) 1873 nend The four Martin brothers began making stoneware in London and continued to 1923. In 1885 they introduced jugs modeled with human faces on each side. (SFC, 12/19/06, p.G3) 1873 nend The British based Rio Tinto Company was formed by investors to mine ancient copper workings at Rio Tinto near Huelva in southern Spain. By 2003 the company had mining interests in 40 countries and revenues of $11.8 billion. (www.riotinto.com/whoweare/timeline.asp)(WSJ, 11/17/04, p.A12) 1873 nend In Canada Louis Riel of Manitoba was elected to the federal Parliament in Ottawa but lawmakers were resentful of his 1869 uprising and moved to deny him his seat. This led to a nervous breakdown and he spent three years in a mental institution in Quebec. (SFC, 1/22/98, p.B2) 1873 nend A French expeditionary force in Vietnam sacked Hanoi's citadel. (NG, May, 04, p.87) 1873 nend Ludwig II of Bavaria began the construction of his palace at Linderhof. (SFEC, 4/9/00, p.T5) 1873 nend In Germany Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin began the conceptual work for his improved air machine. He planned a rigid structure with gas held at various intervals in the framework with engines for propulsion and a suspended gondola to house the engines, crew and passengers. (AHM, 1/97) 1873 nend The Verein für Socialpolitik, Germany?s economic association, was founded. (Econ, 1/22/05, p.48) 1873 nend India?s introduced into the Statue Book of the Bengal Births and Deaths Registration Act, to be followed later by the Births, Deaths and Marriages Registration Act of 1886. (http://tinyurl.com/5wdrbws) 1873 nend Oji Paper was founded in Japan. In 2006 it was Japan?s biggest paper company. (Econ, 8/12/06, p.51) 1873 nend The Dutch began colonization efforts in Aceh province (Indonesia), which led to a decades-long war. (SFEC, 11/7/99, p.A30)(SFCM, 11/2/03, p.8) 1873 nend Holland America cruise line began operations from the Netherlands. (SFEC, 1/18/98, p.T5) 1873 nend Many Basques fled Spain during the 2nd Carlist War. (SFC, 3/16/02, p.A2) 1873 1878 Alexander MacKenzie, Liberal Party, served as the 2nd Prime Minister of Canada. (CFA, '96, p.81) 1873 1879 A US economic recession took place over this period. (WSJ, 11/29/08, p.B2) 1873 1914 Charles Peguy, French poet and writer: "It is impossible to write ancient history because we lack source materials, and impossible to write modern history because we have far too many." (AP, 7/28/98) 1873 1924 The Scandinavian Monetary Union established a common currency for its members. (WSJ, 1/13/98, p.A1) 1873 1933 Sandor Ferenczi, a Hungarian disciple of Freud. He accompanied Freud and Carl Jung on a visit to the US. His extensive correspondence with Freud was later published. (SFC, 7/14/96, DB p.6) 1873 1939 Ford Madox Ford, English novelist, poet, critic and editor. Prof. Frank MacShane (d.1999) later authored a biography on Ford. (WUD, 1994, p.554)(SFC, 11/18/99, p.C8) 1873 1951 Fritz Thyssen, German industrialist: "When I rest, I rust." (AP, 7/29/97) 1873 1954 Colette, French author, whose works included "Cheri" and "Gigi." "To talk to a child, to fascinate him, is much more difficult than to win an electoral victory. But it is also more rewarding." In 1999 Claude Francis and Fernande Gontier published a 2-part biography: "Creating Colette: Volume One: From Ingenue to Libertine 1873-1913. The 2nd volume was "From Baroness to Woman of Letters 1913-1954." Other biographies included: "The Difficulty of Loving" by Margaret Crossland; "Colette: A Taste for Life" by Yvonne Mitchell; "Colette" by Joanna Richardson; "Colette: A Passion for Life" by Genevieve Dorman. (AP, 10/18/97)(SFEC, 3/21/99, BR p.8) 1873 1961 Karl Schwarzschild, German astronomer and mathematician, made important contributions to Einstein's relativity theory. The Schwarzschild radius is the theoretical limit of a mass in size shrunken so as its escape velocity is equal to the velocity of light. (TNG, Klein, p.77-78) 1874 nend Jan 1, New York City annexed the Bronx. (MC, 1/1/02) 1874 nend Jan 4, Josef Suk, Czech violinist and composer (Asrael), was born. (MC, 1/4/02) 1874 nend Jan 5, Joseph Erlanger, doctor (shock therapy Nobel 1944), was born. (MC, 1/5/02) 1874 nend Jan 11, Gail Borden (b.1801), inventor of condensed milk, died in Borden, Tx. Epitaph: ?I tried and failed, I tried again and again and succeeded.? (ON, 5/04, p.5)( www.famoustexans.com/GailBorden.htm) 1874 nend Jan 13, Battle between jobless and police in NYC left 100s injured. (MC, 1/13/02) 1874 nend Jan 17, Chang and Eng Bunker (62), Chinese-Thai Siamese twins, died. (MC, 1/17/02) 1874 nend Jan 22, [David Wark] D.W. Griffith, U.S. film director, was born. He was the most influential figure in early film history, and made "The Birth of A Nation" and "Intolerance." (HN, 1/22/99) 1874 nend Jan, 25, The birthday of Somerset Maugham (d.1965), English author and playwright. (HFA, '96, p.22)(AHD, p.807) 1874 nend Jan 29, John David Rockefeller Jr, philanthropist, was born in Cleveland, Ohio. (MC, 1/29/02) 1874 nend Jan 31, Jesse James gang robbed a train at Gads Hill, Missouri. (MC, 1/31/02) 1874 nend Feb 3, Gertrude Stein (d.1946), poet and novelist, was born in Pittsburgh, Pa. Her older brother, Michael, managed the family business, which included San Francisco's Market Street railway line. Her parents were Daniel and Milly. The family returned to America from Europe in 1878, and settled in Oakland, California, where Gertrude attended First Hebrew Congregation of Oakland's Sabbath school. Her relationship with her brother, Leo (1872-1947), abruptly ended in 1914. Her work included "Three Lives," "G.M.P." and "Tender Buttons." Stein coined the term "Lost Generation" in reference to the disillusioned intellectuals and aesthetes of the post-World War I years. The 40-year relationship between Gertrude and Leo is told by Brenda Wineapple in "Sister Brother, Gertrude and Leo Stein." "Everybody gets so much information all day long that they lose their common sense." "It is awfully important to know what is and what is not your business." (SFEC, 8/11/96, DB,p.10)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gertrude_Stein)(AP, 12/27/97)(AP, 9/3/98) 1874 nend Feb 9, Amy Lowell (d.1925), poet, critic, was born. "Youth condemns; maturity condones." (AP, 11/25/00)(HN, 2/9/01) 1874 nend Feb 9, Jules Michelet (75), French historian (History of France), died. (MC, 2/9/02) 1874 nend Feb 12, Auguste Perret, French architect, was born. He pioneered in designs of reinforced concrete buildings. (HN, 2/12/01) 1874 nend Feb 12, King David Kalakaua of Sandwich Islands (Hawaii), became the 1st king to visit US. King Lunalilo had died without an heir and the legislature elected lawyer David Kalakaua as king. (MC, 2/12/02)(ON, 11/02, p.5) 1874 nend Feb 17, Thomas J. Watson Sr. (d.1956), U.S. industrialist, was born in upstate New York. In 1914 he began running the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Co., a predecessor to IBM. He converted the financially ailing manufacturing business into the international giant IBM. (WUD, 1994, p.1614)(HN, 2/17/99)(WSJ, 5/15/03, p.A1) 1874 nend Feb 17, Adolphe Quetelet (b.1796), Belgian astronomer and mathematician, died. He founded and directed the Brussels Observatory and was influential in introducing statistical methods to the social sciences. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolphe_Quetelet) 1874 nend Feb 20, Mary Garden, opera star, was born in Aberdeen, Scotland. (MC, 2/20/02) 1874 nend Feb 21, Benjamin Disraeli replaced William Gladstone as English premier. Disraeli's 2nd ministry continued to 1880. (MC, 2/21/02)(PC, 1992, p.530) 1874 nend Feb 24, Honus Wagner, baseball shortstop, was born. He later became known as "The Flying Dutchman." (HN, 2/24/01) 1874 nend Mar 2, Baseball batter's box was officially adopted. (SC, 3/2/02) 1874 nend Mar 5, Blanche Kelso Bruce (1841-1898), elected by the Mississippi Legislature, formally entered the US Senate. Bruce was the first full-term African American Senator (1874-1881). In 2006 Lawrence Otis Graham authored ?The Senator and the Socialite: The True Story of America?s First Black Dynasty.? (SSFC, 7/2/06,p.M1)(www.csusm.edu/Black_Excellence/documents/pg-b-bruce.html) 1874 nend Mar 7, The opera ?I Lituani,? by Amilcare Ponchielli (1834-1886) premiered at Milan?s La Scala with great success. The libretto was based on Adam Mickiewicz's long epic poem Konrad Wallenrod. The opera was about the incursions of the Teutonic Knights against the pagan Lithuanians. (www.lituanus.org/1991_2/91_2_09.htm) 1874 nend Mar 8, Millard Fillmore (b.1800), the 13th president of the United States (1850-1853), died of a stroke in Buffalo, N.Y. (SFC, 2/21/97, p.A25)(AP, 1/7/98)(AP, 3/8/98) 1874 nend Mar 11, Charles Sumner (63), a white civil rights leader, died. (MC, 3/12/02) 1874 nend Mar 15, Harold L. Ickes, New Deal politician, was born. (HN, 3/15/98) 1874 nend Mar 17, Kincsem, a horse that never lost a race, was born. (MC, 3/17/02) 1874 nend Mar 18, Hawaii signed a treaty giving exclusive trading rights with the islands to the United States. (HN, 3/18/99) 1874 nend Mar 22, Young Men's Hebrew Association was organized in NYC. (MC, 3/22/02) 1874 nend Mar 24, Harry Houdini (d.1926), magician, escape artist, was born as Erik Weisz (Ehrich Weiss) in Budapest. Young Ehrich Weiss emigrated with his parents to New York and then to Wisconsin (1878). Sometime around 1891 he and a partner in a magic act billed themselves as the Brothers Houdini, in homage to French magician Eugène Robert-Houdin. As Harry Houdini, Weiss became world-famous for his mind-boggling escapes. At age 43 he had a volcanic love affair with the widow of Jack London, Charmian. In 1996 Kenneth Silverman wrote the biography: "Houdini!!! The Career of Ehrich Weiss." (WSJ, 10/29/96, p.A21)(HN, 3/24/98)(SFC, 7/7/98, p.B3)(WSJ, 4/22/99,A10)(HNQ, 5/16/99) 1874 nend Mar 26, Robert Frost, poet (d.1963), was born in San Francisco. Robert Lee Frost, American poet. In a biography of Frost by Jeffrey Myers: "Robert Frost: A Biography," the author claims that Frost moved his birthday up a year to make himself legitimate. A 3-volume biography by Lawrence Thompson was completed in 1976. Myers reveals that Frost's lover, Kay Morrison, was also involved with Lawrence Thompson, but that that would not be disclosed in the Thompson biography. "Before I built a wall I'd ask to know What I was walling in or walling out." [see Mar 26, 1875] (WUD, 1994, p.571)(HN, 3/25/98)(AP, 3/26/97)(AP, 11/9/98) 1874 nend Apr 3, Eduardo Sanchez de Fuentes, composer, was born. (MC, 4/3/02) 1874 nend Apr 5, Johann Strauss, Jr.'s Opera "Die Fledermaus" was produced in Vienna. (MC, 4/5/02) 1874 nend Apr 15, George Harrison Shull, American botanist, developer of hybrid corn, was born. (HN, 4/15/01) 1874 nend Apr 15, Johannes Stark, Nobel Prize-winning German physicist, was born. (HN, 4/15/01) 1874 nend Apr 15, Members of the ?Societe anonyme des peintres, sculpteurs, et graveurs? opened their first show, The First Exhibition of Independent Artists? on the Boulevard des Capucines in Paris. (ON, 9/06, p.7) 1874 nend Apr 16, Dr. David Livingstone's corpse arrived in Southampton. (MC, 4/16/02) 1874 nend Apr 18, David Livingstone was buried in Westminster Abbey. (MC, 4/18/02) 1874 nend Apr 24, John Russell Pope, US architect (Jefferson Memorial), was born. (MC, 4/24/02) 1874 nend Apr 24-26, The 2-story mansion leased by Thomas Clarke on the southwest corner of 16th and Castro in Oakland, Ca., was reported to be haunted. Dr. Joseph LeConte Sr., co-founder of the Univ. of California and the Sierra Club, was called in to evaluate the situation. A 360 page report was compiled but not released. In 1877 Clarke published a 23-page pamphlet called "The Oakland Ghost," in which he argued that the house was haunted. (SFC,10/31/97, p.A4) 1874 nend Apr 25, Guglielmo Marconi (d.1937), inventor of the radio, was born. He was an Italian electrical engineer and the developer of wireless telegraphy. He won a Nobel Prize in 1909. (HFA, '96, p.28)(AHD, p.798)(HN, 4/25/98)(SS, 4/25/02) 1874 nend May 4, Frank Conrad, electrical engineer and broadcasting pioneer, was born. (HN, 5/4/01) 1874 nend May 12, The US Assay office in Helena, Montana, was authorized. (SC, Internet, 5/12/97) 1874 nend May 13, Pope Pius IX issued the encyclical "On the Greek-Ruthenian rite." (SS, Internet, 5/13/97) 1874 nend May 20, Levi Strauss began marketing blue jeans with copper rivets at $13.50 per doz. [see 1872] (HN, 5/20/98)(SFC, 8/28/98, p.B4)(MC, 5/20/02) 1874 nend May 29, G.K. Chesterton (d.1936), English poet-essayist, was born. "Every man is dangerous who only cares for one thing." (AP, 8/4/99)(HN, 5/29/01) 1874 nend May 29, The present constitution of Switzerland took effect. (SC, 5/29/02) 1874 nend May, John Wesley Hardin gunned down Charlie Webb in Comanche, TX. (MesWP) 1874 nend Jun 8, Cochise (b.~1810), Chiricahua Apache war chief (his name meant ?his nose?) and leader of the Chokonen band, died on a reservation in the Dragoon Mountains in southeastern Arizona. (http://tinyurl.com/aqhkr) 1874 nend Jun 21, The Schooner America, designed by George Steers, was sold at auction for $5000 to former Union Gen. Benjamin Butler, who transferred it from Annapolis to Portsmouth, NH, where he sailed it till he died. By 1942 the hull of the schooner became unsalvageable and it was burned. The rudder was saved and put on display at Mystic Seaport in Connecticut. (AH, 2/03, p.29,31) 1874 nend Jun 22, Dr. Andrew T. Sill of Macon, Missouri, founded osteopathy. (MC, 6/22/02) 1874 nend Jun 22, Howard Staunton, world chess champion and designer of chess pieces, died. (YarraNet, 6/22/00) 1874 nend Jun 25, Rose Cecil O?Neill (d.1944), illustrator, writer and creator of the Kewpie doll, was born in Wilkes-Barre, Pa. (AH, 2/05, p.24)(www.britannica.com/ebi/article?tocId=9331987) 1874 nend Jun 28, The Freedmen's Bank, created to assist former slaves in the United States, closed. African American depositors lost some $3 million. (HN, 6/28/99) 1874 nend Jun, In the Summer Willie Kennard, black Civil War veteran, was appointed the new Marshall at Yankee Hill, Colorado, after arresting Barney Casewit, rapist and murderer, and killing his 2 companions. Casewit was hung the next day after being tried and convicted under councilman Bert Corgan. (WW, 12/96) 1874 nend Jul 1, The 1st US zoo opened in Philadelphia. (MC, 7/1/02) 1874 nend Jul 2, Colonel Custer departed from Fort Abraham Lincoln with some 1,000 soldiers and 70 Indian scouts on a 1200 mile expedition to chart the Black Hills of eastern Wyoming western South Dakota, land which belonged to the Sioux. The expedition returned on August 30. (AH, 6/03, p.37) 1874 nend July 3, In southern California Isaias Hellman forms the Cucamonga Homestead Association to sell land north of Base Line Road and west of Hermosa in Alta Loma. (www.sbsun.com/ci_7323066) 1874 nend Jul 4, Social Democratic Workmen's Party of North America was formed. (Maggio, 98) 1874 nend Jul 12, Start of Sherlock Holmes Adventure, "Gloria Scott." (MC, 7/12/02) 1874 nend Jul 26, Serge Koussevitsky, conductor of the Boston Symphony, was born in Vishny-Volotchok, Russia. (MC, 7/26/02) 1874 nend Jul 28, Ernst Cassirer, German philosopher, educator (Essay on Man), was born. (SC, 7/28/02) 1874 nend Aug 2, Gold was discovered in the Black Hills of northeastern Wyoming and western South Dakota during an expedition led by Colonel Custer. The land belonged to the Sioux but was invaded by prospectors. Sioux leaders Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull retaliated. (HT, 3/97, p.43)(AH, 6/03, p.37) 1874 nend Aug 10, Herbert Clark Hoover (d.1964), the 31st president of the United States (1929-1933), was born in West Branch, Iowa. (AP, 8/10/97)(SFEC, 1/12/97, Z3 p.4)(HN, 8/10/98)(AH, 12/02, p.20) 1874 nend Aug 10, Antanas Smetona (d.1944), the 1st president of Lithuania, was born. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antanas_Smetona) 1874 nend Aug 11, Harry S. Parmelee patented a sprinkler head. (MC, 8/11/02) 1874 nend Aug 27, Karl Bosch, German chemist (BASF, Nobel 1931), was born. (MC, 8/27/02) 1874 nend Sep 1, In Australia Sydney General Post Office opened. (SC, 9/1/02) 1874 nend Sep 2, Reese Durham, local manager of the Butterfield Stage Station in Yankee Hill, Colorado, decided to try to run the new black Marshall, Willie Kennard, out of town. He failed and died. (WW, 12/96) 1874 nend Sep 13, Arnold Franz Walter Schoenberg (d.1951), 12-tone composer, was born in Vienna, Austria. He wrote the book "Style and Idea" and composed such works as the 21 songs of "Pierrot Lunaire" based on a poem by Albert Giraud translated into German by Otto Erich Hartleben, "Moses und Aron," "A Survivor from Warsaw" and "Erwartung." (LGC-HCS, 1970, p. 562-575)(WSJ, 8/20/96, p.A8)(WSJ, 8/22/96,p.A12)(MC, 9/13/01) 1874 nend Sep 18, The Nebraska Relief and Aid Society was formed to help farmers whose crops were destroyed by grasshoppers swarming throughout the American West. [see 1875] (HN, 9/18/98) 1874 nend Sep 20, Gustav Holst, composer of "The Planets," was born. (MC, 9/20/01) 1874 nend Sep 28, Colonel Ranald Mackenzie (d.1889) raided a war camp of Comanche and Kiowa at the Battle of Palo Duro Canyon, Texas, slaughtering 2,000 of their horses. (HN, 9/28/98)(SFCM, 3/11/01, p.53) 1874 nend Oct 4, Kiowa leader Santanta, known as "the Orator of the Plains," surrenders in Darlington, Texas. He was later sent to the state penitentiary, where he committed suicide October 11, 1878. (HN, 10/4/98) 1874 nend Oct 15, A US child labor law took 12 year olds out of work force. (MC, 10/15/01) 1874 nend Oct 20, Charles Ives (d.1954), composer, was born in Danbury, Ct. His work included symphonies, songs, and "Three Places in New England." He was pioneer of dissonance as flavoring. (WSJ, 8/15/96, p.A10)(HN, 10/20/00)(MC, 10/20/01) 1874 nend Oct 26, Peter Cornelius, German composer, died at 49. (MC, 10/26/01) 1874 nend Oct, Alexander Graham Bell stated his basic idea for the telephone. The 1997 book "Alexander Graham Bell, The Life and Times of the Man Who Invented the Telephone," was written by Edwin Grosvenor and Morgan Wesson. Antonio Meucci, an Italian-American candlemaker, was also later credited for inventing the telephone, 5 years before Bell. (SFEM, 1/11/98, p.12)(WSJ, 6/25/99, p.A1) 1874 nend Nov 7, The elephant first appeared as a political icon in a Thomas Nast cartoon in Harper's Weekly. The Republican Party was symbolized as an elephant in a cartoon drawn by Thomas Nast in Harper's Weekly magazine. (Hem, 8/96, p.84)(AP, 11/7/97) 1874 nend Nov 18, Clarence Day, American writer, was born in NYC. His work included "Life with Father." (HN, 11/18/00)(MC, 11/18/01) 1874 nend Nov 19, Karl Adrian Wohlfart, composer, was born. (MC, 11/19/01) 1874 nend Nov 19, William Marcy "Boss" Tweed of Tammany Hall (NYC) was convicted of defrauding city of $6M and sentenced to 12 years' imprisonment. (MC, 11/19/01) 1874 nend Nov 24, Farmer Joseph Glidden's patent for barbed wire was granted. Glidden designed a simple wire barb that attached to a double-strand wire, as well as a machine to mass-produce the wire. The invention was a welcome alternative to other types of fencing for farming on the arid Great Plains--wood fences and stone walls were difficult to construct because of the lack of sufficient rocks and trees, and the existing wire fences were easily broken when cattle leaned against them. The use of barbed-wire fences changed ranching and farming life. Farmers could keep roaming cattle and sheep off their land, but open-range cowboys and Native American farmers were restricted to the land and resources not claimed and marked by the new fences. As more settlers moved onto the plains, the amount of public, shared land decreased and open-range farming became obsolete. (HNPD, 11/23/98)(HN, 11/24/98) 1874 nend Nov 27, Charles A. Beard, distinguished American historian who wrote "History of the United States," was born. (HN, 11/27/98) 1874 nend Nov 27, Chaim Weizmann was born (d.1852). He was an Israeli chemist and Zionist leader and the first President of Israel from 1948-1952. (HFA, '96, p.42)(WUD, 1994, p.1619) 1874 nend Nov 29, Antonio Egas Moniz, lobotomist (Nobel 1949), was born in Portugal. (MC, 11/29/01) 1874 nend Nov 30, Sir Winston Churchill, British statesman, was born at Blenheim Palace in Oxfordshire, England. After attending the Royal Military College, he served as a reporter and writer, and then in different positions in Parliament as his political power grew. His most influential role was as British prime minister during World War II from 1940 to 1945. Churchill had been part of the Cabinet during World War I, but his judgment was questioned and his political career ebbed. Up against the threat of Adolf Hitler, however, Churchill committed himself to defeating the Nazis and succeeded. Working together with President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Josef Stalin, he managed to turn the tide of the war in favor of the Allies. Churchill served again as prime minister from 1951 to 1955. He died at his home in London in 1965. (AP, 11/30/97)(HNPD, 11/30/98)(HN, 11/30/98) 1874 nend Nov 30, Lucy Maud Montgomery, author, was born. Her work included "Anne of Green Gables." (HN, 11/30/00) 1874 nend Dec 8, The Jesse James gang took a train at Muncie, Kansas. (MC, 12/8/01) 1874 nend Laura Montoya (d.1949) was born in Colombia. She founded the Congregation of the Missionary Sisters of the Immaculate Mary and was beatified in 2004. (AP, 4/25/04) c 1874 nend Caillebotte painted "Oarsmen." (SFC, 10/30/96, p.E2) 1874 nend William Hahn painted "Sacramento Railway Station." (SFEC, 6/7/98, Z1 p.2) 1874 nend Edward Burne-Jones painted "The Beguiling of Merlin." (WSJ, 5/29/98, p.W10) 1874 nend Kramskoi created his painting "The Peasant Ignatii Pirogov." (SSFC, 11/3/02, p.M6) 1874 nend Claude Monet, Pierre Auguste-Renoir, Albert Sisley and Edouard Manet gathered at Argenteuil on the banks of the Seine to relax and paint. (WSJ, 12/11/98, p.W16) 1874 nend Alfred Sisley painted "Snow Effect at Argenteuil." (SFC, 1/29/99, p.D6) 1874 nend Dion Boucicault, Irish playwright, authored "The Shaughraun." It was a serious picture of oppressed Ireland and a satirical take on human folly. (WSJ, 11/18/98, p.A20) 1874 nend Thomas Brewer, Spencer Baird and Robert Ridgeway wrote "A History of North American Birds." (AH, 6/02, p.40) 1874 nend John William Draper, a physician, authored "History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science." He focused on the conflict between "the expansive force of human intellect" and "the compressing arising from traditional faith." (WSJ, 10/8/99, p.W15) 1874 nend Former Confederate Gen. Joseph E. Johnston authored ?Narrative of Military Operations Directed During the Late War Between the States.? In the book he defended himself against allegations of inabilities and failings made by Gen. Hood in an official 1865 report. Hood responded in a book titled ?Advance and Retreat,? which contained a 90 page section entitled ?Reply to General Johnston.? It was published posthumously in 1880. (AH, 10/02, p.43)(www.wtj.com/archives/hood/) 1874 nend George Marsh, the first American conservationist, published "The Earth as Modified by Human Action." (NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.53) 1874 nend Charles Melville Scammon authored "Marine Animals of the North-Western Coast of North America." Before he became a naturalist Scammon was a ship's captain from Maine engaged in whaling and originated the practice of slaughtering pregnant or nursing female whales. (WSJ, 8/10/01, p.W14) 1874 nend The play "The Two Orphans" opened in NYC and starred Kate Claxton as the blind girl named Louise. (SFC, 4/21/99, Z1 p.6) 1874 nend The Old Franklin Publishing House printed an illustrated account of the Benders in Kansas, where three women committed murder on a succession of guests. The story was told again in John James more sedate version of 1913, The Benders in Kansas. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.21) 1874 nend The end of day bugle call "Taps" was given its name. It had become the official Army call after the Civil War. (SFC, 2/4/98, p.E8) 1874 nend Trinity Church in Nevada City was established. (SFC, 7/15/98, p.A20) 1874 nend The Lincoln County Courthouse in New Mexico was built. It served as the Murphy-Dolan store and monopolized the local business until 1877 when Alexander McSween and John Tunstall opened a rival mercantile. (SFEC, 2/23/96, p.T9) 1874 nend Henry Steel Olcott, New York attorney and journalist, met Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, a down-on-her-luck Russian aristocrat and mystic. They set up house together in a New York apartment that comes to be known as the "Lamasery." (Smith., 5/95, p.111) 1874 nend The first national convention of the Women's Christian Temperance Union was held. The Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was established to promote the movement for prohibition in the U.S. It shut down saloons all over the country because they believed that male drinking was the cause of prostitution, child abuse and poverty. Under the leadership of its second president, Frances Willard, the WCTU grew to a nationwide movement with 200,000 members, the largest and most socially acceptable women's organization of the time. Although prohibition was the WCTU's primary mission, they also campaigned for woman suffrage, reasoning that if women could vote, they would reform American society for the betterment of all. The WCTU spurred the founding in 1893 of the Anti-Saloon League. On December 18, 1917, the U.S. Congress adopted and submitted to the states an amendment to the Constitution prohibiting the manufacture, sale, or transportation of alcoholic liquors. The 18th Amendment was declared ratified on January 29, 1919 and went into effect on January 16, 1920. It was repealed by the 21st Amendment in 1933. (SFC, 3/30/97, Z1. p.6)(HNQ, 11/189)(HNPD, 8/13/00) 1874 nend The Chautauqua Institution began as a Methodist community 60 miles south of Buffalo and established a reputation as a purveyor of summer "learning vacations." [see 1878] The Chautauqua Institution was founded to further adult education. In 1970 Alfreda L. Irwin authored a study of the community: "Three Taps of the Gavel." (SFEC, 9/29/96, Par p.13)(SFEC, 5/30/99, p.T2)(WSJ, 7/31/00, p.B1) 1874 nend The first Kentucky Oaks Race for 3-year-old fillies and the Kentucky Derby was held. [see 1875] (Sp., 5/96, p.20) 1874 nend Secret Service headquarters returned to Washington, D.C. after 4 years in NYC. (http://www.ustreas.gov/usss/history.shtml) 1874 nend Arkansas passed a constitution that included a ban on gambling. In 2008 Arkansas voters approved a state lottery by a 63% margin. (Econ, 11/22/08, p.45) 1874 nend Union Pacific completed a cavernous, brick, train repair shed in West Oakland. It was shuttered in 2002 and in 2010 was scheduled for demolition. (SSFC, 10/3/10, p.C1) 1874 nend In San Juan Bautista, Ca., the Plaza Hall was built. (SSFC, 2/22/04, p.C5) 1874 nend A schoolhouse was built in Ojai, Calif. that was later converted to a bed and breakfast. (AAM, 3/96, p.46) 1874 nend The Elms House in Calistoga, Ca., was built. (SSFC, 11/15/09, p.M4) 1874 nend Construction on California?s Folsom Prison began. (SFEC, 1/26/97, p.B4) 1874 nend The San Francisco Federal Mint building opened at 5th and Mission. It was designed by Alfred Mullett, the Treasury's supervising architect. (SFC, 7/5/97, p.A13)(SSFC, 1/28/03, p.E1) 1874 nend The California state capitol in Sacramento, built in the Renaissance Revival style, was completed. It was designed by Reuben Clark (d.1866). [see 1869] (SFEC, 12/20/98, p.T6)(SSFC, 10/27/02, p.A16) 1874 nend In San Luis Obispo, Ca., the Ah Louis Store was built to serve the 2000 Chinese coolies who worked on nearby railroad tunnels. (SFEC, 10/11/98, p.T6) 1874 nend Capt. James Cass of Bristol, England, built a wharf and pier named Cass Landing on the north end of Morro Bay, Ca., to facilitate the loading of ships carrying lumber, staples and dairy products between the Central Coast and San Francisco. It became the town of Cayucos, carved from the Morro y Cayucos Rancho. The name was after a unique plank canoe (cayuco) invented by the local Chumash Indians. (SSFC, 1/4/09, p.E6) 1874 nend Jean Laurent founded a vineyard in St. Helena that he named the Laurent Winery. After a series of owners it was purchased in 1977 by Bruce Markham and renamed Markham Vineyards. Mercian Corp. took over in 1988. (SFC, 10/9/02, p.E7) 1874 nend The California Legislature passed compulsory school attendance laws. (SFC, 2/15/02, p.H4) 1874 nend The California state Supreme Court in Ward vs. Flood upheld a law authorizing racial segregation in public schools. (SSFC, 5/16/04, p.E5) 1874 nend In California the Pinnacles rock spires were first seen by non-natives. (CAS, 1996, p.16) 1874 nend The Nevada state legislature overrode the Governor?s veto and approved a railroad from Austin to Battle Mountain. Construction only began 4 œ years later. (ACC, 2004) 1874 nend Sandy Hook, New Jersey, became operational as a proving ground for American military weapons. It was later turned into a National Recreation Area. (AM, 7/04, p.33)(AM, 11/04, p.9) 1874 nend Ice cream sodas appeared when soda fountain operator Robert Green ran out of his customary flavoring and substituted vanilla ice cream instead. Overnight his sales soared from $6 to $600 a day. The soda jerk got named because of the sharp tug exercised on the fountain levers. (SFEC, 1/5/97, zone 1 p.2)(HNQ, 6/12/98) 1874 nend Cleveland set up the first ordinary electric street trolley. (SFC, 7/19/97, p.E4) 1874 nend Former slave James Webster Smith was expelled from West Point for failing an exam. He was commissioned by the Army in 1997 and his certificate was presented to South Carolina State Univ. (SFC, 9/23/97, p.A3) 1874 nend The Warner Brothers Co., later Warnaco, was set up by physicians Lucien Warner and I. DeVer Warner to manufacture a "sanitary corset." They were concerned over the strains corsets placed on the female body. (WSJ, 4/10/00, p.A19) 1874 nend The clipper ship Western Shore was built at Coos Bay for the Simpson Brothers Lumber Co. of San Francisco. In 1878 it ran aground on Duxbury Reef near Bolinas, Ca. (SFC, 10/22/05, p.B2) 1874 nend In Oregon Elijah Davidson discovered a marble cavern in the Siskiyou Mountains that later became a national monument. (SFEM, 10/12/97, p.17) 1874 nend Cattleman Charles Goodnight rounded up 5 orphaned buffalo calves and set them loose on 10,000 acres in the Palo Duro Canyon of the Texas Panhandle. The herd grew to 250 animals and a number were sent to start herds elsewhere. In 1997 the herd was put under the guardianship of the state. By 2001 it was realized that inbreeding put the herd at risk of extinction. In 2005 Ted Turner agreed to provide 3 bulls from his herd in New Mexico to help the Texas herd. (WSJ, 8/2/05, p.A1) 1874 nend Ezra Cornell (b.1809), American capitalist and philanthropist, died. (WUD, 1994, p.325) 1874 nend Edward Troye (b.1808), Swiss-born Kentucky artist, died. He portrayed horses and spent time in the Middle East in search of Arab breeding stock. (WSJ, 7/16/03, p.D8) 1874 nend David Stanley, British journalist, crossed Africa from the east to the west across the Congo River basin on a 999-day journey sponsored by London?s Daily Telegraph. In 2004 Tim Butcher, also a journalist for the Daily Telegraph, followed Stanley?s path on a trip that took 44 days. In 2008 Butcher authored ?Blood River: A Journey to Africa?s Broken Heart.? (WSJ, 10/31/08, p.A15) 1874 nend In Hawaii David Kalakaua was elected King. (SFEC, 11/17/96, p.C1) 1874 nend In France the Bordeaux Ecole de Management was founded. In 2002 the school introduced a master's program in business administration for wine. (WSJ, 3/19/02, p.B1) 1874 nend A transit of Venus occurred. Pierre Janssen, a French astronomer, invented a multi-exposure camera to view the event, but the results were disappointing. (Econ, 5/29/04, p.79) 1874 nend A constitution was granted to Iceland. (HNQ, 4/28/00) 1874 1875 The Gatling gun was first used against the Comanche Indians at the Battle of Red River in the Texas Panhandle. (SFC, 3/18/00, p.B4) 1874 1875 The Silverado silver mine in Napa County, Ca. is the largest silver producer in Napa, Ca. (WCG, 7/95, p.21) 1874 1879 Benjamin "Pap" Singleton, a former runaway slave from Tennessee, led some 1,100 Tennessee ex-slaves to Kansas and founded the Baxter Springs Colony in Cherokee County and Dunlap colony in Morris County. (NH, 7/98, p.28) 1874 1942 Alice Duer Miller, American author: "People love to talk but hate to listen." (AP, 5/15/00) 1874 1945 Ellen Glasgow, American author: "Experience has taught me that the only cruelties people condemn are those with which they do not happen to be familiar." "No idea is so antiquated that it was not once modern. No idea is so modern that it will not someday be antiquated.... To seize the flying thought before it escapes us is our only touch with reality." (AP, 12/12/97)(AP, 5/11/98)(AP, 6/25/98) 1874 1947 Nicholas Roerich, Russian painter, archeologist and author. He came to the US in 1920. (WUD, 1994, p.1241) 1874 1950 William Lyon Mackenzie King, Canadian statesman: "Government, in the last analysis, is organized opinion. Where there is little or no public opinion, there is likely to be bad government, which sooner or later becomes autocratic government." (AP, 5/13/97) 1874 1957 George Gustav Heye, New York banker. He began the collection of Indian cultural material in 1903. It now has more than 1 million artifacts from North, Central and south America spanning 10,000 years. The George Gustav Heye Center of the National Museum of the American Indian is located in the Alexander Hamilton US custom House in New York. [see 1916, Heye] (Hem, Mar. 95, p.19) 1874 1965 W. Somerset Maugham English author-dramatist: "The tragedy of love is indifference." "The great tragedy of life is not that men perish, but that they cease to love." (AP, 11/29/97)(AP, 9/17/98) 1874 1967 Mary Garden, considered the first great American modernist singer. She is discussed in the 1997 book "The American Opera Singer" by Peter G. Davis. (WSJ, 11/6/97, p.A20) 1875 nend Jan 2, Thomas Dixon, Jr., author of the novel "The Clansman," was born. It was the basis for the 1915 film "Birth of a Nation" by D.W. Griffith. (AP, 7/23/98)(HNQ, 3/2/99) 1875 nend Jan 14, Dr. Albert Schweitzer (d.1965), French theologian who set up a native hospital in French Equatorial Africa (Gabon) in 1913, was born. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1952. (HN, 1/14/99)(MC, 1/14/02)(AP, 10/30/03) 1875 nend Jan 20, Jean Francois Millet (b.1814), French painter, was born. (www.artrenewal.org/asp/database/art.asp?aid=745) 1875 nend Jan 26, Electric dental drill was patented by George F. Green. (MC, 1/26/02) 1875 nend Jan 26, Pinkerton agents, hunting Jesse James, firebombed his mother?s house, killed his 13-year-old half-brother and seriously injured his mother. (AH, 2/05, p.16) 1875 nend Jan, Doc Holliday killed a man for the first time (in a fight). (MesWP) 1875 nend Jan, In the SF Bay Area a tunnel near Pacifica?s Mussel Rock, commissioned by SF attorney Richard Tobin, was completed. Storms soon rendered the tunnel impassable and the project was abandoned. (Daly City Fog Cutter, Vol 8 No. 3, 2008) 1875 nend Feb 2, Fritz Kreisler, violinist, composer, was born in Vienna, Austria. (MC, 2/2/02) 1875 nend Feb 4, Ludwig Prandtl, physicist (father of aerodynamics), was born in Germany. (MC, 2/4/02) 1875 nend Feb, Alexander Graham Bell traveled to Washington and filed patent applications for the multiple telegraph and the autograph telegraph. (ON, 1/03, p.2) 1875 nend Mar 1, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act, which was invalidated by the Supreme Court in 1883. (HN, 3/1/98) 1875 nend Mar 3, The opera Carmen, composed by Georges Bizet (1873), opened in Paris at the Opera-Comique. The opera was based on a novella by Prosper Merimee (1803-1870). (www.kirjasto.sci.fi/merimee.htm)(AP, 3/3/98) 1875 nend Mar 3, The 1st recorded hockey game took place in Montreal. [see 1855] (SC, 3/3/02) 1875 nend Mar 3, Congress authorized a 20¢ coin. It lasted only 3 years. (SC, 3/3/02) 1875 nend Mar 7, Composer Maurice Ravel (d.1937) was born in Cibourne, France. (AP, 12/28/97)(AP, 3/7/98) 1875 nend Mar 14, Smetana's "Vysehrad," premiered. (MC, 3/14/02) 1875 nend Mar 15, John McCloskey, Roman Catholic archbishop of New York, was named the first American cardinal by Pope Pius IX. (AP, 3/15/97) 1875 nend Mar 19, Tiburcio Vasquez (b.1835), a cultured robber, was hanged in San Jose, Ca., after being found guilty of robbery and murder In 2010 John Boessenecker authored ?Bandido,? an account of Vasquez? life. (SSFC, 11/21/10, p.A2) 1875 nend Spring, Billy McGeorge led a gang of outlaws that preyed on freight wagons and passenger stages around Yankee Hill, Colorado. (WW, 12/96) 1875 nend Mar 26, Poet Robert Frost was born in San Francisco. [see Mar 26, 1874] (AP, 3/26/97) 1875 nend Mar 26, Syngman Rhee, President of South Korea (1948-60), was born. [see Apr 26] (SS, 3/26/02) 1875 nend Mar 29, Lou Henry Hoover, first lady, was born. (HN, 3/29/98) 1875 nend Apr 1, Edgar Wallace, novelist, playwright, journalist (Terror), was born in England. (MC, 4/1/02) 1875 nend Apr 2, Walter Chrysler, founder of Chrysler automobile company, was born. He grew up in Ellis, Kansas. (HN, 4/2/98)(WSJ, 8/10/00, p.A16) 1875 nend Apr 8, Albert I LCMM von Saksen-Coburg, king of Belgium (1909-34), was born. (MC, 4/8/02) 1875 nend Apr 11, Heinrich Schwabe, discoverer of the 11-year sunspot cycle, died. (MC, 4/11/02) 1875 nend Apr 17, The game of "snooker" was invented by Sir Neville Chamberlain. (HN, 4/17/98) 1875 nend Apr 26, Syngman Rhee, Pres. of South Korea (1948-60), was born. [see Mar 26] (HN, 4/26/98)(MC, 4/26/02) 1875 nend May 1, 238 members of "Whiskey Ring" were accused of anti-US activities. (MC, 5/1/02) 1875 nend May 7, German SS Schiller sank near Scilly Islands and 312 were killed. (MC, 5/7/02) 1875 nend May 17, The first Kentucky Derby was run at Louisville; the winner was Aristides. It later became part of the Triple Crown with the Belmont Stakes and the Preakness. (AP, 5/17/97)(SFEC, 5/30/99, Z1 p.8)(HN, 5/17/02) 1875 nend May 23, Alfred Pritchard Sloan, Jr., president and chairman of the board for General Motors, was born. His foundation started the cancer research center Sloan-Kettering Institute. Sloan defined the modern automobile industry and helped rescue General Motors in 1920. (HN, 5/23/99)(WSJ, 1//03, p.D8) 1875 nend May 31, Italo Montemezzi, composer, was born. (MC, 5/31/02) 1875 nend May, Alexander Graham Bell announced the addition of variable resistance to his initial telephone conception. (SFEM, 1/11/98, p.12) 1875 nend Jun 2, Alexander Graham Bell made his 1st complex sound transmission. (ON, 1/03, p.2) 1875 nend Jun 3, Georges Bizet (36), French composer (Carmen, Pearl Fishers), died. (ON, 5/06, p.12) 1875 nend Jun 6, Walter P. Chrysler, founder of the Chrysler Corporation, was born. (HN, 6/6/98) 1875 nend Jun 6, Thomas Mann (d.1955), German novelist and essayist, was born (Nobel 1929). He was forced into exile by the Nazis. The major part of Mann?s oeuvre is concerned with problems of the artist per se, and no writer of our time and perhaps of any time has probed so deeply into the artistic personality or described so brilliantly the workings of artistic genius. His work included Buddenbrooks (1901), Death in Venice (1912), Doctor Faustus (1947), and The Magic Mountain. Two biographies of Mann were published in 1995: Thomas Mann: A Biography by Ronald Hayman and Thomas Mann: A Life by Donald Prater. "Speech is civilization itself. The word, even the most contradictory word, preserves contact -- it is silence which isolates." (V.D.-H.K.p.367-368)(WSJ, 12/26/95, p. A-5)(AP, 10/19/98)(HN, 6/6/99) 1875 nend Jun 12, In Louisiana work began on a new shipping channel at the mouth of the Mississippi River. American civil engineer James Buchanan Eads (1820-1887) led the project. (ON, 10/09, p.7)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Buchanan_Eads) 1875 nend Jun 28, The Billy McGeorge gang rode into Yankee Hill, Colorado, to redress the insult of a $50 wanted poster put up by Marshall Willie Kennard. Kennard met the gang and killed 2 of them before the rest surrendered. Billy McGeorge was convicted of murder under acting judge Bert Corgan and hung from the same pine tree as Barney Casewit. (WW, 12/96) 1875 nend Jun, Nez Perce Chief Joseph learned that had rescinded the executive order of 1873 and reopened the Wallowa Valley to white settlement. (ON, 3/04, p.2) 1875 nend Jul 3, Ernst F. Sauerbruch, German Nazi surgeon, was born. (MC, 7/3/02) 1875 nend Jul 7, Jesse James robbed a train in Otterville, Missouri. (MC, 7/7/02) 1875 nend Jul 10, Mary McLeod Bethune (d.1955), American educator, reformer and founder of the Bethune-Cookman College in Florida and the National Council of Negro Women, was born. "Invest in the human soul. Who knows, it might be a diamond in the rough." (AP, 7/9/97)(HN, 7/10/98) 1875 nend Jul 16, The new French constitution was finalized. (HN, 7/16/98) 1875 nend Jul 23, Isaac Merritt Singer (63), inventor (sewing machine), died. (MC, 7/23/02) 1875 nend Jul 26, Carl Jung (d.1961), Swiss psychiatrist and analytical psychologist who identified the introvert and extrovert types, was born in Kesswil, Switzerland. He saw the I Ching as a tool to help tune into the noncausal connectedness of the universe-- what he called synchronicity. (NH, 9/97, p.13)(WUD, 1994, p.774)(SFEC,10/19/97, BR p.3)(HN, 7/26/98) 1875 nend Jul 26, Black Bart, aka Charles E. Boles, began robbing stage coaches. He robbed at least 28 of Wells Fargo coaches before he was caught by a Wells Fargo agent in SF in 1883. (HN, 8/27/01) 1875 nend Jul 29, Peasants in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Balkans rebelled against the Ottoman army. (HN, 7/29/98) 1875 nend Jul 31, The 17th president of the United States, Andrew Johnson, died in Carter Station, Tenn., at age 66. He succeeded Abraham Lincoln and was the only president to face impeachment proceedings. (AP, 7/31/97)(HN, 7/31/98) 1875 nend Aug 2, The world?s 1st roller skating rink opened in London. (MC, 8/2/02) 1875 nend Aug 4, Hans Christian Andersen (b.1805), Danish fairy tale writer, died. His biography was later written by Elias Bredsdorff (d.2002 at 90). (SFC, 8/23/02, p.A27)(MC, 8/4/02) 1875 nend Aug 9, Albert William Ketelbey, composer (In a Monastery Garden), was born in Aston, England. (MC, 8/9/02) 1875 nend Aug 12, Ettore Panizza, composer, was born. (MC, 8/12/02) 1875 nend Aug 15, Samuel Coleridge-Taylor, Afro-British composer (Hiawatha's Wedding Feast), was born in London. (MC, 8/15/02) 1875 nend Aug 16, Charles Grandison Finney (b.1792), American revivalist preacher, died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Grandison_Finney) 1875 nend Aug 25, Captain Matthew Webb (1848-1883) became the first person to swim across the English Channel, traveling from Dover, England, to Calais, France, in 21 hours and 45 min. Swimming the Channel entails about 35 miles of swimming due to currents in waters that are 55 to 65 degrees Fahrenheit. (AP, 8/25/97)(HN, 8/25/98)(ON, 2/05, p.12) 1875 nend Aug 26, John Buchan (d.1940), Lord Tweedsmuir, was born in Perth, Scotland. He became a writer and governor general of Canada (1935), and was famous for his spy story "The Thirty-Nine Steps" (1915). "There may be Peace without Joy, and Joy without Peace, but the two combined make Happiness." (HN, 8/26/99)(WSJ, 12/9/06, p.P12)(AP, 1/7/98) 1875 nend Sep 1, Edgar Rice Burroughs, novelist, was born in Chicago. He created Tarzan, the Ape Man. (HN, 9/1/99) 1875 nend Sep 3, Ferdinand Porsche, German automotive engineer, was born. He designed the Volkswagen in 1934 and the Porsche sports car in 1950. (HN, 9/3/00)(MC, 9/3/01) 1875 nend Sep 8, An explosion destroyed the Newark, NJ, factory of the Celluloid Manufacturing Co. The Hyatt brothers rebuilt the factory and it turned profitable in 1877. (ON, 11/03, p.4) 1875 nend Sep 10, M.K. Ciurlionis (d.1911), Lithuanian artist and composer, was born. Sep 22 is also given as a birth date. (LC, 1998, p.12,24) 1875 nend Sep 11, 1st newspaper cartoon strip, "Professor Tigwissel?s Burglar Alarm" appeared in the New York "Daily Graphics" newspaper. (MC, 9/11/01) 1875 nend Sep 16, James Cash Penny, founder and owner of the J.C. Penny Company department stores, was born. (HN, 9/16/98) 1875 nend Oct 4, In New Hampshire Josie Langmaid (17) disappeared while walking to Pembroke Academy, the local Pembroke high school. Her body was found that night and her head was found the next day. Joseph LaPage, an itinerant woodcutter, was eventually convicted of the crime and executed. (WSJ, 5/22/01, p.A8) 1875 nend Oct 12, Aleister [Edward S] Crowley (d.1947), (75 pseudonyms), British occultist-American mystic, was born. In 2000 Lawrence Sutin authored "Do What Thou Wilt, A Life of Aleister Crowley." (SSFC, 1/14/01, BR p.12)(MC, 10/12/01) 1875 nend Oct 12, Mayan Indians attacked the Xuxub sugar plantation in the Yucatan and dozens of workers were killed or taken captive. Bernadino Cen, the Mayan leader, was killed when the Mexican National Guard arrived the next day. In 2004 Paul Sullivan authored ?Xuxub Must Die.? (WSJ, 5/13/04, p.D10) 1875 nend Oct 22, Sons of American Revolution was organized. (MC, 10/22/01) 1875 nend Oct 25, Tchaikovsky?s 1st Piano Concerto premiered in Boston. (MC, 10/25/01) 1875 nend Oct 28, Gilbert Grosvenor, editor, was born. He turned the National Geographic Society?s irregularly published pamphlet into a periodical with a circulation of nearly two million. (HN, 10/28/00) 1875 nend Oct, George G. Anderson, A Scottish carpenter and trail builder, engineered his way to the top of Half Dome in Yosemite. He used wooden pins and iron eyebolts drilled into the granite to pull himself up. (WSJ, 7/23/96, p.A20)(SSFC, 7/15/01, p.T1) 1875 nend Nov 4, "Pacific" collided with "Orpheus" off Cape Flattery, Wash., and 236 people died. (MC, 11/4/01) 1875 nend Nov 7, Verney Cameron became the 1st European to cross equatorial Africa. (MC, 11/7/01) 1875 nend Nov 16, William Bonwill patented dental mallet to impact gold into cavities. (MC, 11/16/01) 1875 nend Nov 17, The American Theosophical Society was founded by Mme. Blavatsky and Col. Olcott. Colonel H.S. Olcott helped found the Theosophical Society in New York after a group of third-century Alexandrian scholars. It was set up to study occult phenomena and literature. Early members included Thomas Edison and Gen. Abner Doubleday. Its 3 main principles were: "To form a nucleus of the universal brotherhood of humanity without distinction of race, creed, sex, caste or color; to encourage the comparative study of religion, science and philosophy; and to investigate the unexplained laws of nature and the powers latent in humanity. (Smith., 5/95, p.114)(MC, 11/17/01)(WSJ, 5/17/02, p.W15) 1875 nend Dec 4, William Marcy Tweed (d.1878), the "Boss" of New York City's Tammany Hall political organization, escaped from jail and fled the country. He went to Cuba and then Spain were he was identified from cartoons by Thomas Nast and returned to prison. (AP, 12/4/97)(Arch, 7/02, p.24) 1875 nend Dec 12, Karl R.G. von Rundstedt, German gen-field marshal (Normandy), was born. (MC, 12/12/01) 1875 nend Dec 17, Violent bread riots took place in Montreal. (MC, 12/17/01) 1875 nend Rainer Maria Rilke (d.1926), German-Austrian poet, was born. He was born in Prague to German-speaking parents. His works include New Poems (1907), his autobiographical novel: "The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge," and his masterpieces the "Duino Elegies" and "The Sonnets to Orpheus." His mistress was Lou Andreas-Salome, a novelist, essayist and clinical psychologist. Ralph Freedman wrote a biography of Rilke titled Life of a Poet: Rainer Maria Rilke in 1996. His complete works were published in 1966 and an annotated edition in 1996. In 1997 his early work was published: "Diaries of a Young Poet," translated by Edward Snow and Michael Winkler. On the new year day: "And now let us believe in a long year that is given to us, new, untouched, full of things that have never been, full of work that has never been done, full of tasks, claims, and demands; and let us see that we learn to take it without letting fall too much of what it has to bestow upon those who demand of it necessary, serious and great things." (WSJ, 3/19/96, p.A-12)(WSJ, 12/15/97, p.A20)(AP, 1/1/98) 1875 nend Edgar Degas, French painter, painted "Place de la Concorde," considered his greatest picture. It shows his artist friend, the Viscount Lepic, strolling Paris with his two daughters and pet borzoi. (WSJ, 4/6/95, p.A-12) 1875 nend Gabriel Guay exhibited his painting "The Awakening" at the Paris Salon. It featured a nude, life-size woman, just waking up. (SFEM, 4/11/99, p.30) 1875 nend Claude Monet painted "The Seine at Argenteuil." (SFC, 4/10/97, p.E1) 1875 nend Thomas Moran, American artist, painted "Mountain of the Holy Cross." (SFC,10/15/97, p.D3)(AH, 10/01, p.18) 1875 nend Camille Pissarro painted "Climbing Path at the Hermitage." (SFEC, 3/21/99, BR p.5) 1875 nend Renoir painted "Woman at the Piano." (SFC, 5/7/99, p.C18) 1875 nend Toby Rosenthal painted "Boy Awakening." (SFEC, 5/7/00, DB p.39) 1875 nend James Tissot, English painter, began "On the Thames." Completed 1876. (SFC, 3/31/97, p.E6) 1875 nend Charles Darwin authored ?Insectivorous Plants? as well as ?The Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants.? (Econ, 1/24/09, p.87) 1875 nend Christian Scientist Mary Baker Eddy published "Science and Health." (SFC, 3/30/97, Z1. p.6) 1875 nend William Ernest Henley, English poet, wrote his poem "Invictus" at the end of his stay in an infirmary for tuberculosis. The last 2 lines read "I am the master of my fate: I am the captain of my soul." (SFC, 6/12/01, p.A12) 1875 nend James Hutton, Edinburgh Physician, published his "Theory of the Earth." It sought to explain the geological features we see around us by reference to the natural processes that are also observable today. (DD-EVTT, p.16) 1875 nend Spiders of the United States, the collected works of Nicholas Marcellus Hentz (1797-1856), a pioneer collector of North American spiders, was republished. (NH, 7/96, p.74,75) 1875 nend Anthony Trollope authored ?The Way We Live Now,? a scathing satirical novel published in London. It was regarded by many of Trollope's contemporaries as his finest work. The story includes the description of a great railroad stock swindle by Augustus Melmotte, a foreign-born financier with a mysterious past. (Econ, 4/25/09, p.88)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Way_We_Live_Now) 1875 nend Seth Lewelling of Milwaukie, Oregon, grew the 1st Bing cherry from the seed of a Republican cherry. He named it Bing after a Chinese worker on his farm. (SFC, 4/12/03, p.E3) 1875 nend The town of Ouray, Colo., was built during the silver and gold rush. (SFC, 2/16/06, p.E2) 1875 nend Christian Schwartz, a local merchant in Natchez, Miss., built a 5 bedroom home on one acre in the French Second Empire architectural style. (WSJ, 10/25/96, p.B10) 1875 nend Maria Mitchell (1818-1889), professor of astronomy at Vassar, helped found the American Association for the Advancement of Women and was elected the association?s 1st president. (ON, 2/07, p.9) 1875 nend James A. Dacey (d.1925) ground up a batch of horseradish root and began to sell it in general stores. He became known as "The Horseradish King." (SFEC, 9/27/98, Z1 p.8) 1875 nend The US Supreme Court decision in Totten vs. the US denied the estate of a Union spy back pay for his Civil War espionage: "Both employer and agent must have understood that the lips of the other were to be forever sealed." (SFC, 6/9/96, p.A-14) 1875 nend The first commission book and a new badge were issued to operatives of the US Secret Service. (http://www.ustreas.gov/usss/history.shtml) 1875 nend The Riverside, Ca., Mission Inn began as the home of the Miller family. Under Frank Miller (d.1935) it was expanded with financing by Henry Huntington to a pretend mission of Vatican proportions. (HT, 4/97, p.14) 1875 nend In California the town of Pacific Grove on the Monterey peninsula was established as a retreat for Methodists. (SFEC,12/21/97, p.T6) 1875 nend A Marine Hospital was built in the Presidio area of San Francisco. An adjacent cemetery operated at the site from about 1981 to 1915. In 1912 US marine hospitals became Public Health Service hospitals. A new structure was completed in 1932. In 1952 the hospital was expanded and Landfill 8 covered the graves, which were never moved. In 1981 the hospital was decommissioned and in 2010 reopened as 154 luxury apartments. Landfill 8 was capped with sand and underwent restoration to resemble its original, pre-European look. (SFC, 11/25/06, p.B5)(SFC, 10/9/10, p.A10) 1875 nend Romualdo Pacheco became governor of California after Gov. Newton Booth won a US Senate seat. Pacheco served for 9 months and was later elected to Congress. (SSFC, 5/11/03, p.D6) 1875 nend In San Francisco the Ferry House, predecessor to the Ferry Building, was built. It was a 350-foot wooden shed and was soon replaced. In 1998 Nancy Olmsted published "The Ferry Building: Witness to a Century of Change." (SFEC, 12/20/98, BR p.2) 1875 nend The Palace Hotel opened in San Francisco. It was destroyed in the 1906 earthquake. A new Palace Hotel opened in 1909. (SFC, 8/21/09, p.A10) 1875 nend In San Francisco a picture by Walter Yeager depicted the California St. offices of Lazard Freres: Bankers. (SFC, 12/11/96, p.D1) 1875 nend James Lick, San Francisco real estate magnate, ordered a pre-fabricated glass house for his estate but died before it was erected. A group of wealthy men led by Leland Stanford donated the glass house to Golden Gate Park, where it became the Conservatory of Flowers. [see 1879] (SFC, 5/19/96,City Guide, p.4)(SFC, 8/24/01, p.A23) 1875 nend William Sharon of SF was elected to a 6-year term as Senator from Nevada. It is believed that he spent some $1 million to get elected. (Ind, 7/1/00,5A) 1875 nend In the US Pocahontas was depicted on the back of $20 bills. (SFC, 6/2/96, Z1 p.2) 1875 nend In Louisiana the ?Mardi Gras Act? established Mardi Gras as an official and legal state holiday. (www.tamug.edu/nautilus/archive/2009/TAMUG77554Vol16Issue1.pdf) 1875 nend The first US sardine cannery opened in Maine, when a New York businessman set up the Eagle Preserved Fish Co. in Eastport. In 2010 the Stinson Seafood plant in eastern Maine, shut down after a century in operation. It was the last sardine cannery not just in Maine, but in the United States. (AP, 4/14/10) 1875 nend In NYC the Butter and Cheese Exchange, later known as the New York Mercantile Exchange (Nymex), was renamed to the American Exchange of New York. (WSJ, 9/28/05, p.C3) 1875 nend Mackinac Island, Michigan, became the 2nd US national park. (SSFC, 7/27/03, p.C5) 1875 nend The Quahadi Comanches, led by Quanah Parker (c.1852-1911), gave up their fight and settled on Indian Territory in Oklahoma after hunters slaughtered the great buffalo herds of the Texas panhandle. (Econ, 6/19/10, p.85)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quanah_Parker) 1875 nend Jacob Bulova opened a jewelry shop in the financial district of NYC. It grew to become the Bulova Watch Co. In 1979 it was purchased by the Loews Corp. and taken private. (WSJ, 1/7/07, p.A4) 1875 nend Amos G. Rhodes opened his first retail furniture store in Atlanta, Ga. The company expanded to 80 stores in 13 states, but went bankrupt in 2005. (SFC, 9/19/06, p.G3) 1875 nend John Durant Larkin established a soap company in Buffalo, N.Y. The Larkin Co. attracted customers by offering premium gifts. In 1901 the company founded Buffalo Pottery to manufacture dishes given as premiums. The company closed in 1962. (SFC, 2/11/98, Z1 p.6) 1875 nend Lydia Estes Pinkham (1819-1883) was in her mid-fifties when economic hardship forced her and her family to begin selling bottles of a homemade health remedy. Mrs. Pinkham?s tonic, formulated from herbs and 20% alcohol as a "solvent and preservative," was first sold as a cure for "female complaints." Business grew as the family aggressively marketed their product with trade cards which linked Pinkham?s Compound with the patriotism and progress represented by the Brooklyn Bridge. Lydia Pinkham was probably the best-known woman in America at the time. Her medicines remained tremendously popular until the 1930s, when medical science and public awareness of the compound?s unfounded claims reduced sales to a trickle. (HNPD, 6/30/98) 1875 nend A rich vein of gold was struck in the Bunker Hill mine near Bodie, Calif. (SFC, 6/23/96, p.T3) 1875 nend A Nebraskan estimated a grasshopper swarm to be 1,800 miles long and 110 miles wide. In 2004 Jeffrey A. Lockwood authored ?Locust: The Devastating Rise and Mysterious Disappearance of the Insect that Shaped the American Frontier.? (SSFC, 5/16/04, p.M3) 1875 nend French priest Jean-Baptiste Lamy became archbishop of the New Mexican territory. (WSJ, 9/13/06, p.D10) 1875 nend Calgary, Canada, was founded by Troop F of the royal Northwest Mounted Police. They built a log fort at the junction of the Bow and Elbow Rivers to control illegal whiskey traders operating from outposts with names like Fort Whoop-Up. (SFEC, 6/25/00, p.T11) 1875 nend Capt. George Nares set up the first base on Ellesmere Island in the Canadian Arctic. (NG, 6/1988, p.763) 1875 nend In Paris, France, the first stone was laid for the Sacre Coeur basilica in Montmartre. (Econ, 6/12/10, p.91) 1875 nend The Jacquemart-Andre mansion in Paris was designed by Henri Parent. The building later became the Jacquemart-Andre Musee. (SFEC, 3/26/00, p.T12) 1875 nend France?s Rouen Museum acquired a Maori head, offered by a Parisian named Drouet. In 2011 France returned the first of 16 such human heads it had displayed as exotic curiosities. The other 15 were to be returned in 2012. (AP, 5/9/11) 1875 nend The Schmitt brewery was built by an innkeeper for his restaurant in Singen in the German state of Thuringia. Richard Schmitt buys the brewery in May 1885 for DM9,900. Today it is run by the Obstfelder family and produces around 26,000 gallons of beer annually. (Hem., Nov.?95, p.113-114) 1875 nend The tomb of John Baptiste Tavernier, the man who brought the blue diamond from India to France in 1642, was found in Moscow. (THC, 12/3/97) 1875 nend Joseph Neesima founded Doshisha Univ. in Kyoto, Japan. He had previously acquired an American education at Amherst College after defying a ban on travel abroad. (SFC, 4/18/06, p.B5) 1875 nend Russia recognized Japan's control over the 4 southernmost Kurile Islands. (SFC, 1/19/99, p.A8) 1875 nend Stuart Cranston, Scottish tea merchant, setup the world?s first tea room in Glasgow. (WSJ, 4/7/07, p.P14) 1875 nend The Society of True Afrikaners was formed in the Boland town of Paarl, where also stands the Language Monument to the Afrikaner language. (NG, Oct. 1988, p. 577) 1875 nend The kingdom of Tonga adopted a constitution written by a Methodist missionary. It declared that the Sabbath is forever sacred. (WSJ, 7/20/95, p. a-10) 1875 1948 David Lewelyn Wark Griffith (D.W. Griffith), American film producer and director. His films included "Intolerance." (WUD, 1994, p.622)(SFC, 8/16/97, p.A18) 1875 nend ?-1958 Yoruba sculptor Olowe. He carved a lintel in a sacrifice motif of grisly elegance: birds plucking the eyes from human faces. (SFEC, 12/1/96, BR p.4) 1875 1965 Albert Schweitzer, German-born missionary and Nobel laureate. "Man must cease attributing his problems to his environment, and learn again to exercise his will?his personal responsibility in the realm of faith and morals." (AP, 3/23/97) 1876 nend Jan 5, Conrad Adenauer (d.1967), statesman and first chancellor of post-World War II West Germany, was born. He was chancellor of Germany from 1949-1963. "The good Lord set definite limits on man's wisdom, but set no limits on his stupidity -- and that's not fair!" (AHD, 1971, p.15)(AP, 7/1/98)(HN, 1/5/99) 1876 nend Jan 12, Jack London (d.1916), American writer and adventurer, was born in SF at 3rd and Brannon. The original home burned down in the 1906 fire. He is best known for his dog novels "The Call of the Wild" and "White Fang." (HFA, '96, p.22)(AHD, p.768)(HN, 1/12/99)(SFC, 1/10/03, p.E6) 1876 nend Jan 12, Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari, composer, was born in Venice, Italy. (MC, 1/12/02) 1876 nend Jan 24, Bat Masterson had a legendary gunfight in Sweetwater, Texas. A cavalry soldier named King and a woman named Mollie Brennan were killed, Masterson was seriously wounded in the hip in a saloon. (MesWP)(AH, 2/06, p.14) 1876 nend Feb 2, The National League of Professional Base Ball Clubs with eight teams (Boston, Chicago, Cincinnati, Hartford, Louisville, New York, Philadelphia, St Louis) was formed in New York. (AP, 2/2/97)(HN, 2/2/99)(MC, 2/2/02) 1876 nend Feb 7, Pres Grant's private secretary, Gen. Orville E. Babcock, was acquitted of involvement in the Whiskey Ring. The "Whiskey Ring" was a conspiracy among distillers, revenue collectors, and high federal officials to avoid taxation through fraudulent reports on whiskey production. 230 indictments were secured, but no convictions were made. Grant helped Babcock secure an acquittal for his part in the ring. This affair contributed to the reputation for corruption that Grant's administrations acquired. (MC, 2/7/02)(Internet) 1876 nend Feb 12, Al Spalding opened a sporting good shop. (MC, 2/12/02) 1876 nend Feb 14, Rival inventors Elisha Gray and Alexander Graham Bell both applied for patents for the telephone. (HN, 2/14/98) 1876 nend Feb 15, A historic Elm at Boston was blown down. (440 Int?l., 2/15/99) 1876 nend Feb 16, George Macauley Trevelyan (d.1962), English historian (Giuseppi Garibaldi), was born: "?History repeats itself? and ?History never repeats itself? are about equally true ... We never know enough about the infinitely complex circumstances of any past event to prophesy the future by analogy." (AP, 4/14/01)(MC, 2/16/02) 1876 nend Feb 17, Sardines were 1st canned by Julius Wolff in Eastport, Maine. (MC, 2/17/02) 1876 nend Feb 18, A direct telegraph link was established between Britain & New Zealand. (MC, 2/18/02) 1876 nend Feb 19, Gardiner Hubbard submitted Alexander Graham Bell's patent application for a telephone. (ON, 1/03, p.4) 1876 nend Feb 21, Constantin Brancusi (d.1957), Romanian-French sculptor (Princesse X), was born in Hobitza, Romania. he made it to Paris in 1902. His works include "The Kiss" (1908) and the "Sleeping Muse" (1910). (WSJ, 10/19/95, A-18)(WSJ, 11/30/01, p.W12)(MC, 2/21/02) 1876 nend Feb 24, Henrik Ibsen's "Peer Gynt," premiered in Oslo. (MC, 2/24/02) 1876 nend Feb 26, Agustin P. Justo y Rolon, President of Argentina (1931-38), was born. (SC, 2/26/02) 1876 nend Mar 1, Guernsey Cattle Club formed in Farmington, CT. (SC, 3/1/02) 1876 nend Mar 2, Pius XII [Eugenio MGG Pacelli], 260th Pope (1939-58), was born to an aristocratic Roman family accustomed to serving the Catholic Church. (SFEC, 9/26/99, BR p.3)(SC, 3/2/02) 1876 nend Mar 4, US Congress decided to impeach Secretary of War (under Ulysses S. Grant) William Worth Belknap (1829-1890) of malfeasance in office for accepting over $24,000 in bribes from a post trader seeking immunity from removal. It is not clear whether he was aware of the arrangement or whether his wife had made the bargain and accepted the payoffs. Nevertheless, he was impeached by a unanimous vote of the United States Senate, though at his formal trial the Senate fell short of the number of votes required to convict. By then he had resigned, which doubtless accounted for his acquittal. He died in Washington, D.C. on October 13,1890 and was buried in Section 1 of Arlington National Cemetery. (SC, 3/4/02)(www.arlingtoncemetery.net/wwbelkna.htm) 1876 nend Mar 7, Patent #174,465 was issued to Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) for his telephone. In 2008 Seth Shulman authored ?The Telephone Gambit,? the story behind Alexander Graham Bell?s 1876 telephone patent #174,465. Shulman made a case that Bell stole the critical technology for making the telephone work from Elisha Gray, who had filed his own papers just hours after Bell. (SFEM, 1/11/98, p.12)(HN, 3/7/98)(AP, 3/7/98)(WSJ, 1/16/08, p.D10) 1876 nend Mar 8, Franco Alfano, Italian opera composer (Il dottore Antonio), was born. (MC, 3/8/02) 1876 nend Mar 10, Alexander Graham Bell made what was, in effect, the first telephone call. He found a way of converting words into electrical current and back again and sent his first message using his new variable-liquid resistance transmitter. Bell?s telephone caused the current to vary smoothly in proportion to the pressure created on a microphone by human speech and got a patent. His assistant, in an adjoining room in Boston, heard Bell say over the experimental device:" Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you." (I&I, Penzias, p.97)(CFA, ?96, p.42)(SFEM, 1/11/98, p.12)(AP,3/10/98)(HN, 3/10/98) 1876 nend Mar 17, Gen. Crook destroyed Cheyenne and Ogallala-Sioux Indian camps. (MC, 3/17/02) 1876 nend Apr 1, The first official NL baseball game took place. Boston beat Philadelphia 6-5. (OTD) 1876 nend Apr 8, Amilcare Ponchielli's opera "La Gioconda," premiered in Milan. (MC, 4/8/02) 1876 nend Apr 11, General Sir Charles ("Chinese") Gordon ended religious tolerance in Sudan. (MC, 4/11/02) 1876 nend Apr 18, Daniel O?Leary completed a 500 mile walk in 139 hours, 32 minutes. (HN, 4/18/98) 1876 nend Apr 22, O.E. Rolvaag, novelist (Giants in the Earth), was born. (HN, 4/22/01) 1876 nend Apr 22, Tchaikovsky completed his "Swan Lake" ballet. (MC, 4/22/02) 1876 nend Apr 25, The Chicago White Stockings (later Chicago Cubs) beat Louisville 4-0 (1st NL shutout) in the 1st NL game. Albert G. Spalding (1850-1915), former pitcher for the Boston Red Stocking, had joined the Chicago White Stockings after helping form the new National League. His move effectively ended the National Association, baseball?s first professional league. Spalding managed the White Stockings from 1876-1877 and continued as a player to 1878. no_source 1876 nend May 2, American civil engineer James Buchanan Eads hired the luxury steamer Grand Republic for her maiden voyage to carry investors and the press from New Orleans to the jetties at the mouth of the Mississippi to show off his work. The jetties were completed in 1880 and New Orleans went from being the nation?s 9th largest port to the 2nd largest. (ON, 10/09, p.8) 1876 nend May 10, Centennial Fair opened in Philadelphia. Centennial Hall was built in Philadelphia, Pa., to commemorate the country?s 100th birthday. The US Centennial Exhibition was a world?s fair celebrating the founding of the US and drew over 9.9 million people. The US population at this time was 46 million. (Hem, 6/96, p.108)(SFC,12/10/97, Z1 p.9)(MC, 5/10/02) 1876 nend May 17, The 7th US Cavalry under Custer left Ft. Lincoln. (MC, 5/17/02) 1876 nend May, During an uprising in central Bulgaria (part of the overall "Eastern Crisis? in the Balkans from 1875-78), Khristo Botev, nationalist hero and poet, re-entered Bulgaria with a small band of rebels. He was killed near Mt. Veslez a few days after his return. (HNQ, 9/7/00) 1876 nend May, Residents in Tbilisi, Georgia, found a collection of ancient gold jewels in the muddy streets following a downpour. The objects were dated from the 5th to the 1st century BC when the region was known as Colchis. (Econ, 11/15/08, p.100) 1876 nend Jun 5, Bananas became popular in US following the Centennial Exposition in Phila. (MC, 6/5/02) 1876 nend Jun 8, French author George Sand (b.1804 as Lucile Aurore Dupin Dudevant) died in Nohant, France. In 1975 Curtis Cate published the biography: "George Sand." French author. In 1993 Francis Steegmuller and Barbara Bray published their translation of correspondence between Flaubert and Sand. In 2000 Belinda Jack authored "George Sand: A Woman?s Life Writ Large." "I would rather believe that God did not exist than believe that He was indifferent." (AP, 6/8/00)(AP, 10/17/98)(SFEC, 8/27/00, BR p.5)(WSJ, 5/12/07, p.P10) 1876 nend Jun 11, A.L. Kroeber, anthropologist, textbook author, was born in Hoboken, NJ. (SC, 6/11/02) 1876 nend Jun 17, General George Crook?s command of 1300 men with friendly Crow and Shoshone scouts was attacked and bested on the Rosebud River, Montana, by 1,500 Sioux and Cheyenne under the leadership of Crazy Horse. (HN, 6/17/98)(WSJ, 8/5/05, p.W2) 1876 nend Jun 20, Antonio L de Santa Ana, president of Mexico and victor at Alamo, died. (MC, 6/20/02) 1876 nend Jun 21, The first gorilla arrived in Britain. (Camelot, 6/21/99) 1876 nend Jun 22, Annie Oakley, sharpshooter, married Frank Butler, marksman. (SFEM, 1/25/98, p.68) 1876 nend Jun 22, General Alfred Terry sent Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer to the Rosebud and Little Bighorn rivers to search of Indian villages. (HN, 6/22/99) 1876 nend Jun 23, Irvin S. Cobb, U.S. playwright, novelist, actor, and editor, was born. He is best remembered for his "Judge Priest" stories. (HN, 6/23/99) 1876 nend Jun 25, Alexander Graham Bell demonstrated his telephone at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. (SFC, 2/3/97, p.D1)(ON, 1/03, p.5) 1876 nend Jun 25, In the Battle of the Little Bighorn in Montana, Gen. George A. Custer and some 250 men in his 7th Cavalry were massacred by the Sioux and Cheyenne Indians. To crush the Plains Indians and drive them onto reservations, Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer and more than 600 7th Cavalrymen and Indian scouts advanced on an Indian encampment in the Little Bighorn Valley of Montana. Custer's main concern was to keep the Indians from escaping, but on this day, he faced the biggest alliance of hostile Plains Indians--mostly Sioux and Cheyenne--ever gathered in one place. Custer and his entire personal command, about 210 soldiers, were wiped out. The site is near a region where paleontologist Prof. Edward Drinker Cope dug for dinosaur fossils just a few days after the massacre. Custer and his cavalrymen had attacked an encampment of 2,000 to 4,000 Lakota, Cheyenne and other Indians. Up to 300 Indians possessed Henry and Winchester repeating rifles. (WSJ, 11/1/94, p.1)(SFC, 6/28/96, p.A5)(AP, 6/25/97)(HNPD,6/25/99)(Econ, 5/8/10, p.82) 1876 nend Jun 26, Myles Keough's wounded horse, Commanche, was found after the battle of the Little Big Horn and led to the steamer The Far West some ten miles away and transported to Fort Lincoln where he became the celebrated "only survivor." The horse lived to be twenty-nine and upon his death the Seventh wanted to preserve his body, so they sent it to the University of Kansas to be stuffed. (Internet, Myles Keogh, 8/5/99) 1876 nend Jul 2, Montenegro declared war on Turkey. (PC, 1992, p.537) 1876 nend Jul 4, Fr. Joseph Neri, SJ, introduced electric lights on Market Street in SF. (GenIV, Winter 04/05) 1876 nend Jul 4, Batholdi visited Bedloe Island, future home of his Statue of Liberty. (Maggio, 98) 1876 nend Jul 8, White terrorists attacked Black Republicans in Hamburg, SC, and killed 5. (MC, 7/8/02) 1876 nend Jul 17, At Warbonnet Creek, Nebraska, Buffalo Bill Cody took the scalp of Cheyenne Chief Yellow Hair (Yellow Hand) following a duel. (http://tinyurl.com/a4ja2)(WSJ, 12/13/05, p.D8) 1876 nend Jul 31, US Coast Guard officers' training school was established at New Bedford, MA. (MC, 7/31/02) 1876 nend Jul, Leland and Jane Stanford purchased the old Mayfield Grange home of George Gordon in Menlo Park, Ca. The estate came to be named Palo Alto. Stanford began his horse breeding farm this year on an initial 650 acres. It eventually extended to 8,800 acres. (Ind, 12/30/00, 5A)(Ind, 4/19/03, 5A) 1876 nend Aug 1, Colorado was admitted as the 38th state. (AP, 8/1/97)(HN, 8/1/99) 1876 nend Aug 2, Frontiersman Wild Bill Hickok, holding aces over eights, was shot and killed from behind by ?Crooked Nose? Jack McCall, while playing poker at a saloon in Deadwood, S.D. (AP, 8/2/97)(MC, 8/2/02)(Econ, 5/29/04, p.32) 1876 nend Aug 5, Mary Ritter Beard, American historian and writer, was born. (HN, 8/5/00) 1876 nend Aug 7, Margaretha Zelle (aka Mata Hari) was born in the Netherlands. Mata Hari, otherwise known as Margaretha G. Macleod, passed secrets to the Germans in World War I. (WSJ, 1/16/97, p.A16)(HN, 8/7/98) 1876 nend Aug 12, Mary Roberts Rinehart, mystery writer (Miss Pinkerton), was born. (SC, 8/12/02) 1876 nend Aug 13, Reciprocity Treaty between US and Hawaii was ratified. (MC, 8/13/02) 1876 nend Aug 13, Richard Wagner's monumental epic, "Ring of the Nibelung" premiered with 4 operas on 4 consecutive nights) at the Festspielhaus in Bayreuth, Bavaria, Germany. (Hem., 1/96, p.69)(MC, 8/13/02) 1876 nend Aug 15, US law removed Indians from Black Hills after gold find. Sioux leaders Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull led their warriors to protect their lands from invasion by prospectors following the discovery of gold. This led to the Great Sioux Campaign staged from Fort Laramie. Gold was discovered in Deadwood in the Dakota territory by Quebec brothers Fred and Moses Manuel. The mine was incorporated in California on Nov 5, 1877, as the Homestake Mining Company. (HT, 3/97, p.43)(WSJ, 1/5/00, p.CA1)(MC, 8/15/02) 1876 nend Aug 16, Opera "Siegfried" premiered at Bayreuth. [See Aug 13] (MC, 8/16/02) 1876 nend Aug 17, Eric Drummond, 1st Sec.-General of League of Nations (1919-33), was born. (SC, 8/17/02) 1876 nend Aug 17, The opera "Gotterdammerung" was produced at Bayreuth. [see Aug 13] (SC, 8/17/02) 1876 nend Aug 19, George Smith (b.1840), British Assyriologist, died of dysentery in Syria. He was on his way home from a 3rd trip to Mesopotamia. Smith had completed the translation of the complete Epic of Gilgamesh in 1874. (ON, 11/07,p.6)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Smith_(assyriologist)) 1876 nend Aug 29, Charles F. Kettering, inventor (automobile self-starter), was born in Ohio. (MC, 8/29/01) 1876 nend Aug 8, Thomas A. Edison received a patent for his mimeograph. (AP, 8/8/97) 1876 nend Sep 1, The Ottomans inflicted a decisive defeat on the Serbs at Aleksinac. (HN, 9/1/99) 1876 nend Sep 6, A race riot took place in Charleston, SC. (MC, 9/6/01) 1876 nend Sep 7, The James and Younger gang botched an attempt to rob the First National Bank of Northfield, Minn. Joseph Heywood, the bank teller, was shot and killed when he refused to open the safe. The 3 Younger brothers, Cole, Bob and Jim, were captured 2 weeks later in a swamp near Madelia. 3 others were killed. Photos of all 6 were taken at the time and identified by Cole Younger, who wrote the names on the pictures. The pictures sold at auction in 1999 for $39,100. The raid was reenacted in 1948 and became a regular event in 1970. (HN, 9/7/98)(WSJ, 10/29/99, p.W16)(WSJ, 9/6/01, p.A20)(MT, Summer02, p.22) 1876 nend Sep 13, Sherwood Anderson (d.1941), author, poet and publisher (Winesburg), was born in Winesburg, Ohio. "Sometimes I think we Americans are the loneliest people in the world. To be sure, we hunger for the power of affection, the self-acceptance that gives life. It is the oldest and strongest hunger in the world. But hungering is not enough." (AP, 9/28/00)(MC, 9/13/01) 1876 nend Sep 15, Bruno Walter (d.1962), [B W Schlesinger], conductor (NY Phil), was born in Berlin, Germany. (www.britannica.com) 1876 nend Sep 19, The 1st carpet sweeper was patented by Melville Bissell of Grand Rapids, Mich. (MC, 9/19/01) 1876 nend Sep 24, Mary Newton (2), the daughter of US Army Engineer Lt. Col. John Newton, triggered a huge blast to clear rocks in the Hell Gate channel of the East River. Newton had been authorized to begin work to deepen the channel in 1867. (ON, 2/08, p.8) 1876 nend Sep, Sitting Bull, a legendary Hunkpapa Sioux chief and medicine man, led an escape to Canada in the vengeful aftermath of the Battle of the Little Bighorn. Even though he had not fought in the June 25 massacre, the medicine man was considered a threat by white authorities because his visions of victory had encouraged the uprising. In 1881 famine forced Sitting Bull?s band back to a reservation in the United States. Throughout the mid-1880s, Sitting Bull won international fame as the prototype of the American Indian when he joined Buffalo Bill Cody?s Wild West Show on tour. Sitting Bull returned to the reservation at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, where he was killed in 1890 during a struggle with Indian police. (HNPD, 9/27/98) 1876 nend Oct 3, John L. Routt, the Colorado Territory governor, was elected the first state governor of Colorado in the Centennial year of the U.S. (HN, 10/3/98) 1876 nend Oct 10, Walter Niemann, composer, was born. (MC, 10/10/01) 1876 nend Oct 17, Henry Morton Stanley's expedition, to find the source of the Congo River, reached the Lualaba River. (MC, 10/17/01) 1876 nend Oct 17, Rydal Hull, a 3-masted, iron-hulled, square-rigged ship carrying coal from Cardiff, Wales, hit Frenchman?s Reef north of Princeton, Ca. 9 of the 30-man crew drowned. (Ind, 3/31/01, 5A) 1876 nend Oct 26, President Grant sent federal troops to SC. (MC, 10/26/01) 1876 nend Oct 31, In India?s Megna River Delta a tidal wave caused by a cyclone flooded the river delta and the city of Backergunge. Some areas became covered with 40 feet of water. 100,000 people drowned and another 100,000 were reported to have perished from subsequent diseases caused by polluted water. (www.emergency-management.net/cyclone.htm) 1876 nend Oct, George T. Morgan joined the US Mint and soon created a sketch for a $100 gold coin, which was never made. (WSJ, 11/29/08, p.B2) 1876 nend Nov 4, James Fraser, designer of the buffalo nickel, was born. (MC, 11/4/01) 1876 nend Nov 4, Johannes Brahms' Symphony #1 in C, premiered at Karlsruhe. (MC, 11/4/01) 1876 nend Nov 7, The presidential vote between Republican Rutherford B. Hayes and Democrat Samuel Tilden was very close and the Florida result looked like it would determine the national outcome. In 1974 Prof. Jerrell Shofner authored "Nor Is It Over," a study of the 1876 election. In 2003 Roy Morris Jr. authored "Fraud of the Century." Louisiana was stolen for Hayes. 13,000 Tilden votes were discounted in Louisiana by a bribe-taking election board. (WSJ, 12/11/00, p.A18)(WSJ, 2/3/03, p.D6) 1876 nend Nov 7, Rutherford B. Hayes was elected 19th president of the US. Because of the closeness of the race he became president only by a deal with Southern conservatives to end Federal occupation of the South, i.e. the Hayes-Tildon Compromise. Samuel J. Tilden (D) won the popular vote. Hayes carried the electoral college by one vote. Lemonade Lucy, wife of Pres. Hayes, later received the 1st Siamese cat in the US. (HN, 11/7/99)(WSJ, 4/10/00, p.A20)(SFC, 8/5/00, p.B4)(SSFC,10/17/04, p.M3) 1876 nend Nov 7, Edward Bouchet became the 1st black to receive a PhD in US college at Yale. (MC, 11/7/01) 1876 nend Nov 23, Manuel de Falla (d.1946), composer (El Amor Brujo), was born in Cadiz, Spain. (WUD, 1994, p.512)(MC, 11/23/01) 1876 nend Nov 25, Colonel Ronald MacKenzie destroyed Cheyenne Chief Dull Knife?s village, in the Bighorn Mountains near the Red Fork of the Powder River, during the so-called Great Sioux War. (HN, 11/25/98) 1876 nend Nov 26, Willis Haviland Carrier, inventor, was born. He invented the first air conditioning system to control both temperature and humidity in 1902. (HN, 11/26/00)(Andrea) 1876 nend Dec 3, Hermann Goetz (35), composer, died. (MC, 12/3/01) 1876 nend Dec 5, Daniel Stillson (Mass) patented the 1st practical pipe wrench. (MC, 12/5/01) 1876 nend Dec 5, In NYC a fire in the Brooklyn Theater killed 278 people. (WSJ, 9/13/01, p.B11)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate_Claxton) 1876 nend Dec 6, US Electoral College picked Republican Hayes as president, although Tilden won the popular election. A questionable vote count in Florida ended and Hayes was ahead by 924 votes. The Democratic attorney general validated the Tilden electors. (WSJ, 12/11/00, p.A18)(MC, 12/6/01) 1876 nend Dec 6, The 1st US crematorium began operation in Washington, Penn. (MC, 12/6/01) 1876 nend Dec 6, Jack McCall was convicted for the murder of Wild Bill Hickok and sentenced to hang. (HN, 12/6/98) 1876 nend Dec 20, Hannah Omish (12) was the youngest person ever hanged in US. (MC, 12/20/01) 1876 nend Dec 25, Mohammed Ali Jinnah (d.1948), founder of Pakistan (1947), gov. (1947-58), was born in Karachi. (SFC, 7/30/03, p.A11)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah) 1876 nend Dec 29, Pablo Casals, violinist, conductor, composer, was born in Vendrell, Catalonia, Spain. (MC, 12/29/01) 1876 nend Dec 29, In the Ashtabula train disaster a Pacific Express, carrying some 159 passengers and crew, was traveling over a bridge near Ashtabula, Ohio. Only the first engine of the train made it to the other side at 7:28 p.m. as the bridge began to collapse. The rest of the train broke away and plummeted to the bottom of the ravine below. Approximately 92 men, women and children were killed. The bridge was owned by the Lake Shore and Michigan railroad, and was the joint creation of Charles Collins, Engineer, and Amasa Stone, Chief Architect and Designer. After testifying before an investigative jury, Charles Collins quietly went home and shot himself in the head. He was also buried in the Chestnut Grove Cemetery, several feet from the mass grave. Amasa Stone (1818-1883) committed suicide approximately 7 years later. Stone was held partly responsible for the disaster by the same investigative jury before which Collins had testified, and was publicly scorned for many years. (http://deadohio.com/AshTrain.htm) c 1876 nend Rodin made the original plaster for "Age of Bronze," the figure of a naked youth. (SFEM, 11/24/96, p.46)(WSJ, 1/9/97, p.A8) 1876 nend Edward Mitchell Bannister, African-American artist, won a 1st place prize at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, but was turned away from the exhibition hall when he went to collect his medal. (WSJ, 8/8/00, p.A20) 1876 nend Degas painted "Absinthe." (WSJ, 1/22/99, p.W8) 1876 nend Jean-Leon Gerome painted "Solomon's Wall, Jerusalem." (WSJ, 2/5/99, p.W12) 1876 nend Winslow Homer (1836-1910) painted "Gloucester Harbor." In 1997 it hung at the Nelson Atkins Museum of Art in Kansas City. He also did "The Cotton Pickers" in this year and completed ?Breezing Up (A Fair Wind).? (WSJ, 11/10/97, p.B6)(SFC, 8/18/01, p.B1)(WSJ, 8/12/06, p.P14) 1876 nend Monet painted "Dans La Prairie." It was expected to sell for $16-20 million in 1999. He also did "La Repos Dans le Jardin" this year. (WSJ, 11/5/99, p.W16)(WSJ, 5/3/02, p.W12) 1876 nend Pierre-Auguste Renoir painted "The Garden of the Rue Cortot" at what is now the Montmartre museum in Paris. He also did a portrait of Alfred Sisley about this time. His work "At the Theater" (La Premiere Sortie) was also begun and completed the next year. (SFEC, 6/22/97, p.T11)(DPCP 1984)(WSJ, 8/13/99, p.W10) 1876 nend The 2nd Impressionist exhibition opened in Paris featuring Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Edgar Degas and Berthe Morisot. (NMWA, 12/04, p.9) 1876 nend Robert Browning wrote his poem "The Pied Piper of Hamelin." (WSJ, 6/11/01, p.A20) 1876 nend George Eliot (1819-1880), Englishwoman writer, authored ?Daniel Deronda,? the story of man who discovers his Jewish origins. (WSJ, 9/22/07, p.W6) 1876 nend Anthony Trollope (1815-1882) authored ?The Prime Minister,? the 5th of a sextet of novels known as ?The Pallisers.? It offered sharp insights on power, sex, love and money. (WSJ, 8/26/06, p.P8 ) 1876 nend Emile Zola wrote "L?Assommoir" and gave voice to Parisian slum-dwellers. In the novel he imitated their vulgar slang. (WSJ, 8/1/96 p.A13) 1876 nend Friedrich Nietzsche predicted that there would one day be an international language. (Wired, 8/96, p.93) 1876 nend The Oriental Hotel was built in Bangkok, Thailand, near the Chao Phraya River. It is now considered one of the best hotels in the world. (Hem, Mar. 95, p.59) 1876 nend Henry James (1843-1916) writer, had a "love affair" with Russian painter Pavel Zhukovsky. (SFEC, 11/3/96, BR p.1) 1876 nend Descendants of Betsy Ross reportedly began to spread the myth that she made the first US flag to create a tourist attraction in Philadelphia. (SFEC, 4/13/97, Z1 p.4) 1876 nend Joseph Drexel began to serve as the director of the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art. (SFC, 3/24/00, p.W4) 1876 nend I. Magnin, the San Francisco department store opened. It lasted until Jan. 1995. (Hem, Mar. 95, p.89) 1876 nend The California Maritime Academy was founded. The Board of Supervisors and the Chamber of Commerce proposed to train young criminals onboard the ship Jamestown for work in the merchant naval service. Its history is told by Capt. Walter W. Jaffee in "The Track of the Golden Bear, The California Maritime Academy Schoolships." (SFEM, 1/19/97, p.7) 1876 nend Melvil Louis Dewey (b.1851), Amherst College librarian, published the 1st edition of the ?Dewey Decimal System.? He had created "A Classification and Subject Index for Cataloguing and arranging the Books and Pamphlets of a Library" using his Dewey Decimal System. [see May 8, 1873] (HN, 12/10/98)(SSFC, 4/14/02, p.C18)(ON, 3/04, p.12) 1876 nend E.H. Harriman founded the Tompkins Square Boys club in New York's Lower East Side. (WSJ, 3/21/00, p.A24) 1876 nend T. Southard of Peekskill, NY, became Southard, Robertson & Co. The Southard company had manufactured toy wood-burning heating stoves as early as 1850. (SFC, 3/1/06, p.G7) 1876 nend Barbed wire that fenced the west at this time was later put on display at Oracle Junction, Arizona, and included Watkins ?lazyplate? and Glidden ?Oval Twist.? (NOHY, 3/90, p.173) 1876 nend The medieval game of court tennis arrived in the US. It was the fore-runner of lawn tennis, which was already being played in the US. (SFC, 5/15/98, p.D7) 1876 nend President Ulysses S. Grant authorized the funds to complete the construction of the Washington Monument, but without the ornate building and classical statue. (ON, 3/00, p.10) 1876 nend James G. Blaine, Republican candidate for the presidency, saw his chances collapse under criticism for accepting a $100,000 fee while lobbying for railroads. The problem came up again in 1884. (WSJ, 10/8/96, p.A22) 1876 nend Texas adopted a post-civil war constitution. It barred idiots, lunatics, paupers and women from voting. (Econ, 10/29/05, p.30) 1876 nend Lazard Freres ceased operations in San Francisco as a fabrics and hardware import-export company and established itself as the bank: Lazard Freres & Co. (SFC, 12/11/96, p.D1) 1876 nend Austin and Reuben Hills began roasting coffee at the Bay City Market in SF. [see 1878] (SSFC, 8/5/01, p.A1) 1876 nend Two brothers from Italy named Simi founded the Simi Winery just north of Healdsburg, Ca. It is currently owned by Moet-Hennessy / Louis Vuitton. (WCG, 7/95, p.78) 1876 nend The Chinatown of Chico, Ca., was destroyed by a fire. About this time arson, murder and terrorism forced the Chinese out of Truckee. (SSFC, 6/3/07, p.M5) 1876 nend The Georgia state capital was moved from Milledgeville, originally designed to be the state capital, to Atlanta. (SFEC, 7/16/00, Z1 p.2) 1876 nend George V. Ayres (1852-1939) arrived in the Black Hills at the beginning of the gold rush there and within a year began working at the R.C. Lake Hardware Store in Deadwood, SD. By the mid 1880s he owned the store and later moved it to the main floor of the Bullock Hotel, built in the mid-1890s. (SFC, 1/24/07, p.G7) 1876 nend Wyatt Earp moved to Dodge City, Kansas. (MesWP) 1876 nend Lewis R. Redmond (1854-1906) of North Carolina shot and killed a revenue agent near Brevard, NC, when the agent tried to arrest him for making and transporting illegal whiskey. (WSJ, 3/20/09, p.W11) 1876 nend Edwin Lankester, an evolutionary biologist and later director of the British Museum, exposed the American medium Henry Slade, as a fake and took him to court on charges of criminal fraud. (PacDisc. Spring/?96, p.18) 1876 nend Dr. John Harvey Kellogg was 24 years old when he became staff physician at the Battle Creek Sanitarium in Michigan--a position he held for 62 years. Dr. Kellogg, a respected abdominal surgeon, ran "the San" as a health institute where the wealthy could rejuvenate themselves with Kellogg's offbeat cures. Illness was caused, Kellogg believed, by poor eating habits that left poisons in the intestinal tract. Among Kellogg's solutions to the dietary dilemma were "fletcherizing," or chewing food hundreds of times before swallowing, and a vegetarian diet high in bran. It was the bowels, however, that received Kellogg's undivided attention. Patients at the San were subjected to regimens of "cleansing enemas" that cured "ulcers, diabetes, schizophrenia, acne...and premature old age." (HNPD, 2/26/99) 1876 nend The A.J. Whitcomb Indestructible Pocket Kite was patented. It was made of cotton fabric. (SFC, 2/5/97, z-1 p.7) 1876 nend Pressed-glass plates for the 100 year memorial of the Battle of Bunker Hill were manufactured for sale. (SFC, 4/2/97, Z1 p.6) 1876 nend Samuel T. Cooper purchased six hand-operated knitting machines and with his sons founds S.T. Cooper & Sons, a hosiery manufacturer located in Ludington, Michigan. At the turn of the century the company moved to Kenosha, Wisconsin. (SSFC, 11/29/09, p.N6)(http://tinyurl.com/y9d8vq4) 1876 nend Woman?s underwear began to be sold in stores. (SFEC, 8/27/00, Z1 p.2) 1876 nend The Moxie Nerve Food Co. introduced a medicine to be taken with a spoon. The medicine was later changed to a carbonated drink, produced in Salem, Mass. Moxie produced a lot of items for advertising that became valuable as collectibles. (SFC, 7/15/98, Z1 p.3) 1876 nend Adolphus Busch, a German immigrant beer-maker, licensed the name of Budweiser in America. The name came from the town of Budweis in Bohemia. The town was later renamed Ceske Budejovice but a local brewery used the Budweiser name for its beer. (SFC, 4/9/98, p.A12) 1876 nend John Danner (b.1823) of Canton, Ohio, invented and patented a revolving bookcase. His John Danner Mfg. Co. soon expanded to produce drug cases, cabinets and store stools. (SFC, 12/21/05, p.G6) 1876 nend In Dayton, Ohio, the Royal Remedy and Extract Co. was founded by Irvin Souders. The company was incorporated in 1888 and introduced Sweet Wheat chewing gum in 1889. (SFC, 3/12/08, p.G4) 1876 nend Thomas Edison established his laboratory in Menlo Park, New Jersey. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1876 nend Johns Hopkins University was founded. It handed out the first US graduate Pd.D.?s in 1878. (SFEC, 7/16/00, Z1 p.2) 1876 nend Benedictine monks in North Carolina established Belmont Abbey as a monastery and school. In 2007 they introduced a program in Motorsports Management. (WSJ, 10/4/07, p.A1) 1876 nend It was demonstrated that small electric generators could light a lamp. (WSJ, 1/11/98, p.R18) 1876 nend Oil was struck in a well near what later became Santa Clarita, California. It was sold to the Pacific Coast Oil Co. of San Francisco in 1879, which eventually became Chevron. (SSFC, 10/29/06, p.F6) 1876 nend Drawbridge on Station Island was started at the southern end of the SF Bay with a single shack for the railroad bridge caretaker to raise a bridge for shipping traffic over Coyote Slough. Its last resident, Charlie Luce, left in 1979. (SFC, 4/7/00, p.A19,20) 1876 nend The high-wheel bicycle was introduced in the US at the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia. (ON, 2/10, p.3) 1876 nend The US population was about 40 million. The US population at this time was 46 million. (Hem, 6/96, p.108)(SFC,12/10/97, Z1 p.9)(SFEC, 4/4/99, Z1 p.8) 1876 nend The excavation of Pergamon (later Bergama, Turkey) by German archeologist uncovered a monument called the Great Altar with a frieze of the mythological Greek hero Telephos that dated to the 2nd century BC. (WSJ, 1/16/96, p. A-16) 1876 nend William M. "Bill" Doolin was killed by an "Oklahoma" posse. Photos of the dead man were sold for 25 cents. (SFEC, 3/8/98, BR p.6) 1876 nend In Canada the Indian Act was enacted by the Parliament under the provisions of Section 91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867, which provides Canada's federal government exclusive authority to legislate in relation to "Indians and Lands Reserved for Indians." The statute concerns registered Indians (that is, First Nations peoples of Canada), their bands, and the system of Indian reserves. (Econ, 3/28/09, p.46)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Act) 1876 nend Queen Victoria added the title of Empress of India. (SFEC, 8/3/97, p.A15) 1876 nend British Parliament passed the Unseaworthy Ships Bill (Merchant Shipping Act). It was advocated by Samuel Plimsoll (1824-1898), author of ?Our Seaman.? The Act required a series of lines to be painted on the ship to show the maximum loading point. A salesman for the Liverpool Rubber Company attached the Plimsoll name to a line of canvas shoes. (www.victorianweb.org/history/plimsoll.html)(Econ, 7/8/06, p.79) 1876 nend James Murray agreed to take over as editor of a new dictionary being compiled by England?s Philological Society. In 1878 Oxford Univ. Press agreed to publish the dictionary and Murray agreed to produce the work in 10 years. (ON, 11/05, p.5) 1876 nend Charles Roberts reported the statures of some 100,000 children drawn from the registers of London military hospitals. It was one of the first statistical inquiries into the economics of height. (Econ, 4/5/08, p.82) 1876 nend Construction of the Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World), a gift to the US, began in France. The interior iron framework was designed by Alexandre Gustave Eiffel. The design by Frederic Auguste Bartholdi included 7 rays on her crown to represent the seven seas and continents. Her tablet was engraved with the date July 4, 1776 in Roman numerals. Broken shackles at her feet represented tyranny. (SFEC, 6/20/99, p.T10) 1876 nend The Berlin Nationalgalerie was inaugurated by Kaiser Wilhelm I on Museum Island in the Spree River. It re-opened in 2002 after 4 years of renovation. (SSFC, 1/27/02, p.C7) 1876 nend A paper in the Berliner Klinische Wochenschrift, a Germany medical journal, suggested that salsalate could help diabetics control their blood sugar. Harvard researchers in the 1990s conducted studies that supported the claim. (WSJ, 1/20/09, p.A12) 1876 nend Carl von Linde (1842-1934), German engineer, invented refrigeration. (Econ, 5/24/08, p.90)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_von_Linde) 1876 nend Nikolaus Otto (1832-1891), German inventor, first demonstrated the four-stroke engine. (www.keveney.com/otto.html)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolaus_Otto) 1876 nend Porfirio Diaz rose to the Mexican presidency following a coup. He was an economically progressive leader, imposed brutal order on the countryside and liberated Mexico City from its perennial floods. He escaped to France in 1910. (WSJ, 8/13/97, p.A12)(WSJ, 12/14/00, p.A1) 1876 nend Helena Modrzejewska, celebrated Polish actress, left for America with her husband Count Karol Chapowski, their son, Rudolf (15), the young journalist Henryk Sienkiewicz and a few friends. Helena proceeded to establish herself on the American stage as Helena Modjeska. In 2000 Susan Sontag planned to publish an historical novel based on Modjeska: "In America." (SFC, 1/6/00, p.E1) 1876 nend Russia under Alexander II invaded Ottoman-controlled Bulgaria with a mixture of humanitarian and imperialistic motives following reports that Turks were massacring Bulgarians. (SFC, 9/7/08, Books p.5) 1876 nend The gladiolus rust, Uromyces trasversalis, was discovered in South Africa. Some 90 years later it turned up in the Mediterranean region then spread to Europe, South America, and Australia. In 2006 it was detected in the US. (SSFC, 8/9/09, p.L2) 1876 nend Murad V succeeded Abdul Aziz in the Ottoman House of Osman. He was soon succeeded by Abdul Hamid II who ruled until 1909. (Ot, 1993, xvii) 1876 1880 Fr. John Pinasco, SJ, served as the 7th president of San Francisco?s St. Ignatius College. (GenIV, Winter 04/05) 1876 1914 This period is covered on a CD-ROM distributed by Apple Computer Corp. and adopted for CD by the American Social History Project at New York?s Hunter College and the Voyager Co. It is first published in 1993 and by 1995 is causing controversy due to some explicit stories on various subjects. It sells for $49.95. (WSJ, 2/10/95), p.B-1)1876-1933 Wilson Mizner, American playwright: "The worst-temperedpeople I?ve ever met were people who knew they were wrong." "A fellowwho is always declaring he?s no fool usually has his suspicions." In 2003 nend the Sondheim play "Bounce" was based on Addison and Wilson Mizner. (AP, 5/8/97)(WSJ, 7/3/03, p.D8) 1876 1944 Irvin Cobb, American humorist: "A good storyteller is a person who has a good memory and hopes other people haven't." (AP, 7/9/99) 1876 1947 Willa Cather, American writer, was born in Virginia. 2nd source says she was born in 1873. She grew up in Nebraska and spent time in NYC as an editor. She wrote over 15 books including: "O, Pioneers!" "My Antonia" and "The Song of the Lark." (WUD, 1994, p.233)(RBI, 1989) 1876 1948 Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari, German-Italian composer. His work included "The Secret of Suzanne" and "Sly." (WSJ, 3/24/99, p.A25) 1876 1950 Helen Rowland, American writer, journalist and humorist: "Nothing annoys a man as to hear a woman promising to love him ?forever? when he merely wanted her to love him for a few weeks." (AP, 9/9/98) 1876 1957 Rev. James M. Gillis, Roman Catholic author, editor and broadcaster: "Whom the gods would make bigots, they first deprive of humor." (AP, 8/28/00) 1876 1957 Ralph Barton Perry, American author and educator. "Humanitarianism needs no apology ... Unless we feel it toward all men without exception, we shall have lost the chief redeeming force in human history." "Humanitarianism needs no apology. ... Unless we ... feel it toward all men without exception, we shall have lost the chief redeeming force in human history." (AP, 3/28/97)(AP, 3/2/98) 1876 1958 Charles F. Kettering, American inventor: "My definition of an educated man is the fellow who knows the right thing to do at the time it has to be done. ... You can be sincere and still be stupid." (AP, 9/7/00) 1876 1961 Isaac Frederick Marcosson, American journalist: "Only the mediocrities of life hide behind the alibi 'in conference.' The great of this earth are not only simple but accessible." (AP, 2/26/99) 1877 nend Jan 1, The Florida state Supreme Court rejected a canvassing board vote count that showed Hayes in the lead by 208 votes. The Democratic legislature ordered a recount and named Mr. Tilden?s electors as rightful. The matter went to the US Congress after the state Supreme Court declined to take up the case until June. (WSJ, 12/11/00, p.A18) 1877 nend Jan 4, Cornelius Vanderbilt (b.1794), US financier, railroad and shipping magnate, robber baron, died. His estate at $105 million was worth more than all the money in the US Treasury. His value in 2007 dollars would be $143 billion. In 2007 Edward J. Renehan Jr. authored ?Commodore: The Life of Cornelius Vanderbilt.? In 2009 T.J. Stiles authored ?The first Tycoon: The Epic Life of Cornelius Vanderbilt.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelius_Vanderbilt)(SFC, 5/30/98,p.E4)(WSJ, 12/19/07, p.D9)(SSFC, 4/26/09, Books p.1) 1877 nend Jan 15, Lewis M. Terman, psychologist (developed Stanford-Binet IQ test), was born in Indiana. (MC, 1/15/02) 1877 nend Jan 22, Hjalmar Horace Greely Schacht, president of German Reichsbank, minister of Economics, was born. (MC, 1/22/02) 1877 nend Jan 25, Congress determined the presidential election between Hayes and Tilden. Tilden won the popular votes, while Hays won the electoral votes. [see Jan 29] (MC, 1/25/02) 1877 nend Jan 29, A highly partisan Electoral Commission, made up of eight Republicans and seven Democrats, was established by Congress to settle the issue of Democrat Samuel Tilden for president against Republican Rutherford B. Hayes. Under the terms of the Tilden-Hayes Election Compromise, Hayes became president and the Republicans agreed to remove the last Federal troops from Southern territory, ending Reconstruction. On election night, 1876, it was clear that Tilden had won the popular vote, but it was also clear that votes in Florida, Louisiana, South Carolina and Oregon were fraudulent because of voter intimidation. Republicans knew that if the electoral votes from these four states were thrown out, Hayes would win. The country hovered near civil war as both Democrats and Republicans claimed victory. Illustrator Thomas Nast drew his cartoon, "Tilden or Blood," showing the Democrats threatening violence. (HNPD, 1/29/99)(PCh, 1992, p.542) 1877 nend Feb 12, The 1st news dispatch by telephone was made between Boston and Salem, Mass. (MC, 2/12/02) 1877 nend Feb 12, US railroad builders struck against a wage reduction. (MC, 2/12/02) 1877 nend Feb 19, Louis Francois-Marie Aubert, French composer (Habanera), was born. (MC, 2/19/02) 1877 nend Feb 20, The 1st cantilever bridge in US was completed at Harrodsburg, Kentucky. (MC, 2/20/02) 1877 nend Feb 26, Rudolph Dirks, cartoonist, was born. He became the creator of the "Katzenjammer Kids." (HN, 2/26/01) 1877 nend Feb 26, Carel S. Adama van Scheltema, Dutch poet, writer (socialism), was born. (SC, 2/26/02) 1877 nend Mar 2, Republican Rutherford B. Hayes was declared winner of the 1876 presidential election over Democrat Samuel J. Tilden, even though Tilden had won the popular vote 50.1 to 47.95%. A special US congressional panel had awarded Florida?s electors to Rutherford B. Hayes. (PCh, 1992, p.542)(AP, 3/2/98)(WSJ, 12/11/00, p.A18) 1877 nend Mar 3, Rutherford B. Hayes took the oath of office as the 19th president of the United States in a private ceremony. A public swearing-in took place two days later. (AP, 3/3/02) 1877 nend Mar 4, The Russian Imperial Ballet staged the first performance of Tchaikovsky?s incomplete ballet "Zwanenmeer" (Swan Lake) in Moscow. (WSJ, 5/18/99, p.A24)(HN, 3/4/01)(SC, 3/4/02) 1877 nend Mar 5, Rutherford B. Hayes was inaugurated as 19th US president. (MC, 3/5/02) 1877 nend Mar 12, In Philadelphia the first department store, The Grand Depot, opened. John Wanamaker turned an abandoned railway depot into one of the world?s 1st department stores. (HN, 3/12/98)(Econ, 4/2/05, p.11)(ON, 12/05, p.5) 1877 nend Mar 18, Edgar Cayce (d.1945), self-proclaimed psychic, was born in Hopkinsville, Ky. In 2000 Sidney D. Kirkpatrick authored ?Edgar Cayce, An American Prophet.? (SFEC, 7/26/98, BR p.3)(SSFC, 1/14/01, BR p.12)(SFC, 8/7/08, p.E1) 1877 nend Mar 24, Walter Bagehot (b.1826), British economist and author of ?The English Constitution? (1867), died. He edited the Economist Magazine from 1861 until his death. (WSJ, 11/7/02, p.D8)(http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Walter_Bagehot) 1877 nend Mar 25, Alphonse de Chateaubriand, French writer (Instantanes aux Pays-Bas), was born. (MC, 3/25/02) 1877 nend Apr 10, Federal troops were withdrawn from Columbia, SC. (MC, 4/10/02) 1877 nend Apr 10, The 1st human cannonball act was performed in London. (MC, 4/10/02) 1877 nend Apr 12, The catcher's mask was first used in a baseball game, by James Tyng of Harvard, in an exhibition game against the Live Oaks of Lynn, Mass. In 1878 Frederick Thayer, manager and 3rd baseman for the Harvard team, applied for and received a patent for the mask. Thayer became a lawyer after graduating and in 1886 successfully sued Spalding for patent infringement. (AP, 4/12/07)(ON, 6/08, p.12) 1877 nend Apr 18, In Topeka the Nicodemus Town Company was established by William H. Smith and W.R. Hill. They sold home sites to African Americans who founded the town of Nicodemus in Graham County. The name referred to a legendary slave who arrived in America aboard the 2nd slave ship from Africa and later purchased his freedom. (NH, 7/98, p.28,29) 1877 nend Apr 19, Ole Evinrude, inventor of the outboard marine engine, was born. (HN, 4/19/97) 1877 nend Apr 22, The first National League baseball game was played. (WSJ, 10/15/98, p.B8) 1877 nend Apr 24, Federal troops were ordered out of New Orleans, ending the North's post-Civil War rule in the South. (AP, 4/24/00) 1877 nend Apr 24, Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire. (HN, 4/24/98) 1877 nend Apr 27, Jules Massenet's Opera "Le Roi de Lahore" was produced in Paris. (MC, 4/27/02) 1877 nend Apr 27, President Hayes removed Federal troops from LA. Reconstruction ended. [see Apr 24] (MC, 4/27/02) 1877 nend Apr 29, Tad Dorgen, cartoonist and columnist, was born. (HN, 4/29/01) 1877 nend Apr 30, Alice B. Toklas (d.1967), expatriate American, was born. She was associated with Gertrude Stein, who wrote "The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas" (1933). (HN, 4/30/99)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_B._Toklas) 1877 nend May 1, President Hayes ordered the withdrawal all Federal troops from the South, ending Reconstruction. (http://www.historycentral.com/rec/EndofRec.html) 1877 nend May 2, Vernon Castle, ballroom dancer. (HN, 5/2/02) 1877 nend May 6, Chief Crazy Horse surrendered to U.S. troops in Nebraska. Crazy Horse brought General Custer to his end. (HN, 5/6/99) 1877 nend May 13, Cesar Franck's "Lesson Eolides," premiered. (MC, 5/13/02) 1877 nend May 25, Billy Murray, singer, was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1877 nend May 26, Isadora Duncan, free form, interpretative dancer, was born in SF. (MC, 5/26/02) 1877 nend May 29, John Lothrop Motley (63), (History of United Netherlands), died. (SC, 5/29/02) 1877 nend Jun 1, The Society of American Artists was formed. (DTnet, 6/1/97) 1877 nend Jun 1, U.S. troops were authorized to pursue bandits into Mexico. (DTnet, 6/1/97)(HN, 6/1/98) 1877 nend Jun 3, Raoul Dufy, French Fauvist painter (Palm), was born. (MC, 6/3/02) 1877 nend Jun 3, Frank Pocock, British explorer, drowned in the Congo. (MC, 6/3/02) 1877 nend Jun 9, Meta Vaux Warrick, world renowned sculptor, was born. (HN, 6/9/00) 1877 nend Jun 14, Two Nez Perce Indians killed 3 white men. (ON, 3/04, p.5) 1877 nend Jun 15, The US Army under Gen?l. Oliver Otis Howard began to pursue some 800 Nez Perce. The Nez Perce had been ordered to leave the Valley of the Winding Waters (Wallowa Valley) in Oregon. (SFC, 6/13/97, p.A13)(SFEC, 6/15/97, Par p.1)(SSFC, 7/9/06, p.G4) 1877 nend Jun 15, Henry O. Flipper (d.1931 at 84) became the first African American to be graduated from the U.S. Military Academy at West Point. He was given a dishonorable discharge from the army in 1882 on charges that appeared to be racially motivated. In 1999 Pres. Clinton granted him a posthumous pardon. (HN, 6/15/98)(SFC, 2/19/99, p.A17) 1877 nend Jun 16, The Nez Perce War began in the northwestern US. The First Squadron of the First Regiment, the oldest cavalry unit in the US, fought the Apaches and the Nez Perces. (WUD, 1994, p.964)(WSJ, 12/27/95, p. A-1)(ON, 3/04, p.5) 1877 nend Jun 18, James Montgomery Flagg, American artist and author, was born. He created the world War I recruiting poster of Uncle Sam saying "I want you." (HN, 6/18/99) 1877 nend Jul 2, Herman Hesse (d.1962), German philosopher poet and author, was born in Switzerland. His work included "Steppenwolf" and he won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1946. (HN, 7/2/99)(WUD, 1994, p.666)(SC, 7/2/02) 1877 nend Jul 5, Wanda A. Landowska, Warsaw Poland, harpsichordist (Musique Ancienne), was born. (MC, 7/5/02) 1877 nend Jul 11, Los Angeles recorded a temperature of 112 degrees, but it was not recorded as an all-time-high because official recording only began 20 days later. (SFC, 6/11/09, p.D8) 1877 nend Jul 14, The Great Railroad Strike of 1877 began in Martinsburg, West Virginia, and ended some 45 days later after it was put down by local and state militias. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Railroad_Strike_of_1877) 1877 nend Jul 17, Riots and violence erupted in several major American cities stemming from strikes against railroads in protest of wage cuts. Strikes started against the Baltimore & Ohio, and quickly spread west, with riots erupting in Baltimore, Pittsburgh, Chicago and St. Louis. Nine were killed when Federal troops were sent into Martinsburg, West Virginia. (HNQ, 12/11/98) 1877 nend Jul 18, Thomas Edison recorded the human voice for the first time. He shouted ?Haloo? into a mouthpiece and played back a moving tape. (HN, 7/18/01)(ON, 2/07, p.11) 1877 nend Jul 21, In West Virginia 26 railroad strikers were killed and the Union Depot and machine shops were burned down. (HNQ, 12/11/98) 1877 nend Jul 21-1877 Jul 22, Pres. Rutherford Hayes sent federal troops and Marines to Baltimore to restore order against striking railroad workers. President Hayes then sent federal troops from city to city. They suppressed strike after strike until the strike ended in September, approximately 45 days after it had started. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Railroad_Strike_of_1877) 1877 nend Jul 27, Ernst von Dohnanyi, composer (Message to Posterity), was born in Hungary. (MC, 7/27/02) 1877 nend Aug 2, Sir James Douglas (b.1803), the first provincial governor of British Columbia (1858-1864), died. He was the son of a black woman from Barbados and a Scottish planter. (SFC, 2/12/10, p.A18) 1877 nend Aug 10, Col. John Gibbon slaughtered Nez-Perce Indians at Big Hole River. (MC, 8/10/02) 1877 nend Aug 14, Olaf Carl Seltzer, Montana artist and locomotive repairman, was born in Copenhagen, Denmark. He became a friend of Charles Russel and painted over 2500 works. (SFEC, 3/22/98, p.B6) 1877 nend Aug 17, Asaph Hall discovered the Mars moon Phobos. Hall of the US Naval Observatory discovered the moons around Mars and named them Deimos (anxiety) and Phobos (fear), Homer?s names for the attendant?s of the god of war. (SFC, 11/29/96, p.A16)(SFEC, 4/30/00, Z1 p.6)(SC, 8/17/02) 1877 nend Aug 22, Nez Perce fled into Yellowstone National Park. (MC, 8/22/02) 1877 nend Aug 27, Charles Stewart Rolls, British auto manufacturer (Rolls-Royce Ltd), was born. (MC, 8/27/02) 1877 nend Aug 29, Brigham Young (76), the second president of the Mormon Church, died in Salt Lake City, Utah. (AP, 8/29/97) 1877 nend Aug, In the midst of a recession and the turmoil of anti-Chinese riots, San Franciscans decided to build a public library. (SFC, 4/14/96, EM, p.20) 1877 nend Sep 2, Frederick Soddy, named an isotope and received 1921 Nobel prize for chemistry, was born. (HN, 9/2/98) 1877 nend Sep 3, Adolphe Thiers, 1st president of the 3rd French Republic (1871-77), died at 80. (MC, 9/3/01) 1877 nend Sep 5, The great Sioux warrior Crazy Horse, a cousin of Kicking Bear, was fatally bayoneted at age 36 by a soldier at Fort Robinson, Nebraska. In 1975 Stephen Ambrose authored "Crazy Horse and Custer." In 2002 Ambrose was accused of plagiarizing from the 1955 book "Custer" by Jay Monaghan (d.1980). In 1999 Larry McMurtry authored the biography "Crazy Horse" for the Penguin Lives series. In 2004 Joseph M. Marshall III authored ?The Journey of Crazy Horse: A Lakota History.? In 2006 Kingsley M. Bray authored ?Crazy Horse: A Lakota Life.? (SFEC, 2/7/99, Par p.14)(HN, 12/24/99)(SFC, 1/9/02, p.A2)(SSFC,12/5/04, p.E5)(AH, 10/07, p.62) 1877 nend Sep 11, James Jeans (d.1946), English physicist, mathematician and astronomer, was born. He was the first to propose that matter is continuously created throughout the universe. (HN, 9/11/00)(www.britannica.com) 1877 nend Sep 17, William Henry Fox Talbot (b.1800), British inventor, died. He pioneered instantaneous photography and invented paper photography with the negative-positive system now in use. Talbot produced the first book with photographic illustrations, serialized as "The Pencil of Nature," from 1844-1846. In 1980 Gail Buckland authored "Fox Talbot and the Invention of Photography." (AHD, 1971, p. 1312)(WSJ, 3/24/98, p.A20)(ON, 4/00, p.11)(SFC,12/26/02, p.E9) 1877 nend Oct 4, Pancho Villa (d.1923), [Doroteo Arango], Mexican revolutionary rebel, was born. [see Jun 5, 1878] (MC, 10/4/01) 1877 nend Oct 5, Nez Perce Chief Joseph and 418 survivors were captured in the Bear Paw mountains and forced into reservations in Kansas. They surrendered in Montana Territory, after a 1,700-mile trek to reach Canada fell 40 miles short. Nez Perce Chief Joseph surrendered to General O.O. Howard and Colonel Nelson Miles at the Bear Paw ravine in Montana Territory, saying, "Hear me, my chiefs, my heart is sick and sad. From where the sun now stands, I will fight no more, forever." The retreat had lasted three months and left 120 Nez Perces dead. Miles had found and surrounded the Nez Perce camp with the help of Sioux and Cheyenne scouts. Many whites, including Howard, admired the Nez Perces? fighting ability and Chief Joseph himself, who was considered humane and eloquent. He died in 1904. (HFA, ?96, p.40)(SFC, 6/13/97, p.A13)(HNPD, 10/5/98)(HN, 10/5/98) 1877 nend Oct 6, Edward S. Morse (1839-1925), educator gave the first lecture on evolution in Japan. He introduced modern ideas in archaeology and zoology to Japan at Tokyo Univ. (AM, Mar/Apr 97 p.34) 1877 nend Oct 10, Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer was buried at West Point in New York. (HN, 10/10/98) 1877 nend Oct 11, Outlaw Wild Bill Longley, who killed at least a dozen men, was hanged, but it took two tries; on the first try, the rope slipped and his knees drug the ground. (HN, 10/11/98) 1877 nend Oct 17, Brigadier General Alfred Terry met with Sitting Bull in Canada to discuss the Indians' return to the United States. (HN, 10/17/99) 1877 nend Oct 20, Franz Schubert's 2nd Symphony in B, premiered. (MC, 10/20/01) 1877 nend Oct 29, In San Francisco the Jesuits paid $200,000 for lot 74 of the Western Addition, a block of land bordered by Van Ness, Hayes, Franklin and Grove Streets. Construction of a new church, campus and residence buildings lasted from 1878-1880 and cost $323,763. (GenIV, Winter 04/05) 1877 nend Oct 29, Nathan Bedford Forrest (b.1821), former Confederate cavalry general, died in Memphis, Tenn. He amassed a fortune as a plantation owner and slave trader, importing Africans long after the practice had been made illegal. At 40 he enlisted as a private in the Confederate army at the outset of the Civil War, rising to a cavalry general in a year. In 1867 the newly formed Ku Klux Klan elected Forrest its honorary Grand Wizard or national leader, but he publicly denied being involved. In 1869, he ordered the Klan to disband because of the members' increasing violence. Two years later, a congressional investigation concluded his involvement had been limited to his attempt to disband it. (AP, 11/4/08)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathan_Bedford_Forrest) 1877 nend Nov 17, Gilbert & Sullivan's operetta "The Sorcerer," premiered (London). (MC, 11/17/01) 1877 nend Nov 17, Russians launched a surprise night attack that overran Turkish forces at Kars, Armenia. (HN, 11/17/98) 1877 nend Nov 21, Inventor Thomas A. Edison announced the invention of his phonograph. (V.D.-H.K.p.270)(AP, 11/21/97) 1877 nend Dec 2, Camille Saint-Saens' opera "Samson et Dalila," premiered in Weimar. (WSJ, 2/20/98, p.A16)(MC, 12/2/01) 1877 nend Dec 6, The Washington Post published its 1st edition. It was founded by independent-minded Democrat Stilson Hutchins. (www.washpostco.com/history-history-1875.htm) 1877 nend Dec 6, Thomas A. Edison made the first sound-recording when he recited "Mary had a Little Lamb" into his phonograph machine. (HN, 12/6/98) 1877 nend Dec 14, Serbia joined Russia in war on Turkey. (AP, 12/14/02) 1877 nend Dec 24, Thomas A. Edison filed a patent application for his phonograph machine. (HN, 12/6/98) 1877 nend Dec 28, John Stevens applied for a patent for his flour rolling mill. (MC, 12/28/01) 1877 nend Dec 30, Joseph Stevens Jones (b.~1809-1811), physician, Boston actor and playwright, died. He authored some 100 patriotic melodramas. (SFC, 12/31/08, p.E2)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stevens_Jones) 1877 nend Dec 30, Johannes Brahms' 2nd Symphony in D, premiered in Vienna. (MC, 12/30/01) 1877 nend Dec 31, Pres. and Mrs. Hayes celebrated their silver anniversary (technically, a day late) by re-enacting their wedding ceremony in the White House. (AP, 12/31/02) 1877 nend Harrison Fisher, illustrator, was born in Brooklyn. In 1895 he began working as a staff artist for the SF Morning Call. He later became known as "The Father of a Thousand Girls." In 1908 he published the 1st of his 9 books illustrating idealized women. (SSFC, 5/25/03, p.I4) 1877 nend Cezanne painted "Mme. Cezanne in a Red Armchair." (WSJ, 2/20/96, p.A-14) 1877 nend Gustave Caillebotte French impressionist painter, painted his "Paris Street: Rainy Day." [see 1848-1894, Caillebotte] (WSJ, 2/23/95, p.A-10)(SSFC, 11/16/03, BR p.6) 1877 nend Celestino Gilardi painted "A Visit to the Gallery." It was a scene of young women viewing a nude sculpted goddess. (MT, Spg. ?97, p.20) 1877 nend Winslow Homer painted "Backgammon," a watercolor genre scene. (SFC, 6/18/97, p.E4) 1877 nend Claude Monet painted "Old St. Lazare Station, Paris." He did a series of these and captured the atmospheric effects of steam and light through the glass roof of the train shed. (DPCP 1984) 1877 nend Evelyn De Morgan created her painting "Cadmus and Marmonia." (WSJ, 10/16/02, p.D8) 1877 nend John Roddam Spencer Stanhope, member of Britain?s Aesthetic Movement, painted "Love and the Maiden." (SFC, 2/4/03, p.D2) 1877 nend James McNeil Whistler completed his interior room ?Harmony in Blue and Gold? better known as the Peacock Room. The 2-year project was his transformation of the London dining room of shipping magnate Frederick Leyland. The room was later transported to the Smithsonian?s Freer Gallery. In 1998 Linda Merrill authored ?The Peacock Room: A Cultural Biography.? (WSJ, 9/15/07, p.W16) 1877 nend The Grosvenor Gallery opened in London as an alternative showplace for painters ignored by the Royal Academy. (SFC, 2/4/03, p.D2) 1877 nend Madame Blavatsky published her 2,000 page "Isis Unveiled," a book that laid out the fundamentals of Theosophy. "She explained our existence as an evolutionary process by which we progress through successive reincarnations toward a perfect understanding of the absolute." (Smith., 5/95, p.114) 1877 nend Richard Dugdale, American social reformer, authored ?The Jukes: A Study in Crime, Pauperism, Disease, and Heredity.? The Jukes clan from upstate New York counted prostitutes, thieves and drunkards in its ranks. (WSJ, 1/15/09, p.A9) 1877 nend Chabrier composed his operetta "L?Etoille." The story begins with King Ouf?s attempt to find a victim to execute for a birthday treat. (WSJ, 8/7/01, p.A12) 1877 nend Marius Petipa composed his operatic spectacle "La Bayadere." (WSJ, 7/10/96, p.A16) 1877 nend The Tchaikovsky ballet "Swan Lake" had its premier. (WSJ, 5/18/99, p.A24) 1877 nend The building of the American Museum of Natural History, designed by Calvert Vaux, was erected. (NH, 6/96, p.43) 1877 nend Swan boats began to grace the lagoon in Boston?s Public Garden. (SFC, 12/10/95, p.T-1) 1877 nend A farmhouse was built in Little River by Mendocino, Ca. that later became Dennen?s Heritage House. The film "Same Time Next Year" was filmed here. no_source 1877 nend The USS Constitution (aka Old Ironsides) was rebuilt. (SFC, 7/22/97, p.A11) 1877 nend Pres. Rutherford B. Hayes appointed John Marshall Harlan (1833-1911) to the Supreme Court Justice. (WSJ, 5/28/02, p.D7) 1877 nend The U.S. seized the South Dakota Black Hills of the Sioux Indians. [see Jun 13, 1979] (HN, 6/13/98) 1877 nend Congress passed an Act prohibiting the counterfeiting of any coin, gold or silver bar. (http://www.ustreas.gov/usss/history.shtml) 1877 nend Almost one-fourth of the California labor force was unemployed. Anti-Chinese feelings in SF resulted in several killings. The Sand Lot riots began under the leadership of Denis Kearney, who organized mobs that attacked the Chinese. The Chronicle newspaper called him ?a political mad dog.? These riots followed similar mob attacks in the Eastern States. (SFEC, 9/20/98, Z1 p.4)(www.sfmuseum.org/hist2/kearneyism.html) 1877 nend James Whistler filed a libel suit against the art critic, John Ruskin. He won the suit but went bankrupt due to court costs. (WSJ, 5/31/95, p. A-14) 1877 nend In Chicago 17 businessmen founded their Commercial Club. (Econ, 3/18/06, Survey p.12) 1877 nend William Voss and his brothers Fred and John Voss established the Voss Bros. Manufacturing Co. in Davenport, Iowa. Voss had invented one of the first washing machines with early models operated by a hand crank or foot pedal. Voss motor-driven machines were introduced in 1905. during the Depression Voss washing machines sold for $39.95. (SFC, 1/21/09, p.G4) 1877 nend Lafcadio Hearn (1850-1904), Irish-American travel writer, left Cincinnati for New Orleans, Louisiana, where he initially wrote dispatches on his discoveries in the "Gateway to the Tropics" for the Cincinnati Commercial. He lived in New Orleans for nearly a decade, writing first for the Daily City Item and later for the Times Democrat. (Econ, 8/28/10, p.26)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lafcadio_Hearn) 1877 nend Albert Pope founded his Pope Manufacturing Co. in Boston, Mass. He started making tricycles in 1883. (SFC, 2/14/07, p.G3) 1877 nend Joseph S. Hartmann opened a luggage business in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, making leather covered wooden steamer trunks. The Hartmann family ran the business until 1955. In 1959 the company moved to Lebanon, Tennessee and was later taken over by Clarion Capital Partners. (SFC, 1/2/08, p.G3) 1877 nend Erastus Bigelow introduced a machine-made broadloom carpet in the US. (SFCM, 10/10/04, p.8) 1877 nend The CP railroad decided to take title to lands in the Central Valley of California and sell it to the farmers who had settled there based on previous advertisements. The railroad broke its earlier promises and announced sale of lands to the highest bidder at prices from $25 -40 per acre. Angry settlers sued but lost in several court cases. The story is told by Oscar Lewis in his book "The Big Four." (SFC, 7/8/96, p.D2) 1877 nend The Bell Telephone Co. was formed. (SFC, 7/23/04, p.C1) 1877 nend Isaac Magnin and his wife Mary Ann Cohen Magnin founded their first I. Magnin store in SF. The original store was located on Market street. It moved to Grant Avenue after the 1906 earthquake and in 1948 opened at Geary and Stockton in the ?Marble Lady,? designed by Timothy Pflueger. It merged with Bullocks in 1944 and became a division of Federated Department Stores in 1964. The store closed Jan 15, 1995. (SSFC, 12/31/06, p.E5) 1877 nend The Texas and Southwestern Cattle Raisers Association was formed to represent ranchers in Texas and Oklahoma in their fight against castle theft on the open range. (SSFC, 4/11/04, p.A24) 1877 nend Arthur Downes and Thomas P. Blunt of Shrewsbury proved the bactericidal action of light. Blunt was offered a British knighthood for his achievements in research, but humbly declined. His partner in research, Arthur Downes, accepted the title. (http://members.shaw.ca/TPBLUNT/) 1877 nend Thomas Watson invented the ringer for the telephone. (SFEM, 1/11/98, p.12) 1877 nend Earmuffs were devised. (SFC, 8/28/98, p.B4) 1877 nend O.C. Marsh, paleontologist, described a large dinosaur that he called Apatosaurus ajax (deceptive lizard) based on a newly discovered vertebral column. In 1879 he discovered the bones of a larger beast that he named Brontosaurus (thunder lizard). In 1903 Elmer Riggs showed that Apatosaurus was just a younger Brontosaurus. (SFEC, 5/30/99, Par p.12) 1877 nend Oil was found in the Santa Clara area of Los Angeles County. Chevron later traced its roots to this discovery. (SSFC, 4/13/08, p.C5) 1877 nend Henry Morton Stanley, a Welsh-born American explorer, emerged from the forests of Africa near the mouth of the Congo River. He had traced the river to its source. In 1878 he authored ?Through the Dark Continent.? (SFEC, 9/27/98, BR p.1)(WSJ, 11/3/07, p.W8) 1877 nend In Australia Hermannsburg was founded as a Lutheran mission in the Northern Territory. (Econ, 6/19/10, p.45) 1877 nend The 1st shipload of frozen beef was carried to France from Argentina. (Econ Sp, 12/13/03, p.7) 1877 nend In England the oldest known calendar plate with a business advertisement was made by J.W. Harrison of Liverpool. (SFC, 12/15/98, Z1 p.6) 1877 nend In Germany the Steiff Toy Co. was founded. They made their first teddy bears in 1903 with black, shoe-button eyes. (SFC, 1/21/98, Z1 p.3) 1877 nend In Germany the S. Gunthermann manufacturer of metal vehicles and other toys was founded in Nuremberg about this time. (SFC, 9/19/06, p.G3) 1877 nend Europe's 2nd oldest shopping center, the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II, opened in Milan. It was designed by Giuseppe Mengoni, who died the night before the grand opening. Mengoni used roof ventilators and underground air-cooling chambers to regulate indoor temperature. (SFEC, 1/23/00, p.T14.15)(Econ, 12/4/04, TQ p.17) 1877 nend Pietro Barilla opened a shop in Parma, Italy, selling bread and pasta. The company left the bread business in 1952. By 2007 it was the world?s leading pasta maker. In 1999 the Parma pasta factory was closed and converted to the Academia Barilla, which also housed a library dedicated to gastronomy. (Econ, 6/23/07, p.75)(Econ, 12/20/08, p.145) 1877 nend The Italian astronomer, Giovanni Schiaparelli, saw long thin lines on the surface of Mars and called them canali. The term was translated into English as canals. (Smith., 8/95, p.71) 1877 nend In Japan Saigo Takamori slit his belly in ritual suicide rather than surrendering to Tokyo?s hated minions. The hilltop monument named Shiroyama in Kagoshima, Kyushu, Japan, is dedicated to him. (NG, Jan. 94, p.116) 1877 nend The rebellion of Satsuma province in Japan was quelled. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215) 1877 1878 The Russo-Turkish War. (AP, 7/13/97) 1877 1878 It was during the Russo-Turkish War that the term jingo began to be used to refer to a person who considered himself a patriot by urging belligerence in foreign policy and favoring war at the slightest provocation. Such a policy is now commonly referred to as "jingoistic." Originally a mild oath-as in "by jingo"-the term was used in a popular London music hall song inspired by the sending of the British fleet to Turkish waters to block Russia?s advance: "We don?t want to fight, But by jingo if we do, We?ve got the ships, We?ve got the men, We?ve got the money, too." (HNQ, 5/22/98) 1877 1879 India experienced a devastating famine that left 6-12 million people dead. (http://sharpgary.org/1864-1895.html)(Econ, 1/29/05, p.74) c 1877 1880 The CP railroad hired 2 men, Hart and Crow, to oust farmers in Tulare, Ca., in exchange for free farms. They arrived in a buggy loaded with shotguns and ammo at the gate of a farmer named Brewer and were met by a dozen farmers, led by James Harris. Crow shot Harris in the face and gunned down 5 other farmers. Hart was killed and Crow was also killed after he fled into a wheat field. The railroad shut down its telegraph line and announced that an "armed insurrection" of farmers was taking place. (SFC, 7/8/96, p.D2) 1877 1880 Arthur Lakes, geologist, filled field journals with eyewitness reports on the early days of vertebrate paleontology in Wyoming. In 1997 Michael F. Kohl and John S. McIntosh edited his work in the book: "Discovering Dinosaurs in the Old West." (NH, 6/97, p.12) 1877 1881 Rutherford B. Hayes served as the 16th President of the US. (A&IP, ESM, p.96b, photo) 1877 1887 In San Elizario, Texas, the San Elizario Presidio Chapel was constructed. Though small it featured four bells. (AWAM, Dec. 94, p.64) 1877 1910 In Mexico Porfirio Diaz, a full-blooded Indian, served as president. (SFC, 4/5/01, p.A12) 1877 1946 Harley Granville Barker, English playwright. He produced, directed and starred in many works by George Bernard Shaw. (WSJ, 8/29/97, p.A9) 1877 1956 Alben William Barkley served one term as vice president of the U.S. under Harry Truman (1949-53), and was reelected to the Senate from Kentucky in 1954 and died suddenly in 1956 while still a senator. Barkley served in the senate from 1927 to 1949 (majority leader from 1937-47) before becoming vice president. (HNQ, 11/3/99) 1877 1961 Abbe Henri Breuil, paleolithic scholar. He copied cave paintings and viewed them as a kind of "hunting magic," a means of making game plentiful. (NH, 7/96, p.22) 1878 nend Jan 6, Carl Sandburg, U.S. journalist, poet and biographer who won a Pulitzer Prize in history for his biography of Abraham Lincoln, was born. "There are people who want to be everywhere at once, and they get nowhere." (HN, 1/6/99)(AP, 7/13/99) 1878 nend Jan 9, Victor Emmanuel II (57), king of Sardinia (1849-61) and Italy (1861-78), died. (MC, 1/9/02) 1878 nend Jan 12, Ferenc Molnar, Hungarian-US playwright (A Pal Utrai Fiuk), was born. (MC, 1/12/02) 1878 nend Jan 14, US Supreme court ruled that race separation on trains was unconstitutional. (MC, 1/14/02) 1878 nend Jan 16, Harry Carey Sr., actor (Aces Wild, Border Cafe, Air Force), was born in Bronx, NY. (MC, 1/16/02) 1878 nend Jan 25, Off of San Francisco the 3-masted clipper ship King Philip, built in Maine in 1856, was towed by a tug through the Golden Gate and laid anchor to allow the tug to assist a nearby vessel. The anchor failed and the King Philip drifted onto sand at Ocean Beach, where it foundered. Remnants of the ship appeared in 1980 and again in 2007. (SFC, 5/8/07, p.B5) 1878 nend Jan 28, The first daily college newspaper, Yale News (now Yale Daily News), began publication in New Haven, Conn. (AP, 1/28/08) 1878 nend Jan 28, The 1st telephone exchange was established at New Haven, Conn. (AP, 1/28/04) 1878 nend Feb 1, Hattie Caraway, first woman elected to the U.S. Senate, was born. (HN, 2/1/99) 1878 nend Feb 7, Pope Pius IX (1846-1878), Giovanni Ferretti (85), died. Revenge-seeking Italian liberals tried to dump his body into the Tiber River. He served 31 years, seven months and 22 days. In 1954 E.E.Y. Hayes authored ?Pio Nono.? (PTA, 1980, p.510)(SFC, 9/1/00, p.D4)(AP, 10/15/03)(WSJ, 4/12/08, p.W8) 1878 nend Feb 8, Martin Buber, German-Israeli philosopher, theologist (Ich und Du), was born. (MC, 2/8/02) 1878 nend Feb 10, Peter Tchaikovsky?s 4th Symphony in F, premiered. (MC, 2/10/02) 1878 nend Feb 10, Cuba?s 10 year war with Spain ended with the signing of the pact of Zanjon. The nationalist uprising failed. (WSJ, 9/12/08, p.W6)(www.cubagen.org/mil/war-hist.htm) 1878 nend Feb 16, The silver dollar became US legal tender. (MC, 2/16/02) 1878 nend Feb 18, The bitter and bloody Lincoln County War began with the murder of Billy the Kid's mentor, Englishman rancher John Tunstall. Hired killers of James J. Dolan gunned down John Tunstall in Lincoln, N.M. Tunstall?s partner Alexander McSween formed a posse known as the Regulators to get even. Billy the Kid was part of the posse. (SFEC, 2/23/96, p.T8,9)(HN, 2/18/99) 1878 nend Feb 19, Thomas Edison received a U.S. patent for "an improvement in phonograph or speaking machines." (AP, 2/19/07) 1878 nend Feb 19, Charles F. Daubigny (61), French restaurateur, painter, died. (MC, 2/19/02) 1878 nend Feb 21, The first telephone directory was issued, by the District Telephone Company of New Haven (New Harbor), Conn. It contained the names of its 50 subscribers. In 2010 regulators began granting telecommunications companies the go-ahead to stop mass-printing residential phone books. (AP, 2/21/98)(WSJ, 11/24/07, p.W7)(AP, 11/11/10) 1878 nend Mar 3, Russia and the Ottomans signed the Treaty of San Stefano, granting independence to Serbia. With the Treaty of San Stefano (and subsequent negotiations in Berlin) in the wake of the last Russo-Turkish War, the Ottoman Empire lost its possession of numerous territories including Bulgaria, Montenegro, Romania, and Serbia. The Russo-Turkish wars dated to the 17th century, the Russians generally gaining territory and influence over the declining Ottoman Empire. In the last war, Russia and Serbia supported rebellions in the Balkans. In concluding the Treaty of San Stefano, the Ottomans released control of Montenegro, Romania and Serbia, granted autonomy to Bosnia and Herzegovina, and allowed an autonomous state of Bulgaria to be placed under Russian control. (HN, 3/3/99)(HNQ, 2/23/01) 1878 nend Mar 3, The Treaty of San Stefano was signed after Russo-Turkish War. It assigned Albanian-populated lands to Bulgaria, Montenegro and Serbia; but Austria-Hungary and Britain blocked the treaty's implementation. Albanian leaders meet in Prizren, Kosova, to form the League of Prizren. The League initially advocated autonomy for Albania. At the Congress of Berlin, the Great Powers overturned the Treaty of San Stefano and divided Albanian lands among several states. The League of Prizren began to organize resistance to the Treaty of Berlin's provisions that affected Albanians. (www, Albania, 1998)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Stefano) 1878 nend Mar 20, Thomas Fisher, an alleged member of the Molly McGuires, was hung at the Carbon County Prison of Mauch Chunk, Pa. He had been convicted of the murder of Morgan Powell, a supervisor for the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company. Fisher insisted up to his death on his innocence. (HT, 4/97, p.20) 1878 nend Mar 26, Hastings College of Law was founded in SF. It was named after Serranus Clinton Hastings, the 1st chief justice of the California Supreme Court. (SS, 3/26/02)(SFCM, 10/26/03, p.8) 1878 nend Mar 26, Sabi Game Reserve, the world's 1st official designated game reserve, opened. (SS, 3/26/02) 1878 nend Mar 31, Jack Johnson, first Africa-American boxer to become the world heavyweight champion (1908-1915), was born. (HN, 3/31/99)(MC, 3/31/02) 1878 nend Apr 1, The 1st large-scale Easter Monday egg roll was held on White House lawn under President Rutherford B. Hayes and his wife Lucy. The egg roll has been held every year since except during the war years of WWI and WWII until 1953 when Pres. Eisenhower re-established the egg roll tradition. (AH, 4/07, p.14)(http://tinyurl.com/ygrbvwq) 1878 nend Apr 1, Carl Sternheim, German playwright (Hyperion, Tabula Rasa), was born. (MC, 4/1/02) 1878 nend Apr 1, The city of Berkeley, home to UC Berkeley, was incorporated. (SFC, 3/28/03, p.A3) 1878 nend Apr 1, In Lincoln, N.M., the Regulators, including Billy the Kid, ambushed and killed Sheriff William Brady, a James Dolan partisan, along with a deputy. (SFEC, 2/23/96, p.T8,9)(SFC, 2/2/01, p.A14) 1878 nend Apr 8, Rudolf Nelson, composer, was born. (MC, 4/8/02) 1878 nend Apr 10, The California St. Cable Car RR Co. started service. (MC, 4/10/02) 1878 nend Apr 12, William M "Boss" Tweed, NYC politician, died in prison. (MC, 4/12/02)(Arch, 7/02, p.24) 1878 nend Apr 21, Ship Azor left Charleston with 206 blacks for Liberia. (MC, 4/21/02) 1878 nend Apr 28, Lionel Barrymore, American stage, screen and radio actor, was born. He won an Oscar for his role in "A Free Soul." (HN, 4/28/99) 1878 nend Apr, A Fijian minister and three teachers were killed and eaten by Tolai tribespeople on the Gazelle Peninsula of Papua New Guinea. In 2007 descendants of the Tolai apologized for their forefathers' actions. Englishman George Brown directed and took part in a punitive expedition that resulted in a number of Tolais being killed and several villages burnt down. Official investigations by British colonial authorities in the Pacific cleared him of criminal charges. (AFP, 8/16/07) 1878 nend May 1, James Graham was born. He was the inventor of the first naval aircraft-carrying ship and the first man to film a total eclipse of the Sun. (HN, 5/1/99) 1878 nend May 13, Joseph Henry, head of the Smithsonian Inst. for 32 years, died in Washington DC. His death initiated a national day of mourning and a state funeral. In 1997 the Smithsonian published his biography: "Joseph Henry: The Rise of an American Scientist." He discovered electric induction at the same time as Michael Faraday and made the first versions of the telegraph, the electric motor and electric relay. (WSJ, 12/17/97, p.A20)(www.si.edu/archives/ihd/jhp/joseph11.htm) 1878 nend May 14, Vaseline first sold with the registered trademark for petroleum jelly. (MC, 5/14/02) 1878 nend May 15, The Tokyo Stock Exchange, Japan?s 1st public trading institution, formed. (WSJ, 3/15/07, p.C1) 1878 nend May 21, Glenn Hammond Curtiss, aviation pioneer and contemporary of the Wright brothers, was born in Hammondsport, N.Y. He also originally made bicycles and invented the hydroplane. Curtiss` entrance into flying began in 1904 when Thomas Scott Baldwin, famous lighter-than-air devotee, asked Curtiss to make him a two-cylinder, air-cooled engine to power his airship. The first plane Curtiss had anything to do with was Red Wing, which Casey Baldwin lofted from the ice at Keuka Lake on March 12, 1908. (HN, 5/21/98)(HNQ, 5/28/01) 1878 nend May 24, Lillian Moller Gilbreth, pioneer in time-motion studies, was born. (HN, 5/24/01) 1878 nend May 24, The first American bicycle race was held in Boston. (HN, 5/24/98) 1878 nend May 25, Bill "Bojangles" Robinson was born and began his dancing career in childhood. The young song-and-dance man learned his trade in beer gardens, traveling companies and later on the vaudeville circuit. Robinson performed only within the black community until he was 50 years old, when his unique style of tap-dancing, including his signature "stair dance," crossed over to white audiences. Robinson, who continued to perform into his late sixties, made 14 Hollywood motion pictures, playing both stereotypical black roles and a handful of leads. He died of a chronic heart condition in 1949. (WSJ, 5/19/98, p.A20)(HNPD, 5/26/99) 1878 nend May 25, Gilbert & Sullivan?s opera "HMS Pinafore" premiered in London. (SC, 5/25/02) 1878 nend May 27, Isadora Duncan (d.1927), US pioneer in modern dance and choreographer, was born in San Francisco. (WUD, 1994, p.442)(SFC, 7/18/00, p.A8)(HN, 5/27/01) 1878 nend May 30, Michigan?s all-University football team played its 1st game. It defeated Racine College 7-2. (LSA, Spring/04, p.53) 1878 nend Jun 1, John Masefield (d.1967), England?s 15th poet laureate, was born. "To most of us the future seems unsure. But then it always has been; and we who have seen great changes must have great hopes." (AP, 1/1/00)(HN, 6/1/01)(MC, 6/1/02) 1878 nend Jun 4, Turkey turned Cyprus over to the British. (AP, 6/4/97) 1878 nend Jun 5, Francisco "Pancho" Villa, Mexican revolutionary and guerrilla leader, was born. He defied American General John J. Pershing?s expedition for him. (HN, 6/5/99) 1878 nend Jun 12, William Cullen Bryant (b.1794), American poet and journalist, died. He wrote the bulk of his poem ?Thanatopsis? while still a teenager in Massachusetts. In 2008 Gilbert H. Muller authored ?William Cullen Bryant: Author of America.? (WSJ, 6/20/08, p.W3)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cullen_Bryant) 1878 nend Jun 19, Immigrant English photographer Edward Muybridge settled a bet for Leland Stanford, governor of California and horse racing enthusiast. Stanford bet a friend that a galloping horse kept at least one hoof on the ground at all times. At the governor?s training course in Palo Alto, Muybridge set up 12 cameras at trackside with shutters activated by tripwires. The resulting "motion" pictures, seen here in postcard form, proved that the horse did indeed raise all four hooves off the ground during its gallop. Muybridge?s photographic methods were expanded by Thomas Edison to develop "an instrument which does for the eye what the phonograph does for the ear, which is the recording and reproduction of things in motion...." (HNPD, 6/19/98) 1878 nend Jun 23, Adm. George Back (b.1796), English Arctic explorer, died in London. (www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9011650) 1878 nend Jul 1, Treaty of Berlin divided Africa for colonization. [see Jul 13] (MC, 7/1/02) 1878 nend Jul 2, The Chattanooga Times was first published under the ownership of Adolph Ochs. The 9-year-old paper at Eighth and Cherry Streets had plummeted under S.A. Cunningham to a circulation of 250. Ochs acquired the New York Times 18 years later. The Chattanooga Times merged with the Chattanooga Free Press in 1998. (SFC, 1/4/99, p.A19)(SFEM, 1/16/00, p.10) 1878 nend Jul 3, George M. Cohan, American entertainer, was born. He wrote the songs "Over There," "You're a Grand Old Flag" and "I'm a Yankee Doodle Dandy" and the play "Yankee Doodle-Dandy." (HN, 7/3/99) 1878 nend Jul 3, John Wise flew the first dirigible in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. (HN, 7/3/98) 1878 nend Jul 9, H.V. Kaltenborn, newscaster (Who Said That?), was born in Milwaukee, Wisc. (MC, 7/9/02) 1878 nend Jul 9, An improved corncob pipe was patented by Henry Tibbe in Washington, Mo. (MC, 7/9/02) 1878 nend Jul 12, A Yellow Fever epidemic began in New Orleans. It killed 4,500. (MC, 7/12/02) 1878 nend Jul 13, The Treaty of Berlin amended the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano, which had ended the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. The Congress of Berlin divided the Balkans among European powers. The Slavic converts to Islam in the Sandzak region of southwestern Serbia were separated from their ethnic cousins in Bosnia. (AP, 7/13/97)(HN, 7/13/98)(WSJ, 6/16/99, p.A20) 1878 nend Jul 29, Don Marquis (d.1937), American dramatist, journalist, novelist and poet, was born. "The trouble with the public is that there is too much of it." (AP, 7/31/99)(HN, 7/29/01) 1878 nend Jul, In Lincoln, N.M., soldiers from Fort Stanton and 40 men of James Dolan surrounded the McSween home for 5 days. McSween and 4 supporters were killed but Billy the Kid and several Regulators managed to escape. (SFEC, 2/23/96, p.T8,9) 1878 nend Aug 3, Ambrose Bierce in the SF Argonaut stated: There is no recorded instance of punishment for shooting a newspaperman. The restrictions of the game law do not apply to this class of game." (SFEC, 3/8/98, BR p.1) 1878 nend Aug 10, In Chautauqua, New York, John H. Vincent (46), clergyman, introduced his idea for the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle. His vision was to spread education around the globe with organized reading programs. The 1878 class read "Old Tales Retold from Grecian Mythology" by Augusta Larned and "Studies of the Stars" by Henry w. Warren. (WSJ, 7/31/00, p.B1) 1878 nend Aug 21, The American Bar Association was founded in Saratoga, N.Y. (AP, 8/21/97) 1878 nend Jul 30, German anti-Semitism began during the Reichstag election. (MC, 7/30/02) 1878 nend Aug 13, Leonid Vladimirovich Nikolayev, composer, was born. (MC, 8/13/02) 1878 nend Sep 1, Emma M. Nutt became the first female telephone operator in the United States, for the Telephone Despatch Co. of Boston. (AP, 9/1/03) 1878 nend Sep 5, Bat Masterson, Wyatt Earp, Bill Tilghman and Clay Allison, four of the West?s most famous gunmen, met in Dodge City, Kansas. (HN, 9/5/98) 1878 nend Sep 12, The Cleopatra Needle was installed in London. (MC, 9/12/01) 1878 nend Sep 17, Vincenzo Tommasini, composer, was born. (MC, 9/17/01) 1878 nend Sep 20, Upton Beall Sinclair (d.1968), muckraking author, was born. His work included "The Jungle," which exposed the horrible conditions in the meat packing industry and calling for reforms. (WUD, 1994 p.1330)(HN, 9/20/98)(MC, 9/20/01) 1878 nend Sep, Herbert Hayden, a prominent Connecticut minister, used arsenic to murder Mary Stannard, a young servant girl that he thought he had made pregnant. The reverend, who was tried 1st for physical assault and later for murder was acquitted. In 1880 he produced an exculpatory account of the case. In 1999 Virginia A. McConell authored ?Arsenic Under the Elms: Murder in Victorian New Haven.? (WSJ, 6/24/05, p.W9)(http://tinyurl.com/amrk5) 1878 nend Oct 1, General Lew Wallace was sworn in as governor of New Mexico Territory. He went on to deal with the Lincoln County War, Billy the Kid and wrote "Ben-Hur." (HN, 10/1/98) 1878 nend Oct 15, Thomas A. Edison incorporated Edison Electric Light Co. (HN, 10/15/98)(MC, 10/15/01) 1878 nend Oct 18, Edison made electricity available for household usage. (MC, 10/18/01) 1878 nend Oct 21, German republic chancellor Bismarck delegated the end of "Socialism." (MC, 10/21/01) 1878 nend Oct 25, Ludwig Wilhelm Maurer (89), composer, died. (MC, 10/25/01) 1878 nend Oct 29, Alex E. von Falkenhausen, German general (China, WW II), was born. (MC, 10/29/01) 1878 nend Oct, Theodore Roosevelt first saw his future wife, Alice Hathaway (1861-1884). (SFEC, 9/29/96, Par p.8) 1878 nend Nov 2, Edward Scripps (1854-1926) and John Scripps Sweeney founded the Penny Press. Ellen Scripps helped her younger half brother, Edward W. Scripps, begin his Penny Press in Cleveland, Ohio. She gave financial support and contributed articles and columns to the Penny Press while continuing her work for the Detroit Evening News. no_source 1878 nend Nov 8, Marshall Walter Taylor, "Major Taylor," the world's fastest bicycle racer for a twelve-year period, was born. (HN, 11/6/98) 1878 nend Nov 12, US Pres. Rutherford B. Hayes was called upon to arbitrate a dispute between Paraguay and Argentina over the Chaco grasslands, a land area about the size of Colorado. He ruled in favor of Paraguay and became a national hero. (WSJ, 4/10/00, p.A1,20) 1878 nend Nov 13, New Mexico Governor Lew Wallace offered amnesty to many participants of the Lincoln County War, but not to gunfighter Billy the Kid. (HN, 11/13/98) 1878 nend Nov 23, Ernest King, Commander-in-Chief of the U.S. fleet who designed the United States' winning strategy in World War II, was born. (HN, 11/23/98) 1878 nend Nov 25, In London a trial opened to hear the suit of James McNeill Whistler (1834-1903) against critic John Ruskin for libel. After a 2-day hearing the jury found Ruskin guilty and awarded Whistler one farthing, a quarter of a penny. Whistler later authored ?The Gentle Art of Making Enemies? (1890). (www.abcgallery.com/W/whistler/whistlerbio.html)(ON, 4/03, p.9) 1878 nend Dec 9, Joseph Pulitzer bought the St Louis Dispatch for $2,500. (MC, 12/9/01) 1878 nend Dec 17, Colonel Olcott and Madame Blavatsky sailed for India. Colonel Olcott became a popular lecturer in India and worked to merge the Theosophist society with the Arya Samaj, a large Hindi revivalist organization. He befriended A.P. Sinnett, the editor of the Pioneer, the most influential British newspaper in India. (Smith., 5/95, p.117) 1778 nend Dec 19, Marie-Therese-Charlotte, daughter of King Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette, was born. (MC, 12/19/01) 1878 nend Dec 26, The 1st US store to install electric lights was in Philadelphia. (MC, 12/26/01) 1878 nend Maria Guadalupe Garcia Zavala (d.1963) was born in Mexico. She co-founded the Congregation of the Servants of Saint Margaret Mary and the Poor and was beatified in 2004. (AP, 4/25/04) 1878 nend Rodin created his bronze sculpture: Torso of a Man." (SFC, 1/22/99, p.D7) 1878 nend William Adolphe Bouguereau debuted his painting "La Charite" at the Exposition Universelle in Paris. (WSJ, 3/24/00, p.W4) 1878 nend Gustave Caillebotte painted his impressionist "View of Rooftops (Snow)." (SFC, 6/13/98, p.E1) 1878 nend William Merritt Chase painted "Moorish Warrior." (WSJ, 8/11/00, p.W6) 1878 nend The Thomas Eakins (1844-1916) painting "The Gross Clinic" was bought for $200 by Thomas Jefferson University, a medical and health sciences school in Philadelphia. In 2006 The National Gallery of Art agreed to buy the painting for a record $68 million, however the deal was matched by local institutions and the painting remained in Philadelphia. (AP, 11/11/06)(WSJ, 12/26/06, p.D8) 1878 nend Monet painted his "Chrysanthemums," and gave it to Dr. Gachet after a squabble about its price. (WSJ, 5/26/99, p.A20) 1878 nend Renoir painted his "Portrait of a Model" and gave it to Dr. Gachet for his visit to the young model who was dying of smallpox. (WSJ, 5/26/99, p.A20) 1878 nend Thomas Gold Appleton, poet, artist and scion of one of Boston?s first families, published his essay ?The Kingdom of the Common-Place,? in which he argued that New Englanders must reconcile themselves to ?the fatal poison? of modernity. (WSJ, 11/9/05, p.D16) 1878 nend Allen Dodworth, New York dancing master, published a new edition of his instruction manual. (HNPD, 10/9/98) 1878 nend Clarence Cook authored "The House Beautiful." (WSJ, 1/29/00, p.A24) 1878 nend Scribner?s Magazine sent a crew of bohemian writers and artists, the Tile Club, to report on life in East Hampton, NY. (SSFC, 7/18/04, p.M2) 1878 nend Tombstone?s Boot Hill was laid out as a burial plot and was originally called the Tombstone Cemetery. On that rocky hill at the edge of town lie many of the legendary characters of the "Town Too Tough To Die." The Clantons, McLaurys and other legendary Western figures were buried in Tombstone?s cemetery. During the wild and lawless years of the settling of the West, some sort of graveyard could be found near almost every town or camp. Because many of the people in those settlements died rather quickly and unexpectedly, usually with their boots on, and were buried with their boots still on, these cemeteries became known as "boot hills." (HNQ, 4/28/01) 1878 nend In Belfast, Maine, the local Masonic Temple was completed. (SSFC, 9/4/11, p.H4) 1878 nend In Nevada a tunnel to drain and ventilate the silver mines at the Comstock Lode was completed by Adolph Sutro. (G, Winter 98/99, p.1) 1878 nend The Nott Memorial of Union College at Schenectady, N.Y., was completed under the direction of architect Edward Tuckerman Potter, grandson of Eliphalet Nott, and a leader in the Victorian Gothic style. His plans were based on the original design by the French landscape architect Joseph Ramee. (WSJ, 3/21/95, p.A-12) 1878 nend General William Booth (1829-1912), the founder and leader of the Salvation Army, changed the name of his Christian Mission to the Salvation Army in 1878, adopting a military structure. (HNQ, 3/13/00) 1878 nend The first American badminton club was formed in NYC. Its charter limited play to men and "good-looking single women." (SFC, 7/3/99, p.B3) 1878 nend The Posse Comitatus Act was passed in response to abuses by federal troops in the South after the Civil War. It basically prohibited the use of the military "to execute the laws" of the US. (Wired, 8/96, p.137)(WSJ, 3/904, p.B1) 1878 nend In Reynolds vs. the US the Supreme Court rejected the freedom of religion defense for polygamy. (WSJ, 9/7/01, p.W17) 1878 nend Theodore Vail left a career position with the U.S. Post Office and was hired to become the first general manager of the Bell Telephone Co. He was able to move the company forward to nationwide service but disappointed the financial backers. He left the company until called back by Morgan in 1906. (I&I, Penzias, p.214) 1878 nend John Wesley Powell published his Report on water resources in the US West. (HFA, ?96, p.128) 1878 nend The Mendocino Hotel was built in Mendocino, Ca. (WCG, 7/95, p.93) 1878 nend Ephraim Burr (1809-1894), former mayor of SF (1856-1859), built an Italianate house at 1772 Vallejo St. (SFC, 5/5/07, p.B3) 1878 nend The Miner?s Union Hall was build in Bodie, Calif. (SFC, 6/23/96, p.T3) 1878 nend The Big Four, Leland Stanford, Collis P. Huntington, Mark Hopkins and Charles Crocker, formed the city?s second cable car company, the California Street Cable Railroad, to go from market St. to their mansions atop Nob Hill. (SFC, 7/8/96, p.D1) 1878 nend Steve?s Hardware in St. Helena Calif., was established. (SFEM, 7/28/96, p.21) 1878 nend A waiter in SF concocted the dish named chop suey for Li Hung-Chang, the first Chinese viceroy to visit SF. [see 1896] (SFEC, 3/8/98, p.W30) 1878 nend Hills Bros. Coffee was founded in SF. (SFC, 6/28/97, p.D2) 1878 nend Pete Browning, a baseball player for the Louisville Eclipse, got frustrated with his bat and received help from furniture maker J. Andrew "Bud" Hillerich." (SFEC, 7/18/99, p.T9) 1878 nend Bishop Wright gave his sons, Orville and Wilbur, a toy helicopter. (NPub, 2002, p.5) 1878 nend The Chattanooga Times came under the ownership of Adolph Ochs, who acquired the New York Times 18 years later. In 1998 the Chattanooga Times merged with the Chattanooga Free Press. (SFC, 1/4/99, p.A19) 1878 nend George Eastman of Rochester, NY, developed his own dry-plate formula for taking pictures, an improvement on a method by British photographer Charles Bennett. (ON, 3/05, p.10) 1878 nend Joseph P. McHugh (1854-1916) opened his furnishings business, the Popular Shop, in NYC. In 1884 it moved to 42nd Street. (SFC, 1/2/08, p.G3) 1878 nend Thomas Edison began working on the light bulb. British inventor Joseph Swan was also later credited for inventing the light bulb. (V.D.-H.K.p.270)(WSJ, 6/25/99, p.A1) 1878 nend An improved version of the typewriter with a shift key that permitted a change of case was put on the market. (SJSVB, 3/25/96, p.27) 1878 nend The corncob pipe was invented. (SFC, 8/28/98, p.B4) 1878 nend Philip Marqua of Cincinnati invented the "swing stand horse," a toy horse that moves back and forth on a stand as an alternative to the rocking horse. (SFC,12/24/97, Z1 p.6) 1878 nend Calamity Jane served as a devoted nurse to several ailing Deadwood, S.D., residents during the smallpox epidemic of 1878. (HNPD, 8/28/99) 1878 nend The name of Alabama?s Alcorn University was changed to Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College (Alcorn A&M). (www.alcorn.edu/about/history.htm) 1878 nend A major fire hit the seaside town of Cape May, NJ. (WSJ, 9/30/02, p.R10) 1878 nend Yellow fever decimated Memphis. (NH, 9/98, p.9) 1878 nend The clipper ship Western Shore, built in 1874 at Coos Bay for the Simpson Brothers Lumber Co. of San Francisco, ran aground on Duxbury Reef and sank near Bolinas, Ca. (SFC, 10/22/05, p.B2) 1878 nend In Afghanistan the new amir, Dost Mohammad?s son, signed a treaty of friendship with Russia. British Gen?l. Frederick "Little Bobs" Roberts was sent with an army to force Afghanistan into a treaty ceding foreign policy to the British. The treaty was concluded but the British envoy was murdered. (WSJ, 8/25/98, p.A14) 1878 nend Henry and James Doulton purchased a major interest in Pinder, Bourne & Co., a pottery in Burslem, Staffordshire, England. In 1882 they changed the name to Doulton & Co. (SFC, 10/18/06, p.G3) 1878 nend The New Wharf Pottery Co. began operating in Burslem in the Staffordshire district of England. It later became part of Wood & Son and from 1890-1894 used a rope identification mark. (SFC, 2/5/97, Z1 p.7) 1878 nend The 1st electric street lights were deployed alongside Holburn Viaduct in London, England. (Econ, 12/1/07, p.79) 1878 nend The French Academy accepted "humoristique" as a French word. (Econ, 12/20/03, p.75) 1878 nend Topf & Sons was founded in Erfurt, Germany, as a customized incinerator and malting equipment manufacturer. The firm was close to the Ettersberg hill, later the site of Buchenwald concentration camp. With the expansion of cremation in Germany as a burial rite in the 1920s, the firm's ambitious chief engineer Kurt Pruefer pioneered furnaces which complied with strict regulations on preserving the dignity of the body. In 1941 the firm agreed to build crematoria for Auschwitz and enable industrialized mass murder. (Reuters, 7/25/05) 1878 nend In India construction began on the Chattrapati Shivaji Terminus, earlier known as Victoria Terminus Station. It was completed after 10 years. UNESCO included it in their list of world heritage sites in 2004. (AP, 11/27/08) 1878 nend In India British officials recorded 624 human killings by wolves in the area of Banbirpur in the state of Uttar Pradesh. (SFC, 9/1/96, p.A16) 1878 nend In Italy the world?s first spectacles factory was built at Belluno. (Econ, 4/16/11, p.70) 1878 nend Montenegro was recognized as an independent state when it became a monarchy. (AP, 5/22/06) 1878 nend The 266-foot square-rigger Falls of Clyde was built in Glasgow, Scotland. From 1899-1922 the Matson shipping line used it to haul molasses to California and back to Hawaii with kerosene. The ship was then demasted and sent to Alaska where it became a floating fuel dock. In 1963 enthusiasts towed the ship back to Hawaii, where it later came under the ownership of the Bishop Museum. In 2008 new owners hoped to save an renovate the ship. (SSFC, 10/19/08, p.A11) 1878 nend Pope Leo XIII prohibited the hiring of new castrati by the church: only in the Sistine Chapel and in other papal basilicas in Rome did a few castrati linger. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castrato) 1878 1881 George B. McClellan (d.1885), former Union army general, served as governor of New Jersey. (ON, 12/03, p.4) 1878 1884 Theodore Roosevelt maintained a diary over this period. (SFEC, 9/29/96, Par p.8) 1878 1891 Sir John A. MacDonald, Conservative Party, again serves as the Prime Minister of Canada. (CFA, ?96, p.81) 1878 1918 Bosnia came under the rule of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. A representative from Vienna governed the area. (Econ, 11/26/05, p.65) 1878 1969 Henry Emerson Fosdick, American clergyman: "He who cannot rest, cannot work; he who cannot let go, cannot hold on; he who cannot find footing, cannot go forward." "I would rather live in a world where my life is surrounded by mystery than live in a world so small that my mind could comprehend it." (AP, 5/23/97)(AP, 3/7/98) 1878 1972 Lillian Moller Gilbreth, a mother of 12, invented such labor saving devices as the foot-lever lid lifter and the electric food mixer. She and her husband, Frank Gilbreth, pioneered the first time-and-motion studies. (SFEC, 8/16/98, Z1 p.8) 1879 nend Jan 1, E.M. [Edward Morgan] Forster (d.1970), English novelist famous for "A Passage to India" and "A Room With a View," was born in London. His novels exemplified his ideas about the conflict between the imaginative and the earthy component of the human soul and character. (V.D.-H.K.p.366)(HN, 1/1/99) 1879 nend Jan 1, William Fox, US film pioneer (Nickelodeon), was born. (MC, 1/1/02) 1879 nend Jan 3, Grace Coolidge (Goodhue) First Lady: wife of 30th U.S. President Calvin Coolidge [1923-29], was born. (440 Int'l. 1/3/99) 1879 nend Jan 5, The shares of Homestake Mining Co. began trading on the NY Stock Exchange. (WSJ, 1/5/00, p.CA1) 1879 nend Jan 11, The Zulu war against British colonial rule in South Africa began. [see Jan 12] (MC, 1/11/02) 1879 nend Jan 12, British-Zulu War began as British troops under Lieutenant General Frederic Augustus invaded Zululand from the southern African republic of Natal. [see Jan 11] (MC, 1/12/02) 1879 nend Jan 22, In South Africa battles at Isandlwana Zulu impis or regiments armed with spears and shields killed around 1,300 British troops bearing rifles. Private Samuel Wassall lived through the battle and was awarded the Victoria Cross along with 14 others. (AFP, 2/5/07)(Econ, 2/10/07, p.91) 1879 nend Jan 22-24, Eighty-two British soldiers with rifles held off attacks by 4,000 Zulu warriors with spears at the Battle of Rorke's Drift in South Africa. A large British troop had just been massacred prior to this battle. The 1964 film Zulu was based on this event. (History Channel, 4/9/98)(HN, 1/22/00) 1879 nend Feb 5, Joseph Swan demonstrated a light bulb using carbon glow. (MC, 2/5/02) 1879 nend Feb 10, The 1st electric arc light was used in a California Theater. The first electric arc lights were installed in Cleveland in this year. Some women complained that the white light blanched their complexions in a most ghastly manner. (MC, 2/10/02)(SFC, 11/30/96, p.B5) 1879 nend Feb 11, Honore Daumier (b.1808), French caricaturist, painter, died. (WUD, 1994 p.369)( www.britannica.com/eb/article-9029447) 1879 nend Feb 12, 1st artificial ice rink in North America was at Madison Square Garden, NYC. [see May 31] (MC, 2/12/02) 1879 nend Feb 15, President Hayes signed a bill allowing female attorneys to argue cases before the Supreme Court. (AP, 2/15/98)(440 Int?l., 2/15/99) 1879 nend Feb 22, Frank Winfield Woolworth's 'nothing over five cents' shop opened at Utica, New York. It was the first chain store. The "Great 5-Cent Store" failed within weeks. (SFC,10/20/97, p.B2)(AP, 2/22/99)(HN, 2/22/99) 1879 nend Feb 25, Congress passed the 1st Timberland Protection Act. (MC, 2/25/02) 1879 nend Feb 26, Mabel Dodge Luhan, American biographer, was born. (HN, 2/26/01) 1879 nend Feb 27, Constantine Fahlberg discovered saccharin, an artificial sweetener. (MC, 2/27/02) 1879 nend Feb 28, In the "Exodus of 1879" southern blacks fled political and economic exploitation. (MC, 2/28/02) 1879 nend Mar 1, Library of Hawaii was founded. (SC, 3/1/02) 1879 nend Mar 2, Julia Martha Thomas (55), a wealthy widow, was killed by her housekeeper Kate Webster (29) very close to Park Road in well-to-do Richmond, England, but her head was never found. Webster was tried and executed, but Thomas? head was never found until it was unearthed in October, 2010, by workmen building an extension at the home of David Attenborough, the face of BBC natural history programs for more than 50 years. In 2011 the skull was formally recognized as that of Julia Martha Thomas. (AFP, 7/6/11) 1879 nend Mar 3, US geological survey director was authorized in Department of the Interior. (SC, 3/3/02) 1879 nend Mar 3, Belva Ann Bennett Lockwood became the first woman to be admitted to practice before the U.S. Supreme Court. (AP, 3/3/05) 1879 nend Mar 8, Otto Hahn, German co-discoverer of nuclear fission, was born. He received a Nobel Prize in 1944. (HN, 3/8/98)(MC, 3/8/02) 1879 nend Mar 12, The British Zulu War began. Colonel Henry Evelyn Wood had expected little trouble as his cavalry ascended Hlobane Mountain. What he got was a Zulu army, 22,000 men strong. (HN, 3/12/98) 1879 nend Mar 13, New England Telephone and Bell Telephone merged to become the National Bell Telephone Co. (SFEM, 1/11/98, p.13) 1879 nend Mar 14, Physicist Albert Einstein, mathematician best known for his theories on relativity was born in Ulm, Germany. He received the Physics Nobel Prize in 1921. (CFA, ?96,Vol 179, p.42)(AP, 3/14/97)(HN, 3/14/02)(MC, 3/15/02) 1879 nend Mar 17, The US Supreme Court in Wilkerson v. Utah ruled that Utah could use a firing squad for capital punishment. (http://supreme.justia.com/us/99/130/case.html) 1879 nend Mar 19, Jim Currie opened fire on the actors Maurice Barrymore and Ben Porter near Marshall, Texas. His shots wounded Barrymore and killed Porter. (HN, 3/19/99) 1879 nend Mar 25, Japan invaded the kingdom of Liuqiu (Ryukyu) Islands, formerly a vassal of China. The Ruykyuan monarchy was abolished and the islands were annexed to create the Okinawa Prefecture. Prior to this Okinawa had paid tribute to both Japan and China. (HN, 3/25/99)(SSFC, 3/11/01, Par p.5)(NH, 9/01, p.56) 1879 nend Mar 27, Edward Steichen, pioneer of American photography, was born. (HN, 3/27/98) 1879 nend Mar 28, British mounted troops under Colonel Henry Evelyn Wood went up Hlobane Mountain to battle the Zulus?only to be surrounded by a 22,000-man impi (army). Lieutenant Colonel Redvers Buller, received the Victoria Cross for his gallantry during the difficult withdrawal of his troopers from the mountain. Hlobane was the worst rout of British cavalry?and the last Zulu victory?of the Anglo-Zulu War in South Africa. (HN, 3/12/98)(HN, 3/28/99) 1879 nend Mar 29, Tchaikovsky?s opera "Yevgeny Onegin," premiered in Moscow. (MC, 3/29/02) 1879 nend Mar 29, Some 2,000 British and Colonial troops of the 90th Light Infantry Regiment under the command of Colonel Henry Evelyn Wood repulsed a major attack by 20,000 Zulu tribesmen at Kambula, Zululand. Jubilant over their victory at Hlobane the day before, the Zulus prepared to finish off the British at Khambula. This time, however, the outcome was different as the Zulus vainly assaulted British foes who were dug in and ready for them. The assault, depicted in "The Battle of Khambula" by Angus McBride, ended in failure for the Zulus, leaving them doubting for the first time their ability to win the Anglo-Zulu War. (HN, 3/29/99)(MC, 3/29/02) 1879 nend Apr 8, Milk was sold in glass bottles for the 1st time. (MC, 4/8/02) 1879 nend Apr 9, W.C. Fields (Claude William Dukinfield [Dukenfield]), comedian, was born in Philadelphia. He began his career as a vaudeville juggler, appeared on Broadway and in motion pictures. [see Jan 29, 1880] (HN, 4/9/98)(HNQ, 9/30/01) 1879 nend Apr 16, Saint Bernadette, who had described seeing visions of the Virgin Mary at Lourdes, died in Nevers, France. (AP, 4/16/04) 1879 nend Apr 20, The first mobile home (horse drawn) was used in a journey from London to Cyprus. [what about Gypsy wagons, Conestoga wagons?] (HN, 4/20/98) 1879 nend Apr 29, Sir Thomas Beecham, founder of London Philharmonic, was born. (HN, 4/29/98) 1879 nend Apr, In Indiana a fire struck the Catholic college of Notre Dame. The administration building and several others were destroyed. (WSJ, 11/8/01, p.A22) 1879 nend May 16, Antonin Dvorak's "Slavonic Dances" premiered. (MC, 5/16/02) 1879 nend May 16, Wallace Wilkerson was executed by firing squad in Utah. It was so disgraceful that one newspaper, the Ogden Junction, sarcastically reminded the state that "the French guillotine never fails." It was 27 minutes before he could be pronounced dead. no_source 1879 nend May 16, Treaty of Gandamak between Russia and England set up the state of Afghanistan. (HN, 5/16/98) 1879 nend May 19, Lord Waldorf Astor, British publisher, was born. (HN, 5/19/98) 1879 nend May 19, Lady Nancy Astor (Nancy Witcher Langhorne) was born. She was the first woman to sit in the British House of Commons. (HN, 5/19/99) 1879 nend May 21, The Battle of Iquiquw was fought. (HN, 5/21/98) 1879 nend May 24, William Lloyd Garrison (73), abolitionist (Liberator), died. (MC, 5/24/02) 1879 nend May 25, W. Maxwell Aitken, Lord Beaverbrook, Canada-English banker, was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1879 nend May 30, Gilmore Garden in NYC was renamed Madison Square Garden. (MC, 5/30/02) 1879 nend May 31, New York?s Madison Square Garden opened its doors. (HN, 5/31/98) 1879 nend May 31, 1st electric railway opened at the Berlin Trades Exposition. (MC, 5/31/02) 1879 nend Jun 16, Gilbert & Sullivan's "HMS Pinafore" debuted at Bowery Theater in NYC. (MC, 6/16/02) 1879 nend Jun 21, Umberto Brunelleschi, Italian cartoonist, illustrator (Candide), was born. (MC, 6/21/02) 1879 nend Jun 21, F.W. Woolworth opened his 1st store. It failed almost immediately. Frank Woolworth added 10-cent items to the Great 5-Cent Store in Lancaster, Pa., and created Woolworth?s five-and-ten. This was his 2nd attempt after a failure in Utica. He took in $127 during his first day of business. (WSJ, 9/26/96, p.B1)(SFC,10/20/97, p.B2)(MC, 6/21/02) 1879 nend Jul 4, Afrikaner Union was formed by Rev SJ du Toit at Cape colony. (Maggio, 98) 1879 nend Jul 4, Battle at Rorkes Drift: Britain ended attack on Zulus. (Maggio, 98) 1879 nend Jul 5, Dwight Filley Davis (d. Nov 28, 1945 at 66), hall of famer, tennis player, presidential aide, and Sec of War under Coolidge. He donated tennis?s Davis Cup in 1945. (DTnet, 11/28/97)(MC, 7/5/02) 1879 nend Jul 7, George Caleb Bingham (b.1811), artist and legislator, died in Kansas City, Mo. His paintings included ?The Jolly Flatboatmen,? which became a best-seller in 1846 after it was chosen by the American Art Union for its annual engraving. (WSJ, 11/3/07, p.W16)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Caleb_Bingham) 1879 nend Jul 8, The first ship to use electric lights departed from San Francisco, California. (HN, 7/8/98) 1879 nend Jul 8, The steamship USS Jeannette under Lt. George W. De Long departed San Francisco on an expedition to reach the North Pole. [see June 12, 1881] (ON, 2/05, p.1) 1879 nend Jul 9, Ottorino Respighi, composer (Pines of Rome), was born in Bologna, Italy. (MC, 7/9/02) 1879 nend Aug 8, Emiliano Zapata, Mexican revolutionary who occupied Mexico City three times, was born in Anenecuilco, Morelos state, Mexico. (HN, 8/8/98)(WUD, 1994 p.1659)(Internet) 1879 nend Aug 12, The 1st National Archery Association tournament was held in Chicago. (SC, 8/12/02) 1879 nend Aug 13, John N. Ireland, English composer, pianist (Mai-Dun), was born. (MC, 8/13/02) 1879 nend Aug 23, Governor-general Charles Gordon of Sudan returned to Cairo. (MC, 8/23/02) 1879 nend Aug 28, Cetewayo (or Cetshwayo), last of the great Zulu kings, was captured by the British at the end of the Zulu wars. (RTH, 8/28/99) 1879 nend Aug 29, Jeanne Jugan (b.1792), a French nun, died. She had helped found the Little Sisters of the Poor. In 2009 she was canonized as a saint of the Catholic Church. (AP, 10/11/09)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeanne_Jugan) 1879 nend Aug 30, John Bell Hood (b.1831), former confederate general, died of yellow fever in a New Orleans epidemic. (AH, 10/02, p.46)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bell_Hood) 1879 nend Sep 10, Pacific Coast Oil Co. was founded in San Francisco by Lloyd Tevis, George Loomis and Charles Felton. In 1906 it became Standard Oil Co. (California). In 1926 it became Standard Oil Co. of California (Socal). In 1984 it became Chevron Corp. In 2001 it became ChevronTexaco. In 2005 it was renamed Chevron Corp. (SFC, 10/20/04, p.C6)(SFC, 5/10/05, p.D1) 1879 nend Sep 14, Margaret Sanger (d.1966), feminist, nurse, birth control proponent, was born in Corning, NY. [see Sep 14, 1883] (www.who2.com/margaretsanger.html) 1879 nend Sep 17, Andrew "Rube" Foster, father of the Negro baseball leagues, was born. (HN, 9/17/98) 1879 nend Sep 20, Former Pres. Ulysses S. Grant arrived in San Francisco aboard the steamship City of Tokio. He was in a bad mood because a steward had just emptied a glass of water with his false teeth through a porthole. (Ind, 2/17/00, 5A) 1879 nend Sep 23, Richard Rhodes invented a hearing aid called the Audiophone. (MC, 9/23/01) 1879 nend Sep 29, John Wise (b.1808), balloonist, drowned when his "Pathfinder" long-distance balloon fell into Lake Huron. (ON, 11/00, p.8) 1879 nend Sep 29, Dissatisfied Ute Indians killed Agent Nathan Meeker and nine others in the "Meeker Massacre." (HN, 9/29/98) 1879 nend Sep, James McNeill Whistler (1834-1903), artist, arrived in Venice following a lawsuit against critic John Ruskin that awarded him a single farthing. (SFC, 2/15/03, p.D5) 1879 nend Oct 2, Wallace Stevens, poet, was born. (HN, 10/2/00) 1879 nend Oct 2, A dual alliance was formed between Austria and Germany, in which the two countries agreed to come to the other?s aid in the event of aggression. (HN, 10/2/98) 1879 nend Oct 4, Edward Murray East, botanist, was born. His research led to the development of hybrid corn. (HN, 10/4/00) 1879 nend Oct 8, Former Pres. Ulysses S. Grant was treated to a reception by Nevada Senator William Sharon at the old Ralston mansion in Belmont, Ca. Grant had just finished a tour around the world. (Ind, 7/1/00,5A) 1879 nend Oct 9, Max von Laue, German physicist, was born. (HN, 10/9/00) 1879 nend Oct 12, British troops occupied Kabul, Afghanistan. (MC, 10/12/01) 1879 nend Oct 19, Thomas Edison demonstrated the electric light. [see Oct 21] (MC, 10/19/01) 1879 nend Oct 21, Thomas Edison perfected his carbonized cotton filament light bulb after 14 months of testing at his laboratory in Menlo Park, N.J. It was the first incandescent electric lamp. The bulb burned for about 13 œ hours. (AP, 10/21/97)(HN, 10/21/02)(AH, 10/04, p.15) 1879 nend Oct 26, Leon Trotsky (d.1940), a leader of the Bolshevik Revolution, was born. "Old age is the most unexpected of all the things that happen to a man." [see Nov 7,8] (AP, 8/21/98)(HN, 10/26/98) 1879 nend Oct 29, Franz JHMM von Papen, German diplomat and chancellor (1932), was born. (MC, 10/29/01) 1879 nend Nov 4, William Penn Adair Rogers (d.1935) was born on a ranch in Indian Territory (now Oklahoma). "I never met a man I didn't like." He was widely loved during the 1920s and 1930s for his gentle humor and homespun philosophies. Part Cherokee Indian, Rogers once told a Boston audience, "My ancestors didn't come over on the Mayflower, but they met the boat." Rogers got his show business start in 1902 doing rope tricks in a Wild West show. He moved on to vaudeville and, by 1916, he was the wisecracking star of Florenz Ziegfeld's "Follies." As a newspaper columnist and book author, Rogers poked fun at important people and events, and he was equally successful as a motion picture actor. Rogers' film credits include "A Connecticut Yankee" in 1931 and "State Fair" in 1933. The nation mourned when Will Rogers, along with pilot Wiley Post, were killed in an Alaska plane crash on August 15, 1935. "Statesmen think they make history; but history makes itself and drags the statesmen along." (HFA, ?96, p.18)(HNPD, 11/4/98)(HN, 11/4/98)(AP, 7/10/99) 1879 nend Nov 5, James Clerk Maxwell (48) Scottish physicist (speed of light), died. (MC, 11/5/01) 1879 nend Nov 7, Leon Davidovitsj Trotsky, [Leib Bronstein], Russian revolutionary, was born. [see Oct 26, Nov 8] (MC, 11/7/01) 1879 nend Nov 8, Leon Trotsky, Russian communist leader who rivaled Lenin, was born. [see Oct 26, Nov 7] (HN, 11/6/98) 1879 nend Nov 10, Vachel Lindsay, poet, was born. His work included "Rhymes to be Traded for Bread." (HN, 11/10/00) 1879 nend Nov 10, Little Bighorn participant Major Marcus Reno was caught window-peeping at the daughter of his commanding officer--an offense for which he would be court-martialed. (HN, 11/10/98) 1879 nend Nov 27, Virgil Earp became a Deputy U.S. Marshall. (MesWP) 1879 nend Nov 27, Adam Tadeusz Wieniawski, composer, was born. (MC, 11/27/01) 1879 nend Nov 29, Wyatt Earp arrived in Tombstone, AZ. (MesWP) 1879 nend Dec 18, Paul Klee (d.1940), Swiss abstract painter best known for The Mocker Mocked, was born. (HN, 12/18/98) 1879 nend Dec 20, Thomas A. Edison privately demonstrated his incandescent light at Menlo Park, N.J. (AP, 12/20/97) 1879 nend Dec 21, Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili, aka Joseph Stalin, was born. Joseph Stalin, Communist leader of the Soviet Union was responsible for the killing of more than 10 million of his own people. (HN, 12/21/98)(HNQ, 4/6/00) 1879 nend Dec 24, Stanislav Pylypovych Lyudkevych, composer, was born. (MC, 12/24/01) 1879 nend Dec 26, The "Tragic Overture" by Johannes Brahms premiered. (MC, 12/26/01) 1879 nend Dec 27, Thomas Nast paired the elephant and the donkey in a political cartoon with an Abe Lincoln-like figure standing over a sleeping elephant while a donkey with a tail labeled Delaware drags a hatless democrat over a precipice. (Hem, 8/96, p.84) 1879 nend Dec 28, The new Tay Bridge in Scotland, opened in 1877 over the Firth of Tay, collapsed during a storm as a train was crossing. Some 75 people were killed. (AFP, 5/16/08)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tay_Rail_Bridge) 1879 nend Dec 29, Billy Mitchell, aviation hero Gen (WW I), was born. (MC, 12/29/01) 1879 nend Dec 30, Gilbert & Sullivan's "Pirates of Penzance," premiered in London. (MC, 12/30/01) 1879 nend Dec 31, Gilbert and Sullivan's "Pirates of Penzance," premiered in NYC. (MC, 12/31/01) 1879 nend Dec 31, Thomas Edison first publicly demonstrated his electric incandescent light in Menlo Park, N.J. and took out a patent. (AP, 12/31/97)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1879 nend Cezanne, French painter, painted his Self-Portrait. He also began work on "Auvers-Sur-Oise" (The Fence), which was completed in 1882. On Jan 1, 2000, the $4.8 million Auvers painting was stolen from the Ashmoleum Museum in Oxford. (WSJ, 9/28/95, p.A-16)(SFEC, 1/2/00, p.A2) 1879 nend Clyde Cessna (d.1954) was born in Kansas. Enamored with flying after Louis Blériot's 1909 famous flight across the English Channel, Oklahoma automobile salesman Clyde Cessna became a pioneer aviator--flying, building and selling airplanes. (HNQ, 7/31/01) 1879 nend Edgar Degas, while in New Orleans, painted "Miss La La at the Cirque Fernando." (SFEC, 1/4/98, BR p.9) 1879 nend Monet painted "Lavacourt in Winter." (SFC, 1/29/99, p.D6) 1879 nend Pissaro painted "Rabbit Warren at Pontoise, Snow." (SFC, 1/29/99, p.D6) 1879 nend In Paris Pierre-Auguste Renoir painted "Two Little Circus Girls," a picture of Francisca and Angelina Wartenberg, jugglers in the Spanish Cirque Fernande. (DPCP 1984) 1879 nend John Singer Sargent began painting "The Spanish Dance." (WSJ, 2/23/99, p.A20) 1879 nend Dostoevsky wrote "The Brothers Karamazov." (WSJ, 3/28/95, p.A-24) 1879 nend Henry George, economist, authored "Progress and Poverty." He laid out tax ideas that were based on a single tax on the value of land. He argued that the value of land was based on its location and that the value of the land should flow to society as a whole rather than the person who holds title. (WSJ, 5/28/99, p.B1) 1879 nend Henrik Ibsen wrote his play "A Doll?s House." Much of the dialogue was written to move characters on and off stage. (WSJ, 4/4/97, p.A7)(SFC, 1/7/99, p.A8) 1879 nend The Bliss Mansion was built in Carson City for Duane Bliss, a lumber magnate. He supplied lumber to the Comstock mines. (SSFC, 11/19/06, p.F10) 1879 nend The Washington Square United Methodist Church was built in NYC. In 2004 the congregation dropped to 60 and it was put up for sale asking $13 million. (WSJ, 12/29/04, p.B6) 1879 nend The Bishop?s House at 219-223 S.W. Stark St. in Portland, Oregon, was built by Archbishop Blanchet. (Exc, 6/96, p.72) 1879 nend Mary Baker Eddy (1821-1910), founded the Church of Christ, Science. (WSJ, 9/26/03, p.W17) 1879 nend Independence, Colo., was founded as a mining camp. It was purchased by the Aspen Valley Land Trust in 2001 and transferred to the US Forest Service in 2004. (USAT, 1/30/04, p.7A) 1879 nend The Bowery Mission in New York City was founded. Its broad goal was to "save mankind" and it served to aid the homeless. (WSJ, 1/7/97, p.A19) 1879 nend Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894), the future author of "The Amateur Emigrant" and other works, authored ?Travels with a Donkey.? It covered 12 days spent trekking in the Cevennes Mountains in France with the donkey, Celestine. He embarked this year on a 6,000-mile journey from his native Scotland to see his ailing-and married-lover in California. Stevenson, the author of "Treasure Island," must have realized the recklessness of this venture. There was no guarantee that the object of his affection-Frances (Fanny) Vandegrift Osbourne, would abandon her comfortable life and run off with the then-little-known author. Yet he seemed compelled to make the appeal, telling a friend that "No man is of any use until he has dared everything." The pair married on May 19, 1880. (HNQ, 9/6/98)(WSJ, 9/23/06, p.P8) 1879 nend Pres. Rutherford B. Hayes had the first White House telephone installed. (SFC, 2/3/97, p.D1) 1879 nend Congress passed a law that banned ships from bringing more than 15 Chinese passengers to the US at one time. (SFEC, 9/20/98, Z1 p.4) 1879 nend The US Congress made the US Army Corps of Engineers the leader of a new agency, The Mississippi River Commission, charged with controlling the Mississippi River. (NH, 2/05, p.45) 1879 nend Texas passed legislation that made gay and lesbian activity a crime. The law was modified in 1993 to make homosexual sex a misdemeanor with a fine up to $500. (SFEC,11/30/97, p.A6)(SFC, 11/7/98, p.A7) 1879 nend In SF police arrested dancer Mabel Santly for indecent exposure following a vilification of the Can-can by the SF Chronicle. She was fined $300 for failing to keep her skirts around her ankles. (SFEM,11/30/97, p.20) 1879 nend P.T. Barnum (60) teamed up with James A. Bailey to create "The Greatest Show on Earth." [see Mar 28, 1881] (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R40) 1879 nend Adolph Sutro returned to SF after becoming a millionaire from building a tunnel at the silver mines of the Nevada Comstock Lode. (G, Winter 98/99, p.1) 1879 nend The American Furniture Co. was first organized in Batesville, Ind. It was re-organized in 1888 and in 1930 merged with 2 other firms to form RomWeber Co. (SFC, 12/13/06, p.E3) 1879 nend Genesee Brewing began producing beer in Rochester, NY. (SFC, 3/13/00, p.B2) 1879 nend Armour & Co., a Chicago meat processor founded in the 1860s, introduced canned meats. Canned condensed milk was introduced in 1912. The ?Armour?s Star? trademark was first used in 1931. (SFC, 8/2/06, p.G7) 1879 nend The Women?s Christian Temperance Union founded their 1st Northern California chapter in Petaluma. (SFC, 8/27/04, p.F2) 1879 nend The Italianate Crowley Opera House in Napa, Ca, was built. It went dark in 1914 and in 1973 local citizens lobbied to have it designated as a national landmark. It re-opened in 2003. (SFEC, 2/15/98, DB p.31)(SFC, 6/19/02, p.D1)(SFC, 8/4/03, p.A1) 1879 nend Chinese settlers built a temple dedicated to the river god, Bok Kai, at Marysville, Ca., at the junction of the Yuba and Feather Rivers. (HT, 3/97, p.10) 1879 nend A new California state constitution was adopted. (SFC, 10/14/99, p.A27) 1879 nend The California constitutional convention called for a state Board of Equalization to standardize the appraisal methods used by independent county assessors in property tax assessment. (SFC, 9/13/00, p.A15)(SFC, 6/21/11, p.D5) 1879 nend In southern California 3 community leaders, Ozro W. Childs, a Protestant horticulturist; former California Governor John G. Downey, an Irish-Catholic businessman; and Isaias W. Hellman, a German-Jewish banker and philanthropist, deeded to the Board of Trustees of the nascent University of Southern California 308 lots, which were located in an area designated "West Los Angeles," near the intersection of Vermont Avenue and Exposition Boulevard. (www.usc.edu/dept/publications/cat2005/about_usc/history.html) 1879 nend Milton Latham went broke and his SF home was auctioned off. (Ind, 1/9/98, p.5A) 1879 nend The San Francisco Free Public Library was opened in Pacific Hall on Bush St., between Kearny and Dupont (later Grant) streets. (SFC, 4/14/96, EM, p.20) 1879 nend Gustave Niebaum, a Finnish sea captain, founded the Inglenook Winery near Rutherford in the Napa Valley of California. Niebaum had made a fortune in the Alaskan fur trade. His Inglenook Chateau, designed by Hamden McIntyre, opened in 1887. The winery was later sold in pieces to movie director, Francis Ford Coppola, who bought a large part in 1975 and the rest of it in 1994-95. In 1994 Constellation Brands acquired Inglenook Vineyards in the Central Valley and in 2008 sold the winery to the Wine Group of San Francisco along with Almaden Vineyards in a deal valued at $134 million. (WSJ, 11/7/95, p.A-20)(SFC, 1/24/08, p.C3)(SSFC, 4/26/09, p.E6) 1879 nend The Hercules Powder Works began manufacturing explosives north of Richmond, Ca. Production later shifted to fertilizer and continued until 1964. As the company moved out residential developers moved in and the town of Hercules took the company name. (SFC, 5/30/06, p.D1) 1879 nend California?s population was about 865,000. (Econ, 3/19/11, SR p.7) 1879 nend William Proctor and James Gamble launched Ivory soap in Cincinnati. In 2004 Davis Dyer, Frederick Dalzell and Rowena Olegario authored ?Rising Tide: Lessons from 165 years of Brand Building at proctor & Gamble.? (Econ, 7/24/04, p.75) 1879 nend Edwin Hall (1855-1938), American physicist, discovered a phenomenon that came to be called the Hall effect. He noted how electrons on a sheet of conductive material will be pushed towards one of the faces of the sheet under an electric current in a magnetic field. (Econ, 3/18/06, p.77) 1879 nend By this time a judge spread the claim that Dr. Jackson?s Eye Water had cured his crippling ?red skin? disease. Dr. Alvah Jackson of Eureka Springs, Ark., had bottled water from the local Basin Spring as a elixir following claims that it had cured his son?s granulated eyelids. (SSFC, 9/16/07, p.G5) 1879 nend George Frederick Armstrong, British scientist, spent a summer measuring the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere in a garden in Grasmere, England. He was able to determine that there did exist a diurnal rise and fall in carbon dioxide concentration. (NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.246) 1879 nend James Ritty (1836-1918) and his brother invented the 1st cash register. It was to combat stealing by bartenders in his Dayton, Ohio, saloon. The first model looked like a clock, but instead of the hands indicating hours and minutes, they indicated dollars and cents. Behind the dial two adding discs accumulated the total of the amounts recorded. Known as "the incorruptible cashier," with no cash drawer, it would show anyone within sight how much had been recorded. They received a patent Jan 30, 1883. (www.inventors.about.com)(www.uspto.gov/go/kids/kidjan.htm) 1879 nend Photogravure was invented. It involved the transfer of photographic images onto a copper plate by acid-etching. The plate is then inked and pressed by hand onto artist's paper for a print of exceptional detail. (WSJ, 1/28/99, p.A1) 1879 nend George Eastman of Rochester, NY, perfected a ready-to-use dry plate for photography. Eastman sought to improve the chemistry and the processes of photography that had, for 40 years, required subjects to remain perfectly still for exposure times of up to a minute. (HN, 7/12/99) 1879 nend Lt. Col. Richard Henry Pratt persuaded Washington to hand over the mothballed Carlisle military barracks in Pennsylvania for use as a school for American Indians. In the early 20th century the school became a football powerhouse, beating Army in 1912. In 1918 the school was turned into a hospital to receive soldiers wounded in WW I. (WSJ, 1/7/07, p.P9) 1879 nend Radcliffe College was established as the "Harvard Annex" for women who were denied access to Harvard. Its name was changed to Radcliffe in 1894 in honor of Ann Radcliffe. (SFC, 4/21/99, p.A2) 1879 nend The striped bass was introduced into the San Francisco Bay. It later became an indicator species of the Bay?s health and an archenemy of the Bay?s native fishes. (Pac. Disc., summer, ?96, p.6) 1879 nend In Nevada the "Great Fire of Reno" claimed six lives. (AP, 11/5/06) 1879 nend In Afghanistan Sher Ali died in Mazar-i-Shariff, and Amir Muhammad Yaqub Khan took over until October 1879. Amir Muhammad Yaqub Khan gave up the following Afghan territories to the British: Kurram, Khyber, Michni, Pishin, and Sibi. Afghans lost these territories permanently. (www.afghan, 5/25/98) 1879 nend Gen?l. Roberts returned to Kabul to hang some Afghans in punishment for the murder of a British envoy. Roberts was besieged and another British force in southern Afghanistan was almost annihilated. Roberts retreated in a march from Kabul to Kandahar. (WSJ, 8/25/98, p.A14) 1879 nend The Royal National Park, Australia?s first national park, was officially gazetted. (Hem., 1/97, p.56) 1879 nend A cylindrical lump of platinum-iridium alloy was cast in Hatton Garden, England, and then dispatched to the Int?l. Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) in Sevres, France, as the standard measure for one kilogram. An ingot for the meter was deposited in 1889. (Econ, 1/29/11, p.79) 1879 nend Rabbi Yaakov Abuhatzeira, the son of the chief rabbi of Morocco, was making his way from his native Morocco to the Holy Land when he fell ill and died in the Egyptian city of Damanhour near Alexandria. He is revered by some Jews as a mystic renowned for his piety and for performing miracles. (AP, 1/4/10) 1879 nend Edmond de Goncourt published his French novel "Les Freres Zemganno." (Econ, 12/20/03, p.75) 1879 nend Germany raised tariffs to limit agricultural and steel imports. (WSJ, 3/29/04, p.A1) 1879 nend Rosenthal began making porcelain plates in Selb, Germany. Limited edition Christmas plates were introduced in 1910. (SFC, 12/21/05, p.G6) 1879 nend Sotirio Boulgaris, silver artisan, migrated from Greece to Italy. (SFEM,7/28/96, p.32) 1879 nend Giuseppe Albertotti founded the Italian Opthalmological Society. (WSJ, 4/6/06, p.A12) 1879 nend In Japan the Asahi Shimbun newspaper was founded. (SFC,10/20/97, p.A19) 1879 nend The Tenshodo store, located in the heart of Ginza, the busiest high-end shopping district in Tokyo, was founded. (AP, 1/2/10) 1879 nend In Hungary the Tisza River overflowed and destroyed 5,500 of 5,800 houses in the town of Szeged. (Hem., 6/98, p.127) 1879 nend The Cyrus Cylinder was discovered by the Assyro-British archaeologist Hormuzd Rassam in the foundations of the Esagila, the main temple of Babylon, and was later placed in the British Museum in London. The cylinder was created following the Persian conquest of Babylon in 539 BC, when Cyrus overthrew the Babylonian king Nabonidus and replaced him as ruler, ending the Neo-Babylonian Empire. It was later considered as the world's first declaration of human rights. (http://tinyurl.com/lma678)(AFP, 2/7/10) 1879 nend The Peru Navy commissioned its first submarine, 21 years before the US Navy did the same. (SFEC, 8/11/96, zone 1, p.6) 1879 nend Cinque (b.~1813), the leader of the 1839 Amistad revolt, died in Sierra Leone. (www.africawithin.com/bios/joseph_cinque.htm) 1879 nend In South Africa John Dunn (d.1885), Englishman and friend of Zulu King Cetshwayo, was granted 10,000 acres after the Anglo-Zulu war. Dunn took 27 Zulu wives and was declared a chief by the king. (SFC, 8/13/01, p.A9) 1879 nend In Spain Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola, a lawyer and amateur archeologist, discovered the Altamira Cave. His daughter Maria (8) discovered the 14,500 year-old wall paintings. (WSJ, 9/18/01, p.A20)(ON, 10/02, p.1) 1879 1883 In the War of the Pacific, Chile?s army won the nitrate-rich desert lands from Peru and Bolivia. The war was fought over the treatment of Chilean investors in the desert territories. The area remained in contention until a 1929 agreement proposed by Pres. Herbert Hoover. (SFC, Z-1, 4/28/96, p.5)(SFEC, 11/14/99, p.A22) 1879 1889 Nietzsche wrote all his best books. (V.D.-H.K.p.279)(www.dartmouth.edu/~fnchron/index.html) 1879 1914 http://www.worldwar1.com/tlalli.htm no_source 1879 1940 Paul Klee, Swiss painter and etcher. His work included "Geschwister" (Brother and Sister - 1930), an abstract painting of 3-dimensional interlocking planes. In 1996 it sold for $4.3 mil. (WUD, 1994, p.790)(SFC, 7/2/96, p.E3) 1879 1940 Leon Trotsky: "Old age is the most unexpected of all the things that happen to a man." (AP, 8//98) 1879 1944 Katharine Fullerton Gerould, American writer: The real drawback to 'the simple life' is that it is not simple. If you are living it, you positively can do nothing else. There is not time. "Funny how people despise platitudes, when they are usually the truest thing going. A thing has to be pretty true before it gets to be a platitude." (AP, 7/5/97)(AP, 1/7/99) 1879 1949 Robert Lynd, British essayist: "Were I a philosopher, I should write a philosophy of toys, showing that nothing else in life need to be taken seriously, and that Christmas Day in the company of children is one of the few occasions on which men become entirely alive." (AP, 12/25/98) 1879 1950 Alfred Korzybski, Polish-American linguist: "There are two ways to slice easily through life; to believe everything or to doubt everything. Both ways save us from thinking." (AP, 2/16/98) 1879 1951 John Erskine, American author and educator: "Opinion is that exercise of the human will which helps us to make a decision without information." (AP, 2/18/00) 1879 1953 Joseph Stalin, (Josif Vissarionovitch Dzhugashvili), Communist party leader. He was Sec. of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1922-1953, and Premier from 1941-1953. (AHD, 1971, p.1255)(AHD, p.1255) 1879 1955 Albert Einstein: "The most beautiful experience we can have is the mysterious ... the fundamental emotion which stands at the cradle of true art and true science." (AP, 7/19/97) 1879 1955 Wallace Stevens, American poet and author: "All history is modern history." (AP, 1/27/00) 1879 1958 Dorothy Canfield Fisher, American author and essayist: "If we would only give, just once, the same amount of reflection to what we want to get out of life that we give to the question of what to do with a two weeks? vacation, we would be startled at our false standards and the aimless procession of our busy days." (AP, 10/9/98) 1879 1959 Ethel Barrymore, American actress: "You must learn day by day, year by year, to broaden your horizon. The more things you love, the more you are interested in, the more you enjoy, the more you are indignant about?the more you have left when anything happens." (AP, 8/7/98) 1879 1963 Lord Beveridge, British economist: "Scratch a pessimist, and you find often a defender of privilege." (AP, 3/25/99) 1879 1964 Viscountess Astor, American-born English politician: "The penalty of success is to be bored by people who used to snub you." (AP, 6/13/97) 1879 1973 Edward Steichen, American photographer: "Every 10 years a man should give himself a good kick in the pants." (AP, 2/1/97) 1880 nend Jan 1, The building of the Panama Canal was symbolically begun under the direction of French diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps. Actual construction began a year later. In 2007 Matthew Parker authored ?Panama Fever: The Battle to Build the Canal.? (http://www.ared.com/history.htm)(Econ, 2/24/07, p.96) 1880 nend Jan 6, Tom Mix, silent screen cowboy actor (Dick Turpin), was born in Mix Run, Pa. (MC, 1/6/02) 1880 nend cJan 8, Emperor Norton died in San Francisco and had an elaborate funeral sponsored by the Pacific Union Club at a cost of $10,000. His remains were later moved from the Masonic Cemetery to Woodlawn Cemetery with a marble tombstone inscribed: Norton I...Emperor of the United States and Protector of Mexico. Joshua A. Norton 1815-1880. Dr. Robert Burns Aird (d.2000) later composed a musical based on Norton's life. The organization E Clampus Vitius later proceeded to hold an annual memorial services at his Colma grave site. (HFA, '96, p.65)(G&M, 7/30/97, p.A24)(SFC, 2/22/00, p.A20)(CHA, 1/2001) 1880 nend Jan 21, 1st US sewage disposal system, separate from storm drains, was established in Memphis. (MC, 1/21/02) 1880 nend Jan 26, Douglas MacArthur (d.1964), U.S. general in World War I, was born. He was the youngest general in the U.S. Army in WW I. In World War II he was the commander of all U.S. Army forces in the South Pacific; in Korea he commanded all United Nations forces. William Manchester wrote his biography: "American Caesar: Douglas MacArthur." (BS, 5/3/98, p.13E)(HN, 1/26/99) 1880 nend Jan 27, Thomas Edison received a patent for his electric incandescent lamp. (AP, 1/27/98) 1880 nend Jan 28, Henry Casebolt, San Francisco inventor of the cable car grip, sold his interest in the Sutter Street Railway. (www.cable-car-guy.com/html/ccwho.html#hxc) 1880 nend Jan 29, W.C. Fields, comedian and actor, was born in Philadelphia as Claude William Dukinfield [Dukenfield]. His films included "David Copperfield" and "My Little Chickadee." [see Apr 9 1879] (HN, 1/29/99)(MC, 1/29/02) 1880 nend Jan, Anselm Feuerbach, German painter and close friend of Johannes Brahms, died. (BLW, Geiringer, 1963 ed. p.320) 1880 nend Feb 1, In San Francisco the buildings of the new St. Ignatius campus at Van Ness and Hayes were dedicated. Archbishop Alemany and bishop James A. Healy presided over the dedication of the new church oh Hayes St. (GenIV, Winter 04/05) 1880 nend Feb 12, John L. Lewis, American labor leader, was born. (HN, 2/12/01) 1880 nend Feb 17, Tsar Alexander II of Russia survived an assassination attempt. (MC, 2/17/02) 1880 nend Mar 1, Lytton Strachey (d.1932), English biographer, critic (Benson Medal 1923), was born. "Uninterpreted truth is as useless as buried gold." (AP, 3/25/00)(SC, 3/1/02) 1880 nend Mar 4, NY Daily Graphic published 1st half-tone engraving made by S.H. Horgan. (SC, 3/4/02) 1880 nend Mar 8, President Rutherford B. Hayes declared that the United States would have jurisdiction over any canal built across the isthmus of Panama. (HN, 3/8/99) 1880 nend Mar 10, The Salvation Army arrived in the United States from England. The organization had been founded in Britain in 1865 by William Booth, a street preacher. It drew on revivalism and attention-getting tactics. In 1980 Edward McKinley authored "Marching To Glory," a definitive history of the army. In 1999 Diane Winston published "Red-Hot and Righteous," a history of the army's efforts in New York up to 1950. (AP, 3/10/98)(WSJ, 8/12/99, p.A20) 1880 nend Mar 12, Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902) and C.D. Rudd launched the De Beers Mining Company after the amalgamation of a number of individual claims in South Africa. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cecil_Rhodes) 1880 nend Mar 23, John Stevens of Neenah, Wis., patented the grain crushing mill. This mill allowed flour production to increase by 70 percent. (HN, 3/23/98) 1880 nend Mar 25, Joseph Rummel (61), composer, died. (MC, 3/25/02) 1880 nend Mar 26, Duncan Hines, US restaurant guide writer (Out of Kentucky Kitchens), was born. (HN, 3/25/98)(SS, 3/26/02) 1880 nend Mar 30, Sean O'Casey (d. 1964), Irish playwright, was born. "It is my rule never to lose me temper till it would be detrimental to keep it." (AP, 3/17/00)(HN, 3/30/01) 1880 nend Mar 31, Wabash, Ind., became the first town completely illuminated by electrical lighting. (AP, 3/31/97)(HN, 3/31/98) 1880 nend Mar 31, Henryk Wieniawski (44), Polish violist, composer, died. (MC, 3/31/02) 1880 nend Mar, In NYC the Metropolitan Museum opened its new building on Fifth Ave. Its crown jewel was the Cesnola collection of antiquities of Cypriot artifacts collected by Luigi Palma de Cesnola. Cesnola was named the first director. (AM, 7/97, p.68) 1880 nend Apr 8, Victor Schertzinger, composer, director (Uptown NY), was born. (MC, 4/8/02) 1880 nend Apr 10, Frances Perkins, Labor secretary, first woman cabinet member in an American Administration, was born. (HN, 4/10/98) 1880 nend Apr 15, William Gladstone became Prime Minister of England. (HN, 4/15/98) 1880 nend Apr 15, Max Wertheimer, Czech-born psychologist, was born. (HN, 4/15/01) 1880 nend Apr 17, National Bell reached a settlement with Western Union and became the American Bell Telephone Co. (SFEM, 1/11/98, p.13) 1880 nend Apr 19, The Times war correspondent telephoned a report of the battle of Ahmed Khel, the first time news was sent from a field of battle in this manner. (HN, 4/19/99) 1880 nend Apr 26, Mikhail Fokine (d.1942), choreographer, founder of modern dance, was born in Russia. (MC, 4/26/02) 1880 nend May 8, Gustave Flaubert (b.1821), French novelist, died. He revealed in painful detail the small foibles of a bourgeois life and believed in perfection of form and the absolute value of art. His work included "Madam Bovary," "Salammbo" and "A Simple Heart." "Our ignorance of history causes us to slander our own times." In 2006 Frederick Brown authored ?Flaubert : A Biography.? (V.D.-H.K.p.278)(AP, 6/19/99)(HN, 12/12/99)(WSJ, 4/15/06, p.P8) 1880 nend May 9, Johann Hermann Berens (54), composer, died. (MC, 5/9/02) 1880 nend May 11, A US Marshal and his deputies faced a group of farmers in the San Joaquin Valley of California over a land dispute between the farmers and the Southern Pacific Railroad. The farmers had developed an irrigation system that turned the land into a rich agricultural area and the Railroad then claimed the land for itself and won a suit to that effect. Seven men were killed in what became known as the battle of Mussel Slough. (Smith., 5/95, p.84) 1880 nend May 18, In the 6th Kentucky Derby George Lewis aboard Fonso won in 2:37œ. (SC, 5/18/02) 1880 nend May 28, Ada May, a schooner with 120,000 feet of lumber, hit the Colorado Reef at Montara and was destroyed by the surf. (Ind, 3/31/01, 5A) 1880 nend May 29, Oswald Spengler, German philosopher of history, was born. He maintained that every culture grows, matures and decays. He wrote the book "The Decline of the West." (HN, 5/29/99) 1880 nend Jun 1, The first pay telephone was installed in the Yale Bank Building in New Haven, Conn. (DTnet, 6/1/97) 1880 nend Jun 1, The U.S. census stood at 50,155,783. (DTnet, 6/1/97) 1880 nend Jun 5, Wild woman of the west Myra Maybelle Shirley married Sam Starr even though records show she was already married to Bruce Younger. (HN, 6/5/99) 1880 nend Jun 11, Jeannette Rankin, Congresswoman from Montana, the first woman in Congress who also voted against U.S. participation in both world wars, was born. (HN, 6/11/98) 1880 nend Jun 12, Baseball?s first perfect game. The southpaw, left-handed Lee Richmond of the Worcester, Massachusetts, Ruby Legs, pitched himself to perfection with a 1-0 shutout of the Cleveland Spiders in a National League game. (MC, 6/12/02) 1880 nend Jun 17, Carl Van Vechten, writer, poet, was born. (HN, 6/17/01) 1880 nend Jun 18, John Sutter (b.1803), Swiss-born California settler (gold discovered on his land), died in Lititz, Pa. (SSFC, 4/13/03, p.D6)(MC, 6/18/02) 1880 nend Jun 21, Arnold Lucius Gesell, psychologist and pediatrician, was born. (HN, 6/21/01) 1880 nend Summer, Robert Louis Stevenson and his new wife, Fanny Osbourne, honeymooned at Mount St. Helena. He moved to an abandoned mining camp in the Palisades cliffs above Napa Valley and worked on his novel "Treasure Island." He made notes for his book "Silverado Squatters." (SFEC, 10/6/96, T3)(SFC,11/25/97, p.A15) 1880 nend Jun 29, France annexed Tahiti. (HN, 6/29/98) 1880 nend Jun 27, Helen Adams Keller (d. Jun 1, 1968 at 87) author, social reformer, educator, lecturer, was born in Tuscumbia, Ala. She lost her sight and hearing at 19 months of age from scarlet fever. She received a college degree and became an author (Let us Have Faith) and lecturer despite being blind and deaf most of her life. Helen Keller died in Westport, Connecticut. "No matter how dull, or how mean, or how wise a man is, he feels that happiness is his indisputable right." "There is no king who has not had a slave among his ancestors, and no slave who has not had a king among his." (DTnet, 6/1/97)(AP, 11/17/97)(SFEC, 8/16/98, BR p.3)(AP, 12/16/98) 1880 nend Jul 5, Jan Kubelik, composer, was born. (MC, 7/5/02) 1880 nend Jul 6, Russia?s Tsar Alexander II, less than a month after Tsarina Maria's death on June 8, formed a morganatic marriage with his mistress Princess Catherine Dolgoruki, with whom he already had three children. A fourth child would be born to them before his death. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_II_of_) 1880 nend Jul 23, 1st commercial hydroelectric power planet began in Grand Rapids, Mich. (MC, 7/23/02) 1880 nend Jul 25, Morris Raphel Cohen, American philosopher and mathematician, was born. (HN, 7/25/98) 1880 nend Jul 27, A.P. Abourne patented a process for refining coconut oil. (MC, 7/27/02) 1880 nend Jul 30, Robert Rutherford ("Colonel") McCormick, US, editor, publisher (Chicago Tribune), was born. (MC, 7/30/02) 1880 nend Jul 31, Fancy Farm in Kentucky announced in a local newspaper upcoming barn dance, picnic and gander pulling. The event grew to become a major event and its 1982 event was certified in the Guinness Book of Records as the world?s largest picnic. (Econ, 8/14/10, p.26) 1880 nend Jul, In the Battle of Maiwand an Afghan woman named Malalai carried the Afghan flag forward after the soldiers carrying the flag were killed by the British. She becomes a heroine for her show of courage and valor. The 1892 Kipling poem "Barracks Room Ballads" recalled the Battle of Maiwand. (www.afghan, 5/25/98)(SSFC, 10/28/01, p.C8) 1880 nend Aug 1, Sir Frederick Roberts freed the British Afghanistan garrison of Kandahar from Afghan rebels. (HN, 8/1/98) 1880 nend Aug 14, Construction of Cologne Cathedral, begun in 1248, was completed 633 years after it was begun. (MC, 8/14/02) 1880 nend Aug 22, George Herriman (d.1944), cartoonist and creator of Krazy Kat, was born. (HN, 8/22/00) 1880 nend Aug 24, Joshua L. Cowen, inventor of the electric train, was born. (MC, 8/24/02) 1880 nend Aug 25, Robert E. Stolz (d.1976), Austrian composer, conductor, was born. He initially auditioned under Johann Strauss and later became conductor at the Theater-an-der-Wien. (WSJ, 12/28/99, p.A16)(MC, 8/25/02) 1880 nend Aug 31, Queen Wilhelmina of Netherlands (d. Nov 28, 1962 at 82) was born. She reigned from 1890-1947. (DTnet, 11/28/97)(YN, 8/31/99) 1880 nend Sep 12, H.L. Mencken (Henry Louis Mencken, d.1956), American author, social satirist, was born in Baltimore, Md. He worked for the "Baltimore Sun" and later edited the "Smart Set" magazine with George Jean Nathan. He wrote a philological work entitled "The American Language." Nietzschean iconoclast H.L. Mencken referred to "Boobus Americanus" and was cynical about American democracy. Mencken won fame as a journalist with the Baltimore Morning Herald and Baltimore Sun, editor of The American Mercury magazine and as a literary critic. Mencken's criticism was often directed at the American middle class and members of what he called...the "boobeoisie (BOOB-WA-ZEE)." Very popular in the post-WWI period, Mencken?s literary criticism was instrumental in bringing writers such as D.H. Lawrence, Ford Madox Ford and Sherwood Anderson to the fore. (AP, 9/12/97)(HNQ, 6/20/98)(HN, 9/12/98)(www.todayinliterature.com) 1880 nend Sep 30, Henry Draper took the 1st photograph of the Orion Nebula. (MC, 9/30/01) 1880 nend Oct 1, John Philip Sousa became the new director of US Marine Corps Band. [see Oct 1, 1892] (MC, 10/1/01) 1880 nend Oct 5, The first ball-point pen was patented on this day by Alonzo T. Cross. (HN, 10/5/00) 1880 nend Oct 5, Jacques Offenbach, German-French composer (La Belle Helene, Orpheus, Tales of Hoffman), died at 61. (MC, 10/5/01) 1880 nend Oct 14, Apache leader Victorio was slain in Mexico by the Mexican army. [see Oct 15] (HN, 10/14/98)(MC, 10/14/01) 1880 nend Oct 15, Victorio, feared leader of the Minbreno Apache, was killed by Mexican troops in northwestern Chihuahua, Mexico. [see Oct 14] (HN, 10/15/98) 1880 nend Oct 16, Edward Wolff, composer, died at 64. (MC, 10/16/01) 1880 nend Oct 27, Theodore Roosevelt (22) married his first wife, Alice Hathaway Lee. (AP, 10/27/07) 1880 nend Nov 1, Sholem Asch, Polish-born American novelist, was born. He wrote "The Nazarene" and "The Apostle, Mary." (HN, 11/1/99) 1880 nend Nov 1, Grantland Rice, American sportswriter, was born. (HN, 11/1/00) 1880 nend Nov 1, Alfred L Wegener, German meteorologist (continental shift), was born. (MC, 11/1/01) 1880 nend Nov 2, James A. Garfield was elected 20th president. During the Civil War, Garfield was a commander at the bloody fight at Chickamauga. The election was close, with Republican James Garfield getting 48.27% to Democrat Winfield Hancock?s 48.25% and a difference of less than 2,000 votes! Garfield was shot by a disgruntled office seeker four months into his presidency. (HN, 11/2/98)(HNQ, 11//00) 1880 nend Nov 4, The first cash register was patented by James and John Ritty of Dayton, Ohio. [see James Ritty 1879] (AP, 11/4/05) 1880 nend Nov 8, Sarah Bernhardt, French actress, made her US debut at NY's Booth Theater. (MC, 11/8/01) 1880 nend Nov 8, Edwin Drake (b.1819), the man who drilled the first productive oil well (1859), died penniless. (www.todayinsci.com) 1880 nend Nov 10, Jacob Epstein, sculptor (Adam, Jacob & the Angel), was born. (MC, 11/10/01) 1880 nend Nov 11, Lucretia Mott (née Lucretia Coffin b.1793), US Quaker, died in Abingdon, Kansas. She co-sponsored the First Woman's Rights Convention in 1848 at Seneca Falls, NY. (www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAWmott.htm) 1880 nend Nov 11, In Australia Ned Kelly (b.1855), outlaw, was hanged. The day before he died Kelly wrote to the governor of the jail asking "permission for my friends to have my body that they might bury it in consecrated ground." Kelly was hanged at the Old Melbourne Gaol but documents show his remains and those of 32 other executed prisoners were exhumed and reburied at Pentridge Prison in 1929. In 2011 his headless remains were identified using a DNA sample taken from Melbourne teacher Leigh Olver, Kelly's sister Ellen's great-grandson. In 2011 Victorian state attorney general Robert Clark decided to return his bullet-ridden bones to his descendants so they could meet his last request. (WSJ, 9/21/00, p.A8)(SSFC, 1/14/01, BR p.6)(AP, 3/9/08)(AFP,9/1/11)(AFP, 11/9/11) 1880 nend Nov 21, Adolph Arthur "Harpo" Marx, inventive American pantomimist who never spoke a line in his many movies, which he starred in alongside his brothers, was born. (HN, 11/21/98) 1880 nend Nov 25, Leonard Sidney Woolf (d.1969), English publisher, writer, was born. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Woolf) 1880 nend Dec 2, Josephine Lang (65), composer, died. (MC, 12/2/01) 1880 nend Dec 11, Louis Pasteur (57), French scientist, began an experiment to identify the microbe that causes rabies. (ON, 6/08, p.4) 1880 nend Dec 20, NY's Broadway was lit by electricity. It later became known as "Great White Way." (MC, 12/20/01) 1880 nend Dec 31, George Catlett Marshall, Chief of Staff who led the U.S. Army to victory in World War II and later became Secretary of State for President Harry Truman, was born. He won Nobel Peace Prize in 1953 for the Marshall Plan. (WUD, 1994 p.879)(HN, 12/31/98)(MC, 12/31/01) 1880 nend Dec, George Eastman received an order for photographic dry-plates and together with Henry Strong launched the Eastman Dry Plate Co. (ON, 3/05, p.11) 1880 nend Hans Hofmann (d.1966), abstract artist, was born and raised in Munich, Germany. He lived in Paris from 1904-1914 and moved to the US in 1931. (SFC, 7/31/01, p.B5)(WSJ, 1/15/04, p.D8) 1880 nend Rodin created his sculpture "The Thinker." (HNQ, 12/6/00) 1880 nend Monet painted "Sunset on the Seine in Winter." (SFC, 1/29/99, p.D1) 1880 nend Thomas Moran painted "Lower Manhattan From Communipaw, New Jersey." (SFC,10/15/97, p.D3) 1880 nend Berthe Morisot painted the riverscape "Boats on the Seine." (SFC, 10/30/96, p.E7) 1880 nend Renoir began his painting "Luncheon of the Boating Party," ["The Rower?s Lunch"] the culmination of a decade of riverscapes. It depicted a scene at the Restaurant Fournaise on the banks of the Seine at a spot known as La Grenouillere (the frog pond). It was completed in 1881 and sold to Duncan Philips in 1923 for $125,000. (WSJ, 9/10/96, p.A16)(SFC, 10/30/96, p.E7)(DPCP 1984) 1880 nend John Singer Sargent painted "Fumee d?Ambre Gris." (WSJ, 8/11/00, p.W6) 1880 nend Vincent Van Gogh ended his career as a theology student and began painting. (WSJ, 3/14/00, p.A28) 1880 nend Joaquin Maria Machado de Assis (1839-1908), Brazilian mulatto writer, wrote his novel "The Posthumous Memoirs of Bras Cubas." The Oxford Library of Latin America published a new edition in 1998. (WSJ, 2/3/98, p.A20) 1880 nend Henry Adams authored his novel ?Democracy.? (SSFC, 2/13/11, p.G1) 1880 nend Henry James, American writer, authored his novel ?Washington Square,? in which he depicts the insular world of his NYC childhood. (WSJ, 4/19/08, p.W8) 1880 nend Paul Lafargue (1842-1911), French revolutionary and journalist, published ?Le Droit a la Paresse? (The Right to Laziness), in which he recommended that men should work no more than three hours a day. (Econ, 7/21/07, p.51)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Lafargue) 1880 nend Guy de Maupassant wrote his short story ?Boule de Suif? (Butterball). In 2006 it premiered as an opera by composer Stephen Hartke and librettist Philip Littell. (WSJ, 8/8/06, p.D5) 1880 nend Joaquin Miller (1837-1913), "poet of the Sierras," published "Utopia." (SFEM, 4/2/00, p.48) 1880 nend Gen. Lew Wallace (1827-1905) of Indiana published "Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ." Some of book was written while Wallace was living in Santa Fe at El Palacio as the Territorial governor in the 1870s. (WSJ, 2/14/96, p.A-15)(HT, 3/97, p.66)(SFEC, 7/6/97, p.T7) 1880 nend Heidi?s Years of Wandering and Learning was published. It was later made famous by a film version with Shirley Temple. It was partly set in Maienfeld, Switzerland. Johanna Spyri authored the 2-volume Heidi novel published in 1880-1881. The 2nd volume was titled "Heidi Makes Use of Her Experience." (WSJ, 10/2/97, p.A11)(SFEC, 9/24/00, p.T6)(SFC, 7/5/01, p.C7) 1880 nend Charles Crocker, California railroad pioneer, built the Hotel Del Monte on the Monterey Peninsula as a wooden Gothic structure. It was destroyed by fire in 1887, rebuilt and burned again in 1924. It was later purchased by Samuel F.B. Morse with the backing of SF banker Herbert Fleishhacker. Morse sold the hotel and over 600 surrounding acres to the US Navy in the late 1940s. In 1952 the Naval Postgraduate School moved onto the site. (SSFC, 5/18/08, p.A15) 1880 nend John Ballard, a blacksmith and former slave, bought land on a mountain in the Santa Monica range of southern California. In 2010 the 2,031 peak, previously known as Negrohead Mountain, was renamed to Ballard Mountain. (SFC, 2/22/10, p.A6) 1880 nend California politicians integrated the state?s public schools. (SSFC, 5/16/04, p.E5) 1880 nend In California Folsom Prison began operations. (WSJ, 11/26/97, p.CA4) 1880 nend David King Udall (1851-1938), while living in Nephi, Utah, was called to be the Mormon bishop in St. Johns, Arizona, a small and primarily Hispanic Catholic community. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_King_Udall) 1880 nend US Pres. Rutherford Hayes lunched at the Cliff House in SF. (SSFC, 8/21/05, p.A1) 1880 nend At the Republican national convention Pres. Grant lost his bid for a 3rd term to James Garfield after 35 ballots. (Ind, 2/3/00, 5A) 1880 nend Blanche Kelso Bruce (1841-1898), US Senator from Mississippi, lost his senate seat. Pres. Garfield appointed him registrar of the Treasury. (WSJ, 7/12/06, p.D12) 1880 nend A US census found 435 non-native residents in Alaska. (Econ, 8/26/06, p.27) 1880 nend In NYC the American Exchange of New York, later known as the New York Mercantile Exchange (Nymex), was renamed as the Butter, Cheese and Egg Exchange of New York. (WSJ, 9/28/05, p.C3) 1880 nend Richard Etheridge was promoted to Keeper of the North Carolina Life-Saving Station #17. He was the 1st black man to be appointed a Station Keeper in the US Life-Saving Service. (ON, 1/02, p.1) 1880 nend Caroline Romney hauled in printing presses to a tent with a sawdust floor and started the Record in Durango, Colo. (SFEC, 3/8/98, BR p.6) 1880 nend William Grace, shipping magnate, was elected mayor of New York City. His election put the Irish in control of city politics. (WSJ, 3/17/97, p.A18) 1880 nend Maria Longworth Nichols founded the Rookwood Pottery firm in Cincinnati. The firm operated until 1941. Decorators for the firm included Albert Valentien, Carl Schmidt, Kataro Shirayamadani and Matthew Daly. (SFC, 12/15/98, Z1 p.6) 1880 nend Andrew J. Cron joined R.B. Kills to found Cron Kills Co., a furniture manufacturer, in Piqua, Ohio. (SFC, 7/18/07, p.G2) 1880 nend B. Manischewitz founded an operation in Cincinnati to make unleavened bread based on a 5,000-year-old recipe. (SFC, 9/22/03, p.B4) 1880 nend The industrial force exceeded the number of people engaged in agriculture in the United States and Germany. (V.D.-H.K.p.284) 1880 nend Oilmen in southern California formed a company that grew to become Unocal. (SFC, 4/5/05, p.C1) 1880 nend Tucson, Arizona. The railroad came into the city. (AWAM, Dec. 94, p.31) no_source 1880 nend Juneau was born when prospectors hit a mother lode on Gastineau Channel. Juneau was settled soon after a gold strike nearby by Richard Harris and Joe Juneau. (SFEC, 2/6/00, p.T10)(HNQ, 2/6/00) 1880 nend George Hearst purchased the SF Daily Evening Examiner newspaper to advertise his political beliefs. Hearst won the Examiner as payment for a gambling debt. (SFC, 8/7/99, p.A9)(WSJ, 8/9/99, p.B9)(CHA, 1/2001) 1880 nend George M. Pullman established his own industrial community at Lake Calumet, south of Chicago. His company town provided homes for 2,500 workers along with schools, parks churches and a hotel. (SFC, 7/1/98, Z1 p.6)(SFC, 12/3/98, p.A3) 1880 nend Francis W. Parker (d.1902 at 64), a pioneer in progressive elementary education, became supervisor of the Boston school system and later established the Chicago Institute. He experimented with methods while teaching in various places during the American Civil War in an attempt to change the prevailing rigidity of U.S. schools. He later went to Germany in 1872 where he studied educational methods in use there. Upon returning, he became school superintendent for Quincy, Massachusetts, where he introduced science, arts and crafts into the curriculum. Parker stressed children?s individuality and promoted self-expression, socialized activity and a more informal atmosphere. An endowment enabled him to establish the Chicago Institute in 1899. (HNQ, 9/6/00) 1880 nend James Albert Bonsack (1859-1924) invented the first cigarette rolling machine. He received 2 patents for it in 1881. Bonsack's machine was able to produce 120,000 cigarettes in ten hours, revolutionizing the cigarette industry. In 2007 Allan M. Brandt authored ?The Cigarette Century: The Rise and Fall, and Deadly Persistence of the Product that Defined America.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Albert_Bonsack) 1880 nend The Przewalski?s horse, a wild sub-species of an ancient type was discovered in Mongolia about this time. 1870s, The Russian explorer, Colonel Nicholas Prjevalski, traveled through Mongolia. The wild horses of the Mongolian steppes are named after him. (NG, Oct. 1988, p.493)(SFC, 4/14/96, T-1) 1880 nend Pueblo Chochiti men led anthropologist Adolph F.A. Bandolier to Frijoles Canyon in New Mexico. Bandolier later authored the novel on Pueblo life called ?The Delightmakers.? Cliff dwelling in the area were preserved (1916) in a national park named after Bandelier. (SSFC, 8/1/04, p.D7) 1880 nend Woodsmen march west to Wisconsin clearing forests of white pine, yellow birch, hemlock, maple, and oak. (NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.51) 1880 nend Johnson Chestnut Whittaker, one of the first blacks to attend West Point, was assaulted in his room by three masked men. No one confessed and Whittaker was expelled when the school concluded that he faked the attack. In 1995 Pres. Clinton awards a military commission to Whittaker posthumously. (WSJ, 7/25/95, p.A-1) 1880 nend Daniel Mooney, a prospector, plunged to his death and gave his name to Mooney Falls in Havasu Canyon, Arizona. (SSFC, 2/19/06, p.F4) 1880 nend Sydney journalists J.F. Archibald and John Haynes founded ?The Bulletin? with an editorial focus on political and business commentary, with some literary content. The magazine shut down in 2008 due to falling circulation blamed in part on the Internet. (AP, 1/24/08) 1880 nend Melbourne, Australia, held an Int?l. Exposition. (Hem, 8/02, p.46) 1880 nend In Austria Dr. Josef Breuer (1842-1925) found his patient Bertha Pappenheim (aka Anna O), an hysteric woman, was relieved of symptoms after he had induced her to recall unpleasant past experiences under hypnosis. His talk therapy involved some 1,000 hours of treatment. The case introduced Freud to the cathartic method, the ?talking cure,? pivotal in his later work. (www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/79009/Josef-Breuer)(Econ,3/5/11, p.85) 1880 nend The Sarajevo Brewery was built. Builders dug 3 wells down 600 feet to provide water for the brewery. The Austro-Hungarian empire ruled Bosnia at this time. (SFC,10/27/97, p.A8) 1880 nend Britain assigned all North American Arctic islands to Canada, right up to Ellesmere Island. From this vast swath of territory were created three provinces (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta) and two territories (Yukon and Nunavut), and two extensions each to Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Confederation) 1880 nend A British effort to tunnel under the Channel stopped after 1œ miles. The Chunnel was completed in 1994. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1880 nend William Harry Grindley started W.H. Grindley & Co. of Tunstall, Staffordshire, England, for the manufacture of English china. The business continued until 1991. (SFC, 12/19/07, p.G5) 1880 nend Britain?s exports of manufactured goods accounted for 40% of the global total. (Econ, 2/3/07, SR p.3) 1880 nend Colonel Olcott and Madame Blavatsky took Buddhist vows in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). (Smith., 5/95, p.120) 1880 nend Swedish Egyptologist Karl Piehl uncovered the tomb of Amenhotep, the deputy seal-bearer of the Pharaoh King Tuthmosis III (1504BC-1452BC), in the city of Luxor, about 600 km (375 miles) to the south of the capital Cairo. It later disappeared under the sand and was rediscovered in 2009. (Reuters, 3/1/09) 1880 nend The Hotel Concorde Saint-Lazare was built near the St. Lazare train station in Paris at the behest of the government to encourage travel by train. In 2006 the hotel was purchased by Westbrook Partners, an American private equity group. (Econ, 12/23/06, p.98) 1880 nend France resurrected Bastille Day as a national holiday. The July 14 holiday had been abolished by Napoleon Bonaparte. ?La Marseillaise? was adopted as the French national anthem. In 2008 Christopher Prendergast authored ?the Fourteenth of July: And the Taking of the Bastille.? (Econ, 7/12/08, p.91) 1880 nend The Hermes harness makers of France added saddle-making to their manufacturing list. (Hem., 7/95, p.27) 1880 nend The French colonized Polynesia. (SFEC, 3/2/97, p.T12) c 1880 nend The Durif grape was named by Francois Durif, French botanist and grape breeder, as the result of an unintended crossing between two varieties. California vines labeled Petite Sirah were later identified as Durif. In 1998 the Durif grape was identified as a cross between the French grape Peloursin and Syrah (SFC, 1/20/05, p.F5) 1880 nend Heinrich Schliemann, German entrepreneur and archeologist, donated the treasure he found at the site of Troy to Germany in 1881. He had dubbed the collection "Priam?s Treasure." The archeologist bequeathed the treasure "to the German people for undivided and eternal preservation in the capital of the Reich" in 1880. [must have been on the cusp] (SFC, 4/16/96, p.A-9)(WSJ, 4/17/96, p.A-18) 1880 nend Irish tenant farmers, seeking rent cuts after poor harvests, staged a protest and refused to respond to eviction notices from estate manager Charles Boycott (thus immortalizing his name). (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R49) 1880 nend A tablet known as the Siloam inscription was found in a tunnel hewed to channel water from a spring outside Jerusalem's walls into the city and taken by the Holy Land's Ottoman rulers to Istanbul. It was later placed in the collection of the Istanbul Archaeology Museum. The tunnel was constructed around 700 BC, a project mentioned in the Old Testament's Book of Chronicles. The tablet was installed to celebrate the moment the two construction teams of King Hezekiah met underground. In 2007 Jerusalem's mayor asked the Turkish government to return the tablet. (AP, 7/13/07) 1880 nend Japan?s Yokohama Specie Bank was founded. It became the Bank of Tokyo in 1946. Following later mergers it became part of the Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group in 2005. (WSJ, 9/23/08, p.C1) 1880 nend Jordan, Lebanon and Palestine were part of Syria under Ottoman rule. (Econ, 5/27/06, p.80) 1880 nend Palestinian nun Sister Maria Alfonsina Danil Ghattas (1843) and Father Joseph Tannous co-founded the Sisters of the Most Holy Rosary of Jerusalem. In 2009 she was beatified, an important step toward sainthood. (www.zenit.org/article-26823?l=english)(SFC, 11/23/09, p.A2) 1880 nend Russia began keeping records of its weather. (Econ, 7/31/10, p.40) 1880 nend Sadiq Bey, an Egyptian army colonel, took the first known photographs of Mecca and Medina. He traveled extensively between 1860-1880 and kept itineraries of his travels. The photos were sold to the Saudi government in 1998. (WSJ, 6/19/98, p.W12) 1880 nend In Spain Captain Salvador Ordonez developed a new artillery piece to defend harbors and military installations. (G, Spring/98, p.5) 1880 nend The city of Timbuktu, later part of Mali, became part of the French colony of Upper Senegal. (ON, 11/06, p.7) 1880 nend In Zaire Catholicism became established. In 1980 Pope John visited Kinshasa for the centennial of Catholicism in Zaire. (SFC, 7/18/97, p.A10) 1880 1889 The San Francisco Belt Line began operating during this period to move freight from ships docked at the port for trans-shipment by rail. (SSFC, 10/18/09, p.A2) 1880 nend s Lord Bryce published "The American Commonwealth." (WSJ, 3/12/98, p.A16) 1880 nend s There was a petition to Congress by 52 Indians of Yosemite requesting $1 million to relinquish rights to the valley. There is no record of any response. (SFEC, 5/18/97, Z1 p.4) 1880 nend s Blacks fell prey to a resurgent Southern racism that culminated in the rigid system of segregation and exploitation that went by the name of "Jim Crow." (WSJ, 5/7/99, p.A6) 1880 nend s Henry D. Cogswell, dentist, made a fortune in SF real estate. He was a man of temperance and financed a number of fountains that were donated to cities in America, including the one in Washington D.C. on 7th St. (HT, 4/97, p.80) 1880 nend s The Rockland Lime and Lumber Company burned local redwood off the Big Sur coastline to produce lime from the naturally occurring limestone. It was then packed into barrels and shipped to Monterey and SF where it was used to make cement. The site later became Limekiln State Park. (SFEC, 3/30/97, p.T3) 1880 nend s In great land runs of the US, settlers jumped the gun to go to Oklahoma, which thus became nicknamed the Sooner State. In the Choctaw language, Oklahoma means red human. [see 1889] (SFC, 4/14/96, T-6) 1880 nend s The Aunt Jemima Manufacturing Co. was founded in St. Joseph, Mo. The firm was sold to the R.T. Davis Milling Co. in the early 1890s. (SFC,10/22/97, Z1 p.7) 1880 nend s Margarete Steiff went into business making stuffed animals. In the mid-1920s she introduced stuffed Jocko and other stuffed chimpanzees, named after famous circus chimps. (SFC, 5/20/98, Z1 p.6) 1880 nend s The Mapuche Indians were conquered by the Chilean army. By 2000 they lost nearly 95% of their land on the Bio Bio River. (SFEC, 5/7/00, p.A18) 1880 nend s Anti-Semitism in France spread as a creed to the Catholic, royalist right. A belief was rampant that there existed a Jewish "syndicate" whose occult influence had shaped French affairs since the Revolution. This belief inspired "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion" and a book by Edouard Drumont titled "Jewish France" that sold through 200 editions. (WSJ, 8/1/96 p.A13) 1880 nend s In Germany Louis Doberman, a night watchman and keeper of the local dog pound, refined the dog that bears his name into a fierce creature. (SFC, 12/11/99, p.B6) 1880 nend s The Palace of Justice in Valladolid, Mexico, was built by Belgian engineer Guillermo Wodon de Sorinne. (SSFC, 11/17/02, p.C11) 1880 nend s Namibia was made a German protectorate and the deadly Deutsche Schutzruppe "peacekeeping regiment" quelled the tribes. They eventually annihilated 75% of the Herero and Nama peoples. (SFEC, 3/1/98, p.T4) 1880 nend s-1890s The art phenomenon of "tonalism" was a darker cousin to Impressionism. Some of its practitioners were George Innes, Thomas Wilmer Dewing and J. Alden Weir. (WSJ, 11/2/99, p.A24) 1880 nend s-1890s Lev Ivanov was the second ballet master of the St. Petersburg imperial theaters, assistant to Marius Petipa. In 1997 Roland John Wiley published "The Life and Ballets of Lev Ivanov." (WSJ, 11/18/97, p.A20) 1880 1900 Rodin worked on his "Gates of Hell" over this period. (SFC, 8/18/99, p.D5) 1880 1914 This period of time is examined in through an economic perspective by Guilio Gallarotti in his Anatomy of an International Monetary Regime: The Classical Gold Standard 1880-1914. (WSJ, 8/3/95, p.A-8) 1880 1920 The Beaux-Arts style defined Manhattan building over this period. It was named after the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris where many American architects studied. The style reflects a modern interpretation of classical references, e.g. columns, domes, carved marble and worked bronze. (WSJ, 4/22/97, p.A20) 1880 1920 Over 2 billion board feet of white pine were shipped out of northern Minnesota to build the towns and cities of a growing America. In 2004 Jeff Forester authored ?The Forest for the Trees: How Humans shaped the North Woods.? (NH, 10/1/04, p.70) 1880 1920 The population of Congo was halved due to murder, starvation, exhaustion, exposure, disease, and a lowered birth rate due to the exploitation by King Leopold II. (SFEC, 9/27/98, BR p.1) 1880 1930 The 3rd wave of immigrants arrived in Hawaii to work on sugar cane and then pineapple plantations owned by Europeans and Americans. The first workers were Chinese and they were followed by Japanese, Okinawans, Koreans, Puerto Ricans, Portuguese and Filipinos. (SFEM, 2/8/98, p.10,32) 1880 1930 A 2nd major wave of Italians immigrated to California. The 1st wave was in 1850-1870. (SSFC, 7/10/05, p.D5) 1880 1936 Oswald Spengler, German philosopher, author of the Decline of the West. (AHD, 1971, p.1242) 1880 1940 This period in the colonial history of Kenya was chronicled with a collection of photographs in 2008 by Nigel Pavit in his book ?Kenya: A Country in the Making.? (WSJ, 9/27/08, p.W11) 1880 1942 Robert Musil, Austrian writer. His work included "The Man Without Qualities." (SFEC, 1/31/99, BR p.9) 1880 1946 Arthur Dove, American painter, was a native of upstate New York and received a stipend from Duncan Phillips at age 50 that allowed him to paint full time. He reduced natural forms to what he called "extractions" and tried to create the sensory experience of being in nature. (SFC,10/15/97, p.D3)(WSJ, 3/6/98, p.A13) 1880 1946 Channing Pollock, American author and dramatist: "Happiness is a way station between too much and too little." (AP, 10/27/99) 1880 1950 In 2002 Robert M. Fogelson of MIT authored "Downtown: Its Rise and Fall, 1880-1950." It was a look at how big cities stumbled into decline. (SSFC, 3/31/02, p.M6) 1880 1954 B.C. Forbes, Scottish journalist: "You have no idea how big the other fellow's troubles are." (AP, 12/17/98) 1880 1956 H.L. Mencken, American author and journalist: "It is the dull man who is always sure, and the sure man who is always dull." "One may no more live in the world without picking up the moral prejudices of the world than one will be able to go to Hell without perspiring." "Injustice is relatively easy to bear; what stings is justice." (AP, 5/14/97)(AP, 6/14/98)(AP, 10/10/98) 1880 1958 Dame Christabel Pankhurst, English suffragist: "Never lose your temper with the press or the public is a major rule of political life." (AP, 3/21/99) 1880 1960 Kathleen Norris, American author: "Each and every one of us has one obligation, during the bewildered days of our pilgrimage here: the saving of his own soul, and secondarily and incidentally thereby affecting for good such other souls as come under our influence." (AP, 12/6/98) 1880 1962 R.H. Tawney, English historian, drew a strong connection between Protestantism and the rise of capitalism. (V.D.-H.K.p.167) 1881 nend Jan 2, Camille Saint-Saens' 3rd Concerto in B premiered. (MC, 1/2/02) 1881 nend Feb 4, Fernand Leger (d.1955), French painter, was born. (HN, 2/4/01) 1881 nend Jan 4, The "Academic Festival Overture" by Johannes Brahms premiered in Breslau. (MC, 1/4/02) 1881 nend Jan 22, Ancient Egyptian obelisk, "Cleopatra's Needle," was erected in Central Park. (MC, 1/22/02) 1881 nend Feb 4, Kliment J. Woroshilov, marshal, president USSR (1953-60), was born. (MC, 2/4/02) 1881 nend Feb 5, Phoenix, Ariz., was incorporated. (AP, 2/5/97) 1881 nend Feb 5, Thomas Carlyle (b.1795), Scottish essayist and historian, died in London. (www.kirjasto.sci.fi/carlyle.htm) 1881 nend Feb 9, Feodor M. Dostoevsky (59), Russian novelist (Crime & Punishment), died. (MC, 2/9/02) 1881 nend Feb 10, The Offenbach (d.1880) opera "Les Contes d?Hoffman" (Tales of Hoffman) had its premiere at the Opera-Comique. (WSJ, 11/18/96, p.A10)( LGC-HCS, p.310) 1881 nend Feb 14, Otto Selz, German psychologist, was born. (MC, 2/14/02) 1881 nend Feb 19, Kansas became the first state to prohibit all alcoholic beverages. (AP, 2/19/98) 1881 nend Feb 26, Natal British troops under General-Major Colley occupied Majuba Hill. (SC, 2/26/02) 1881 nend Feb 26, SS Ceylon began its 1st round-the-world cruise from Liverpool. (SC, 2/26/02) 1881 nend Mar 4, Fiction?s Sherlock Holmes and Watson began "A Study in Scarlet", their 1st case together. (SC, 3/4/02) 1881 nend Mar 4, James A. Garfield was inaugurated as 20th President. (SC, 3/4/02) 1881 nend Mar 4, California became the 1st state to pass plant quarantine legislation. (SC, 3/4/02) 1881 nend Mar 4, South African President Kruger accepted a cease-fire with the British in the First Boer War (1880-1881 ? aka Transvaal Revolt). [see Mar 23] (SC, 3/4/02) 1881 nend Mar 13, Alexander II (62), Tsar of Russia, was assassinated when a bomb was thrown at him near his palace by the anarchist group People?s Will led by Sophia Perovskaya. He was succeeded by his son Alexander III (36). A wave of repression and persecution followed. In 2005 Edvard Radzinsky authored the biography ?Alexander II: The Last Great Tsar.? (PCh, 1992, p.557)(WSJ, 4/17/03, p.D8)(WSJ, 10/27/05, p.D7) 1881 nend Mar 16, Barnum & Bailey Circus debuted. [see Mar 18] (MC, 3/16/02) 1881 nend Mar 16, Modest P. Mussorgsky (42), Russian composer (Boris Godunov), died. [see Mar 28] (MC, 3/16/02) 1881 nend Mar 18, Barnum and Bailey?s Greatest Show on Earth opened in Madison Square Gardens. [see Mar 16] (HN, 3/18/98) 1881 nend Mar 23, Hermann Staudinger, chemist, plastics researcher (Nobel '53), was born in Germany. (SS, 3/23/02) 1881 nend Mar 23, Roger Martin du Guard, French novelist (Les Thibault-Nobel 1937), was born. (SS, 3/23/02) 1881 nend Mar 23, Boers and Britain signed a peace accord. This ended the 1st Boer war. (SS, 3/23/02) 1881 nend Mar 23, Gas lamp set fire to Nice, France, opera house and 70 died. (SS, 3/23/02) 1881 nend Mar 28, "Greatest Show On Earth" was formed by P.T. Barnum and James A. Bailey. [see 1879 and Mar 16,18, 1881] (MC, 3/28/02) 1881 nend Mar 28, Modest Petrovich Mussorgsky (42), composer, died. [see Mar 16] (MC, 3/28/02) 1881 nend Mar 29, Raymond Hood, architect, was born. (HN, 3/29/01) 1881 nend Apr 1, Anti-Jewish riots took place in Jerusalem. (OTD) 1881 nend Apr 1, Kingdom post office in Netherlands opened. (OTD) 1881 nend Apr 7, Lewis R. Redmond, a North Carolina moonshiner wanted for murder, was cornered at his home. He was shot 6 times while trying to escape, but survived and was convicted and sentenced to 10 years in prison. He served just 3 years and returned to work for a licensed distillery. (WSJ, 3/20/09, p.W11) 1881 nend Apr 8, Fernand Lamy, composer, was born. (MC, 4/8/02) 1881 nend Apr 11, River ferry "Princess Victoria" sank in Thames River, Ontario, and 180 died. [see May 24] (MC, 4/11/02) 1881 nend Apr 19, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield, British PM (1868, 1874-1880), novelist, died. (WUD, 1994 p.415)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli) 1881 nend Apr 22, Alexander Kerensky, Russian PM (1917), was born in Simbirsk. (MC, 4/22/02) 1881 nend Apr 23, Gilbert & Sullivan's opera "Patience" was produced in London. (MC, 4/23/02) 1881 nend Apr 27, Pogroms against Russian Jews started in Elisabethgrad. (MC, 4/27/02) 1881 nend Apr 28, Billy the Kid was held in Lincoln County Courthouse jail, near Carrizozo N.M. for the shooting of Sheriff William Brady, but escaped and killed two guards. He used an 1876 single-action army revolver made by Samuel Colt. The gun sold for $46,000 in 1998. (SFEC, 2/23/96, p.T8,9)(AP internet 7/14/97)(WSJ, 5/22/98,p.W12)(SFC, 2/2/01, p.A14) 1881 nend Apr 28, Robert W. Ollinger, US warden, last victim of Billy the Kid, died. (MC, 4/28/02) 1881 nend May 1, Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (d.1955), French Jesuit philosopher, paleontologist, was born. He authored the "Phenomenon of Man" wherein he proposed the idea of the noosphere, i.e. sphere of mind, in which all the minds of all the humans on earth could be conceived of as both separate and as combined in one great, single intelligence. (V.D.-H.K.p.388)(MC, 5/1/02) 1881 nend May 4, Aleksandr F. Kerenski, Russian premier (1917) Predecessor to Bolshevist coup), was born. (MC, 5/4/02) 1881 nend May 5, Anti-Jewish rioting took place in Kiev, Ukraine. (MC, 5/5/02) 1881 nend May 8, Henry Morton Stanley signed a contract with a Congo monarch. [see Sep 24] (MC, 5/8/02) 1881 nend May 12, The Treaty of Bardo established Tunis [Tunisia] as a French protectorate. The French withdrew their forces after signing the treaty. The terms of the agreement gave France responsibility for the defense and foreign policy decisions of Tunisia. Henceforth, Tunis became a French protectorate (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Bardo) 1881 nend May 14, Rudolph Karstadt founded his first store in Wismar, Germany. In 1999 Karstadt merged with Quelle, a mail-order business founded in 1927 by Gustav Schickedanz. By 2009 the venerable German chain, which included the famous Berlin department store KaDeWe, faced bankruptcy after years of erratic management. (WSJ, 7/17/06,p.C8)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quelle_(company))(AFP, 9/3/10) 1881 nend May 14, Mary Seacole (b.1805), Jamaican nurse, died. She is best known for her efforts in the Crimean War during the 1850s. She borrowed money to make the 4,000-mile (about 6500 km) journey by herself and distinguished herself treating battlefield wounded, often nursing wounded soldiers from both sides while under fire. (AP, 4/19/10) 1881 nend May 16, World's 1st electric tram went into service in Lichterfelder near Berlin. (MC, 5/16/02) 1881 nend May 17, Frederick Douglass was appointed recorder of deeds for Washington, D.C. (HN, 5/17/98) 1881 nend May 21, Clara Barton founded the American Red Cross. (CFA, ?96, p.46)(AP, 5/21/97) 1881 nend May 24, Some 200 people died when the Canadian ferry Princess Victoria sank near London, Ontario. [see Apr 11] (AP, 5/24/97) 1881 nend May 24, Samuel Palmer (b.1805), English painter and printmaker, died. He was a leading light in a brotherhood of painters called the ?Ancients,? for their preference of archaic Gothic architecture. In 2011 Rachel Campbell-Johnston authored ?Mysterious Wisdom: the Life and Work of Samuel Palmer.? (Econ, 6/25/11, p.98)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Palmer) 1881 nend May 29, Frederik Septimus Kelly, composer, was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1881 nend Jun 12, The steamship USS Jeannette sank under ice during an expedition to reach the North Pole. The crew, having abandoned the ship, prepared 3 lifeboats in an attempt to reach Siberia. Less than half survived. Chief engineer George W. Melville (d.1912) made it back to NYC on Sep 13, 1883, and in 1900 became engineer in chief of the US Navy. (ON, 2/05, p.1,5)(http://tinyurl.com/d5622) 1881 nend Jun 25, Crystal Eastman, suffragist, was born. (HN, 6/25/01) 1881 nend Jun 29, Muhammad Ahmad (1844-1855) proclaimed himself as the Mahdi or messianic redeemer of the Islamic faith in Sudan and led a successful military campaign against the Turco-Egyptian government of the Sudan (known as the Turkiyah). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Ahmad) 1881 nend Jul 2, Less than four months after his inauguration, James Garfield, the 20th President of the US, was assassinated by Charles J. Guiteau, who wished to be appointed consul to France, at the Washington railroad station. Garfield lived out the summer with a fractured spine and seemed to be gaining strength until he caught a chill and died on September 19. Guiteau was apprehended at the time of the shooting and, in spite of an insanity defense, was convicted of murder. Chester Alan Arthur became the 21st President. Guiteau was hanged in June 1882. (A&IP, ESM, p.96b, photo,110)(HN, 7/2/98)(HNPD, 9/19/98)(AP, 7/2/07) 1881 nend Jul 4, In Alabama Tuskegee Institute enrolled 30 students. It was founded by former slave Booker T. Washington as a "normal" school and industrial institute where "colored" people with little or no formal schooling could be trained as teachers and skilled workers. (NH, 2/97, p.82)(WSJ, 2/24/98, p.A22)(IB, Internet, 12/7/98) 1881 nend Jul 8, Edward Berner of Two Rivers, Wisconsin, created the Sundae. (MC, 7/8/02) 1881 nend Jul 14, Outlaw Billy the Kid (21), (born as Henry McCarty) aka William H. Bonney or Kid Antrim, was shot and killed by Sheriff Pat Garrett in Fort Sumner, New Mexico. Billy had been held in Lincoln County Courthouse jail but escaped and killed two guards. The Kid had fled to Fort Sumner and on a tip, Garrett set out toward Fort Sumner to find him, with lawmen John Poe and Thomas C. "Kip" McKinney. According to some, Pete Maxwell had alerted Poe to the Kid's whereabouts. Many details about Billy the Kid's death are controversial but, apparently, as he was returning to Maxwell's house he came upon Poe and McKinney outside, unsure of whether they were friends or foes. Garrett was awaiting inside, and as the Kid entered the room, Garrett shot him above the heart. Newspaperman A.J. Fountain awarded Garrett a gold star, which fetched $100,000 at auction in 2008. Joel Jacobsen later authored "Such Men as Billy the Kid." (AP, 7/14/97)(HNPD, 7/14/98)(SFC, 2/2/01, p.A14)(SFC, 6/17/08, p.B8) 1881 nend Jul 20, Sioux Indian leader Sitting Bull, a fugitive since the Battle of the Little Big Horn, surrendered to federal troops. (AP, 7/20/97)(HN, 7/20/98) 1881 nend Jul 21, Frederick Dick, physician, was born. (HN, 7/21/02) 1881 nend Jul 22, Margery Williams Bianco, author (The Velveteen Rabbit), was born. (HN, 7/22/02) 1881 nend Jul 22, The first volume of "The War of the Rebellion," a compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, was published. (HN, 7/22/99) 1881 nend Jul, US Army Lt. Augustus W. Greely led a scientific expedition to Ellesmere Island in the Canadian Arctic and called the site Ft. Conger. 25 American soldiers set forth to establish a scientific base in the Arctic. There were only 6 survivors. In 2000 Leonard Gurttridge authored "Ghosts of Cape Sabine," which told their story. (SFC, 3/9/00, p.D12) 1881 nend Aug 3, US Nation Lawn Tennis Association removed "Nation" from name. (SC, 8/3/02) 1881 nend Aug 6, Alexander Fleming (d.1955), Scottish bacteriologist who discovered penicillin (1928), was born. He won the Nobel Prize in 1945. Fleming first observed the antibiotic properties of the mold that makes penicillin, but it was Ernst Boris Chain and Howard Walter Florey who developed it into a useful treatment. (AHD, 1971, p.501)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming) 1881 nend Aug 8, Paul L.E. von Kleist, German general-fieldmarshal (Eastern Front), was born. (MC, 8/8/02) 1881 nend Aug 12, Cecil B. DeMille (d.1959), pioneering motion picture director, was born in Mass. Before becoming a household name in the early days of movie-making, he attended the New York Academy of Dramatic Arts and in 1900 began working on plays with his older brother William. The director, producer and screenwriter was most famous for his movie "The Ten Commandments." (HNPD, 8/12/98)(HN, 8/12/98)(SC, 8/12/02) 1881 nend Aug 13, The first African-American nursing school opened at Spelman College in Atlanta, Georgia. (HN, 8/13/98) 1881 nend Aug 19, Georges Enescu, composer (Romanian Dances), was born in Romania. (MC, 8/19/02) 1881 nend Aug 20, Nikolay Yakovlevich Myaskovsky, composer, was born in Poland of Russian military parentage. (MC, 8/20/02)(Internet) 1881 nend Aug 27, New York state?s Pure Food Law went into effect to prevent "the adulteration of food or drugs." (HN, 8/27/00) 1881 nend Aug 27, A hurricane hit Florida and the Carolinas; about 700 died. (MC, 8/27/01) 1881 nend Aug 31, The first U.S. tennis championships (for men) were played, in Newport, R.I. (AP, 8/31/06) 1881 nend Aug, The Edison Electric Illumination Co. began building its 1st DC generating plant in Manhattan. The station was completed in September of 1882. (ON, 10/04, p.5) 1881 nend Sep 3, Anton Bruckner completed his 6th Symphony. (MC, 9/3/01) 1881 nend Sep 5, A fire in the thumb of Michigan killed 169 people and burned a million acres. (SFC, 10/30/03, p.A15) 1881 nend Sep 13, Lewis Latimer invented and patented an electric lamp with a carbon filament. (MC, 9/13/01) 1881 nend Sep 13, Ambrose Everett Burnside, US Union general, died at 57. (MC, 9/13/01) 1881 nend Sep 15, Ettore Arco Isidoro Bugatti (d.1947), race car builder (Amaz Bugattis), was born in Milan, Italy. (www.britannica.com) 1881 nend Sep 18, The Chicago Tribune reported on a televideo experiment. (MC, 9/18/01) 1881 nend Sep 19, The 20th president of the United States, James A. Garfield, died of wounds inflicted by assassin, Charles J. Guiteau. Alexander Graham Bell had made several unsuccessful attempts to remove the assassin?s bullet with a new metal detection device. (AP, 9/19/97)(AP, 11/14/97)(ON, 5/02, p.9) 1881 nend Sep 20, Chester A. Arthur was sworn in as the 21st president of the United States, succeeding James A. Garfield, who had been assassinated. (AP, 9/20/97)(HNPD, 9/19/98) 1881 nend Sep 24, Henry Morton Stanley signed a contract with Congo monarch. [see May 8] (MC, 9/24/01) 1881 nend Sep 26, The Alice Buck, a ship from New York loaded with railroad iron for Portland, hit rocks north of Point Montara. 13 were rescued and 6 people died. (Ind, 3/31/01, 5A) 1881 nend Oct 4, [Heinrich AH] Walther von Brauchitsch, German field marshal, was born. (MC, 10/4/01) 1881 nend Oct 11, David Houston patented roll film for cameras. (MC, 10/11/01) 1881 nend Oct 13, A revival of the Hebrew language began as Eliezer Ben-Yehuda and friends agreed to use Hebrew exclusively in their conversations. (MC, 10/13/01) 1881 nend Oct 15, Pelham Grenville Wodehouse (d.1975), British writer and humorist, was born in Guildford, Surrey, England. He produced 93 books and countless articles and short stories. He was the creator of the two great comic characters: Bertie Wooster and his valet, Jeeves. (Hem., 10/?95, p.109)(HN, 10/15/00) 1881 nend Oct 22, Boston Symphony Orchestra gave its 1st concert. (www.bach-cantatas.com/Bio/BSO.htm) 1881 nend Oct 25, Pablo Picasso (d.1973), painter and sculptor, was born in Malaga, Spain. He worked in France and a painter and sculptor. Francoise Gilot was the mother of 2 of his children. His work includes ?Gilot,? and ?Self-Portrait with a Palette? (1906). He immortalized the French apéritif Pernod by including it in many paintings. ?Picasso and Dora? was written by James Lord. (SFC, 7/14/96, p.C11)(SFC, 8/14/96, zz-1 p.4) (WSJ, 9/30/96,p.A14)(HN, 10/25/98) 1881 nend Oct 26, Wyatt Earp, his two brothers and "Doc" Holliday showed up at the OK Corral in Tombstone, Arizona, to disarm the Clanton and McLaury boys, who were in violation of a ban on carrying guns in the city limits: "Gunfight at the O.K. Corral." Billy Clanton and Tom and Frank McLaury were killed; Earp?s brothers were wounded. This was the notorious "Showdown at the OK Corral." In 1992 the "Encyclopedia of Western Lawmen and Outlaws" by Jay Robert Nash was published. In 1999 Allan Barra published "Inventing Wyatt Earp: His Life and Many Legends." (SFC, 8/19/96, p.A3)(AP, 10/26/97)(SFEC, 6/14/98, p.T6)(SFEC,1/17/99, BR p.5) 1881 nend Nov 7, Wyatt Earp and Doc Holliday, two participants in Tombstone, Arizona?s, famous Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, were jailed as the hearings on what happened in the fight grew near. (HN, 11/7/98) 1881 nend Nov 14, Charles J. Guiteau went on trial for assassinating President Garfield. Guiteau was convicted and hanged the following year. (AP, 11/14/97) 1881 nend Nov 15, The American Federation of Labor was founded. [see Nov 17] (HN, 11/15/98) 1881 nend Nov 17, Under Samuel Gompers (d.1924), the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Union of the United States was formed--a precursor to the American Federation of Labor. Gompers emigrated from England to New York with his family as a boy. He grew up working in a sweatshop and amid discussion about labor reform. Gompers led the AFL for 40 years, sometimes using strikes and boycotts to demand workers' rights. He successfully changed the unionism of the 19th century in the United States, uniting different labor groups and keeping away from political influence to guide American laborers. [see Nov 15] (HNPD, 11/17/98) 1881 nend Nov 25, Pope John the 23rd (1958-1963) was born Angelo Roncalli near Bergamo, Italy. (AP, 11/25/97)(MC, 11/25/01) 1881 nend Nov 28, Stefan Zweig (d.1942), poet, essayist, dramatist (Beware of Pity), was born in Vienna, Austria. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan_Zweig) 1881 nend Dec 1, Virgil, Wyatt and Morgan Earp were exonerated in court for their action in the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral in Tombstone, Ariz. (HN, 12/1/98) 1881 nend Dec 8, Vienna's Ring Theater was destroyed by fire and 640-850 people were killed. (MC, 12/8/01) 1881 nend Dec 10, Viscount Alexander of Tunis, British soldier, was born. He took his title from his part in the Allied victories in North Africa. (HN, 12/10/99) 1881 nend Dec 20, Branch Ricky, President of the Brooklyn Dodgers who made Jackie Robinson the first black to play in the modern major leagues in 1947, was born. (HN, 12/20/98) 1881 nend Dec, German-born illustrator Thomas Nast made his familiar illustration of "Merry Old Santa Claus" in Harper's Weekly. (HNPD, 12/25/99) 1881 nend Claude Monet painted his landscape "Paysage Dans L?Ile Saint Martin." It later ended up in the corporate collection of Reader?s Digest. (WSJ, 11/13/98, p.W16) 1881 nend Pierre-Auguste Renoir painted "On the Terrace," a picture of a young woman and a pink-cheeked child with the Seine in the background. (DPCP 1984) 1881 nend Rodin sculpted his "Eve." (SFEM, 11/24/96, p.46) 1881 nend Anton Romako (Vienna) painted "Girl on a Swing (Olga van Wassermann)." (SFC, 8/29/01, p.E5) 1881 nend In Japan Shibata Zeshin made a book of lacquer paintings on paper, a medium that he alone mastered. (WSJ, 2/5/98, p.A20) 1881 nend Frank Baum, publisher of the South Dakota Aberdeen Saturday Pioneer, called for the extermination of American Indians. "Having wronged them for centuries we had better, in order to protect our civilization, follow it up by one more wrong and wipe these untamed and untamable creatures from the face of the Earth." Baum later authored "The Wizard of Oz." (SFC, 10/10/00, p.A2) 1881 nend What Mrs. Fisher Knows About Southern Cooking by Abby Fisher was published by the Women?s Co-operative Printing Office. (SFC, 6/19/96, zz1, p.1) 1881 nend The travel diaries ?Notes of a Pianist? by Louis Moreau Gottschalk (1829-1869) was published. This was the 1st book of permanent interest by an American artist who was not a full-time author. The book was reprinted in 2006. (WSJ, 7/22/06, p.P14) 1881 nend Helen Hunt Jackson (1831-1885) wrote "A Century of Dishonor: The Early Crusade for Indian Reform." (SFEC, 4/12/98, BR p.7) 1881 nend Henry James wrote his novel "The Portrait of a Lady." He also wrote his novella "Washington Square." Both books were later made into films. (SFC, 5/9/97, p.D12)(SFC, 10/10/97, p.C1) 1881 nend A Massachusetts lighthouse was erected in Wellfleet. It was later moved by the Coast Guard from Wellfleet to Yerba Buena, Calif., and to Point Montara, Ca., in 1928. (AP, 6/5/08)(SFC, 6/14/08, p.B2) 1881 nend James T. Lafferty, a real estate developer, built his 65-foot, wood and tin, Lucy the Elephant building in Margate, NJ., a suburb of Atlantic City. In 1970 the 6-story structure was relocated to a nearby park. (SSFC, 8/19/01, p.T2)(NW, 8/26/02, p.51)(NG, 8/04, p.146) 1881 nend Dankmar Adler, Chicago engineer, invited Louis Sullivan to form a partnership. There was much work in Chicago after the Great Fire that destroyed 18,000 buildings and covered three square miles. (Hem., 7/95, p.77) 1881 nend Rev. F.M. Warrington described the mining town of Bodie, Calif., as "a sea of sin, lashed by the tempests of lust and passion." (SFC, 6/23/96, p.T1,3) 1881 nend Judge James Logan (d.1928) produced the loganberry, saying that he invented it and raised it from a seed. (SFC, 11/29/97, p.C3) 1881 nend Henry Chadwick became editor of the annual Spalding Guide on baseball. (WSJ, 7/19/01, p.A20) 1881 nend The only recorded 19th-century incident in which Indian scouts turned against the U.S. Army occurred at Cibicue Creek in Arizona Territory. At Cibicue Creek, White Mountain Apache scouts were asked to campaign against their own kin, resulting in a mutiny against the army soldiers. Three of the mutinous scouts were later court-martialed and executed. (HNQ, 2/27/99) 1881 nend David and William White founded their White Furniture Co. in Mebane, NC. The business continued until 1993. (SFC, 1/25/06, p.G2) 1881 nend Joseph Brandenstein opened a coffee company in SF, naming it after his son Michael J. Brandenstein and Co. The name was later shortened to MJB Inc. (SFC, 6/28/97, p.D2)(SFC, 6/5/08, p.C2) 1881 nend The Tennessee Coal and Railroad Co. was renamed to the Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Co. (WSJ, 5/28/96, R45) 1881 nend The USS Constitution (aka Old Ironsides) last sailed under free sail. It was restored in 1931 and visited ports on both coasts until 1934. It sailed again in 1997. (SFEC, 7/13/97, Par p.14)(SFC, 7/22/97, p.A1) 1881 nend Denver was made the capital of the state of Colorado. Denver was named after the governor of the Kansas Territory, James William Denver. (HNQ, 4/4/00) 1881 nend Hamilton Disston (1844-1896) negotiated with Florida Governor Bloxham and the Internal Improvement Fund to drain all of the lands overflowed by Lake Okeechobee and the Kissimmee River in exchange for one-half the reclaimed land. Disston also purchased outright from the State four million acres of overflowed lands at 25 cents an acre. He dug 80 miles of drainage canals before he ran out of money. (www.tommymarkham.com/OCF/ocf01.htm)(Sm, 3/06, p.52) 1881 nend Dutch Henry, a miner in Oregon?s Rogue River area, went on trial for the murder of a suspiciously large number of fellow miners in ?self defense,? but was not convicted. (SSFC, 3/18/07, p.G4) 1881 nend The Michigan Legislature required that the bodies of indigents, who would otherwise be buried by the state, to be turned over to the Univ. of Michigan Medical School. (MT, Fall/99, p.3) 1881 nend Alice Freeman Palmer became the forward-thinking president of Wellesley College after graduating from the Univ. of Mich. in 1876. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.12) 1881 nend Enrico Rosenzi and Benjamin Lupton, founder of the West Side Glass Co. of Bridgeton, NJ, patented Ferroline, an opaque black glass. Their factory burned down in 1885 and production ceased in 1886 as sales faltered. (SFC, 12/5/07, p.G2) 1881 nend The Wharton School was founded in Pennsylvania. In 2003 it was recognized as the oldest and best business school in the US. (WSJ, 9/17/03, p.A1) 1881 nend The city directory of San Francisco indicated 233,959 residents, 428 restaurants, 342 oyster saloons, 18 oyster dealers, 90 coffee saloons, 299 bakeries, 254 retail butchers, 205 fresh fruit sellers, some 1400 grocers and an equal number of bars, 40 brewers and 15 champagne importers. (SFC, 6/19/96, Z1, p.1) 1881 nend The story of California?s Asti Winery began as Italian Swiss Colony when Italian immigrant Andrea Sbarboro invited anybody of Italian or Swiss descent to join him and work on land at Asti in northern California to produce wine and share profits. Their first vintage in 1886 was called Tipo Chianti. In 2004 Jack Florence authored ?Legacy of a Village: The Italian Swiss Colony Winery and People of Asti, California.? (SSFC, 5/31/09, p.E6) 1881 nend William H. Purvis introduced macadamia nuts to Hawaii. (www.hawaiiag.org/history.htm) 1881 nend George B. Mattoon founded his Mattoon Manufacturing Co. in Sheboygan, Wisconsin. From 1904 to the 1950s the company manufactured upscale furniture. The name of the company was changed to Northern Furniture following Mattoon?s death (1916), when the Reiss family took over and re-named it R-Way Furniture. The Northern Furniture brand name continued. (SFC, 10/4/06, p.G2) 1881 nend In London a court and police station on Bow Street opened opposite the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden. The Bow Street court closed in 2006. (SFC, 7/14/06, p.A2) 1881 nend The area around Bosnia was annexed by the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Pope Leo XIII reasserted the Catholic Church with dioceses in Sarajevo, Banja Luka and Mostar. (SFC, 4/15/97, p.A10) 1881 nend William Cornelius Van Horne (1843-1915), Illinois-born railroad manager, joined the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) as general manager with the task of managing the construction of the trans Canada railway. (ON, 11/07,p.9)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cornelius_Van_Horne) 1881 nend Francis Edgeworth (1845-1926), Irish-born economist, proposed the creation of a ?hedonimeter,? which would measure the utility that each individual gained from his decisions. (Econ, 7/26/08,p.84)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Ysidro_Edgeworth) 1881 nend Chilean soldiers pillaged Peru?s national library during the War of the Pacific. In 2007 Chile returned 3,778 books taken by its soldiers. (SFC, 11/7/07, p.A3) 1881 nend In Chile the Mapuches Indians made peace with the government. Their name means "people of the earth." (SFC, 10/21/99, p.A12) 1881 nend A German expedition to Chile that took 11 Kawesqar Indians to Europe to appear in what was later described as a human zoo. 5 of the Indians died in 1882 in Zurich, Switzerland. Their remains were repatriated in 2010. (AP, 1/12/10) 1881 nend The French state finally relinquished its hold on the arts and turned power over to the Societe des artistes Français. (Calg. Glen., 1996) 1881 nend Heinrich Schliemann, German entrepreneur and archeologist, donated the treasure he found at the site of Troy to Germany in 1881. He had dubbed the collection "Priam?s Treasure." The archeologist bequeathed the treasure "to the German people for undivided and eternal preservation in the capital of the Reich" in 1880. (SFC, 4/16/96, p.A-9)(WSJ, 4/17/96, p.A-18) 1881 nend The Aug. Schatz & Sohne company was founded in Triburg, Germany, to produce clocks. These included anniversary clocks, also called 400-day clocks, because they could be wound to run for more than 365 days. (SFC, 2/21/07, p.G3) 1881 nend The first complete census of India?s population was conducted on a uniform basis providing the most complete and continuous demographic record for any comparable population. (http://tinyurl.com/5wdrbws) 1881 nend In Japan the Asahi Shimbun newspaper became jointly owned by Ryuhei Murayama and Riichi Ueno. (SFC,10/20/97, p.A19) 1881 nend A writer named Carle Liche published an article in the Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine that described his travels in Madagascar. He claimed to be the first European to contact the Mkodo tribe of cave-dwelling pigmies and described a man-eating tree and a ceremony in which a woman was sacrificed to the sacred tree. The story was debunked in 1955 by science writer Willy Ley, who established that Liche was a pseudonym and that the Mkodos and their tree were fictional creations. (SSFC, 10/31/10, p.K2) 1881 nend Kemal Ataturk (d.1938), first president (1923-38) of the Republic of Turkey, was born. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk) 1881 nend Hamdi Bey (1842-1910), Ottoman statesman painter and archeologist, founded the Archeological Museum of Istanbul. It opened in 1891. (NH, 6/03, p.44)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osman_Hamdi_Bey) 1881 nend Ottoman forces crushed Albanian resistance fighters at Prizren. The League's leaders and families were arrested and deported. (www, Albania, 1998) 1881 nend A large pogrom took place against the Jews in Odessa, Ukraine. (Econ, 12/18/04, p.88) 1881 nend In Montevideo, Uruguay, the central fountain of Ciudad Vieja was built by Italians. (SSFC, 10/30/05, p.F6) 1881 nend King Lobengula left an encampment to regroup his "induna" warriors as colonial forces advanced toward it. In 1993 Lobengula's tribal capital was rebuilt as a symbolic national monument near the second city of Bulawayo, Zimbabwe, and became a center of academic and historical studies. In 2010 a bush fire destroyed the historic site. (AP, 8/26/10) 1881 1882 Although Pierre-Auguste Renoir embraced Impressionism early on, his travels to Algeria, Italy, and Provence from 1881-82 led him to reject the style. Renoir came from a family of artisans, who soon noticed and encouraged his aptitude for painting. When Renoir decided to study painting in earnest, he found himself stifled by the conventions and traditions of the day. Renoir and some of his fellow students (Frédéric Bazille, Claude Monet and Alfred Sisley) began meeting with young painters Paul Cézanne and Camille Pissarro and a style developed. Although critical and financial success did not come to the group with the first Impressionist exposition of 1874, Renoir?s interest in the human figure (as opposed to landscapes) led him to receive several portrait commissions. The trips in the early 1880s exposed him to elements of classicism that he felt drawn to in terms of both color and brushstrokes. However, despite his newfound interest, he retained the use of vibrant coloration and a bucolic view of nature. (HNQ, 5/23/01) 1881 1882 Dr. Muller of Germany was said to be working at the Swiss Geisenheim viticultural station when he made the crossing that joined the late-ripening Riesling and the early-ripening and prolific Silvaner. The grape became know as Muller-Thurgau. Müller-Thurgau entered the well-kept records of Germany's vineyards in 1921, but it was not until a major symposium on the crossing was held at Alzey in 1938 that it gained any widespread acceptance. (www.winepressnw.com/features/story/4842844p-4779998c.html) 1881 1890 The currency base of the US declined some 60% as the old Civil War bonds are paid off. This led to panics and instability. (WSJ,11/24/95, p.A-8) 1881 1885 Chester A. Arthur, Vice-President under Garfield, was the 21st President of the US. (A&IP, ESM, p.96b, photo) 1881 1885 Fort Hays, Kansas, was the temporary home to the black "buffalo soldiers." (NH, 7/98, p.30) 1881 1906 The town of Calico in San Bernadino County, Ca., grew during the gold rush. 50 mines produced some $21 million in silver over this period. (SFC, 6/24/02, p.A13) 1881 1919 Some 59 laborers, mostly Chinese immigrants, were killed during this period in explosions at the California Powder Works in Hercules. They were paid 12.5 cents per hour. (SFEC, 9/20/98, Z1 p.4) c 0 1927 Mary Webb, Scottish religious leader: The more anybody wants a thing, the more they do think others want it. "The well of Providence is deep. It's the buckets we bring to it that are small." (AP, 7/7/97)(AP, 12/9/98) 1881 1934 In Germany Ernst Paul Lehmann made tin toys over this period in Brandenburg. His toys included a toy mule that kicked while pulling a cart driven by a clown called "the balky mule." The toy was valued at $1,500 in 1997. (SFC,11/26/97, Z1 p.7) 1881 1945 Bela Bartok, Hungarian composer. His works include the opera: "Bluebeard?s Castle," and his pantomime score: "The Miraculous Mandarin," which first premiered in Cologne in 1926. Also he wrote: a Concerto for Orchestra, a Solo Violin Sonata, Third Piano Concerto, Four Pieces for Orchestra, the Contata Profana, a folk ballad for chorus and soloists. (WSJ, 8/24/95, p.A-14) 1881 1958 Rose Macaulay, English poet and essayist: "Work is a dull thing; you cannot get away from that. The only agreeable existence is one of idleness, and that is not, unfortunately, always compatible with continuing to exist at all." (AP, 12/30/97) 1881 1959 Edgar A. Guest, American author, journalist and poet: "The best of all the preachers are the men who live their creeds." (AP, 8/14/98) 1881 1960 Franklin Pierce Adams, F.P.A., American journalist, columnist, humorist and author. "There are plenty of good five-cent cigars in the country. The trouble is they cost a quarter. What this country really needs is a good five-cent nickel." (AHD, 1971, p.14)(AP, 5/8/99) 1881 1970 Alexander Kerensky, Russian revolutionary leader. He led a more centrist group of revolutionaries as opposed to the extreme left minority group of Lenin. (V.D.-H.K.p.261) 1882 nend Jan 2, Oscar Wilde arrived in New York City and began to tour the US with lectures on the aesthetic movement. (HT, 3/97, p.16) 1882 nend Jan 2, Because of anti-monopoly laws, Standard Oil was organized as a trust. (MC, 1/2/02) 1882 nend Jan 6, Sam Rayburn (d.1961), U.S. Democrat congressman from Texas who became the Speaker of the House of Representatives (1940-46, 1949-53), was born. (HN, 1/6/99)(HNQ, 4/7/00) 1882 nend Jan 18, A.A. [Alan Alexander] Milne, novelist, humorist and journalist who wrote Winnie the Pooh, was born. (HN, 1/18/99) 1882 nend Jan 25, Virginia Woolf (d.1941), English author, critic, was born. She was a member of the intellectual circle known as the Bloomsbury Group and wrote "Mrs. Dalloway" and "Orlando." "On the outskirts of every agony sits some observant fellow who points." "I read the Book of Job last night, I don?t think God comes out of it well." "The compensation of growing old was simply this: that the passions remain as strong as ever, but one has gained?at last! -- the power which adds the supreme flavor to existence, the power of taking hold of experience, of turning it round, slowly, in the light." In 1997 Panthea Reid published: "Art and Affection: A Life of Virginia Woolf." In 1998 Mitchell Leaska published: "Granite and Rainbow: The Life of Virginia Woolf." (AP, 7/6/97)(IW 12/29/97)(AP, 1/18/98)(SFC, 5/25/98, p.E6)(HN, 1/25/99) 1882 nend Jan 30, Franklin D. Roosevelt, 32nd President of the United States (1933-1945), was born in Hyde Park, N.Y. He led the country out of the Great Depression and through most of World War II. (AP, 1/30/98)(HN, 1/30/99)(MC, 1/30/02) 1882 nend Jan 31, Anna Pavlova, ballerina, choreographer, was born in St. Petersburg, Russia. (MC, 1/31/02) 1882 nend Feb 2, James Joyce (d.1941), Irish novelist and poet was born near Dublin. He wrote "Ulysses" and "Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man." From "Ulysses": "History, Stephen said, is a nightmare from which I am trying to awake." In 1998 John Wyse Jackson and Peter Costello published the biography: "John Stanislaus Joyce: The Voluminous Life and Genius of James Joyce?s Father." (AP, 6/22/98)(AP, 2/2/99)(HN, 2/2/99) 1882 nend Feb 7, American pugilist John L. Sullivan became the last of the bare-knuckle world heavyweight champions with his defeat of Patty Ryan in Mississippi City. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_L._Sullivan) 1882 nend Feb 14, George Jean Nathan (d.1958), US editor, author, critic (Smart Set, American Mercury), was born: "Love demands infinitely less than friendship." (AP, 4/30/99)(MC, 2/14/02) 1882 nend Feb 15, John Barrymore, actor, was born in Philadelphia. He was sibling to actors Lionel Barrymore & Ethel Barrymore, father of actors John Drew Barrymore & Diana Barrymore and grandfather of actor Drew Barrymore. (HN, 2/15/01)(MC, 2/15/02) 1882 nend Feb 15, SS Dunedin left New Zealand with 1st frozen meat for England. (MC, 2/15/02) 1882 nend Feb 28, Geraldine Farrar, US soprano, actress (Story of American Singer), was born. (MC, 2/28/02) 1882 nend Mar 3, New York Steam Corp began distributing steam to Manhattan buildings. (SC, 3/3/02) 1882 nend Mar 9, False teeth were patented. [see 1822] (MC, 3/9/02) 1882 nend Mar 16, US Senate ratified a treaty establishing the Red Cross. (MC, 3/16/02) 1882 nend Mar 18, Morgan Earp was gunned down while playing pool. (MesWP) 1882 nend Mar 19, Gaston Lachaise (d.1935), Franco-American sculptor (Standing Woman), was born. (SFC, 2/2/02, p.D1)(MC, 3/19/02) 1882 nend Mar 22, US Congress outlawed polygamy. The Edmunds-Tucker Act was adopted by the US to suppress polygamy in the territories. [see Morrill Act 1862] President Chester Arthur signed a measure outlawing polygamy. (SFEM, 6/28/98, p.39)(AP, 3/22/08) 1882 nend Mar 24, German scientist Robert Koch announced in Berlin that he had discovered the bacillus responsible for tuberculosis. (AP, 3/23/97) 1882 nend Mar 24, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (b.1807), US poet (Song of Hiawatha), died. He is the sole American honored with a bust in the Poet?s Corner of Westminster Abbey. In 2000 J.D. McClatchy edited "Longfellow: Poems and Other Writings." (WSJ, 10/31/00,p.A24)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow) 1882 nend Mar 25, 1st demonstration of pancake making was in a NYC Dept store. (MC, 3/25/02) 1882 nend Mar 29, The Knights of Columbus was granted a charter by the state of Connecticut. (AP, 3/29/07) 1882 nend Apr 3, Wood block alarm was invented. When alarm rang it dropped 20 wood blocks. (MC, 4/3/02) 1882 nend Apr 3, Outlaw Jesse James (34) was shot in the back and killed at his home in St. Joseph, Mo., by Robert Ford, a cousin and member of his own gang for a $5,000 reward. Jesse and Frank James, the bank robbing James brothers, were born as Woodson and Alexander. In 1995 the body of Jesse James was exhumed for DNA testing. The test proved that it was James, who was killed in 1882. In 2000 Desmond Barry authored the novel "The Chivalry of Crime" based on the story of Jesse James. In 2000 the body of a man, J. Frank Dalton (d.1951), who claimed to be Jesse James was exhumed for DNA analysis. (AP, 4/3/97)(SFC,12/26/97, p.C22)(SFEC, 4/23/00, BR p.5)(SFC,5/31/00, p.A4)(HNQ, 6/21/00)(HN, 4/3/02) 1882 nend Apr 10, Capt. William Matson sailed the schooner Emma Claudina through the Golden Gate toward Hawaii. Matson had just founded his shipping company to cover service between San Francisco and Hawaii. (SSFC, 2/18/07, DB p.58) 1882 nend Apr 13, An anti-Semitic League formed in Prussia. (MC, 4/13/02) 1882 nend Apr 17, Artur Schnabel, pianist (Beethoven Piano Sonatas), was born in Lipnik, Austria. (MC, 4/17/02) 1882 nend Apr 18, Leopold Stokowski, conductor (Philadelphia Orchestra), was born in London England. (MC, 4/18/02) 1882 nend Apr 19, Charles R. Darwin (b.1809), English naturalist (Origin of Species), died at Downe, England, at age 73. In 1995 Janet Browne authored "Voyaging" the 1st of her 3-part biography. In 2002 her 2nd volume "The Power of Place" was published. (MC, 4/19/02)(WBO, 2002)(FT, 12/14/02, p.IV) 1882 nend Apr 23, Albert Coates, conductor, composer (Eagle), was born in St. Petersburg. (MC, 4/23/02) 1882 nend Apr 25, French commander Henri Riviere seized the citadel of Hanoi. (HN, 4/25/98) 1882 nend Apr 26, Jessie Redmon Fauset, author, was born. Fauset?s work included: "There Is confusion," "Plum Bun," "The Chinaberry Tree," and "American Style." (440 Int?l. Internet, 4/26/97, p.5) 1882 nend Apr 27, Ralph Waldo Emerson, US poet, philosopher, author, essayist, died. He was one of the original members of the Transcendental Club with Thoreau and Orestes Brownson. (HNQ, 6/14/98)(WSJ, 5/28/99, p.W11)(MC, 4/27/02) 1882 nend Apr 28, Alberto Pirelli, Italian industrialist, was born. (MC, 4/28/02) 1882 nend May 6, Over President Arthur?s veto, Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act, which barred Chinese immigrants from the United States for 10 years. It was amended and passed by Congress on August 3 and was signed by Pres. Arthur. Renewals and amendments continued to 1904. The laws were repealed in 1943. In 2011 the US Senate passed a resolution expressing regret for the act. (AP, 5/6/97)(www.u-s-history.com/pages/h739.html)(SFC, 10/11/11, p.C1) 1882 nend May 9, Henry J. Kaiser, builder of Liberty Ships for U.S. war effort, was born. (HN, 5/9/98) 1882 nend May 13, Georges Braque (d.1963, French cubist painter, was born in Argenteuil, near Paris. He said of his work that: "The aim is not to reconstitute an anecdotal fact, but to constitute a pictorial fact." He was shot in the head during WW I and had his head drilled to relieve the pressure. His "Billiard Tables" series was painted between 1944 and 1949. (V.D.-H.K.p.359-360)(AHD, 1971, p.160)(WSJ, 5/7/97, p.A16)(MC, 5/13/02) 1882 nend May 15, May Laws: Czar Alexander III banned Jews from living in rural Romania. (MC, 5/15/02) 1882 nend May 20, Sigrid Undset, Norwegian novelist (Kristin Lavransdatter), was born. (HN, 5/20/01) 1882 nend May 20, Henrik Ibsen's "Ghosts" (Gengangere, 1881) premiered in Chicago. (MC, 5/20/02) 1882 nend May 20, The St. Gotthard-railroad tunnel opened between Switzerland & Italy. (MC, 5/20/02) 1882 nend May 22, The United States formally recognized Korea. (HN, 5/22/98) 1882 nend May 25, Harry Fox, entertainer, was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1882 nend Jun 2, Giuseppi Garibaldi (b.1807), Italian rebel leader, died. His autobiography was published in 1889. In 2007 Lucy Riall authored ?Garibaldi: Invention of a Hero.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi)(Econ, 5/26/07, p.98) 1882 nend Jun 6, An electric iron was patented by Henry W. Seely in NYC. (MC, 6/6/02) 1882 nend Jun 6, Cyclone in Arabian Sea (Bombay India) drowned 100,000. (MC, 6/6/02) 1882 nend Jun 10, Vasily Perov (b.1833), Russian painter, died. (http://center.rusmuseum.ru/InetBookNew/perov_paint_eng.html) 1882 nend Jun 17, Igor Fedorovich Stravinsky (d.1971), U.S. composer, was born in Oranienbaum, Russia. He wrote "The Rite of Spring" and "The Firebird" among other symphonies. His work also included "The Rake?s Progress" and "Oedipus Rex." The libretto for Rake?s Progress was written by W.H. Auden and Chester Kallman. (WUD, 1994, p.1405)(WSJ, 8/20/96, p.A8)(WSJ, 12/4/96, p.A16)(HN,6/17/98) 1882 nend Jun 21, Rockwell Kent (d.1971), artist, book illustrator, was born. (HN, 6/21/01) 1882 nend Jun 24, Joseph Joachim Raff (60), German opera composer, died. (MC, 6/24/02) 1882 nend Jun 30, Charles Guiteau the assassin of President Garfield was hanged in a Washington jail. (HNPD, 9/19/98) 1882 nend Jul 1, Susan Glaspell (d.1948), novelist and playwright, author of "Alison?s House," was born. (WUD, 1994 p.600)(HN, 7/1/98) 1882 nend Jul 4, Telegraph Hill Observatory opened in SF. (Maggio, 98) 1882 nend Jul 8, Percy Grainger, composer, pianist, conductor (Hill Songs), was born in Melbourne. (MC, 7/8/02) 1882 nend Jul 10, Ima Hogg, Texas art patron, founder of Houston Symphony, was born. (MC, 7/10/02) 1882 nend Jul 14, Johnny Ringo, a fast draw gunman, was found dead in Tombstone. (SFC, 4/22/00, p.E3) 1882 nend Jul 16, Mary Todd Lincoln, the widow of Abraham Lincoln, died of a stroke. (HN, 7/16/98) 1882 nend Jul 22, Edward Hopper (d.1967), American artist (Nighthawks), was born in Nyack, N.Y. (www.fact-index.com) 1882 nend Jul 26, Richard Wagner's final opera "Parsifal," premiered in Bayreuth, Germany. (WSJ, 7/2/99, p.W11A)(MC, 7/26/02) 1882 nend Jul 31, Belle and Sam Starr were charged with Horse stealing in the Indian territory. Myra Maybelle Shirley (Belle Starr) was neither a belle nor the star of any outlaw band and still remains a legendary wild woman of the Old West. (HN, 7/31/98) 1882 nend Aug 3, US Congress passed the 1st Immigration Act. The amended act banned Chinese immigration for ten years. The Chinese Exclusion Act barred laborers from China and halted a massive immigration of Cantonese peasants. [see 1882-1943] (HN, 8/3/98)(SFEC, 9/20/98, Z1 p.4)(www.u-s-history.com/pages/h739.html) 1882 nend Aug 7, Hatfields of south West Virginia and McCoys of eastern Kentucky re-engaged in a feud that dated back to 1865. Some 100 were wounded or died. In 2007 medical evidence indicated that many of the descendants of the McCoys suffered from an inherited disease that leads to hair-trigger rage and violent outbursts. (www.tugvalleychamberofcommerce.com/tour.html)(SFC, 4/6/07, p.A16) 1882 nend Aug 13, William Jevons (b.1835), English economist, drowned while bathing near Hastings. His book ?The Theory of Political Economy? (1871) declared that value depends entirely upon utility. (Econ, 7/26/08,p.84)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Stanley_Jevons) 1882 nend Aug 17, Samuel Goldwyn, American movie mogul who helped start MGM (Metro Goldwyn Mayer), was born as Schmuel Gelbfisz in Warsaw, Poland. (HN, 8/17/00) 1882 nend Aug 28, Belle Benchley, the first female zoo director in the world, who directed the Zoological Gardens of San Diego, was born. (HN, 8/28/98) 1882 nend Aug 29, Australia defeated England in cricket for the first time. The following day a obituary appeared in the Sporting Times addressed to the British team. (HN, 8/29/98) 1882 nend Sep 1, The first Labor Day was observed in New York City by the Carpenters and Joiners Union. [see Sep 5] (HN, 9/1/00) 1882 nend Sep 3, The French, Vietnamese and Chinese battled at Hanoi; hundreds died. (MC, 9/3/01) 1882 nend Sep 4, Thomas Edison displayed the first practical electrical lighting system. He successfully turned on the lights in a one square mile area of New York City with the world?s 1st electricity generating plant. (MC, 9/4/01)(WSJ, 9/17/01, p.R6) 1882 nend Sep 5, The first Labor Day observance?a picnic and parade?was held in New York City. Matthew Maguire, a machinist and secretary of the New York City Central Labor Union, probably first suggested the celebration in 1882 to recognize the contributions of workers to America. Parades like the one in Buffalo, New York, around 1900, soon became an important part of Labor Day festivities. Matthew Maguire, a machinist and secretary of the New York City Central Labor Union, probably first suggested the celebration in 1882 to recognize the contributions of workers to America. Local and regional Labor Day observances spread across the nation until, on June 28, 1894, the U.S. Congress passed an act making the first Monday in September a legal holiday. [see Sep 1] (AP, 9/5/97)(HNPD, 9/5/98)(HNQ, 9/7/98) 1882 nend Sep 10, The 1st international conference to promote anti-Semitism met in Dresden, Germany (Congress for Safeguarding of Non-Jewish Interests). (MC, 9/10/01) 1882 nend Sep 13, British troops defeated Egyptian forces in the Battle at Tel-el-Kebir. (http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/battles/egypt/egypt3.htm) 1882 nend Sep 14, British General Wolseley (d.1913) reached Cairo. (http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/battles/egypt/egypt4.htm) 1882 nend Sep 18, The Pacific Stock Exchange was founded in SF as Local Security Board in the basement of Wohl & Pollitz at 403 California. (SFC, 7/14/98, p.B1)(SFC, 7/24/98, p.B1) 1882 nend Sep 22, Wilhelm Keitel, German field marshal, was born. (MC, 9/22/01) 1882 nend Oct 3, Gunther von Kluge, German field marshal, was born. (MC, 10/3/01) 1882 nend Oct 5, Robert Goddard (d.1945), American rocket scientist, was born. He received 214 patents for rocket systems and components. (HN, 10/5/98)(ON, 1/01, p.5) 1882 nend Oct 5, Outlaw Frank James surrendered in Missouri six months after brother Jesse?s assassination. (HN, 10/5/98) 1882 nend Oct 14, Eamon DeValera, Taoiseach and President of Ireland (1937-48, 51-54, 57-59), was born in NY. (MC, 10/14/01) 1882 nend Oct 18, Alexander Graham Bell made his historic telephone call to the mayor of Chicago. (SFEM, 1/11/98, p.13) 1882 nend Oct 19, Vincas Kreve (d.1954), Lithuanian writer and poet, was born. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincas_Kr%C4%97v%C4%97-Mickevi%C4%8Dius) 1882 nend Oct 20, Bela Lugosi (d.1956), film actor, was born in Lugos, Hungary, as Bela Blasko. He is famous for his portrayal of Count Dracula (1931). (Internet) 1882 nend Oct 22, N.C. Wyeth (d.1945), painter, was born. He became famous for his illustrations of "Treasure Island" and "Robin Hood." (Hem., 6/98, p.133)(HN, 10/22/00) 1882 nend Oct 29, Jean Giraudoux, French dramatist, novelist and diplomat, famous for his book "Tiger at the Gates," was born. His plays included "Eglantine" and "Provinciales." (HN, 10/29/98)(MC, 10/29/01) 1882 nend Oct 30, William F. "Bull" Halsey, Jr., American admiral, was born. He played an instrumental role in the defeat of Japan during World War II. The Japanese surrender was signed on his flagship, the USS Missouri. (HN, 10/30/99) 1882 nend Nov 2, Newly elected John Poe replaced Pat Garrett as sheriff of Lincoln County, New Mexico Territory. (HN, 11/2/98) 1882 nend Nov 5, Bedrich Smetana's "Ma Vlast," premiered. (MC, 11/5/01) 1882 nend Nov 10, Frances Perkins, first US woman cabinet member--Secretary of Labor, was born. (HN, 11/10/98) 1882 nend Nov 14, Billy Clairborne, a survivor of the gunfight at the O.K. Corral, lost his life in a shoot-out with Buckskin Frank Leslie. (HN, 11/14/98) 1882 nend Nov 15, Felix Frankfurter, U.S. 80th Supreme Court Justice (1939-62), was born in Vienna, Austria. He came to the U.S. in 1894 and graduated from Harvard Law School in 1906. A close adviser to President Franklin Roosevelt, Frankfurter helped recruit personnel for the New Deal. He was appointed associate justice of the Supreme Court in 1939 and served until 1962. Frankfurter died on February 22, 1965. "There is no inevitability in history except as men make it." (AP, 2/27/98)(HNQ, 3/16/99)(MC, 11/15/01) 1882 nend Nov 18, Amelita Galli-Curci, Italian operatic soprano, was born. (MC, 11/18/01) 1882 nend Nov 18, Jacques Maritain, French Catholic philosopher (exponent of St Thomas), was born. (MC, 11/18/01) 1882 nend Dec 6, Anthony Trollope (b.1815), English writer, died. His autobiography "An Autobiography," was published in 1883. He wrote harshly about his mother and made her out to be a second-rate writer. (WUD, 1994 p.1517)(WSJ, 12/11/98, p.W10)(WSJ, 6/9/00, p.W17)(MC,12/6/01) 1882 nend Dec 9, Joaquin Turina, composer (Rima), was born in Seville, Spain. (MC, 12/9/01) 1882 nend Dec 11, Fiorella H. La Guardia (d.1947), mayor of New York City, 1934-1945, was born. (AP, 1/8/98)(WSJ, 12/9/98,p.A20)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiorello_La_Guardia) 1882 nend Dec 11, Boston's Bijou Theatre, the first American playhouse to be lighted exclusively by electricity, gave its first performance: Gilbert and Sullivan's "Iolanthe, Or The Peer and the Peri." (AP, 12/11/08) 1882 nend Dec 16, Walther Meissner, German physicist (Meissner effect), was born. (MC, 12/16/01) 1882 nend Dec 22, 1st string of Christmas tree lights was created by Thomas Edison. (SFC, 12/23/98, Z1 p.3)(MC, 12/22/01) 1882 nend Dec 28, Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington, English astronomer who confirmed Einstein's theory of relativity, was born. (HN, 12/28/98) 1882 nend Dec 31, Leon Michel Gambetta (44), French attorney and premier (1881-82), died. (MC, 12/31/01) 1882 nend Claude Monet painted "The Cliff Walk (Pourville)." His series of seaside cliff scenes are among his most dramatic paintings. The series included "Fisherman's Cottage on the Cliffs at Varengeville." (DPCP 1984) 1882 nend John Singer Sargent (26) painted "The Sulphur Match" and "The Daughters of Edward Boit." He also completed "El Jaleo," the mural-scale depiction of a Spanish dancer. (WSJ, 2/23/99, p.A20)(WSJ, 8/5/99, p.A16) 1882 nend Vincent Van Gogh painted "The Wounded Veteran.' (WSJ, 3/14/00, p.A28) 1882 nend Bishop Crittenden authored the dime novel ?The Entwined Lives of Miss Gabrielle Austin, Daughter of the Late Rev. Ellis C. Austin, and Redmond, the Outlaw, Leader of the North Carolina Moonshiners.? (WSJ, 3/20/09, p.W11)(www.theridgebooks.com/si/7107.html) 1882 nend Ignatius Donnelly wrote "Atlantis: The Antediluvian World." (SFEC, 7/26/98, BR p.3) 1882 nend Friedrich Nietzsche authored ?Die Fröhliche Wissenschaft? (The Gay Science), in which he pronounced the death of God. (www.kirjasto.sci.fi/nietzsch.htm) 1882 nend J.A. Gillet and W.J. Rolfe published "The Heavens Above," a popular handbook of astronomy. (NH, 10/98, p.87) 1882 nend Leslie Stephen, the father of Virginia Woolf, began writing the "Dictionary of National Biography." It was published over the years 1890-1911. (WSJ, 11/12/99, p.W13) 1882 nend Henrik Ibsen wrote his moral melodrama "An Enemy of the People." (WSJ, 8/11/98, p.A16) 1882 nend The maternal grandfather of jazz saxophonist Sam Rivers published "A Collection of Revival Hymns and Plantation Melodies." (SFEC, 8/10/97, DB p.41) 1882 nend Brahms completed his "Piano Concerto in B flat M." (BLW, 1963 ed. p. 19) 1882 nend The six tone poems "Ma Vlast" (My Homeland) by Czech composer Smetana were first performed in their entirety. (SFC, 5/9/97, p.D6) 1882 nend The opera "Iolanthe" by Gilbert and Sullivan opened in New York and London. (SFC, 6/21/00, p.E4) 1882 nend The Golden Gate Park Band was founded in San Francisco and began performing annual concerts in Golden Gate Park. (SFC, 7/3/96, p.E1) 1882 nend In Colorado the Durango & Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad was completed to haul gold, silver and other minerals. (SFEC,11/16/97, p.T5) 1882 nend The Knights of Columbus, a benevolent society of Roman Catholic men, was founded in the US. (AHD, 1971, p.724) 1882 nend Manhattan College athletic director Brother Jasper initiated the American tradition of baseball?s seventh-inning stretch. Feeling sorry for restless students watching an 1882 baseball game between the college team and the semi-pro Metropolitans, Brother Jasper called a time-out during the seventh inning and asked the spectators to stand up and stretch for a little while. This was repeated at another college game against the New York Giants baseball team. In honor of their coach, Manhattan College named their team the Jaspers. (HNQ, 4/30/00) 1882 nend Pres. Chester Arthur approved new borders for the Hopi reservation, a 1.6 million-acre site in the center of 17 million acres of Navajo land in the 4 Corners area of the Southwest. A 3,863 sq. mile area was set up as a Hopi reservation. The intent was to keep Mormon settlers away from Hopi pueblos. The Hopi Reservation was formed on territory historically used by both Hopi and Navajo. (SFC, 12/28/96, p.A4)(SFC, 1/3/97, p.A26)(SFEC, 5/4/97, z1 p.4) 1882 nend US Pres. Chester Arthur (1829-1886) was diagnosed with terminal kidney disease. Only his doctors knew and his fatigue was commonly mistaken for executive laziness. (AH, 6/07, p.14) 1882 nend The US and Korea signed the Chemulpo Treaty, which pledged perpetual peace and friendship between the President of the US and King Kojong (1852-1919) of Chosen and their respective people. (AH, 10/07, p.56)(www.asianresearch.org/articles/1623.html) 1882 nend Theodore Roosevelt described Thomas Jefferson as "perhaps the most incapable executive that ever filled the presidential chair." Roosevelt added, "It would be difficult to imagine a man less fit to guide a state with honor and safety through the stormy times that marked the opening of the present century." (HNQ, 9/21/98) 1882 nend Marshall Virgil Earp and his brother Wyatt left Tombstone, Arizona. (SFC, 8/19/96, p.A3) 1882 nend In Colorado Bat Masterson served as the town Marshall of Trinidad. (SFEC, 11/8/98, p.A6) 1882 nend John Armstrong III, a Texas Ranger, settled a ranch south of Corpus Christi. He bought the beginnings of the Armstrong Ranch with the $4,000 bounty he received for capturing outlaw John Wesley Hardin. The ranch, which expanded to 50,000 acres, is near the King Ranch, settled by the Kleberg family. (SFC, 2/13/06, p.A6)(http://tinyurl.com/dhd84) 1882 nend Barbed wire was used to fence the west at this time. Specimens were later put on display at Oracle Junction, Arizona, and included Dodge and Washburn and Ellwood "Spread." (NOHY, 3/90, p.173) 1882 nend Charles M. Bergstresser bankrolled a publishing venture with Charles Dow and Edward Jones and established the new agency known as the Customer?s Afternoon Letter. Bergstresser dubbed it the Wall street Journal in 1889. Dow and Jones left the Kiernan New Agency to launch Dow Jones. Dow developed an initial stock average containing 11 stocks, which appeared in the Customer's Afternoon Letter, a 2-page bulletin that developed into the WSJ. (WSJ, 3/4/96, p. C-1)(WSJ, 3/30/99, p.C15) 1882 nend The Globe Files Co. was founded in Cincinnati, Ohio. In 1898 it introduced a vertical filing system. (SFC, 8/9/06, p.G3) 1882 nend The Standard Oil Trust began and issued its first stock signed by John D. Rockefeller. The trust was preceded by the Standard Oil Company. All pre-1920 stocks were printed by the American Banknote Co. John D. Rockefeller by this time had acquired 77 separate oil companies and controlled some 90 percent of the refinery and pipeline business in the country through the Standard Oil Trust. (Cont, 12/97, p.58)(HNQ, 1/23/00) 1882 nend The factory of the Racine Silver Plate Co. burned down. It was re-opened a year later in Rockford, Ill. (SFC,11/26/97, Z1 p.7) 1882 nend The Royal Worcester pottery company in England began making the "Asthetic" or "Oscar Wilde" teapots. They depicted a man on one side and a woman on the other and were inspired by the Gilbert and Sullivan operetta "Patience." (SFC, 12/30/96, z-1 p.2) 1882 nend Thomas Edison manufactured electricity generators that fetched $33,000 in 1994 as a collector?s antique. (WSJ, 12/9/94, p.R-8) 1882 nend Edison Electric installed a power grid in Manhattan that wrecked telephone reception. (SFEM, 1/11/98, p.13) 1882 nend In Chicago electric streetcars began running and created havoc with the telephone system. (SFEM, 1/11/98, p.13) 1882 nend The electric iron was patented. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) c 1882 nend Thomas Doolittle began manufacturing new hard-drawn copper wire. Angus Hibbard, field operation manager for American Bell, began to use the new wire to replace the old iron lines. (SFEM, 1/11/98, p.14) 1882 nend Heinz began patenting ketchup bottles. (SFC, 8/27/03, p.E4) 1882 nend Farmer John Frazier discovered an aquifer of mineral water in Frazier Station, Ca., and renamed the town to Carlsbad after the resort in Karlsbad, Bohemia. (SSFC, 11/9/03, p.C5) 1882 nend Moritz Daniel Oppenheim (b.1800), "painter of the Rothschilds and the Rothschild of painters," died. (WSJ, 5/22/01, p.A24) 1882 nend Alexander Hamilton Stephens was elected governor of Georgia but died after serving just a few months. (HNQ, 5/24/98) 1882 nend The Hotel Evropa was built in Sarajevo, Bosnia. It was gutted by Serb shells in 1992. Restoration after the 1992-1995 war was completed in 2008. (Econ, 7/19/08, p.60) 1882 nend In London euphoric investors pushed up the stock prices of the first companies to issue shares for companies with new patents for equipment to power electric lights. (WSJ, 1/7/98, p.B1) 1882 nend The British Parliament passed the Electric Lights Act to regulate electric utilities. (WSJ, 1/7/98, p.B1) 1882 Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), English philosopher, culminated his visit to the US with a dinner a Delmonico?s in NYC, at which mostly Republican men of science, religion, business and government participated. In 2008 Barry Werth authored ?Banquet at Delmonico?s: Great Minds, the Gilded Age, and the Triumph of Evolution in America.? (WSJ, 1/9/09, p.A11) 1882 nend James Atkinson, British engineer, invented the Atkinson cycle engine, an ultra-lean internal combustion engine. (Econ, 8/16/08, p.77)(www.jyrojak.com/steamtime.htm) 1882 nend In Egypt a military coup against the Khedive furnished a pretext for a British invasion. (WSJ, 7/10/03, p.D8) 1882 nend In Hawaii King David Kalakaua built the Iolani Palace. (SFC, 6/20/08, p.A5)(www.iolanipalace.org) 1882 nend Jigoro Kano (1860-1938), founder of judo, opened his first judo school, the Kodokan, in Tokyo. Some 40 years later he added a women?s section. (SFC, 7/25/11, p.E2)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kan%C5%8D_Jigor%C5%8D) 1882 nend The central Bank of Japan was established. (SFC, 3/26/98, p.B2) 1882 nend In Russia the Imperial Orthodox Palestine Society was founded to support Russian pilgrimages to the Holy Land. (Econ, 12/19/09, p.84) 1882 1844 Jean Giraudoux, French novelist, playwright and diplomat. He wrote "The Mad Woman of Chaillot." It was later adopted by playwright Maurice Valency (1903-1996) in a New York production with Audrey Hepburn. (WUD, 1994, p.1679)(SFEC, 9/30/96, p.A23) 1882 1943 In the US the Chinese Exclusion Act was in force. [see May 6, 1882] The Chinese Exclusion Act, prohibiting the immigration of Chinese laborers into the United States, was first passed in 1882 and then repealed by Congress in 1943. Strong anti-Chinese feeling in the West led to the 1882 act, which was extended for 10 years in 1894 and indefinitely in 1902. The laws were finally repealed in 1943 but only after the Chinese population in the U.S. had declined dramatically. In 2007 Jean Pfaelzer authored ?Driven Out: The Forgotten War Against Chinese Americans.? (SFEC, 8/18/96, DB p.27)(HNQ, 9/9/98)(SSFC, 6/3/07, p.M1) 1882 1945 Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 32nd president of the US. (AHD, 1971, p. 1127) 1882 1961 Percy Williams Bridgeman, American scientist: "There is no adequate defense, except stupidity, against the impact of a new idea." (AP, 8/10/97) 1882 1944 Hendrik Willem van Loon, Dutch-American journalist and lecturer: "Any frontal attack on ignorance is bound to fail because the masses are always ready to defend their most precious possession -- their ignorance." (AP, 12/7/98) 1882 1950 James Stephens, Irish poet and novelist: "Originality does not consist in saying what no one has ever said before, but in saying exactly what you think yourself." (AP, 5/21/99) 1882 1967 Geraldine Farrar, American opera singer. She was very photogenic and starred in a dozen silent films. She is discussed in the 1997 book "The American Opera Singer" by Peter G. Davis. (WSJ, 11/6/97, p.A20) 1882 1967 Henry J. Kaiser, American industrialist: "When your work speaks for itself, don?t interrupt." "Trouble is only opportunity in work clothes." (AP, 12/2/99) 1882 1968 According to records at Tuskegee Univ. 4,743 people were killed by lynch mobs in the US during this period. 3,446 of these people were black. (Econ, 6/18/05, p.29) 1883 nend Jan 3, Clement Attlee Britain?s prime minister [1945-1951; head of Labor Party, was born. (440 Int'l. 1/3/99) 1883 nend Jan 4, Benjamin Butler (1818-1893) began serving as the 33rd governor of Massachusetts and continued until January 3, 1884. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Butler_%28politician%29) 1883 nend Jan 10, Fire at uninsured Newhall Hotel in Milwaukee, Wisconsin killed 71. General Tom Thumb of P.T. Barnum fame escaped unhurt. (MC, 1/10/02) 1883 nend Jan 13, Fire in circus Ferroni in Berditschoft, Poland, killed 430. (MC, 1/13/02) 1883 nend Jan 16, The U.S. Civil Service Commission was established. The US Civil Service Reform Act prohibited federal employees from contributing to political campaigns. (AP, 1/16/98)(SFEC, 10/5/97, p.D9) 1883 nend Jan 30, James Ritty and John Birch received a U.S. patent for the first cash register. (AP, 1/30/07) 1883 nend Feb 7, Eubie Blake, ragtime composer, pianist (Memories of You), was born. (MC, 2/7/02) 1883 nend Feb 8, Louis Waterman began experiments to invent fountain pen. His invention held ink in the pen?s barrel. (MC, 2/8/02)(SFC, 7/26/04, p.F4) 1883 nend Feb 13, Richard Wagner (b.1813)), revolutionary German composer (Die Walkure), died in Venice. Composer Leon Stein (d.2002 at 92) later authored "The Racial Thinking of Richard Wagner." In 2007 Jonathan Carr authored ?The Wagner Clan,? The Saga of Germany's Most Illustrious and Infamous Family. (WSJ, 2/4/99,p.A20)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wagner)(Econ, 9/8/07, p.85) 1883 nend Feb 16, "Ladies Home Journal" began publishing. (MC, 2/16/02) 1883 nend Feb 17, A. Ashwell patented a free toilet in London. (MC, 2/17/02) 1883 nend Feb 23, Victor Fleming, director of the movie classics "The Wizard of Oz" and "Gone With the Wind", was born. (HN, 2/23/98) 1883 nend Feb 23, Karl Jaspers, existentialist philosopher, was born in Oldenburg, Germany. (MC, 2/23/02) 1883 nend Feb 23, American Anti-Vivisection Society was organized in Philadelphia. (MC, 2/23/02) 1883 nend Feb 27, Oscar Hammerstein patented the 1st cigar-rolling machine. (MC, 2/27/02) 1883 nend Feb 28, 1st US vaudeville theater opened in Boston. (MC, 2/28/02) 1883 nend Mar 3, Congress authorized the 1st steel vessels in US navy. (SC, 3/3/02) 1883 nend Mar 4, John Gordon Cashmans began "Vicksburg Evening Post" in Mississippi. (SC, 3/4/02) 1883 nend Mar 4, Alexander H. Stephens (71), Vice President Confederate States, died. (SC, 3/4/02) 1883 nend Mar 13, Sergei Degaev (26) shot and killed Lt. Col. Georgii Sudeikin, security chief of Czar Alexander III. The 2 men had conspired to undermine both the government and the Revolutionary People?s Will. Degaev fled Russia to the US where he earned a Ph.D. in mathematics at Johns Hopkins and became the 1st math prof. At the new Univ. of South Dakota, where he taught until he died in 1921. In 2003 Richard Pipes authored "The Degaev Affair." (WSJ, 4/17/03, p.D8) 1883 nend Mar 14, Karl Marx (64), German political philosopher (Communist Manifesto, Das Kapital), died in London. (AP, 3/14/97)(MC, 3/14/02) 1883 nend Mar 19, Joseph W. Stilwell, US general (China), was born. (MC, 3/19/02) 1883 nend Mar 19, Jan Matzeliger invented the 1st machine to manufacture entire shoes. (MC, 3/19/02) 1883 nend Mar 23, Faisal I ibn Hussein ibn Ali, 1st king of Iraq-Syria, was born. (SS, 3/23/02) 1883 nend Mar 24, Long-distance telephone service was inaugurated between Chicago and New York. [see Mar 27, 1884] (AP, 3/23/97) 1883 nend Mar 30, Jo Davidson, American sculptor, was born. (HN, 3/30/98) 1883 nend Mar 31, 1st performance of Cesar Franck's "Le Chasseur Maudit." (MC, 3/31/02) 1883 nend Apr 1, Aleksander V. Aleksandrov, Russian composer, conductor, was born. (MC, 4/1/02) 1883 nend Apr 1, Lon Chaney (d.1973), actor know as "man of a thousand faces," (High Noon, Phantom of Opera), was born. (HN, 4/1/98) 1883 nend Apr 12, Imogen Cunningham, photographer (1965 ASMP award), was born. (MC, 4/12/02) 1883 nend Apr 13, Alfred Packer was convicted of cannibalism. [see Aug, 1873] (MC, 4/13/02) 1883 nend Apr 14, Leo Delibes' opera "Lakme," premiered in Paris. (MC, 4/14/02) 1883 nend Apr 15, Vladimir Kovalevsky (b.1842), paleontologist, committed suicide. His work had focused on the evolution of odd-toed and even-toed ungulates. He also was the first translator of Darwin?s works into Russian. (NH, 6/96, p.23) 1883 nend Apr 16, Paul Kruger was chosen president of Transvaal. (MC, 4/16/02) 1883 nend Apr 24, Jaroslav Hasek, Czech writer (Brave soldier Schweik), was born. (MC, 4/24/02) 1883 nend Apr 25, Elsa Maxwell, writer (Jack Paar Show), was born in Keokuk, Iowa. (SS, 4/25/02) 1883 nend May 1, "Buffalo Bill" Cody put on his 1st Wild West Show. (MC, 5/1/02) 1883 nend May 5, Charles Bender, the only Native American in baseball?s Hall of Fame, was born. (HN, 5/5/98) 1883 nend May 9, Spanish philosopher Jose Ortega y Gasset was born in Madrid. (AP, 5/9/08)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset) 1883 nend May 17, Buffalo Bill Cody's 1st wild west show premiered in Omaha. (MC, 5/17/02) 1883 nend May 17, Lydia Estes Pinkham, patent-medicine manufacturer, died. (MC, 5/17/02) 1883 nend May 18, Walter Gropius (d.1969), architect and founder of the Bauhaus school of design, was born in Berlin, Germany. "The human mind is like an umbrella. It functions best when open." (V.D.-H.K.p.363)(AP, 10/7/98)(SC, 5/18/02) 1883 nend May 23, Douglas Fairbanks, actor, was born in Denver, CO. (HN, 5/23/98)(MC, 5/23/02) 1883 nend May 23, The first baseball game between one-armed and one-legged players was played. (HN, 5/23/98) 1883 nend May 24, The Brooklyn Bridge, hailed as the "eighth wonder of the world," was dedicated by President Chester Arthur and New York Gov. Grover Cleveland, and officially opened to traffic. The suspension bridge linking the boroughs of Manhattan and Brooklyn became a symbol of America's progress and ingenuity. The bridge has a span of 1,595 feet with 16-inch steel wire suspension cables fastened to Gothic-style arches 276 feet tall. Civil engineer John Augustus Roebling, inventor of the steel wire cable and designer of the bridge, was killed in a construction accident at the outset of construction in 1869. His son and partner, Washington A. Roebling, supervised the project to its completion in spite of a debilitating illness. 20 men died during construction and many suffered from caisson disease, later known as the bends, while working in pressurized air chambers under the river. (HNPD, 5/23/99)(ON, 4/01, p.9)(AP, 5/24/08) 1883 nend May 26, Mamie Smith, blues singer, was born. (HN, 5/26/01) 1883 nend May 29, William Beatton Moonie, composer, was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1883 nend May 29, Albrecht of Prussia (73), mistress of John van Rossum, died. (SC, 5/29/02) 1883 nend May 29, WFLC Marianne princess of Orange-Nassau, died. (SC, 5/29/02) 1883 nend May 30, 12 people were trampled to death in New York City when a rumor that the recently opened Brooklyn Bridge was in danger of collapsing triggered a stampede. (AP, 5/30/97) 1883 nend Jun 2, The first baseball game under electric lights was played in Fort Wayne, Indiana. (HN, 6/2/98) 1883 nend Jun 2, Chicago's "El" opened to traffic. (SC, 6/2/02) 1883 nend Jun 2, Four gentlemen departed London on velocipedes and spent the next 2 weeks bicycling 800 miles to John O?Grouts in Scotland. (ON, 1/00, p.5) 1883 nend Jun 5, Economist John Maynard Keynes (d.1946), economist, was born in Cambridge, England. He developed theories on the causes of prolonged unemployment and advised wide government expenditures as a counter measure to deflation and depression. "I do not know which makes a man more conservative -- to know nothing but the present, or nothing but the past." (V.D.-H.K.p.253)(AP, 6/5/97)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R20)(HN, 6/5/99)(AP,7/29/99) 1883 nend Jun 9, The 1st commercial electric railway line began operation Chicago. (MC, 6/9/02) 1883 nend Jun 11, Frank O. King, "Gasoline Alley" cartoonist, was born in Cashton, Wisc. (SC, 6/11/02) 1883 nend Jun 16, The New York Gothams admitted both escorted and unescorted ladies to the baseball park free in the 1st ladies? day game against the Cleveland Spiders. NY won, 5-2. (HNQ, 12/21/01)(AP, 6/16/03) 1883 nend Jun 24, Victor Francis Hess, physicist, was born. (HN, 6/24/01) 1883 nend Jul 3, Franz Kafka (d.1924), Czech novelist, author of "The Metamorphosis," was born in Prague. "The Castle" and "The Trial," were both published after his death. He died of tuberculosis. (V.D.-H.K.p.367-368)(WSJ, 10/10/96, p.A1)(WSJ, 3/14/97, p.A11)(HN,7/3/98) 1883 nend Jul 3, SS Daphne sank on Clyde River in Scotland and 195 died. (MC, 7/3/02) 1883 nend Jul 4, Alan Brooke, English general, was born. (MC, 7/4/02) 1883 nend Jul 4, Rube Goldberg (Ruben Lucius Goldberg, 1883-1970) cartoonist, was born in San Francisco. He was known for cartoons featuring absurdly complicated mechanical devices to accomplish absurdly simple tasks. (WUD, 1994, p.607)(SFEC, 4/5/98, p.A28)(IB, Internet, 12/7/98) 1883 nend Jul 4, Maximilian Oseyevich Shteynberg, composer, was born. (MC, 7/4/02) 1883 nend Jul 4, One of the first Wild West shows was performed in North Platte, Nebraska, and was organized by Buffalo Bill (William F. Cody), who took the show on the road the following year. (IB, Internet, 12/7/98) 1883 nend Jul 9, Adrien Louis Victor Boieldieu (67), composer, died. (MC, 7/9/02) 1883 nend Jul 11, In Cincinnati the Reform Jewish Seminary held a dinner for its 1st class of rabbis. The meal gained notoriety for abrogating every rule of kashrut, except the prohibition against pork. (WSJ, 7/6/01, p.W11) 1883 nend Jul 15, Tom Thumb (44), famous small person (40"), died of a stroke. (MC, 7/15/02) 1883 nend Jul 23, Lord Allanbrooke (d.1963), English soldier, was born. (AP, 7/23/97) 1883 nend Jul 24, Matthew Webb (b.1848), the 1st person to swim the English Channel (1875), drowned while trying to swim across the Niagara River just below the falls. (ON, 2/05, p.12)(www.telfordlife.com/Capt%20Webb.htm) 1883 nend Jul 25, Alfredo Casella, composer (La Giara), was born in Turin, Italy. (SC, 7/25/02) 1883 nend Jul 27, Albert Franz Doppler (61), composer, died. (MC, 7/27/02) 1883 nend Jul 28, Shocks, triggered by the volcano Epomeo (Isle of Ischia, Italy), destroyed 1,200 houses at Casamicciola killing 2,000. (SC, 7/28/02) 1883 nend Jul 29, Benito Mussolini, dictator of Fascist Italy (1922-1943), was born. (HN, 7/29/98) 1883 nend Aug 19, Gabrielle "Coco" Chanel (d.1971), French fashion designer, was born: "My friends, there are no friends." (HN, 8/19/00)(AP, 7/26/99) 1883 nend Aug 23, Jonathan Wainwright, U.S. general who fought against the Japanese on Corregidor in the Philippines and was forced to surrender, was born. (HN, 8/23/98) 1883 nend Aug 26, The island volcano Krakatoa in Indonesia began erupting with increasingly large explosions and killed some 36,000 people, both on the island itself and from the resulting 131-foot tidal waves that obliterated 163 villages on the shores of nearby Java and Sumatra. A book by Ian Thornton: "Krakatau: The Destruction and Reassembly of an Island Ecosystem" was published in 1996. [see Aug 27] The history of hundreds of volcanoes is at a Volcano World Web page: (www.volcano.und.nodak.edu/vw.html). (AP, 8/26/97)(Nat. Hist, 3/96, p.6)(HN, 8/26/02) 1883 nend Aug 27, The island volcano Krakatoa erupted; the resulting tidal waves in Indonesia's Sunda Strait claimed some 36,417 lives in Java and Sumatra. In 2003 Simon Winchester authored Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: Aug 27, 1883." [see Aug 26] (AP, 8/27/97)(SSFC, 4/6/03, p.M2) 1883 nend Aug 28, John Montgomery (b.1858) made the first manned, controlled flight in the US in his "Gull" glider, whose design was inspired by watching birds. The craft weight 38 pounds and flew to 15 feet for at least 300 feet at Otay Mesa near San Diego, Ca. In 1911 Montgomery died in a glider crash. (SFC, 6/5/98, p.A23)(SFCM, 2/6/05, p.3)(GenIV, Winter 04/05) 1883 nend Aug 29, Seismic sea waves, created by Krakatoa eruption, created a rise in the English Channel 32 hrs after explosion. (MC, 8/29/01) 1883 nend Sep 3, Ivan Turgenev, Russian writer, died at age 64. (MC, 9/3/01) 1893 nend Sep 4, Beatrix Potter (1866-1943), English author, first told the story of Peter Rabbit in the form of a "picture letter" to Noel Moore, the son of Potter's former governess. A 2nd illustrated letter the same month later became ?The Tale of Jeremy Fisher.? The ?Tale of Peter Rabbit? was published in 1901. (HN, 9/4/00)(AP, 9/4/04)(Econ, 1/6/07, p.67) 1883 nend Sep 6, Lord Birkett, England, judge (Nuremburg Trials), was born. (MC, 9/6/01) 1883 nend Sep 8, The Northern Pacific Railway celebrated the completion of its east-west line with a Gold Spike at Gold Creek in central Montana. Guests included Frederick Billings, Ulysses S. Grant, and the family of abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Pacific_Railway) 1883 nend Sep 11, James Goold Cutler, architect, patented the postal mail chute. The first one was installed in Rochester N.Y. He later became the mayor of Rochester. (SFC, 9/28/96, p.E4)(WSJ, 7/11/01, p.A1)(MC, 9/11/01) 1883 nend Sep 14, Margaret Higgins Sanger was born. While not the first in the U.S. advocating the use of contraceptives, she coined the term "birth control" in 1914. She was the founder of the birth control movement in the United States and the National Birth Control League. Wife of an affluent architect and mother of three, Sanger worked as a visiting nurse on New York?s Lower East Side, where she witnessed the misery and poverty caused by uncontrolled fertility. Sanger became a nurse and after moving to New York City in 1912 became involved in the bohemian society. She launched Woman Rebel magazine in March 1914. For sending pleas for birth control through the mails, she was indicted in August 1914 under New York?s 1873 Comstock Act, which classified information related to contraception as being obscene. She went on to lead a global movement for birth control and founded the organization that would later become Planned Parenthood. She died on September 6, 1966. (HNQ, 6/22/98)(SFEM, 6/28/98, p.39)(HN, 9/14/98)(HNPD, 9/14/98) 1883 nend Sep 14, A Ukase barred Yiddish theater in Russia. (www.jewish-theatre.com/visitor/article_display.aspx?articleID=1010) 1883 nend Sep 17, William Carlos Williams, poet, playwright, essayist and writer who won a Pulitzer prize for "Pictures from Breughel and Other Poems," was born. (HN, 9/17/98) 1883 nend Sep 21, The 1st direct US-Brazil telegraph connection was made. (MC, 9/21/01) 1883 nend Oct 4, Orient Express made its 1st run linking Istanbul, Turkey, to Paris by rail. (MC, 10/4/01) 1883 nend Oct 17, A.S. Neill, British headmaster (Summerhill), was born. (MC, 10/17/01) 1883 nend Oct 18, The weather station at the top of Ben Nevis, Scotland, the highest mountain in Britain, was declared open. (HN, 10/18/98) 1883 nend Oct 20, Max Bruch's "Kol Nidre," 1st performed. (MC, 10/20/01) 1883 nend Oct 22, The original Metropolitan Opera House in New York held its grand opening with a performance of Gounod's "Faust." (AP, 10/22/01) 1883 nend Nov 3, U.S. Supreme Court declared American Indians to be "dependent aliens." (HN, 11/3/98) 1883 nend Nov 3, Race riots took place in Danville, Virginia, and 4 blacks were killed. (MC, 11/3/01) 1883 nend Nov 3, A poorly trained Egyptian army, led by British General William Hicks, marched toward El Obeid in the Sudan--straight into a Mahdist ambush and massacre. (HN, 11/3/98) 1883 nend Nov 8, Arnold Edward Trevor Bax, composer (Farewell My Youth), was born in London, England. (MC, 11/8/01) 1883 nend Nov 11, Ernest Ansermet, conductor, was born in Vevey, Switzerland. (MC, 11/11/01) 1883 nend Nov 18, Antonin Dvorak's "Hussite Overture," premiered. (MC, 11/18/01) 1883 nend Nov 18, The United States and Canada adopted a system of Standard Time zones. The railroad companies got together and established standard railroad time to increase safety and surmount complex scheduling on local times. This put an end to ?God?s time.? (HFA, '96, p.18)(NG, March 1990, p.115)(AP, 11/18/97)(WSJ, 3/31/05,p.D8) 1883 nend Nov 18, Wilhelm Siemens, German-British physicist (steam engine), died. (MC, 11/18/01) 1883 nend Nov 26, Sojourner Truth, former slave and abolitionist, died in Battle Creek, Mich. (AP, 11/26/08) 1883 nend Dec 2, Johannes Brahms' 3rd Symphony in F, premiered. (MC, 12/2/01) 1883 nend Dec 10, Andrej J. Vyshinski, Russian lawyer, foreign minister and UN-ambassador, was born. (MC, 12/10/01) 1883 nend Dec 15, William A. Hinton, developer of the "Hinton Test" for diagnosing syphilis, was born. (HN, 12/15/98) 1883 nend Dec 22, Arthur Wergs Mitchell, first African-American to be elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, was born. (HN, 12/22/98) 1883 nend Anton Webern (d.1945), Austrian composer, was born. (WSJ, 2/14/00, p.A20) 1883 nend Edward Degas painted "Woman in a Tub." (WSJ, 2/29/00, p.B16) 1883 nend Winslow Homer, painter, moved to the family compound at Prout?s Neck, Maine. (WSJ, 9/13/01, p.A18) 1883 nend Lord Frederick Leighton painted "Kittens." (WSJ, 5/29/98, p.W10) 1883 nend Claude Monet made a trip to Italy with Cezanne and Renoir and painted "The Monte Carlo Road." (WSJ, 8/26/97, p.A14) 1883 nend Tokonami Seisei, self-taught Japanese artist, painted "Volcano." (WSJ, 2/5/98, p.A20) 1883 nend The first Brownie book was published. Palmer Cox (1840-1924), Canadian illustrator and writer, created the stories and drawings, which first appeared in 1879. 12 more books followed and in 1891 Cox registered the illustrations under the new copyright law. (SFC, 12/26/07, p.G3)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmer_Cox) 1883 nend Arthur Conan Doyle published his short story "The Captain of the Pole-Star." (PacDisc. Spring/?96, p.18) 1883 nend Mary Hallock Foote (b1847), American author and illustrator, published her first novel: ?Led-Horse Claim: A Romance of a Mining Camp,? written while living in Leadville, Colo. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Hallock_Foote) 1883 nend Frederick Spencer Oliver in Yreka, Ca., authored "Dweller on Two Planets," an occult classic that told the story of the Lemurians, an ancient race who abandoned their Atlantis-like continent, when it sank beneath the Pacific Ocean, and formed a mystical brotherhood inside Mount Shasta. (SSFC, 10/12/02, p.C5) 1883 nend Jean-Paul Richter published a compilation of Leonardo de Vinci?s notebooks. (NH, 5/97, p.19) 1883 nend Robert Lewis Stevenson authored ?Silverado Squatters.? It covered 2 months of his journey to Mount St. Helena, Ca., with his wife Fanny Van de Grift Osbourne. (SSFC, 11/15/09, p.M4) 1883 nend Anthony Trollope published "An Autobiography." He wrote harshly about his mother and made her out to be a second-rate writer. (WSJ, 12/11/98, p.W10) 1883 nend Bruckner composed his Seventh Symphony. (WSJ, 3/5/99, p.W10) 1883 nend John Philip Sousa premiered his "The Transit of Venus March" on the 5th anniversary of the death of scientist Joseph Henry. (WSJ, 12/17/97, p.A20) 1883 nend The opera "Mazeppa" by Tchaikovsky was completed. (WSJ, 5/7/98, p.A21) 1883 nend The Minneapolis Institute of Arts, originally the Minneapolis Society of Fine Arts, was established. The museum building, designed by the firm of McKim, Mead and White, opened its doors in 1915. In 1974, the Japanese architect Kenzo Tange was commissioned to design needed additions to McKim, Mead and White?s neoclassical structure. Now in the 1990s, with finds from the Institute?s New Beginnings Campaign, the museum building is being renovated, the collections reinstalled, and state-of-the-art technology introduces to help visitors and members interpret the works of art. (MIA, www, 1999) 1883 nend The Elk Cove Inn in Elk, California, was built. (SFC, 9/1/96, T3) 1883 nend In Oakland, Ca. the city engineer, Anthony Chabot, donated the Chabot Observatory and Science Center to the school district. In 1996 it began a $51 million, 3-year expansion and move to the Oakland Hills in Joaquin Miller Park. (SFC, 10/19/96, A15) 1883 nend The Salvation Army came to SF. In 1886 they opened a facility in the Tenderloin. (SFC, 9/15/98, p.A9)(SFC, 6/28/08, p.B1) 1883 nend The Brooks and Carey Saloon opened on Mission Road. It was later renamed the Brooksville Hotel. Frank Molloy purchased the place from Patrick Brooks in 1929 and renamed it Molloy's. (Ind, 1/30/98, p.5A)(SSFC, 3/8/09, p.E8) 1883 nend In San Francisco Army Major W.A. Jones created a plan to transform the Presidio into a forested park-like reserve. In 1886 the Army began planting blue gum eucalyptus to serve as a windbreak on the ridges of the Presidio. (SFC, 7/6/04, p.A1)(SFC, 5/25/09, p.A8) 1883 nend Fr. Joseph Sasia, SJ (1843-1928) took over as president of St. Ignatius College in San Francisco. (GenIV, Winter 04/05) c 1883 nend In Iowa the Roseman Bridge was constructed. It was later featured in the 1995 film "The Bridges of Madison County." (SFC, 7/11/03, p.A2) 1883 nend The Oregon State Hospital was built in Salem. It was used for the 1975 film ?One Flew Over the Cuckoo?s Nest.? In 2004 legislators discovered the cremated remains of some 3,600 mental patients in corroding copper canisters. In 2008 the main building was scheduled to be torn down and replaced by a new complex. (SFC, 7/16/08, p.A8)(www.oregon.gov/DHS/mentalhealth/osh/main.shtml) 1883 nend Wente Winery was founded in California. (SFC, 9/27/96, p.E3) 1883 nend Alice Claypoole Vanderbilt wore her "Electric Light" gown and stole the show at Alva Vanderbilt?s costume party in Newport, Rhode Island. (WSJ, 6/6/95, p.A-14) 1883 nend The US Supreme Court ruled that the Dakota Territory court had no jurisdiction in a case in which a member of the Lakota nation killed a fellow member on tribal land. The decision overturned a death sentence and effectively gave exclusive jurisdiction for crimes to tribes. In 1885 US Congress passed the Major Crimes Act taking away the tribes? authority to prosecute serious crimes such as murder, manslaughter and rape. (WSJ, 8/13/07, p.A12) 1883 nend The US Secret Service was officially acknowledged as a distinct organization within the Treasury Department. (http://www.ustreas.gov/usss/history.shtml) 1883 nend The Supreme Court invalidated the Civil Rights Act passed by Congress on Mar 1, 1875. (HN, 3/1/98) 1883 nend Joseph Pulitzer assumed command of the New York World newspaper with a circulation of 15,000. 4 years later it increased to 350,000. Pulitzer purchased the paper from financier Jay Gould. (SFEM, 11/8/98, p.14,16)(HNQ, 1/29/02) 1883 nend Barbed wire that fenced the west at this time was on display at Oracle Junction, Arizona, and includes Baker?s ?Odd Barb.? (NOHY, 3/90, p.173) 1883 nend Charles E. Boles, known as Black Bart, was caught in SF by a Wells Fargo detective James B. Hume, who tracked him down using a laundry ticket. Bart spent 50 months in San Quentin for his eight-year string of stagecoach robberies. (HN, 8/27/01)(CVG, Vol 16, p.23) 1883 nend M.H. Lane set up an assembly line to build carts, buggies, wagons and sleighs at his Michigan Buggy Co. in Kalamazoo, Mich. (SFC, 9/7/96, p.B4) 1883 nend The W.S. Reed Co. of Leominster, Mass., produced a couple of cast-iron mechanical banks, that never made it to mass production. One sold at auction in 1998 for $426,000. (WSJ, 5/15/98, p.W12) 1883 nend The factory of the Racine Silver Plate Co. re-opened in Rockford, Ill and was re-named the Rockford Silver Plate Co. Its factory in Racine had burned down in 1882. (SFC,11/26/97, Z1 p.7) 1883 nend William Kitchen Parker (1823-1890), English anatomist and embryologist, produced an illustrated account of skull development in crocodiles and alligators. (NH, 10/96, p.37) 1883 nend Haverford College was founded in Haverford, Pa., by Quakers. (WSJ, 7/24/03, p.A1) 1883 nend Supply ships failed to arrive at Ellesmere Island in the Canadian Arctic so Lt. Greely and his 24 men retreated south. Only Greely and six others survived. (NG, 6/1988, p.764) 1883 nend Edward Jump (b.1832), French-born painter, committed suicide in Chicago. Jump arrived in California with the 1852 gold rush and later moved to Washington DC and NYC where he became well known for his drawings of political and local issues. (SFCM, 10/28/01, p.18) 1883 nend Lydia Estes Pinkham (b.1819) died. She was in her mid-fifties when economic hardship forced her and her family to begin selling bottles of a homemade health remedy. Mrs. Pinkham's tonic, formulated from herbs and 20% alcohol as a "solvent and preservative," was first sold in 1875 as a cure for "female complaints." (HNPD, 6/30/01)(WSJ, 4/23/02, p.D7) 1883 nend In Australia an itinerant boundary rider discovered a silver lode at Broken Hill in New South Wales. (Hem., 2/97, p.91) 1883 nend In Britain Francis Galton developed the questionnaire. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1883 nend In Chile the Concha y Toro wineries were founded with vines brought from France. (SFEC, 10/27/96, p.T9) 1883 nend Stanleyville (later Kisangani), Congo, was founded by Sir Henry Morton Stanley, the Anglo-American journalist who tracked down the missionary David Livingstone in Africa. (AP, 8/18/03) 1883 nend In England production of Bretby Art Pottery was begun by Tooth & Co. in South Derbyshire. (SFC,10/22/97, Z1 p.7) 1883 nend Haiti made its final payment to France of the 1825 "debt," renegotiated in 1838. In 2004 Haiti demanded nearly 22 billion in restitution. (WSJ, 1/2/04, p.A1) 1883 nend Kamehameha Schools were established under the will of a Hawaiian princess to educate the children of Hawaii. In 2005 a federal appeals court ruled that restricting the schools to only native Hawaiians amounts to unlawful racial discrimination. (AP, 8/3/05) 1883 nend Germany under Chancellor Otto von Bismarck adopted the first compulsory health insurance program on a national scale. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1883 nend In Italy the Palazzo Massimo alle Terme was built by the Massimo family in Rome and later converted to an archeological museum. (WSJ, 9/24/98, p.A16) 1883 nend In Venezuela General Joaquin Crespo, a friend of Antonio Guzman Blanco, was declared president, and Guzman-Blanco became ambassador to France, living with great ostentation in Paris. In 1886 he again assumed the presidency. (www.famousamericans.net/antonioguzmanblanco/) 1883 nend In Wales the Treorchy Men?s Choir was established in the Rhondda Valley to keep miners out of trouble. (SFEC, 5/10/98, p.T5) 1883 1884 In Sudan British officered Egyptian armies were defeated by the forces of El Mahdi, called Dervishes by the British. (WSJ, 8/25/98, p.A14) 1883 1888 Chekhov: The Early Stories 1883-1888 was later translated and published by Patrick Miles and Harvey Pitcher. (SFEC, 2/14/99, BR p.5) 1883 1931 Khalil Gibran, American poet and artist: "Forgetfulness is a form of freedom." (AP, 6/11/00) 1883 1935 Charles Demuth , American painter and illustrator. (WUD, 1994, p.385) 1883 1936 Charles Dana Gibson created the Gibson Girl illustrations that were published in Life magazine during this time. (SFEC, 10/9/96, z1 p.8) 1883 1945 Benito Mussolini, Italian Fascist leader. (V.D.-H.K.p.309) 1883 1849 Jose Clemente Orozco, Mexican painter, muralist. (SFC, 4/18/96, E-1) 1883 1950 Joseph Alois Schumpeter, Moravian-born American economist. He developed theories of capitalist development and business cycles. He emphasized the importance of entrepreneurs as the drivers of capitalist development and banks as the providers of credit. He was a leader in econometrics and statistical inquiry that attempted to fortify the scientific center of economics. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R20) 1883 1955 Jose Ortega y Gasset, Spanish philosopher. "I am I plus my circumstances." "Living is a constant process of deciding what we are going to do." "Our firmest convictions are apt to be the most suspect; they mark our limitations and our bounds. Life is a petty thing unless it is moved by the indomitable urge to extend its boundaries." (V.D.-H.K.p.370)(AP, 3/20/97)(AP, 7/31/97)(AP, 4/3/98) 1883 1955 Ludwig Lewisohn, German-born novelist-critic: "There are philosophies which are unendurable not because men are cowards, but because they are men." (AP, 8/6/99) 1883 1961 Frantisek Drtikol, Czech photographer and painter. He photographed nudes in the 1920s and then took up painting and mystical religious studies. (SFC, 5/6/97, p.E4) 1883 1963 Elsa Maxwell, American socialite. "Laugh at yourself first, before anyone else can." (AP, 4/4/97) 1883 1963 William Carlos Williams, American poet and doctor. "History must stay open, it is all humanity." William Carlos Williams met Ezra Pound at the Univ. of Pennsylvania in 1907 and they remained friends and wrote many letters. "Pound / Williams: Selected Correspondence" was ed. by Hugh Witemeyer in 1996. (AP, 9/20/97)(SFC, 6/3/96, BR p.6) 1883 1964 Roy W. Howard, American newspaper publisher: "No date on the calendar is as important as tomorrow." (AP, 4/7/97) 1883 1965 Charles Sheeler, American painter. He also did some experimental photography and the photos were later highly prized. He was among the first to embrace modernism and participated in the NYC salon of Walter Arensberg. (SFC, 2/12/99, p.C4)(SFEM, 3/21/99, p.4) 1884 nend Jan 6, Gregor Mendel (b.1822), Austrian botanist and Augustine monk, died at age 61. He is considered to be the father of genetics. (NH, 6/01, p.30)(MC, 1/6/02) 1884 nend Jan 18, General Charles ("Chinese") Gordon departed London for Khartoum. (MC, 1/18/02) 1884 nend Jan 19, Jules Massenet's opera "Manon," premiered in Paris. (MC, 1/19/02) 1884 nend Jan 28, Jean Felix Piccard, scientist, explorer (balloonist), was born in Switzerland. (MC, 1/28/02) 1884 nend Feb 14, Theodore Roosevelt?s wife died 2 days after giving birth to Alice Lee Roosevelt. His mother, Martha, had died just a few hours earlier. (SFEC, 9/29/96, Par p.8)(SFEC, 1/18/98, Z1 p.8) 1884 nend Feb 18, Police seized all copies of Tolstoy's "What I Believe In." (MC, 2/18/02) 1884 nend Feb 18, General Charles Gordon arrived in Khartoum to battle the Mahdi and his terrorists. (MC, 2/18/02) 1884 nend Feb 19, A series of tornadoes left an estimated 800 people dead in 7 US states (Miss, Ala, NC, SC, Tenn., Ky & In). (WSJ, 9/13/01, p.B11)(MC, 2/19/02) 1884 nend Feb 26, Leopold II in Congo signed a British and Portuguese treaty. (SC, 2/26/02) 1884 nend Mar 6, Over 100 suffragists, led by Susan B. Anthony, presented President Chester A. Arthur with a demand that he voice support for female suffrage. (HN, 3/6/99) 1884 nend Mar 8, The 1st performance of Edward MacDowell's 2nd Piano suite. (MC, 3/8/02) 1884 nend Mar 11, In Sudan Gen. Gordon learned that the telegraph cable to Cairo had been cut. Khartoum soldiers killed 5 Mahdists at Halfaya. Mahdist insurgents in return massacred 150 men from the Khartoum garrison as they were cutting wood. (ON, 4/02, p.10) 1884 nend Mar 12, Mississippi established the first U.S. state college for women. (HN, 3/12/98) 1884 nend Mar 13, US Congress adopted Eastern Standard Time for the District of Columbia. (AP, 3/13/07) 1884 nend Mar 13, Siege of Khartoum, Sudan, began. Gen. Gordon ordered a counter-attack at Halfaya and troops rescued some 500 from a Mahdist assault. (ON, 4/02, p.10)(MC, 3/13/02) 1884 nend Mar 17, John Joseph Montgomery made the first glider flight in Otay, Calif. (HN, 3/17/98) 1884 nend Mar 19, Alfonse Charles Renaud de Vilback (54), composer, died. (MC, 3/19/02) 1884 nend Mar 27, The first long-distance telephone call was made, between Boston and New York City. [see Mar 24, 1883] (AP, 3/27/97)(HN, 3/27/98) 1884 nend Apr 2, The London prison for debtors closed. (MC, 4/2/02) 1884 nend Apr 4, Isoroku Yamamoto, Japanese Naval commander, was born. He masterminded the attack on Pearl Harbor. (HN, 4/4/99) 1884 nend Apr 21, Potters Field reopened as Madison Square Park in NYC. (MC, 4/21/02) 1884 nend Apr 22, Thomas Stevens (b.1853) started the 1st bicycle trip to cross the US from SF. He later continued around world (2 yrs 9 mos). He purchased a bicycle with a 50-inch diameter front wheel from Col. Albert Pope of Hartford, Conn., for $110 the price of a horse and buggy. (MC, 4/22/02)(ON, 9/03, p.9) 1884 nend Apr 24, Otto von Bismarck cabled Cape Town that South Africa had become a German colony. (HN, 4/24/98) 1884 nend May 1, Construction began on the first steel-skeleton skyscraper, a 10-story structure in Chicago, designed by William Le Baron Jenney and built by the Home Insurance Co. of New York. It was completed in 1885. It stood 9 stories and had 2 added in 1891. (HT, 5/97, p.23)(SFEC, 11/22/98, Z1 p.8)(AP, 5/1/99) 1884 nend May 4, Agnes Fay Morgan, American nutritionist and biochemist, was born. (HN, 5/4/01) 1884 nend May 7, Judah P. Benjamin (72), confederate minister of War, died. (MC, 5/7/02) 1884 nend May 8, Harry S. Truman, 33rd President of the United States (1945-1953), was born near Lamar, Mo. A history buff, President Harry Truman penned this description of Franklin Pierce, the 14th president, "Pierce was the best looking President the White House ever had?but as President he ranks with Buchanan and Calvin Coolidge." "If there is one basic element in our Constitution, it is civilian control of the military." He decided to drop the bomb that ended World War II and sent troops to Korea to halt communist aggression. (AP, 5/8/97)(AP, 1/17/99)(HN, 5/8/99) 1884 nend May 12, Bedrich Friedrich Smetana (60), Czech composer (MaVlast, Bartered Bride), died. (MC, 5/12/02) 1884 nend May 13, The Institute for Electrical & Electronics Engineers (IEEE) was founded. (SS, Internet, 5/13/97) 1884 nend May 13, Cyrus Hall McCormick (b.1809), the Reaper King, died. His last words were "work, work work." (SFC, 1/11/03, p.D6)(MC, 5/13/02) 1884 nend May 17, Alaska became a US territory. US Congress did not provide for an Alaskan government until this year. Administration of the territory was done in succession by the War Department, the Treasury and the Navy. (SFEM, 10/31/99, p.26)(MC, 5/17/02) 1884 nend May 18, Heinrich R. Göppert, German paleo-botanist, died. (SC, 5/18/02) 1884 nend May 28, Edvard Benes, premier, president of Czechoslovakia (1921-22, 35-48), was born. (MC, 5/28/02) 1884 nend May 29, 1st steam cable trams started in Highgate. (SC, 5/29/02) 1884 nend Jun 5, Dame Ivy Compton-Burnett, British author, was born. (HN, 6/5/01) 1884 nend Jun 5, Civil War hero General William T. Sherman refused the Republican presidential nomination, saying, "I will not accept if nominated and will not serve if elected." (AP, 6/5/97) 1884 nend Jun 10, William E. Eldred of Brooklyn, NY, was granted a US patent for a new way to open and close the legs of a folding table. (SFC, 1/30/08, p.G4) 1884 nend Jun 10, Johann Gustav Droysen (b.1808), German historian, died in Berlin. His books included ?Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen? (1833), a study of Alexander the Great. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gustav_Droysen) 1884 nend Jun 14, John McCormack, Irish-US singer (Irish folksongs), was born. (MC, 6/14/02) 1884 nend Jun 16, America's 1st roller coaster began operating at Coney Island, NYC. It hit a top speed of 6 mph. (MC, 6/16/02)(Econ, 6/28/03, p.30) 1884 nend Jun 19, Juan Bautista Alberdi (b.1810), Argentine politician, writer, died in Paris. His writings inspired Argentina?s 1853 constitution. no_source 3 nend /10/07, p.35) no_source 1884 nend Jun 21, Field Marshal Sir Claude Auchinleck, British general, was born. He revived the flagging Eighth Army to go back on the offensive against the German army under Rommel in the Middle East, but was later replaced. (Camelot, 6/21/99) 1884 nend Jun 23, A Chinese Army defeated the French at Bacle, Indochina. (HN, 6/23/98) 1884 nend Jun 27, J. Palisa discovered asteroid #237, Coelestina. (SC, 6/27/02) 1884 nend Jun 28, Congress declared Labor Day a legal holiday. (HN, 6/28/98) 1884 nend Jun, The steamboat Montana (b.1879) tried to pass under a railroad bridge between the Missouri towns St. Charles and Bridgeton, just a few miles from where the river connects with the Mississippi. The boat struck the bridge and took on water before running aground on the St. Louis County side of the river. No one was hurt, but the Montana split in half. (AP, 8/16/05) 1884 nend Jul 1, Allan Pinkerton (b.1819) founder of the Pinkerton Agency, died in Chicago. In 1996 James Mackay authored ?Allan Pinkerton.? (http://aotw.org/officers.php?officer_id=918)(ON, 7/06, p.12) 1884 nend Jul 3, The 1st Dow Jones average included 11 stocks: Chicago & North Western, Union Pacific Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, Missouri Pacific, Lake Shore, Louisville & Nashville, New York Central, Pacific Mail, St. Paul, Western Union, and Northern Pacific preferred. (SFC, 2/2/06,p.A13)(www.cftech.com/BrainBank/FINANCE/DowJonesAvgsHist.html) 1884 nend Jul 4, The Statue of Liberty was presented to the United States in ceremonies at Paris, France. The 225-ton, 152-foot statue was a gift from France in commemoration of 100 years of American independence. Created by the French sculptor Frederic Auguste Bartholdi, the statue was installed on Bedloe Island (now Liberty Island) in New York harbor in 1885. It was dedicated on October 28, 1886. (IB, Internet, 12/7/98) 1884 nend Jul 4, 1st US bullfight was held in Dodge City, Ka. (Maggio, 98) 1884 nend Jul 5, US Congress accepted a 2nd Chinese Exclusion Act. (MC, 7/5/02) 1884 nend Jul 7, Lion Feuchtwanger, German philosopher, writer (Jud Suss), was born. (MC, 7/7/02) 1884 nend Jul 12, Amadeo Modigliani, painter and sculptor (Reclining Nude), was born in Italy. (HN, 7/12/01)(MC, 7/12/02) 1884 nend Jul 25, Davidson Black, doctor of anatomy (identified Peking Man), was born in Canada. (SC, 7/25/02) 1884 nend Aug 3, Louis Gruenberg, composer (Daniel Jazz), was born near Brest Litovsk, Poland. (SC, 8/3/02) 1884 nend Aug 4, Thomas Stevens (1853-1935) arrived in Boston after 104 days from SF in the 1st bicycle trip to cross the US. He later continued around world (2 yrs 9 mos) on a trip financed with articles for "Outing and the Wheelman" magazine. (MC, 4/22/02)(ON, 9/03, p.12) 1884 nend Aug 5, The cornerstone for the Statue of Liberty was laid on Bedloe?s Island in New York Harbor. (THC, 4/10/97)(AP, 8/5/97) 1884 nend Aug 12, Frank Swinnerton, novelist (Summer Storm, Sanctuary), was born in England. (SC, 8/12/02) 1884 nend Aug 16, Hugo Gernsback (d.1967), sci-fi writer, publisher (1960 Hugo), was born in Luxembourg. (www.nndb.com/people/381/000045246/) 1884 nend Aug 26, Earl Biggers, author ("Charlie Chan" detective series), was born. (MC, 8/26/02) 1884 nend Aug 28, The 1st known photograph of a tornado was made near Howard, SD. (MC, 8/28/01) 1864 nend Sep 15, British explorer John Speke (b.1827) died in England by his gun own during in an alleged hunting accident. In 2006 W.B. Carnochan authored ?The Sad Story of Burton, Speke, and the Nile; or Was John Hanning Speke a Cad.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hanning_Speke)(WSJ, 5/20/06, p.P9) 1884 nend Sep 17, Charles Tomlinson Griffes, composer (White Peacock), was born in Elmira, NY. (MC, 9/17/01) 1884 nend Sep 20, Maxwell Perkins, editor, was born. He was the first to publish F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway and Thomas Wolfe. (HN, 9/20/00) 1884 nend Sep 20, The Equal Rights Party was formed during a convention of suffragists in San Francisco. The convention nominated Belva Ann Bennett Lockwood of Washington, D.C., for president and Marietta Snow as her running mate. (AP, 9/20/97)(MC, 9/20/01) 1884 nend Oct 4, Damon Runyon, journalist and short story writer, was born. (HN, 10/4/00) 1884 nend Oct 6, The US Naval War College was established in Newport, R.I. (AP, 10/6/97) 1884 nend Oct 11, Anna Eleanor Roosevelt, the niece of President Theodore Roosevelt and wife of President Franklin Roosevelt, was born in New York City. Orphaned as a child, she grew up shy and insecure. She was 1st lady from 1933-1945. (HN, 10/11/98) (HNPD, 10/11/99)(MC, 10/11/01) 1884 nend Oct 13, Greenwich was established as universal time meridian of longitude. (MC, 10/13/01) 1884 nend Oct 14, Transparent paper-strip photographic film was patented by George Eastman. He had invented a flexible paper-backed film that could be wound on rollers. To encourage amateur photography and film sales, Eastman developed a simple black box camera that cost $25 and came already loaded with a 100-exposure roll of film. When the roll was used up, the entire No. 1 Kodak camera was shipped back to Eastman's factory for developing and reloading, at a cost of only $10. Eastman's photographic improvements proved successful, with 13,000 cameras sold in 1888. The roll holder was designed by William Hall Walker. Eastman renamed his corporation the Eastman Dry Plate and Film Company. (HN, 7/12/99)(HN, 10/14/00)(ON, 3/05, p.11) 1884 nend Oct 22, General Charles Gordon received a letter from Mahdi near Khartoum. British Gen?l. Charles "Chinese" Gordon was sent to Khartoum to evacuate the Egyptian garrison. Gordon decided to hold the city against El Mahdi. (WSJ, 8/25/98, p.A14)(MC, 10/22/01) 1884 nend Nov 4, Democrat Grover Cleveland was elected to his first term as president, defeating Republican James G. Blaine. The reference to the Democratic party as the party of "Rum, Romanism and Rebellion" played a large part in Republican candidate James Blaine?s defeat in the election of 1884. The indiscreet reference made by one of Blaine's supporters has been credited with causing the Blaine?s loss of the crucial state of New York. Blaine lost the popular vote by less than 100,000 and lost New York by just 1,149, out of a total vote of 1,125,000 cast, to Grover Cleveland, the first Democrat since Buchanan to win a presidential election. Cleveland won by a margin of 30,000 votes. (AP, 11/4/97)(HNQ, 9/13/99)(SFEC, 4/23/00, Z1 p.2) 1884 nend Prior to his first election to the presidency in 1884, Democrat Grover Cleveland, then a bachelor, admitted that Republican charges accusing him of fathering a child as a young man in Buffalo were true. His honesty helped to calm the issue, despite the popular campaign chant against him: "Ma, Ma, where?s my Pa? Gone to the White House, Ha, Ha, Ha!" Cleveland married Frances Folsom in the White House in 1886. He lost a reelection bid in 1888 to Benjamin Harrison, even though he won the popular vote, but regained the White House in 1892 to serve a second term as the 24th president. (HN, 1/19/00) 1884 nend Nov 8, Hermann Rorschach, Swiss psychiatrist, was born. He was the inventor of the inkblot test. (HN, 11/8/00) 1884 nend Nov 17, Cops arrested boxer John L. Sullivan in 2nd round for being "cruel." (MC, 11/17/01) 1884 nend Nov 20, Norman Thomas, socialist and Pres. Candidate 1928-48, was born in Marion, Ohio, and ran for president in six successive elections beginning in 1928. (HNQ, 10/21/98)(MC, 11/20/01) 1884 nend Nov 25, John B. Meyenberg of St. Louis patented evaporated milk. (MC, 11/25/01) 1884 nend Nov, The novel "Ramona" by Helen Hunt Jackson was published. It was about a love affair between a half-Indian girl and a Luisea Indian in southern California. It also served a covert tract on Indian oppression in America. In 1990 Valerie Sherer Mathes published "Helen Hunt Jackson and Her Indian Reform Legacy." In 1998 Mathes edited: "The Indian Reform Letters of Helen Hunt Jackson." (SFEC, 12/20/98, BR p.5) 1884 nend Dec 2, Ruth Draper, actress and writer, was born. (HN, 12/2/00) 1884 nend Dec 6, Army engineers completed construction of the Washington monument. (AP, 12/6/97) 1884 nend Dec 30, Tojo Hideki, Japanese Prime Minister during WWII, was born. (HN, 12/30/98) 1884 nend Dec 30, Anton Bruckner's 7th Symphony in E, premiered in Leipzig. (MC, 12/30/01) 1884 nend Cassilly Adams (1843-1921), American painter, completed a 9x16 foot painting titled ?Custer?s Last Fight.? It was purchased by Adolphus Busch, president of Anheuser-Busch, in 1888. Lithographs of a smaller copy of the work began to be reproduced in 1896. In 1895 Busch donated the work to the US Seventh Cavalry. It was destroyed by a fire at Fort Bliss, Texas, in 1946. (SFC, 12/28/05, p.G5) 1884 nend Edgar Degas began painting his series of pastels and oils of dancers. The first was done about this time and titled "Danseuses." (SFC, 8/26/97, p.A4) 1884 nend Stanhope Forbes, English painter, began "A Fish Sale on a Cornish Beach." Completed 1885. (SFC, 3/31/97, p.E6) 1884 nend Chauncy Bradley Ives created his sculpture "Undine." (SFC, 4/11/01, p.E8) 1884 nend Claude Monet painted "Corniche of Monaco." (WSJ, 8/26/97, p.A1) 1884 nend Claude Monet painted "Bordighera." It was done on the French Riviera to which he returned after a visit there with Renoir in late 1883. The paintings were marked by bold, pure color in contrast to his earlier subdued pastels. (DPCP 1984) 1884 nend Berthe Morisot (1841-1895) painted the impressionist work "En Bateau sur le Lac de Boulogne." It was valued in 1998 at $600-800 thousand. (SFC, 2/14/98, p.A1)(SFC, 5/23/98, p.A19) 1884 nend John Singer Sargent painted "Madame X." It was a portrait of Mme. Pierre Gautreau. The painting was initially called monstrous and prompted Sargent to move from Paris to the US. (WSJ, 2/23/99, p.A20)(WSJ, 4/9/99, p.W16) 1884 nend Georges Seurat, French artist, painted "Bathers at Asnieres." He also began his 7x10 foot painting ?Study for A Sunday Afternoon on La Grande Jatte.? The work was completed in 1886 and heralded as a milestone of art theory. (WSJ, 6/19/00, p.A44)(WSJ, 7/20/04, p.A1)(SFC, 9/24/10, p.F5) 1884 nend The Salon des independents in France had no jury and gave no prizes, but all the entries were exhibited. This salon marked the last formal exhibition of Impressionist paintings. (Calg. Glen., 1996) 1884 nend Charles Eliot, president of Harvard, captured the prevailing impatience with the old-fashioned curriculum: Are our men being educated for the work of the twentieth century of the seventeenth." (WSJ, 1/28/02, p.A13) 1884 nend During a lecture tour together, Southern writer George Washington Cable and Samuel Clemens were billed as the "Twins of Genius." Clemens, who used the pen name Mark Twain, joined the popular Southern local-colorist writer Cable in a 15-week lecture tour of the Northeast. Clemens later wrote of Cable, "With his platform talent he was able to fatigue a corpse." (HNQ, 3/9/99) 1884 nend Helen Hunt Jackson wrote her novel "Ramona." (SFEC, 4/12/98, BR p.7) 1884 nend Henry James (1843-1916) wrote his novella ?The Author of Beltraffio.? (WSJ, 7/8/06, p.P8) 1884 nend Albert T. Morgan (d.1922), a Union veteran who settled in Yazoo, Miss., authored his memoir ?Yazoo: On the Picket Line of Freedom in the South: A Personal Narrative.? He later became a Mississippi state senator. (WSJ, 2/9/08, p.W10)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_T._Morgan) 1884 nend Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), English philosopher, authored his libertarian bible: ?The Man versus the State.? (Econ, 3/19/11, SR p.18) 1884 nend Mark Twain published his classic ?The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.? (WSJ, 12/2/06, p.P8) 1884 nend The Leo Delibe ballet "Coppelia" was revised in St. Petersburg by Marius Petipa, the Franco-Russian genius of ballet. (WSJ, 6/10/97, p.A16) 1884 nend The New York Metropolitan Opera embarked on its first post-season national train tour, and began playing poker to pass the time. (WSJ, 1/5/98, p.A1) 1884 nend The B&O's passenger-car roundhouse was built in Baltimore. It was the largest circular industrial building in the world. It was later turned into a museum. (SFEC, 4/25/99, p.T6)(WSJ, 11/23/04, p.D11) 1884 nend Barbed wire that fenced the west is on display at Oracle Junction, Arizona, and includes Sunderland ?Kink.? (NOHY, 3/90, p.173) 1884 nend The first Veteran?s Home in California was built in Yountville (Napa Ct.). (SFC, 5/20/96, p.A-15) 1884 nend Elisha Babcock and H.L. Story decided to build a resort hotel on a flat peninsula in San Diego Bay. They built the Hotel del Coronado in 11 months and the town of Coronado grew up around it. (SFEC, 1/10/99, p.T6) 1884 nend In SF Sts. Peter and Paul Church was built in North Beach at the corner of Grant and Filbert. It was destroyed in the 1906 earthquake and rebuilt in 1924 on Washington Square. (SSFC, 5/17/09, DB p.50) 1884 nend A Victorian mansion was built on the corner of Bush and Jones streets. It perished in the 1906 fire but a replica, the Carter House, was built by the Carter Family in Eureka, Ca. (SFEC, 4/13/97, p.T5) 1884 nend Patrick William Riordan succeeded Archbishop Alemany as Archbishop of SF and served until 1914. (SSFC, 7/27/03, p.A22) 1884 nend A block-long, brick machine shop building was built on Third St. and Illinois. (SFEC, 12/12/04, p.10) 1884 nend Hibernia Bank was founded in SF. (SFC, 3/25/05, p.F2) 1884 nend An amusement area in SF named Ocean Beach Pavilion began. (SSFC, 7/3/05, p.F1) 1884 nend In SF, Ca., Adolph Spreckels, son of sugar-baron Claus Spreckels, attempted to kill Michael de Young due to a Chronicle story that accused his father of swindling shareholders. Spreckles was acquitted. (SFC, 8/15/05, p.C5) 1884 nend The Arctic Oil Works opened at the foot of Sixteenth and Illinois Street in Mission Bay. It was one of the largest whale processing factories in the world and the building was one of the very first reinforced concrete structures in the United States. It was built by Ernest Ransome. (http://tinyurl.com/2vznaq) 1884 nend British interests purchased half the California operations of Lazar Freres and this led to the establishment of the London, Paris and American Bank. This ultimately became part of Crocker National Bank and then Wells Fargo. (SFC, 12/11/96, p.D1) 1884 nend The population of SF was about 225,000 people. (SFEM, 3/2/97, p.10) 1884 nend John Parrot, SF millionaire banker and merchant, died. (Ind, 11/24/01, 5A) 1884 nend H.W. Mudgett, alias H.H. Holmes, graduated from the Univ. of Michigan Medical School. He went on to build a large home in Chicago that came to be known as Nightmare Castle for its secret passages, trapdoors, chutes, and underground laboratories. Homes-Mudgett slew 20-30 victims, including several wives, young ladies and their husbands. He sold skeletons to medical schools. (MT, 6/95, P.10) 1884 nend Philosopher John Dewey came to teach at the U of M. (MT, Fall. ?97, p.19) 1884 nend The Grolier Club was founded to promote "enthusiasm for books and the books arts." (WSJ, 11/30/99, p.A24) 1884 nend Hillerich & Bradsby, makers of the Louisville Slugger bats, was founded. (SFEC, 7/18/99, p.T8) 1884 nend Pitcher Charles Radbourn, "Ol Hoss," led his team, the Providence Grays, to baseball?s National League pennant. (SSFC, 12/17/00, BR p.11) 1884 nend Moses Fleetwood Walker, a black man, played 42 games for the Toledo Blue Stockings of the American Association. (WSJ, 1/30/04, p.A1) 1884 nend A US Federal Court forbade wives of Chinese laborers from entering America and perpetuated a Chinese bachelor society. (SFEC, 9/20/98, Z1 p.4) 1884 nend A federal judge ruled that hydraulic mining must stop destroying the land. (SFEC, 1/11/98, DB p.41) 1884 nend David King Udall, the Mormon bishop in St. Johns, Arizona, was indicted on charges of unlawful cohabitation. He was never convicted, because his second wife lived in another town, and prosecutors could not locate her to compel testimony against him. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_King_Udall) 1884 nend Frederick Douglass, Negro abolitionist, was lambasted when he married a white woman (32) from Germany. In 2000 Maria Diedrich authored "Love Across Color Lines: Ottilie Assing & Frederick Douglass." (SFEC, 11/17/96, BR p.5)(SFEC, 1/16/00, Par p.8) 1884 nend Former Yankee Hill Marshall Willie Kennard worked as the bodyguard of Barney Ford (aka the Black Baron of Colorado), a wealthy Denver businessman and former slave. (WW, 12/96) 1884 nend In Dayton, Ohio, John H. Patterson founded the National Cash Register Company (NCR), maker of the first mechanical cash registers. In 1974 the company changed its name to NCR Corp. From 1991 to 1996 it was part of AT&T. (www.ncr.com/history/history.htm)(SFC, 5/21/08, p.G7) 1884 nend Herman Hollerith, a German-American, found a way to store information through holes on cards. (WSJ, 3/21/00, p.A20) 1884 nend The first pea whistle was dubbed the Acme Thunderer and was made by J. Hudson & Co. (Whistles) Ltd. in Birmingham, England. (WSJ, 3/30/00, p.A1) 1884 nend The colony of Rugby, Tennessee, had 350 residents. Thomas Hughes (1822-96), English novelist, reformer, jurist, and author of "John Brown?s School Days," had purchased 75,000 acres in rural Tennessee and founded the colony of Rugby. It was a school for the younger children of England?s wealthy families who were not eligible to inherit family estates. It was meant to teach farming and other useful skills. (WUD, 1994, p.691) 1884 nend Alexander Winton came to Cleveland from Scotland and became a successful bicycle manufacturer. (F, 10/7/96, p.66) 1884 nend Episcopalian Rev. Endicott Peabody founded the Groton School in Massachusetts. He was backed by affluent figures of the time, such as the Rt. Rev. Phillips Brooks, the Rev. William A. Lawrence, William Crowninshield Endicott, J.P. Morgan, and his father, Samuel Endicott Peabody. Peabody received pledges of $39,000 for the construction of a schoolhouse, if an additional $40,000 could be raised as an endowment. (WSJ, 1/6/07, p.P13)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groton_School) 1884 nend The color tartrazine yellow, one of the 1st synthetic pigments, was patented. In 2002 Philip Ball authored "Bright Earth," a chronicle of how colors evolved through art and science (history of color). (WSJ, 3/15/02, p.W8) 1884 nend Leland Stanford Jr. (15) died of typhus. His death moved the Stanfords to found Stanford Univ. (SFC, 6/20/98, p.A15) 1884 nend Some 500 Blackfeet Indians in Montana died during the winter from starvation. Reservation agent John Young kept rations on hand for the white people. (SSFC, 9/9/01, Par p.7) 1884 nend Ushuaia was founded in southern Argentina as a remote penal colony. (SSFC, 4/30/06, p.G5) 1884 nend Greenwich, site of the Royal Observatory, was urged by the US and Brittain for international adoption as the site for the Prime Meridian, zero degrees longitude at a meeting in Washington D.C. Jerusalem and Paris were also proposed. The French did not acknowledge Greenwich until 1914. Global time zones were also established. (NG, Mar, 1990, p. 113-115) 1884 nend In England part 1 of the Oxford English Dictionary, compiled under the direction of James Murray, was published. (ON, 11/05, p.6) 1884 nend Hiram Stevens Maxim went to London and developed the first true machine gun. (V.D.-H.K.p.267) 1884 nend Horatio Phillips of England designed a wing with a curved airfoil shape. (NPub, 2002, p.5) 1884 nend In Canada the Quebec City Armory was built. It was famous for having the largest suspended wood ceiling in Canada. In 2008 it was destroyed by fire. (SFC, 4/5/08, p.A2) 1884 nend Metis leaders in Saskatchewan found Louis Riel in Montana and convinced him to set up another provisional government. (Reuters, 11/22/02) 1884 nend Joseph Burr Tyrell led the first expedition for the Geological Survey of Canada to Alberta, Canada where rich deposits of dinosaur remains were found along the Red Deer River. (CFA, ?96, p.62) 1884 nend Chile established a marital code the included a prohibition of divorce. A divorce law was passed in 2004. (WSJ, 10/5/04, p.A1) 1884 nend In Denmark the Alexander Nevski church was built in Copenhagen on a request by Czarina Maria Feodorovna, the Danish-born mother of Nicholas II. (AP, 1/20/10) 1884 nend French artist Paul Philippoteaux (1846-1923) and team of 20 created in Paris the massive Cyclorama painting titled ?The Battle of Gettysburg.? It was originally 377 feet in circumference. They then shipped it to the US, where it was first displayed in Boston. The US National Park Service acquired it in 1942. In 2008 a 5-year, $15 million restoration project was completed and it was reopened to the public at the Gettysburg National Military Park in Gettysburg, Pa. (SSFC, 9/28/08, p.E2)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Philippoteaux) 1884 nend The Berlin Conference drew up borders for African countries. (SFC, 1/27/97, p.A19)(NH, 6/97, p.42) 1884 nend Germany under Chancellor Otto von Bismarck adopted a national workman's compensation program. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1884 nend Ottmar Mergenthaler (1854-1899) of Germany invented the Linotype machine that produced newspaper type. It was used until it was replaced by computers. In 1886 the Chicago Tribune began using the Linotype. (SFC, 2/4/98, p.A21)(ON, 7/00, p.5) 1884 nend Robert Koch, German microbiologist, rediscovered, isolated and cultured the cholera bacillus, Vibrio cholerae. Italian anatomist Fillipo Pacini discovered the bacillus in 1854, but did not prove that it caused cholera. (ON, 5/05, p.10) 1884 nend In India Dabur India Ltd. was established by a doctor who prescribed mintleaf remedies to cure stomach aches. It later became the largest company in ayurvedic medicine. (WSJ, 12/27/99, p.B9D) 1884 nend The Gaelic Athletic Association was founded in Ireland to promote traditional Irish sports. (Econ, 8/6/05, p.45) 1884 nend Kanehiro Takaki linked the Japanese sailor?s diet of polished rice to the disease beriberi. He found that the addition of mild and vegetables to their diet eliminated the disease. (MT, Fall ?96, p.4) 1884 nend In Italy Sotirio Boulgaris, a Greek immigrant, founded Bulgari, a silver-jewelry shop, on Rome?s Via Sistina. He had descended from a family of Greek silversmiths. By 1996 there were 54 stores worldwide. (SFEM,7/28/96, p.32)(Econ, 4/14/07, p.81) 1884 nend Rinaldo Piaggio founded Piaggio, an Italian company that went on to make ships, airplanes and helicopters. After World War II developed the Vespa scooter and transformed itself into a pure scooter-maker. (Econ, 7/15/06, p.64) 1884 nend Southwest Africa (later Namibia) was made a German protectorate. (SFEC, 3/1/98, p.T4)(SFEC, 4/30/00, p.T4) 1884 nend Russia?s Czar Alexander III commissioned jeweler Carl Gustavovich Faberge (1846-1920) to make an Easter egg for the Empress. She received the 1st egg Easter Sunday in 1885 and the tradition continued to 1917. In 2008 Toby Faber authored ?Faberge?s Eggs: The Extraordinary Story of the Masterpieces That Outlived and Empire.? (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34)(SSFC, 3/27/05, p.M2)(WSJ, 10/5/08, p.A17) 1884 nend Spain annexed the coastal area of Western Sahara. (SFC, 11/27/00, p.A12) 1884 nend English explorers Everhard Im Thurn and Harry Perkins became the 1st Westerners to reach the 9,200 summit of Roraima in Venezuela. (SSFC, 12/14/03, p.C5) 1884 1933 Sara Teasdale, American author and poet: "I found more joy in sorrow / Than you could find in joy." "No one worth possessing can be quite possessed." (AP, 9/21/97)(AP, 12/18/97) 1884 1946 Damon Runyan, American writer: "You can keep the things of bronze and stone and give me one man to remember me just once a year." (AP, 12/20/99) 1884 1959 Max Beckmann, artist. He was a European modernist painter of extreme pessimism. (SFC, 6/11/99, p.C3) 1884 1962 Eleanor Roosevelt, American first lady: "You gain strength, courage and confidence by every experience in which you really stop to look fear in the face. ... You must do the thing you think you cannot do." (AP, 1/6/98) 1884 1963 Phyllis Bottome, English author: "There is nothing final about a mistake, except its being taken as final." "Nothing ever really sets human nature free, but self-control." (AP, 5/25/98)(AP, 3/299) 1884 1963 Frank R. Paul, illustrator. His work included a scene from "War of the Worlds" by H. G. Wells. (WSJ, 5/30/00, p.A24) 1884 1963 Charles Seymour, American educator and historian: "We shall seek the truth and endure the consequences." (AP, 9/8/99) 1884 1966 Georges Duhamel, French author: "If anyone tells you something strange about the world, something you had never heard before, do not laugh but listen attentively; make him repeat it, make him explain it; no doubt there is something there worth taking hold of." (AP, 4/20/97) 1884 1979 Florida Scott-Maxwell, American writer and psychologist: "Life is a tragic mystery. We are pierced and driven by laws we only half understand, we find that the lesson we learn again and again is that of accepting heroic helplessness." (AP, 9/2/97) 1884 1984 The Fort Rosencrans National Cemetery near San Diego with 65,000 veterans, some from the Mexican War, ran out of room after 100 years. (AAM, 3/96, p.53) 1885 nend Jan 2, Gen. Wolseley received the last distress signal of Gen. Gordon in Khartoum. (MC, 1/2/02) 1885 nend Jan 3, Anna Pavlova Russia?s premier ballerina, was born. (440 Int'l. 1/3/99) 1885 nend Jan 4, Dr. William W. Grant of Davenport, Iowa, performed what is believed to have been the first appendectomy; the patient was 22-year-old Mary Gartside. (AP, 1/4/00) 1885 nend Jan 15, Wilson Bentley (1865-1931) of Jericho, Vermont, made the world?s 1st clear photographs of snow crystals. (ON, 11/04, p.4) 1885 nend Jan 26, In Sudan General "Chinese" Gordon (Charles George Gordon, 51), British gov-gen of Sudan, was killed on the palace steps in the garrison at Khartoum by the forces of Muhammad Ahmed, El Mahdi. In 1961 "General Gordon?s Khartoum Journal," edited by Lord Elton, was published. (WSJ, 8/25/98, p.A14)(HN, 1/26/99)(MC, 1/26/02)(ON, 4/02, p.10) 1885 nend Jan 27, Jerome Kern, Broadway composer (Showboat, Roberta), was born in NYC. (MC, 1/27/02) 1885 nend Jan 28, Gen?l. Garnet Wolseley arrived at Khartoum to relieve Gen?l. Gordon, but arrived 2 days late. El Mahdi died soon thereafter but was succeeded by the Khalifa. (WSJ, 8/25/98, p.A14) 1885 nend Jan 29, Leadbelly (d.1949), [Huddie William Ledbetter], blues singer, was born on the Jeter Plantation near Mooringsport, Louisiana. (http://leadbelly.lanl.gov/leadbelly.html) 1885 nend Jan 30, John Henry Towers, naval and aviation hero, was born. (HN, 1/30/99) 1885 nend Jan, Grover Cleveland entered the White House as a bachelor. (SFEC, 8/18/96, PM p. 2) 1885 nend Feb 7, Sinclair Lewis (d.1951), American novelist of satire and realism, was born in Sauk Centre, Minnesota. His books include "Arrowsmith" and "Elmer Gantry." "There are two insults which no human will endure: the assertion that he hasn?t a sense of humor, and the doubly impertinent assertion that he has never known trouble." "Winter is not a season, it's an occupation." (AP, 6/26/98)(AP, 12/22/99)(HNQ, 5/18/98)(HN, 2/7/99) 1885 nend Feb 9, Alban Maria Johannes Berg, composer, was born in Vienna, Austria. (MC, 2/9/02) 1885 nend Feb 9, The 1st Japanese arrived in Hawaii. (MC, 2/9/02) 1885 nend Feb 13, Elizabeth Virginia "Bess" Truman, 1st lady (1945-52), was born. (MC, 2/13/02) 1885 nend Feb 15, Leopold Damrosch (52), composer, died. (MC, 2/15/02) 1885 nend Feb 18, Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was published and became one of the writer's most famous works. Samuel Clemens, born in 1835, first used the pseudonym of Mark Twain when he wrote a humorous travel account in 1863. Books such as Huckleberry Finn and The Adventures of Tom Sawyer made Mark Twain a popular American author because people could relate to his stories of boyhood adventures colored with social commentary. As a satirical, critical voice of the United States, Twain continued to write and lecture across the country and the world. Mark Twain died in 1910. (AP, 2/18/98)(HNPD, 2/18/99) 1885 nend Feb 21, The Washington Monument was dedicated. (HN, 2/21/98)(AP, 2/21/98) 1885 nend Feb 23, John Lee survived three attempts to hang him in Exeter Prison, as the trap failed to open. (HN, 2/23/99) 1885 nend Feb 24, Chester Nimitz, was born. He was the U.S. admiral who commanded naval forces in the Pacific during WWII. (HN, 2/24/99) 1885 nend Feb 25, US Congress condemned barbed wire around government grounds. (MC, 2/25/02) 1885 nend Feb 25, Princess Alice of Battenberg, later Princess Andrew of Greece and Denmark (d.1969), was born at Windsor Castle. (SSFC, 4/7/02,p.M4)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Alice_of_Battenberg) 1885 nend Feb 26, The Congress of Berlin gave Congo to Belgium and Nigeria to England. (SC, 2/26/02) 1885 nend Mar 3, The United States Congress passed the Major Crimes Act (18 U.S.C. 1153). It placed seven major crimes under federal jurisdiction if they are committed by a Native American in Native territory regardless of whether the victim of the crime was Native. (http://supreme.justia.com/us/437/634/) 1885 nend Mar 3, The U.S. Post Office began offering special delivery for first-class mail. (AP, 3/3/98) 1885 nend Mar 3, California became the 1st US state to establish a permanent forest commission. (SC, 3/3/02) 1885 nend Mar 3, American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) incorporated as a subsidiary of Bell Telephone to build and operate a long distance network. (SC, 3/3/02)(SFC, 7/23/04, p.C1) 1885 nend Mar 4, Grover Cleveland was inaugurated as 1st Democratic President since Civil War. (SC, 3/4/02) 1885 nend Mar 6, Ring Lardner (d.1933), American humorist and writer, was born. His books included You Know Me Al (1916). "The family you come from isn't as important as the family you're going to have." (AP, 5/14/99)(HN, 3/6/01)(WSJ, 12/2/06, p.P8) 1885 nend Mar 11, Sir Michael Campbell, the first motorist to exceed 300 mph, was born. (HN, 3/11/99) 1885 nend Mar 14, Gilbert & Sullivan's opera "Mikado," premiered in London. (WSJ, 11/22/00, p.A20)(MC, 3/14/02) 1885 nend Mar 20, Yiddish theater opened in NY with Goldfaden operetta. (MC, 3/20/02) 1885 nend Mar 20, John Matzeliger of Suriname patented a shoe lacing machine. (MC, 3/20/02) 1885 nend Mar 21, Raoul Lufbery, French-born American fighter pilot of World War I, was born. (HN, 3/21/99) 1885 nend Mar 26, The Eastman Film Co. of Rochester, N.Y., manufactured the first commercial motion picture film. George Eastman had perfected a method for bonding photographic emulsion onto thin strips of celluloid. (AP, 3/25/98)(HN, 3/25/98)(ON, 11/03, p.5) 1885 nend Mar 26, Louis Riel's forces defeated Canadian forces at Duck Lake, Saskatchewan. (SS, 3/26/02)(ON, 11/07, p.12) 1885 nend Mar 28, The Salvation Army was officially organized in the U.S. (HN, 3/28/98) 1885 nend Mar 30, Texas was the last Confederate state readmitted to the Union. (HN, 3/30/01) 1885 nend Mar 30, In Afghanistan, Russian troops inflicted a crushing defeat on Afghan forces Ak Teppe despite orders not to fight. (HN, 3/30/99) 1885 nend Mar 31, Madame Blavatsky was hoisted in an invalid chair onto a steamer in the Madras harbor of India and departed for London. In England she wrote "The Secret Doctrine" and had as guests to her salon William Butler Yeats, Annie Besant and the young Mohandas K. Gandhi. (Smith., 5/95, p.127) 1885 nend Mar 31, Franz Wilhelm Abt (65), German composer, choir conductor, died. (MC, 3/31/02) 1885 nend Mar, In Loganville, Pa., Dr. George E. Holtzapple (22) saved Fred Gable (16), who was suffering from pneumonia, by supplying the boy with pure oxygen. Oxygen therapy became the only effective treatment for pneumonia until antibiotics became available in the 1940s. (ON, 4/07, p.10) 1885 nend Apr 3, Harry St. John Philby, [sheik Abdullah], British explorer, was born. (MC, 4/3/02) 1885 nend Apr 16, Leo Weiner, composer (Fasching), was born in Hungary. (MC, 4/16/02) 1885 nend Apr 17, Karen Blixen-Finecke (Isak Dinesen, d.1962), Danish writer (Out of Africa), was born. "God made the world round so we would never be able to see too far down the road." (AP, 9/15/00)(HN, 4/17/01)(MC, 4/17/02) 1885 nend Apr 18, The Sino-Japanese war ended. (HN, 4/18/98) 1885 nend Apr 24, Metis rebels won a major victory over Canadian troops at Fish Creek, Saskatchewan. The troops had been shipped to the region by way of the new Canadian Pacific Railway. (Reuters, 11/22/02)(ON, 11/07,p.12)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North-West_Rebellion) 1885 nend Apr 30, Boston Pops Orchestra formed. (MC, 4/30/02) 1885 nend May 2, "Good Housekeeping" magazine was 1st published. (MC, 5/2/02) 1885 nend May 2, The Congo Free State was established by King Leopold II of Belgium. (HN, 5/2/98) 1885 nend May 9, In the Battle of Batoche, Saskatchewan, Metis rebels ran out of ammunition and resorted to firing pebbles from their guns, until they were forced to retreat. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North-West_Rebellion) 1885 nend May 11, "King" Joseph Oliver, jazz cornetist and bandleader, was born. (HN, 5/11/02) 1885 nend May 14, Otto Klemperer, conductor, composer, was born in Breslau, Germany. (MC, 5/14/02) 1885 nend May 15, Mormons began an exodus from the United States into Mexico. Chihuahua Governor Ochoa had agreed to sell land to the Mormons to colonize. Church President John Taylor had explored the area and church officials selected Casas Grandes, a valley in the state of Chihuahua, as the place to begin settlement. (www.epcc.edu/nwlibrary/borderlands/19_mormons.htm) 1885 nend May 18, Eurico Gaspar Dutra, President of Brazil (1945-50), was born. (SC, 5/18/02) 1885 nend May 19, First mass production of shoes (Jan Matzeliger in Lynn, Massachusetts). (DTnet, 5/19/97) 1885 nend May 19, ?Professor? Robert Emmet Odlum of Washington, D.C., a well named swimming instructor and author of pamphlets on diving, jumped from Brooklyn bridge. He entered the water feet first (as was the accepted diving position at the time) and shattered every bone in his frame from heel to skull. He was pulled from the river unconscious and died a half hour later. (http://thepublici.blogspot.com/) 1885 nend May 19, German chancellor Bismarck took possession of Cameroon & Togoland. (MC, 5/19/02) 1885 nend May 22, Victor-Marie Hugo (b.1802), French novelist (Les Miserables) and poet, died. In 1998 Graham Robb published the biography: "Victor Hugo." Hugo also did a number of drawings, later appreciated by Andre Breton and Max Ernst, and in 1914 Henri Focillon published the first critical study of them. In 1998 Pierre Georgel and Marie-Laure Prevost published "Shadows of a Hand: The Drawings of Victor Hugo." (WSJ, 2/10/98, p.A16)(HN, 2/26/98)(SFEC, 5/31/98, BR p.4)(MC, 5/22/02) 1885 nend May 26, Al Jolson (d.1950), American jazz singer and silent film actor, was born in Seredzius, Lithuania as Asa Yoelson. His father Morris was a rabbi and a cantor and so Asa started singing early, alongside his elder brother Harry and two elder sisters. In 1894 the family set off for America in search of a new life. (www.unionsquaremusic.co.uk/titlev4.php?ALBUM_ID=576&LABEL_ID=5) 1885 nend May 29, Erwin F. Finlay-Freundlich, British astronomer, was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1885 nend May 29, Alfred von Meissner (63), Austrian physician, writer (Ziska), died. (SC, 5/29/02) 1885 nend May, Henri Rousseau (1844-1910), a self-taught artist, exhibited two of his paintings at the Salon of French Art in Paris without bothering to obtain permission. One painting was cut with a knife and authorities removed them as soon as they were noticed. That same month he exhibited his work at the Salon of the Independents. (ON, 8/08, p.8) 1885 nend May, Richard Schmitt bought his brewery in Singen, Germany. [see 1875, Schmitt] (Hem., Nov.?95, p.114) 1885 nend Jun 6, Leo Delibes' opera "Lakme" was produced in Paris. (MC, 6/6/02) 1885 nend Jun 14, The 1st photo finish horse race was recorded by Luis-Jean Delton as Paradox beat Reluisant at the Grand Prix de Paris. (SFC, 4/28/03, D1) 1885 nend Jun 17, The French naval ship Isere arrived in NYC with a cargo of wooden crates containing the pieces of the Statue of Liberty. (AP, 6/17/97)(ON, 4/03, p.3) 1885 nend Jun 22, In Sudan Muhammad Ahmad (b.1844), religious leader of the Samaniyya order, died of typhus. His chief deputy, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad took over the administration of the nascent Mahdist state. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Ahmad) 1886 nend Jun 24, Ngazidja (Grande Comore) became a French protectorate. (www.worldstatesmen.org/Comoros.html) 1885 nend Jun 26, Andre Maurois (d.1967), French writer (Balzac), was born as Émile Herzog. "Growing old is no more than a bad habit which a busy man has no time to form." (AP, 7/6/00)(MC, 6/26/02) 1885 nend Jul 2, Canada's North-West Insurrection ended with the surrender of Big Bear. (SC, 7/2/02) 1885 nend Jul 6, French scientist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) successfully tested an anti-rabies vaccine on a boy bitten by an infected dog. Thanks to his vaccine the death rate from rabies dropped to almost zero by 1888. (AP, 7/6/97)(ON, 6/08, p.6) 1885 nend Jul 23, Ulysses S. Grant (b.1822), commander of the Union forces at the end of the Civil War and the 18th president of the United States, died in Mount McGregor, N.Y., at age 63. He had just completed the final revisions to his memoirs, which were published as a 2 volume set by Mark Twain. In 1928 W.E. Woodward authored "Meet General Grant," and in 1981 William S. McFreeley authored "Grant: A Biography." His tomb was placed in the largest mausoleum in the US on a bluff over the Hudson River. In 1998 Geoffrey Perret published the biography "Ulysses S. Grant: Soldier and President." In 2004 Mark Perry authored ?Grant and Twain.? In 2006 Edward G. Longacre authored ?General Ulysses S. Grant: The Soldier and Man.? (SFC, 4/14/97, p.A7)(SFEC, 4/19/98, Par p.20)(AP, 7/23/98)(HN,7/23/98)(ON, SC, p.11)(ON, 12/00, p.7)(WSJ, 5/14/04, p.W10)(WSJ, 8/5/06,p.P9) 1885 nend Jul 28, Moses Montefiore (b.1784), Italy-born British financier, banker, philanthropist and Sheriff of London (1837-1838) died. Abigail Green authored Moses Montefiore: Jewish Liberator, Imperial Hero.? (Econ, 3/27/10, p.92)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moses_Montefiore) 1885 nend Aug 10, Leo Daft opened America's first commercially operated electric streetcar, in Baltimore. (AP, 8/10/99) 1885 nend Aug 11, Joseph Pulitzer?s NY World announced that $100,000 was raised in US for a pedestal for the Statue of Liberty. (ON, 4/03, p.3) 1885 nend Aug 15, Samuel Coleridge-Taylor, composer (Hiawatha's Wedding Feast), was born in London. (www.classical-composers.org) 1885 nend Aug 29, Gottlieb Daimler received a German patent for a motorcycle. (MC, 8/29/01) 1885 nend Aug 30, Some 13,000 meteors were seen in 1 hour near Andromeda. (MC, 8/30/01) 1885 nend Aug 31, Duboise Heyward, novelist, poet and dramatist best know for "Porgy" which was the basis for the opera "Porgy and Bess," was born. (HN, 8/31/98) 1885 nend Sep 2, In Rock Springs, Wyoming Territory, 28 Chinese laborers were killed and hundreds more chased out of town by striking coal miners. (HN, 9/2/98) 1885 nend Sep 4, The 1st cafeteria opened (NYC). (MC, 9/4/01) 1885 nend Sep 5, The 1st gasoline pump was delivered to a gasoline dealer in Ft. Wayne, Ind. (MC, 9/5/01) 1885 nend Sep 10, Carl Clinton Van Doren, historian and critic who won a Pulitzer Prize for his biography on Benjamin Franklin, was born. His work included "9th Wave." (HN, 9/10/98)(MC, 9/10/01) 1885 nend Sep 11, D.H. Laurence, English novelist, author of "Lady Chatterley?s Lover" and "Sons and Lovers," was born. (HN, 9/11/98) 1885 nend Sep 14, Vittorio Gui (d.1975), Italian conductor and composer (Batture d'aspetto), was born in Rome. (http://www.operone.de/komponist/gui.html) 1885 nend Sep 15, Juliusz Zarebski, Polish composer, died at 31. (http://www.dolmetsch.com/cdefsz.htm) 1885 nend Sep 16, Karen Horney, psychoanalyst who exposed the male bias in the Freudian analysis of women, was born. (HN, 9/16/98) 1885 nend Sep 18, A coup d?etat in Eastern Rumelia led directly to a war between Serbia and Bulgaria. The Balkan peace settlement established by the 1878 Treaty of Berlin was undone when a coup d?etat in the disputed province of Eastern Rumelia resulted in Eastern Rumelia (separated from Bulgaria in 1878) announcing its re-unification with Bulgaria. Serbian prince Milan responded by demanding Bulgaria cede some of its territory to Serbia. An international conference convened and became deadlocked in November and Serbia declared war. (HNQ, 4/2/99) 1885 nend Sep 20, Ferdinand Lamenthe, aka Jelly Roll Morton (d,1941), jazz pianist, composer and singer, was born in New Orleans. He was one of the first to orchestrate jazz music and disputed W.C. Handy's claim to be the originator of jazz and blues. He became famous at an early age for his classically informed improvisational piano playing often in brothels and other non-traditional settings. With his Red Hot Peppers in the 1920s, he pioneered the early jazz practice of reorchestrating and improvising upon well-known standards. He also wrote many enduring jazz tunes including the ?London Rag? and the ?Jelly Roll Blues?. (HN, 9/20/98)(MC, 9/20/01) 1885 nend Sep 22, Erich Von Stroheim, director, actor and screenwriter best known for "Greed," was born. (HN, 9/22/98) 1885 nend Oct 1, Special delivery mail service began in the United States. (AP, 10/1/97) 1885 nend Oct 7, Nils Bohr, Danish physicist who won the 1992 Nobel Prize for physics and later worked on the first atom bomb, was born. (HN, 10/7/98)(MC, 10/7/01) 1885 nend Oct 10, Mary Newton (12), the daughter of US Army Engineer under Lt. Col. John Newton (1823-1895) triggered a 2nd huge blast to clear Flood Rock in the Hell Gate channel of the East River. Mill Rock Island was formed by joining two rocks with debris from the demolition. The Flood Rock detonation held the record as the largest deliberately planned explosion until the Trinity atomic blast in 1945. (ON, 2/08, p.10) 1885 nend Oct 11, Francois Mauriac, Nobel Prize-winning novelist (1952), was born. (HN, 10/11/00) 1885 nend Oct 22, Giovanni Martinelli, opera tenor (NY Met), was born in Montagnana, Italy. (MC, 10/22/01) 1885 nend Oct 22, John Ward and several team-mates secretly formed the Brotherhood of Professional Base Ball Players, the 1st baseball union. (MC, 10/22/01) 1885 nend Oct 24, Johann Strauss' operetta, "The Gypsy Baron," premiered in Vienna. (MC, 10/24/01) 1885 nend Oct 25, Johannes Brahms' 4th Symphony in E, premiered. (MC, 10/25/01) 1885 nend Oct 29, George B. McClellan (58), Union army general and governor of New Jersey (1878-1881), died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_McClellan)(ON, 12/03, p.4) no_source 1885 nend Oct 30, Ezra Pound (d.1972), poet and critic, was born in Hailey, Idaho. He wrote "The Cantos." Pound met William Carlos Williams at the Univ. of Pennsylvania in 1907 and they remained friends and wrote many letters. "Pound-Williams: Selected Correspondence" was ed. by Hugh Witemeyer in 1996. Ezra Pound spent 3 winters with W.B. Yeats (1913-1916) as the poets artistic prod and secretary. During World War II, Pound was arrested for broadcasting fascist propaganda to the United States from Rome. He stood trial for this crime and was judged to be insane. He was incarcerated at St. Elizabeth's Hospital in Washington from 1946 until his release in 1958. "Literature is news that stays news." (SFC, 6/3/96, BR p.6)(AP, 8/25/98)(HN, 10/30/98)(SFEC, 6/18/00, BRp.10)(MC, 10/30/01) 1885 nend Nov 2, Harlow Shapley, astronomer, was born. He discovered the Sun is not at the center of the galaxy. (HN, 11/2/00) 1885 nend Nov 3, Tacoma, Wa., vigilantes drove out Chinese residents and burned their homes and businesses. (MC, 11/3/01) 1885 nend Nov 5, Will Durant (d.1981), historian and author, was born. "I think America is richer in intelligence than any other country in the world; and that its intelligence is more scattered than in any country of the world." (AP, 4/17/99)(HN, 11/5/00) 1885 nend Nov 7, The Canadian Pacific Railway completed its transcontinental rail line with the last spike driven at the Rocky Mountain town of Craigellachie. (SFEM, 10/10/99, p.46)(ON, 11/07, p.12) 1885 nend Nov 10, Paul Daimler, son of Gottlieb Daimler, became the first motorcyclist when he rode his father's new invention on a round trip of six miles. (HN, 11/10/99) 1885 nend Nov 11, George Patton, U.S. Army commander in World War II, was born. (HN, 11/11/98) 1885 nend Nov 16, Canadian rebel Louis Riel was executed for high treason after he led another uprising that was crushed by a powerful militia. (AP, 11/1697)(SFC, 1/22/98, p.B2) 1885 nend Nov 17, The Serbian Army, with Russian support, invaded Bulgaria. (HN, 11/17/98) 1885 nend Nov 19, Bulgarians, led by Stefan Stambolov, repulsed a larger Serbian invasion force at Slivinitza. (HN, 11/19/98) 1885 nend Nov 26, The 1st photograph of a meteor was made. (MC, 11/26/01) 1885 nend Nov 26, Bulgaria moved into Serbia. (HNQ, 4/2/99) 1885 nend Nov 30, Albrecht (von) Kesselring, German field marshal, was born. (MC, 11/30/01) 1885 nend Nov 30, Jules Massenet's opera "Le Cid" had its premier in Paris. It included text from the playwright Corneille's "Le Cid." (WSJ, 11/18/99, p.A24)(MC, 11/30/01) 1885 nend Dec 2, Nikos Kazantzakis (d.1957), Greek writer and lawyer, was born. His work included "Zorba the Greek." [see Feb 18, 1887] (HN, 12/2/00) 1885 nend Dec 2, George Richards Minot (d.1950), physician (Nobel-1934), was born. (WUD, 1994 p.913)(Internet) 1885 nend Dec 2, Karl Goldmark's opera "Queen of Sheba," premiered in Vienna. (MC, 12/2/01) 1885 nend Dec 29, Gottlieb Daimler patented the 1st bike in Germany. (MC, 12/29/01) 1885 nend Frederic Leighton (1830-1896), English painter and sculptor, created his sculpture "The Sluggard." (WSJ, 12/6/01,p.A19)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederic_Leighton,_1st_Baron_Leighton) 1885 nend Cezanne painted his watercolor of "Madame Cezanne with hydrangeas." His painting ?the Bather? (Le Grand Baigneur) was also done about this time. (WSJ, 2/20/96, p.A-14)(WSJ, 3/29/08, p.W18) 1885 nend Winslow Homer painted "Lost on the Grand Banks." It was reportedly sold to Bill Gates in 1998 for $30 million. (SFEC, 8/2/98, Par p.2) 1885 nend Berthe Morisot (d.1895), French Impressionist, painted her self portrait. (NMWA, 12/04, p.29) 1885 nend Renoir, French painter, painted "In the Garden." It was a lush double-portrait in which the artist?s future wife, Aline, calmly accepted the embrace of a suitor whose face says everything about love?s sweet delusions. (WSJ, 4/6/95, p.A-12) 1885 nend Ethel Reed, graphic artist, designed the poster for Folly or Saintliness by Jose Echegaray. A print by Ellen Thayer Fisher titled Sumac & Milkweed was made the same year. (Smith., 5/95, p.36, illus.) 1885 nend A tapestry study was done by Sir Edward Cowley Burne-Jones and William Morris. (SFC, 2/15/97, p.D1) 1885 nend Vincent Van Gogh painted "The Potato Eaters" and "A Pair of Shoes." (SFC, 1/14/98, p.D3)(WSJ, 8/14/01, p.A12) 1885 nend Thomas Mellon published privately his autobiography, which included much detail on the expanding US economy after the Civil War. (WSJ, 2/27/95, p.A-10) 1885 nend J.R. McCulloch wrote his book "Taxation and the Funding System." In it he stated that: "The moment you abandon the cardinal principle of exacting from all individuals the same proportion of their income or their profits, you are at sea without a rudder or compass and there is no amount of injustice of folly you may not commit." (WSJ, 6/19/96, p.A18) 1885 nend William Dean Howells authored his novel ?The Rise of Silas Lapham,? about a self-made industrialist, who slips from the high rung of success just as he attempts to enter the exclusive precincts of Boston?s elite. (WSJ, 3/15/08, p.W10) 1885 nend Emile Zola (1840-1902) authored his novel ?Germinal,? a fictional account of a French mining strike. It was the 13th novel in Zola's 20-volume series Les Rougon-Macquart. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germinal_%28novel%29)(WSJ, 10/7/97, p.A20) 1885 nend Architect William Le Baron Jenney began to use steel a steel frame skeleton for the first skyscrapers. (SFEC, 11/22/98, Z1 p.8) 1885 nend The Home Insurance Building in Chicago was built and is considered the first skyscraper. It stood 9 stories and had 2 added in 1891. (HT, 5/97, p.23) 1885 nend Charles Rollo Peters painted ?Italian Fisherman?s Wharf,? a scene of the congested SF harbor. (SFC, 5/30/01, p.E3) 1885 nend Jules Harder, 1st chef of the SF Palace Hotel, authored ?The Physiology of Taste: Harder?s Book of Practical American Cookery.? (SFC, 9/7/05, p.F4) 1885 nend In San Francisco a 4-level Victorian was built at 3086 Washington St. In 2009 the 4,851 square-foot house listed for $6.45 million following renovations. (SFC, 10/14/09, p.C3)(SFL) 1885 nend The James A. Garfield monument on Kennedy Drive in San Francisco?s golden Gate Park was erected by the offerings of a ?grateful people.? (SFC, 12/30/96, p.A13)(SFL) 1885 nend In San Francisco Adolph Sutro opened Sutro Heights to the public. The estate was dotted with European statues. He went on to build the Sutro Baths, a 3-acre glass palace. (G, Winter 98/99, p.2) 1885 nend St. Dominic?s Church in San Francisco?s Western Addition was built. (SFC, 4/23/98, p.A19)(SFL) 1885 nend San Francisco brewery owner Joseph Wieland died in a fire. His heirs commissioned a new boat for the Dolphin Club, which he had founded; the 40-foot Joseph Wieland rowing vessel was built by Al Rogers. (SFC, 7/3/97, p.A23) 1885 nend William Sharon, US senator and silver millionaire, died. He bequeathed $60,000 for the construction of a children?s playground in San Francisco?s Golden Gate Park. (Ind, 10/28/00, 5A) 1885 nend Thomas Hardy, English writer, built his own home, Max Gate, outside Dorchester on the Wareham Road. It was here that he wrote "Tess of the D?Ubbervilles" and "Jude the Obscure." (SFC, 12/4/94, p.T-4) 1885 nend The Norment-Parry Inn was built in Orlando, Florida. It is now the oldest house in Orlando and serves as a bed-and-breakfast inn. It is part of a 3 building complex called The Courtyard at Lake Lucerne. (Hem, Mar. 95, p.28) 1885 nend The Detroit Institute of Arts opened. (WSJ, 9/30/97, p.A20) 1885 nend Isaac Mayer Wise united pockets of Jewish immigrants and assembled 15 rabbis in Pittsburgh to articulate a platform for the Union of American Hebrew Congregations, the Hebrew Union College, and the Central Conference of American Rabbis. The organization of Reform Judaism discussed the Mitzvot, the 613 commandments in the Torah, and accepted only the moral laws as binding. (WSJ, 6/4/99, p.W15) 1885 nend Pemberton?s French Wine Coca made its premier In Dr. Jacob's pharmacy in Atlanta. John Stith Pemberton refined the wine-based drink and Coca-Cola, the future symbol of "the American way of life," made its debut in 1886. (AP, 5/3/03)(http://cocaine.org/coca-cola/) 1885 nend The soft drink Dr Pepper was introduced. (SFEC, 2/21/99, Z1 p.8) 1895 nend George Henderson founded Dorchester Pottery outside Boston. Charles A. Hill, his brother-in-law, was the plant manager and decorator. (SFC, 6/17/98, Z1 p.3) 1885 nend Annie Oakley joined Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show and toured Europe. (WSJ, 3/12/99, p.W18) 1885 nend John Montgomery Ward and fellow baseball players secretly formed the Brotherhood of Professional Base Ball Players. (SFEC, 10/3/99, BR p.4) 1885 nend To escape a federal crackdown on polygamy, hundreds of Mormon families fled to Mexico and established the first of five Mormon colonies in the state of Chihuahua. (SFC, 4/9/96, A-7) 1885 nend Christmas became a national holiday in the US. (http://tinyurl.com/dmun5) 1885 nend The US Mail began a Special Delivery service and issued the first $.10 stamp for the guaranteed immediate delivery. (SFC, 6/7/97, p.A6) 1885 nend California in response to the ?yellow menace? passed legislation that allowed districts to create separate schools for Asian Americans. (SSFC, 5/16/04, p.E5) 1885 nend In California the Far Niente winery was built in Napa Valley. In 2008 it was among the a maverick group of local wineries to embrace solar power. (SFC, 5/29/08, p.A1) 1885 nend Union Iron Works launched its first ship, the coal carrier Arago, from Pier 70 in SF. (SSFC, 9/14/08, p.A11) 1885 nend The Concord, Mass., public library banned "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" by Mark Twain. (SFC, 1/21/04, p.D2) 1885 nend Princeville, North Carolina was chartered. It had been founded by a community of newly freed slaves and originally called Freedom Hill or Liberty Hill on the south side of the Tar River. It was named after Turner Prince, a carpenter who was one of its early leaders. (SFC, 2/3/97, p.A8) 1885 nend Joseph O?Neil, US Army lieutenant, spent a month ascending from Port Angeles to Hurricane Ridge in the Olympic Mountains of Washington state. (NG, 7/04, p.66) 1885 nend Chief Joseph and his band of Nez Perce were allowed to take up residence on the Colville reservation in northern Washington. (ON, 3/04, p.5) 1885 nend George Westinghouse (1846-1914), who eventually held more than 400 patents, turned his interest to electricity and in 1886 formed the Westinghouse Electric. (HNQ, 5/28/00) 1885 nend Charles Cretors of Chicago invented the first popcorn popping machine. It was powered by steam and first drawn by a team of horses. (HFA, ?96, p.67) 1885 nend Philip Handel started Handel and Co., a ceramic and glass operation in Meridan, Conn. He moved to New York and made lamps, vases and other glassware from 1893-1933. (SFC, 7/22/98, Z1 p.2)(SFC, 1/10/07, p.G2) 1885 nend Leland and Jane Stanford founded Stanford Univ. The cornerstone was laid in 1887. The 1st class began in 1891 with David Starr Jordan (d.1931) as the first president. (SFEM, 1/30/00, p.8)(Ind, 4/12/03, 5A)(Ind, 4/19/03, 5A) 1885 nend Sylanus Bowser invented the kerosene pump. Twenty years later he modified it into a self-regulating gasoline pump. (SFEC, 10/10/99, Z1 p.6) 1885 nend The cigar lighter was invented. (SFC, 8/28/98, p.B4) c 1885 nend The founder of Johnson Controls invented an electric room thermostat. (WSJ, 2/3/97, p.B4) 1885 nend Arcade Manufacturing Co. of Freeport, Ill., began as a manufacturer of industrial castings and household items. It introduced toys in the 1890s and by the 1920s was a major manufacturer of high-quality cast-iron toys. (SFC, 5/17/06, p.G5) 1885 nend Carl Friedrich Benz invented the first operable auto with an internal combustion engine. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14) 1885 nend The Varney model of the miner?s candlestick was patented. (SFC, 4/1/98, Z1 p.7) 1885 nend The clipper ship James Stafford crossed the Pacific Ocean in 21 œ days, a record that lasted until 1995. (SFEC, 8/25/96, p.B6) 1885 nend US drug manufacturer Parke-Davis sold cocaine in various forms, including cigarettes, powder, and even a cocaine mixture that could be injected directly into the user's veins with the included needle. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocaine) no_source 1885 nend Scientists discovered the plant growth hormone auxin. In 2005 they managed to reveal its mechanism of action. (WSJ, 6/3/05, p.B1) 1885 nend A new star appeared in the Great Nebula of Andromeda. (SCTS, p.1185) 1885 nend In Texas George Bannerman Dealey founded the Dallas News at the behest of Col. A.H. Belo. (SFC, 2/20/07, p.B4) 1885 nend America's 1st recorded serial murders took place in Austin, Texas. (SFCM, 10/11/03, p.34) 1885 nend Helen Hunt Jackson (b.1830), author and social reformer, died. Her books included "Ramona" (1984). In 2003 Kate Phillips authored Helen Hunt Jackson: A Literary Life." (SFEC, 12/20/98, BR p.5)(SFC, 4/19/03, p.D4) 1885 nend Titian Ramsey Peale (b.1799), American naturalist and painter, died. He and his nephew developed and patented the kinematoscope, a forerunner of the motion picture camera. (NH, 5/96, p.75) 1885 nend Richard Burton, British adventurer and linguist, published his translation of ?The Thousand and One Nights.? The 1835 Cairene manuscripts formed the cornerstone of the canonical version of the fluid text. (Econ, 5/15/10, p.54) 1885 nend Britain began maintaining records of elections. (Econ, 10/23/10, p.72) 1885 nend In England John Starley introduced the safety bicycle. It had 2 wheels of the same size and pedals attached to a chain to the rear wheel. (Hem, 8/96, p.34)(Econ, 7/31/10, p.70) 1885 nend English scientist Francis Galton proved that no two 2 fingerprints were identical. (SFC, 6/30/96, Zone 1 p.5) 1885 nend William Hesketh Lever opened his 1st factory to make Sunlight Soap in Britain. In 2004 Adam Macqueen authored ?The King of Sunlight: How William Lever Cleaned Up the World.? (Econ, 7/24/04, p.75) 1885 nend Canada began forcing tens of thousands of Chinese, who helped build the nation's railroad, to pay a "head tax" if they wished to remain in the country and then taxed them again to bring in their families. It started at $50 and by 1903 grew to $500. Collections ended in 1923, when immigration from China was banned. Canada only began admitting Chinese again in 1947. On June 22, 2006, Canada apologized. (AP, 6/23/06) 1885 nend The Canadian Pacific Railway completed its transcontinental rail line. (SFEM, 10/10/99, p.46) 1885 nend In BC, Canada, St. Paul?s Church was built at Fulford. It was the first church on Salt Spring Island. (SFEC, 7/26/98, p.T5) 1885 nend Alphonse Bertillon of the Paris Police Dept. (Surete) developed the Bertillon system to help identify criminals. It was based on a variety or personal characteristics including hair and eye color and various body measurements. (ON, 4/04, p.11) 1885 nend The 70-room Herrenchiemsee Castle of Ludwig II of Bavaria was built on an island in Lake Chiemsee. (SFEC, 4/9/00, p.T4) 1885 nend In Germany a treaty made in Berlin called for the humane treatment of Africans. (SFEM, 8/16/98, p.12) 1885 nend In Japan the first Shakespeare production was a Kabuki adaptation of a Japanese novel inspired by a Charles Lamb narrative based on "The Merchant of Venice." (SFC,12/23/97, p.E6) 1885 nend In the Netherlands the façade of the Rijksmuseum was completed. (WSJ, 1/8/99, p.C13) 1885 nend Managua, Nicaragua, was leveled by an earthquake. (SSFC, 4/10/05, p.F4) 1885 nend Dr. Lazarus Ludwig Zamenhof (1859-1917), Polish ophthalmologist, invented the artificial language known as Esperanto. [see 1887] (SFCM, 6/8/03, p.18) 1885 nend A Swedish ?Treskilling Yellow? postage stamp was printed with a one-of-kind error. In 1996 it sold for a record $2.3 million. In 2010 it was again sold but the price was not revealed. (SSFC, 5/23/10, p.A6) c 1885 nend Geneva rubies were sold in Switzerland. They were supposedly made by processing small bits of real rubies into larger gemstones. (SFC, 7/17/96, z-1, p.7) 1885 1889 Grover Cleveland became the 22nd President of the US. (A&IP, ESM, p.96b, photo) 1885 1920 Sisters Frances and Mary Allen of Deerfield, Massachusetts, began their careers as schoolteachers, but when deafness forced a change of profession, they turned to photography. Their work shows everyday activities in a rural community. Self-taught in their craft, the Allen sisters achieved remarkable success. During their photography career from 1885 to 1920, their work appeared in numerous books and magazines as covers, illustrations and frontispieces. (HNPD, 1/3/00) 1885 1930 D.H. Lawrence, English novelist. David Herbert Lawrence. "The world fears a new experience more than it fears anything. Because a new experience displaces so many old experiences." (WUD, 1994, p.812)(AP, 3/4/00) 1885 1958 Eva Gauthier, American concert singer. She is discussed in the 1997 book "The American Opera Singer" by Peter G. Davis. (WSJ, 11/6/97, p.A20) 1885 1962 Niels Henrik David Bohr, Danish theoretical physicist. He is the author of the Bohr theory which is a model of atomic structure wherein electrons travel around the nucleus in orbits determined by quantum conditions of angular momentum. (AHD, 1971, p.147) 1885 1957 Sacha Guitry, French director, actor and dramatist: "The little I know I owe to my ignorance." "You can pretend to be serious; but you can't pretend to be witty." (AP, 5/27/98)(AP, 2/27/99) 1885 1968 Helen M. Cam, English historian and educator: "We must not read either law or history backwards." (AP, 8/15/00) 1885 1973 Otto Klemperer, maestro, was born in Breslau and died in Zurich. "Otto Klemperer: His Life and Times" Vol II was completed by John Lucas based on the work of Mr. Heyworth and published in 1996. Vol I by Peter Heyworth was published in 1983. (WSJ, 8/20/96, p.A8) 1886 nend Jan 1, A great blizzard buried the eastern and southern plains, killing 50 to 85 percent of the cattle herds. (HNPD, 1/4/99) 1886 nend Feb 16, Van Wyck Brooks (d.1963), American biographer, critic and literary historian, was born. "Nothing is so soothing to our self-esteem as to find our bad traits in our forebears. It seems to absolve us." (AP, 8/14/00)(HN, 2/16/01) 1886 nend Jan 25, Wilhelm Furtwangler, conductor, composer, was born in Berlin, Germany. (MC, 1/25/02) 1886 nend Jan 26, Karl Benz patented the 1st automobile. [see Jan 29] (MC, 1/26/02) 1886 nend Jan 28, Artur Rubinstein, pianist, was born in Lodz, Poland. (MC, 1/28/02) 1886 nend Jan 29, 1st successful gasoline-driven car was patented by Karl Benz in Karlsruhe. [see Jan 26] (MC, 1/29/02) 1886 nend Feb 9, President Cleveland declared a state of emergency in Seattle because of anti-Chinese violence. (MC, 2/9/02) 1886 nend Feb 9, Modest Mussorgsky?s (1839-1881) opera ?Khovanschchina,? arranged by Rimsky-Korsakov, premiered in St. Petersburg. The Gregorian date is Feb 21. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khovanshchina) 1886 nend Feb 13, Painter Thomas Eakins resigned from the Philadelphia Academy of Art over controversial use of male nudes in a coed art class. (MC, 2/13/02) 1886 nend Feb 14, California orange growers ship their first trainload of fruit from Los Angeles. (HCB, 2003, p.92) 1886 nend Feb 15, Sax Rohmer, author (Dr. Fu Manchu), was born in England. (MC, 2/15/02) 1886 nend Feb 23, Tchaikovsky?s symphonic poem "Manfred" premiered. (MC, 2/23/02) 1886 nend Feb 23, An aluminum manufacturing process was developed. (MC, 2/23/02) 1886 nend Feb 23, London Times published the world's 1st classified ad. (MC, 2/23/02) 1886 nend Feb 27, Hugo L. Black was born in Alabama. He became the 78th Supreme Court Justice (1937-71) and wrote opinions forbidding prayer in schools (Sen-D-Ala). (HN, 2/27/99)(MC, 2/27/02) 1886 nend Mar 3, The Treaty of Bucharest concluded the Serb-Bulgarian war, re-establishing pre-war Serbo-Bulgarian borders but leaving Eastern Rumelia and Bulgaria united. (HNQ, 4/2/99) 1886 nend Mar 6, The 1st US alternating current power plant started in Great Barrington, MA. (MC, 3/6/02) 1886 nend Mar 8, Edward Kendall, chemist, isolated cortisone (Nobel 1950), was born. (MC, 3/8/02) 1886 nend Mar 13, Albert William Stevens, balloonist and photographer, was born. (HN, 3/13/01) 1886 nend Mar 17, The Carrollton Massacre in Mississippi occurred and 20 African Americans were killed. (HN, 3/17/98) 1886 nend Mar 24, Edward Weston, photographer, was born. (HN, 3/24/01) 1886 nend Mar 26, The 1st cremation in England took place. (SS, 3/26/02) 1886 nend Mar 27, Ludwig Mies Van Der Rohe, German-US architect (Bauhaus), was born. (MC, 3/27/02) 1886 nend Mar 28, Jarosla Novotny, composer, was born. (MC, 3/28/02) 1886 nend Mar 29, Coca-Cola was advertised for the first time in the Atlanta Daily. Its inventor, Dr. John Pemberton, claimed it could cure anything from hysteria to the common cold. John Stith (Doc) Pemberton, pharmacist, concocted a bath of a dark, sugary syrup meant to be mixed with carbonated water and sold at the city?s soda fountains. This was the beginning of Coca Cola, which then contained enough cocaine to give the a drinker a buzz and more caffeine than the drink contains today. Sales at the soda fountain of Jacob?s Pharmacy averaged 9 drinks a day in the first year. The story is told by Frederick Allen in his book ?Secret Formula.? The drink was named by Frank Robinson and he created its signature script logo. [see May 8] (www.sodamuseum.bigstep.com/generic.jhtml?pid=1) 1886 nend Mar 31, Giovanni Rossi (57), composer, died. (MC, 3/31/02) 1886 nend Apr 6, The City of Vancouver, Canada, was incorporated. The ceremony was delayed when it was discovered no one had thought to bring paper on which to write down the details. The ceremony was held in Jonathan Miller's house. The population of the city was about 1,000. (www.vancouverhistory.ca/chronology2.html) 1886 nend Apr 11, General Nelson A. Miles arrived at Fort Bowie, Ariz., to begin his assignment to subjugate or destroy a band of Apaches led by Geronimo. (ON, 10/06, p.1) 1886 nend Apr 26, Ma Rainey, [Gertrude Pridgett], "Mother of the Blues", US blues singer, was born. [see Apr 3, 1888] (MC, 4/26/02) 1886 nend Apr 27, A band of Apaches led by Geronimo attacked a ranch west of Fort Huachuca and killed 3 American citizens. (ON, 10/06, p.1) 1886 nend Apr 28, Erich Salomon, German photographer, was born. (MC, 4/28/02) 1886 nend Apr, Abolitionist Frederick Douglass gave a speech in Washington to celebrate the 24th year after the Emancipation Proclamation. He said: "Where justice is denied, where poverty is enforced, where ignorance prevails, where any one class is made to feel that society is an organized conspiracy to oppress, rob and degrade them, neither persons nor property will be safe. (USAT, 2/14/97, p.15A) 1886 nend Apr, In San Francisco school children on Arbor Day planted the first trees of the Presidio forest. Adolph Sutro enlisted schoolchildren to help plant eucalyptus, acacia, Monterey pine and Monterey cypress trees in Glen Park. The 904-foot Mount Parnassus, owned by Sutro, was also planted. (G, Winter, p.3)(SFC, 5/26/00, Wb p.8)(SFC, 6/20/00, p.A1) 1886 nend May 1, A labor strike began across the US to support an 8-hour work day. (www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAspies.htm) 1886 nend May 2, Edouard Lockroy, French Minister of Culture, announced plans for a tower for the 1889 Paris exhibition and invited proposals for the project. The winning design was submitted by engineer Gustave Eiffel. (ON, 7/03, p.9) 1886 nend May 3, Police arrived outside the McCormick Harvester Works in Chicago, where 1,400 IWPA workers were on strike. They opened-fire on the crowd while anarchist August Spies was making a speech, killing four of the workers. (www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAspies.htm) 1886 nend May 4, At Haymarket Square in Chicago, a labor demonstration for an 8-hour workday turned into a riot when a bomb exploded. Seven policemen were killed and some 60 others injured. Only one policeman was killed in the strike. 3 labor leaders were executed Nov 10, 1887, for the bombing. The Haymarket affair is generally considered to have been an important influence on the origin of international May Day observances for workers. (AP, 5/4/97)(WSJ, 2/6/98,p.A20)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haymarket_Riot) 1886 nend May 5, A bomb exploded on the fourth day of a workers' strike in Chicago, Ill. (HN, 5/5/99) 1886 nend May 8, Atlanta pharmacist John Stith Pemberton invented the flavor syrup for Coca-Cola, which contained cocaine. The name for the soft drink came from his bookkeeper, Frank Robinson. Sales of Coca-Cola at the soda fountain of Jacob?s Pharmacy averaged 9 drinks a day in the first year. [see Mar 29] (AP, 5/8/97)(HN, 5/8/98)(www.sodamuseum.bigstep.com/generic.jhtml?pid=1) 1886 nend May 9, William Hornaday, taxidermist for the Smithsonian Institute, arrived with his assistants in Miles City, Montana, on a venture to hunt buffalo and learned that none had been seen for a long time. (ON, 3/02, p.8) 1886 nend May 10, Karl Barth (d.1966), Swiss theologian, was born. "Conscience is the perfect interpreter of life." (AP, 3/9/01)(HN, 5/10/02) 1886 nend May 10, The US Supreme Court ruling in Santa Clara County v Southern Pacific Railroad dealt with taxation of railroad properties. A unanimous decision, written by Justice Harlan, ruled on the matter of fences, holding that the state of California illegally included the fences running beside the tracks in its assessment of the total value of the railroad's property. As a result, the county could not collect taxes from Southern Pacific that it was not allowed to collect in the first place. no_source 3 nend /26/11, p.78)(Econ, 4/16/11, p.18) no_source 1886 nend May 15, Poet Emily Dickinson (b.1830) died in Amherst, Mass., where she had lived in seclusion for the previous 24 years. In 2001 Alfred Habegger authored her biography: "My Wars Are laid Away in Books." In 2008 Brenda Wineapple authored ?White Heat: The Friendship of Emily Dickinson & Thomas Wentworth Higginson (1823-1911). In 2010 Lyndall Gordon authored ?Lives Like Loaded Guns: Emily Dickinson and her Family Feuds,? in which he presents evidence that Dickinson suffered from congenital epilepsy. (AP, 5/15/97)(HN, 5/15/01)(WSJ, 11/2/01, p.W11)(Econ, 7/26/08, p.96) 1886 nend May 16, Douglas Southall Freeman, journalist, historian, Pulitzer Prize-winning biographer, was born. (HN, 5/16/01) 1886 nend May 19, Camille Saint-Saens' 3rd Symphony in C ("Organ"), premiered. (MC, 5/19/02) 1886 nend May 25, Philip Murray, founder of Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) , was born. (HN, 5/25/98) 1886 nend Jun 2, President Cleveland married Frances Folsom in a White House ceremony. Cleveland?s bride, Frances Folsom, was the 22-year-old daughter of Cleveland?s late law partner and friend, Oscar Folsom. The intimate wedding ceremony took place in the White House Blue Room with fewer than 40 people present.(To date, Cleveland is the only president to marry in the Executive Mansion while in office.) (AP, 6/2/97)(WSJ, 9/23/97, p.A1)(HNQ, 6/2/98) 1886 nend Jun 3, 24 Christians were burned to death in Namgongo, Uganda. (MC, 6/3/02) 1886 nend Jun 10, In New Zealand Mount Tarawera erupted at Rotorua on the North Island. 155 people were killed and several Maori and European settlement were destroyed. (SFEC, 1/9/00, p.T5) 1886 nend Jun 11, David Steinman, bridge designer (Hudson, Triborough), was born in NYC. (SC, 6/11/02) 1886 nend Jun 13, King Ludwig II (40), King of Bavaria, drowned in Lake Starnberg. Bavarian leaders had conspired to remove Ludvig II from office and got a doctor, who never saw him, to declare him insane. He was captured and taken to a mansion on Lake Starnberg where he was found floating dead with his doctor. In 1996 Greg King authored "The Mad King." (AP, 6/13/97)(SFEC, 4/9/00, p.T5) 1886 nend Jun 13, A swift fire destroyed Vancouver, Canada, in a time variously reported between twenty and forty-five minutes. At least eight people died, and some accounts claim 28. About 1,000 wooden buildings, virtually the entire city, were totally consumed. (Econ, 6/11/11, p.42)(www.vancouverhistory.ca/chronology2.html) 1886 nend Jun 25, Henry (Hap) Arnold, commanding general of the U.S. Army Air Force during World War II, was born. (HN, 6/25/99) 1886 nend Jun 25, Britain adopted its Riot (Damages) Act, intended to provide compensation for losses by riots. (www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Vict/49-50/38/introduction) 1886 nend Jun 29, James Van Der Zee, African-American photographer, was born. (HN, 6/29/98) 1886 nend Jul 3, In Germany Karl Benz drove the 1st automobile. [see Jan 29] (MC, 7/3/02) 1886 nend Jul 4, The 1st scheduled Canadian transcontinental passenger train (CPR) reached Pt. Moody, BC. It had left Montreal on June 28. (ON, 11/07, p.12) 1886 nend Jul 13, Father Edward J. Flanagan, catholic priest, founder of Boys Town, was born in Roscommon, Ireland. (AP, 7/13/07) 1886 nend Jul 23, Arthur Whitten Brown, British aviator, was born. (HN, 7//2302) 1886 nend Jul 23, New York saloonkeeper Steve Brodie claimed to have made a daredevil plunge from the Brooklyn Bridge into the East River. However, few historians believe the jump actually occurred (AP, 7/23/07) 1886 nend Jul 26, William Gladstone was replaced by Lord Salisbury as prime minister of England. (HN, 7/26/98) 1886 nend Jul 31, Franz Liszt, composer, died in Bayreuth. His work included the symphonic poem "Les Preludes" and the "Faust Symphony." Cosima-von-Bulow was a illegitimate daughter of Liszt and married to Richard Wagner. A 3 volume biography of Liszt (1977, 1983, 1996) was written by Alan Walker, Vol 3 was titled: "Franz Liszt: The final Years." Deszno Legany of Hungary earlier wrote: "Liszt and His country: 1874-1866." (WSJ, 6/18/96, p.A14) 1886 nend Aug 20, Paul Tillich, German-US theologian and philosopher who wrote "Systematic Theology," was born. (HN, 8/20/98)(MC, 8/20/02) 1886 nend Aug 27, Eric Coates, viola player, composer, was born in Hucknall, Nottinghamshire, England. (MC, 8/27/02) 1886 nend Aug 31, An earthquake rocked Charleston, S.C., killing 60 people, according to the US Geological Survey. (AP, 8/31/07) 1886 nend Sep 4, Elusive Apache leader Geronimo (1829-1909) surrendered to General Nelson A. Miles (1839-1925) at Skeleton Canyon, Ariz. This ended the last major US-Indian war. (HN, 9/4/98)(ON, 10/06, p.4) 1886 nend Sep 9, The Berne International Copyright Convention took place at the instigation of Victor Hugo and backed the individual copyright laws of the European states. It was updated in 1971. In 1993 the Brussels directive brought in a Europe-wide 70-year rule. (HN, 9/9/00)(WSJ, 1/31/02,p.A16)(www.ifla.org.sg/documents/infopol/copyright/ucc.txt) 1886 nend Sep 13, Alain Locke, writer and first African-American Rhodes scholar, was born. (HN, 9/13/98) 1886 nend Sep 14, Jan Garrique Masaryk (d.1948), Czech statesman, was born. (www.britannica.com) 1886 nend Sep 14, George K. Anderson of Memphis, Tennessee, patented typewriter ribbon. (http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bltypewriter.htm) 1886 nend Oct 7, Spain abolished slavery in Cuba. (SFC, 4/12/01, p.C4)(MC, 10/7/01) 1886 nend Oct 10, The tuxedo dinner jacket made its American debut at the autumn ball in Tuxedo Park, N.Y. (AP, 10/10/97) 1886 nend Oct 16, David Ben-Gurion (d.1973), Israeli statesman, was born in Plonsk, Poland. He was the 1st PM of Israel and served from 1948-53 and in 1955. (HN, 10/16/00)(MC, 10/16/01) 1886 nend Oct 26, Gustav Hermann Unger, composer, was born. (MC, 10/26/01) 1886 nend Oct 28, The Statue of Liberty on Liberty Island, formerly Bedloe's Island, in New York Harbor, a gift from the people of France, was dedicated by President Cleveland. It was designed by Frederic Auguste Bartholdi and originally named Liberty Enlightening the World. It was erected at the entrance of New York harbor as a symbol of freedom to welcome immigrants and others from around the world and became a monument to republicanism and to the amity between the French and American nations. The 225-ton statue arrived in 214 packing cases in June 1885 and was assembled on an American-built pedestal, the money for which was largely raised by Joseph Pulitzer. Lady Liberty, holding up her torch at the entrance of the harbor, remains one of America's most recognized monuments. Later the poem "New Colossus" by Emma Lazarus was placed at the base. The island was renamed by Pres. Eisenhower. (WUD, 1994, p.1389)(WSJ, 7/26/96, p.A9)(THC, 4/10/97)(AP, 10/28/97) 1886 nend Nov 9, Ed Wynn, actor and comedian, was born. (HN, 11/9/00) 1886 nend Nov 18, Chester A. Arthur (56), 21st president of the United States (1881-1885), died in New York. (AP, 11/18/97) 1886 nend Nov 21, Harold G. Nicolson, English diplomat and author (Good Behavior), was born. (MC, 11/21/01) 1886 nend Nov 24, Margaret Anderson, editor, was born. She founded "The Little Review." (HN, 11/24/00) 1886 nend Nov 30, 1st commercially successful AC electric power plant opened in Buffalo. (MC, 11/30/01) 1886 nend Nov 30, Folies Bergere introduced an elaborate review featuring women in sensational costumes. Years later, the Folies followed the Parisian taste for striptease and gained a reputation for spectacular nudie shows. The Folies had originated as a hall for operettas, pantomime, and even political meetings. (MC, 11/30/01) 1885 nend Nov, Atlanta, Georgia, voted to become a dry city effective July, 1886. (www.sodamuseum.bigstep.com/generic.jhtml?pid=1) 1886 nend Dec 1, Rex Stout, writer, poet, was born. He created the detective character Nero Wolfe. (HN, 12/1/00) 1886 nend Dec 6, Joyce Kilmer (d.1918), American poet best known for his poem "Trees," was born. Kilmer was killed by a sniper in WW I. (HN, 12/6/98)(WUD, 1994 p.786) 1886 nend Dec 8, Diego Rivera (d.1957), Mexican painter, was born. (MC, 12/8/01) 1886 nend Dec 8, The American Federation of Labor (AFL) was founded at a convention of union leaders in Columbus, Ohio, by some 25 labor groups representing about 150,000 members. The first president of the American Federation of Labor was Samuel Gompers, who had reorganized the Cigarmakers Union and participated in the founding of the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions in 1881. (AP, 12/8/97)(HNPD, 9/7/99) 1886 nend Dec 9, Clarence Birdseye, inventor of flash freezing foods, was born. (HNPD, 12/9/98) 1886 nend Dec 12, Edward Richard Woodham (b.1831), English survivor of the Charge of the Light Brigade (1854), died. (AP, 9/29/09)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Richard_Woodham) 1886 nend Dec 17, At a Christmas party, Sam Belle shot his old enemy Frank West, but was fatally wounded himself. (HN, 12/17/98) 1886 nend Dec 18, Ty [Tyrus Raymond] Cobb, American baseball player, first man to be elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame, was born. (HN, 12/18/98) 1886 nend Dec 20, Domingo Julio Gomez Garcia, composer, was born. (MC, 12/20/01) 1886 nend Karl von Frisch, Austrian ethologist, was born. In the 1940s he first described the method by which honeybees describe the source of gathered pollen to their fellow bees. The bees perform a dance is that integrates information about the orientation of the sun and the distance to the pollen source. (WUD, 1994, p.569)(NH, 9/97, p.60) 1886 nend French artist Jean-Leon Gerome painted "The First Kiss of the Sun." (WSJ, 2/5/99, p.W12) 1886 nend Henri Fantin-Latour painted "Vase With Autumn Asters." (SFC, 1/18/99, p.B1) 1886 nend French sculptor Auguste Rodin created his marble sculpture "The Kiss." (WSJ, 7/5/96, p.A5) 1886 nend The last impressionist exhibition was held in France. (SFC, 10/22/96, p.E8) 1886 nend Rene Lalique, a pioneer of Art Nouveau style, set up his own jewelry workshop in Paris, France. He had already apprenticed under Louis Aucoq and worked for Cartier, Boucheron and other established houses. (SSFC, 2/4/07, p.C4) 1886 nend Paul Durand-Ruel, a Paris art dealer, packed his bag with 300 Impressionist paintings and took them to sell in America. (Econ, 11/28/09, SR p.13) 1886 nend Medardo Rosso sculpted his "The Golden Age." (SFEM, 11/24/96, p.46) 1886 nend Thomas Hardy, English writer, authored "The Mayor of Casterbridge." (SFC, 8/16/03, p.D1) 1886 nend George Ray (1817-1902) authored ?The Country Banker,? a handbook for newly appointed branch managers. (www.archive.org/details/countrybanker00raeg) 1886 nend Baron von Richard Krafft-Ebing (1840-1902) published a work on mental disease. (WUD, 1994, p.795) 1886 nend Pierre Loti, French naval officer and author, wrote "An Iceland Fisherman." (SFEC, 11/17/96, DB p.40) 1886 nend Robert Louis Stevenson wrote "The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde" and "Kidnapped." His work also included "Silverado Squatters" based on his experiences in Calistoga, Ca. Stevenson used Mount St. Helena and the Palisades for story scenes in "Treasure Island." (Article on Calistoga by Cybil McCabe, 7/95)(WSJ, 4/24/98, p.W1) 1886 nend Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910), Russian writer, authored his novel ?The Death of Ivan Ilyich.? (WSJ, 2/25/06, p.P6) 1886 nend Jules Verne (1828-1905) authored his novel ?The Clipper of the Clouds.? (ON, 3/06, p.3)(www.kirjasto.sci.fi/verne.htm) 1886 nend Emile Zola (1840-1902), French author, wrote "The Masterpiece," the story of an artist in pursuit of his vision. Zola described the horror felt by much of the general public when presented with the work of the new Impressionists. (WSJ, 4/29/06, p.P10)(Econ, 5/2/09, p.85) 1886 nend The musical "The Black Crook" was named as the first American musical. (SFEC, 5/9/99, DB p.13) 1886 nend The Beaumont Hotel was built in Ouray, Colo. (SFC, 2/16/06, p.E2) 1886 nend James McCutcheon, who made a fortune in the linen trade, hired a Boston architect to build him a mansion in Greenwich, Connecticut. In late 2007 the property was sold to Rene Kern, managing director of the General Atlantic hedge fund, who planned to demolish it, despite protests, and build a new home. (WSJ, 4/12/08, p.A6) 1886 nend In Galveston, Texas, the Millie Walters House was built. It was the last of the famous Postoffice St. bordellos. (HT, 5/97, p.62) 1886 nend Assembly Hall, a gothic-style building built by the Latter-day Saint pioneers, was completed in Salt Lake City, Utah. (THM, 4/27/97, p.N3) 1868 nend The ship Balclutha was built in Glasgow, Scotland. It was named in Gaelic for Clyde?s rock. For 16 years it sailed from the British Isles with a load of coal around Cape Horn to SF where it picked up grain and returned to Europe. It was later preserved at the National Maritime Museum in San Francisco. [1st source said 1860] (SFC, 5/28/96, p.A15)(SFEC,11/23/97, p.D1) 1886 nend A US general interest magazine was begun that came to be known as Cosmopolitan. (SFC, 8/19/05, p.E9) 1886 nend The Baptist General Convention, a state umbrella group for Baptist churches, was founded in Texas. (SFEC, 3/1/98, p.A14) 1886 nend Agua Caliente, home of warm mineral springs used by the Sonoma Valley Indians, was founded as the first resort in Sonoma, Ca. (WCG, p.58) 1886 nend David McConnell of New York founded the California Perfume Company. He found that people were buying his books because of his free rose oil perfumes. US saleswoman P.F.E. Albee of Winchester, N.H., became the first Avon Lady. The company was named Avon in 1939. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25)(WSJ, 9/18/00, p.B1) 1886 nend Nicholas Hilger began river boat tours on the Missouri River near Helena at the site of the limestone cliffs named the Gates of the Mountains by the Lewis and Clark expedition. (GOTM, brochure) 1886 nend Millionaires Pulitzer, McCormick, Rockefeller, Morgan and others formed the Jekyll Island Club as a vacation resort for themselves and their families on Jekyll Island off the coast of Georgia. (SFC, 4/28/96, p.T-7) 1886 nend Ybor City was founded next to St. Petersburg by Spanish, Italian and Cuban cigar workers. (Hem., 3/97, p.60) 1886 nend A board game called "The Game of Baseball" was made with a lithographed game board by the McLoughlin Brothers. In 1999 the boxed game was worth $3,000. (SFC, 4/7/99, Z1 p.7) 1886 nend The beverages Moxie, Dr Pepper, Coca-Cola [see Mar 29] and Hires Root Beer all appeared in bottles. (SFC, 10/7/00, p.B5) 1886 nend Maxwell House coffee was named. (SFC, 10/7/00, p.B5) 1886 nend Pres. Grover Cleveland (49) married Frances Folsom (21), his ward and the daughter of his late law partner. He became the first and only president to be married in the White House. Cleveland's bride, Frances Folsom, was the 22-year-old daughter of Cleveland's late law partner and friend, Oscar Folsom. For years, the bachelor Cleveland acted as executor of Folsom's estate, but no one suspected his interest in Frances until he proposed marriage after her graduation from Wells College. The intimate wedding ceremony took place in the White House Blue Room with fewer than 40 people present. They had 2 sons and 3 daughters, one of whom, Ruth, inspired the Babe Ruth candy bar. (SFEC, 8/18/96, PM p. 2)(HNQ, 11/1/98) 1886 nend The US Army, which handled weather forecasting, banned the word ?tornado.? It had determined that the harm done by predicting a tornado would be greater than that done by the tornado itself. The ban was lifted in 1952. (SFC, 3/16/09, p.D6) 1886 nend US Corporations acquired the legal status of "personhood" and the accompanying right to constitutional protections. (SFC, 9/26/03, p.E4) 1886 nend The Passenger Vessel Services Act (PSA) of this year required that cruise ships stopping in at US ports be built and registered in the US, be owned by US citizens and manned by American seamen?or that they stop at a foreign port before returning passengers to their departure point. It was designed to protect US ferry boats operating on the Great Lakes from Canadian competition. (SFEC, 5/11/97, p.C10)(SFEC, 5/25/97, p.B1) 1886 nend George Hearst was elected US Senator for California. (SFEM, 10/24/99, p.20) 1886 nend The three Korbel brothers built a lumber mill in Guerneville, California. The mill prospered logging redwoods and specialized in fancy moldings used in many of the Victorian homes of San Francisco. The property was acquired by the Heck family in 1954 who began producing sparkling wines. (SFC, 4/9/96, zz1 p.3) 1886 nend In San Francisco Adolph Sutro opened his Sutro Baths. The huge glass enclosure had room for 1,600 bathers. Late in his life the former mayor donated the Sutro Library to the city. It was made up of a 50,000-volume genealogy collection, medieval Jewish tests, books and documents from the Italian Renaissance, the papers of British explorer Joseph Banks, a labor archive and other collections. (SFC, 5/19/96,City Guide, p.6) 1886 nend The 13-room Haas-Lilienthal House was built at 2007 Franklin, SF. Architect Peter R. Schmidt built the 24-room house of fir and redwood for Bertha and William Haas, a mercantile grocer, for $18,500. (SFC, 7/17/96, z-1, p.2)(SFC, 8/30/96, p.D5) 1886 nend In San Francisco the Union Iron Works red brick machine shop was built across from the dry dock gate at Pier 70. It closed in 2004 due to seismic issues. In 2009 plans were made public for the redevelopment of the area. (SSFC, 7/3/05, p.F2)(SFC, 7/11/09, p.A6) 1886 nend In SF the Fior d?Italia restaurant began to serve clients for a nearby North Beach bordello. Tortellini was a nickel, risotto with clams a dime and veal scallopine and calf?s liver was 15 cents. It was originally located at 482 Broadway and later moved to 601 Union St. In February 2005 the restaurant was burned out of its Washington Square location. It re-opened in November on Mason Street at the former San Remo Hotel. (SFC, 4/23/02, p.A1)(SFC, 11/23/05, p.B5)(SSFC, 5/1/11, DB p.46) 1886 nend In SF the North Beach jewelry business, later run by Rocco Matteucci (d.1959), was founded. (SFC, 10/21/99, p.A24) 1886 nend Aaron Shenson started a meat business. In 1953 the H. Shenson Wholsesale Meat Co. moved to a new plant at 1040 Bryant St., SF. (SFC, 12/19/03, p.E2) 1886 nend In San Francisco Mrs. Abbie Parrott purchased the old St. Ignatius Market Street school site for $900,000. her family later built the Emporium store on this site. (GenIV, Winter 04/05) 1886 nend Josephine Garis Cochrane (d.1913), a housewife from Shelbyville, Ill., patented the first dishwashing machine. She named it the Garis-Cochran Dishwashing Machine in honor of her father and late husband. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14)(ON, 4/00, p.12) 1886 nend The Chicago Tribune began using the Linotype, invented by Ottmar Mergenthaler (1854-1899) of Germany. It produced newspaper type until it was replaced by computers. (SFC, 2/4/98, p.A21)(ON, 7/00, p.5) 1886 nend Charles T. Yerkes acquired a primitive horse-car company on Chicago?s North Side. He acquired another the following year on the West Side and proceeded to develop the city?s streetcar system. His accomplishments included the Northwestern Elevated, the Consolidated Traction network of suburban lines and the Union Loop. (WSJ, 8/29/06, p.D5) 1886 nend The Grand Rapids School Furniture Company was founded in Grand Rapids, Mich. By 1899 the company had merged with 18 others to form the American Seating Co. of NYC. (SFC, 1/14/09, p.G2) 1886 nend Bloomingdale's department store in NYC moved to 59th and Lexington Ave. (SSFC, 9/24/06, p.D2) 1886 nend Robert J. Horner opened a furniture shop on West 23rd Street in NYC. In 1914-15 the business merged with a furniture company owned by George C. Flint and became Flint & Horner, which grew into a large retail store. (SFC, 1/16/08, p.G4) 1886 nend American statistician Herman Hollerith started a business renting out tabulating machines, which he had invented, for the US census. In 1911 the company merged with others to form the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company, later renamed IBM. (Econ, 6/11/11, p.67) 1886 nend George Westinghouse incorporated the Westinghouse Electric Company. (ON, 10/04, p.6) 1886 nend Alexander Winton, Cleveland bicycle manufacturer, made his first running experimental car. He went into the car business a year later. (F, 10/7/96, p.66) 1886 nend Richard W. Sears began selling watches in North Redwood, Minn. In 1887 he opened a Chicago headquarters after hiring watchmaker Alvah C. Roebuck. In 1888 the 1st Sears catalog sold watches and jewelry. [see 1893] (SFC, 11/18/04, p.B1) 1886 nend Duke's Cameo smokes was patented. (SFEC, 2/14/99, Z1 p.4) 1886 nend LaVerne Noyes (1849-1919) invented his akromotor, a device that converted wind to electricity and proved to be immensely useful to American farmers. (http://eos.lib.uchicago.edu/e/spcl/excat/donors2.html#d) 1886 nend In Honolulu, Hawaii, a fire destroyed the original Chinatown. (SFEC, 8/17/97, BR p.3) 1886 nend Texas was hit by 4 hurricanes. (SSFC, 9/26/04, p.A1) 1886 nend Alexander Ostrovsky (b.1823), Russian social realist playwright, died. (WSJ, 7/26/00, p.A24) 1886 nend Peter "Black Prince" Jackson (1861-1901), St. Croix-born boxer, won the Australian heavyweight championship. In 1892 he won the British Empire title. (www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/298854/Peter-Jackson) 1886 nend London?s Soho district of this year was the setting for Joseph Conrad?s 1907 novel "The Secret Agent." (SFC, 12/20/96, p.C12) 1886 nend The Clunies-Ross family was granted the Cocos Islands in the Indian Ocean, about 2,700 kilometers (1,680 miles) northwest of Perth, by Queen Victoria. Captain John Clunies-Ross, a Scottish trader, had landed there in 1825. (AFP, 1/21/08) 1886 nend Arthur Wharton (1865-1930), Accra, Gold Coast (now Ghana)-born athlete, won the British Amateur Athletics Association 100 yards sprint in a world record time of exactly 10 seconds. He is believed to have been the world's first black professional footballer. (AP, 6/30/11)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Wharton) 1886 nend Henry Stanley (1841-1904), Welsh-born journalist, led the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition to "rescue" Emin Pasha, the governor of Equatoria in the southern Sudan. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Morton_Stanley) 1886 nend In Bulgaria the Cathedral of the Assumption was built in Varna. (SFEC, 2/1/98, p.T3) 1886 nend The ruler of Bambao unified Grande Comore Island into the State of Ngazidja, with the local rulers retaining their titles. (www.worldstatesmen.org/Comoros.html) 1886 nend In Cuba slavery was abolished. (SFC, 4/12/01, p.C4) 1886 nend Frenchman Edouard Drumont authored ?La France Juive,? an anti-Semitic tract that became a best-seller. (Econ, 6/12/10, p.91) 1886 nend ?Illuminations,? the final work of Arthur Rimbaud (1854-1891), was published in France. By this time he had given up on poetry to become a trader in Africa. (Econ, 6/25/11, p.98) 1886 nend In Germany the firm of Robert Bosch GmbH was founded. It later became a world leader in automotive electronics. (SFEC, 3/28/99, p.A30) 1886 nend In Mexico the Tequila San Matias company in Guadalajara began tequila production. (SFEC,10/19/97, Z1 p.4) 1886 nend A handful of German families, led by Elisabeth Nietzsche-Foerster (1935), founded the Aryan colony Nueva Germania in the jungles of Paraguay. The idea had been originally suggested by composer Richard Wagner in 1880. The colony fell apart in 1893 and Elisabeth Nietzsche-Foerster, described by her brother, Friedrich Nietzsche (d.1900), as a ?vengeful anti-Semitic goose,? returned to Germany where she edited and promoted the work of her brother. (SSFC, 3/13/05, p.C6) 1886 nend Piotr Smirnov was made 'Official Purveyor' of vodka to the imperial Russian court. His pure, charcoal-filtered vodka became the toast of the Czars. Later, one of Smirnov's sons escaped Russia's revolution and restarted the family business in Paris, adopting the francophone name Smirnoff. The pure Smirnoff vodka took America by storm in the 1930's and went on to become a global icon. (www.diageo.com/en-row/AboutDiageo/OurHistory/) 1886 nend The discovery of gold on the Witwatersrand, South Africa, launched the city of Johannesburg. Labor was provided from Lesotho. (NG, Oct. 1988, p. 562)(WSJ, 3/25/98, p.A11) 1886 1888 Vincent Van Gogh made his Paris sojourn. (WSJ, 3/14/00, p.A28) 1886 1952 Sister Elizabeth Kenny, Australian nurse: "Some minds remain open long enough for the truth not only to enter but to pass on through by way of a ready exit without pausing anywhere along the route." (AP, 11/25/97) 1886 1963 Robert Schuman, French statesman: "When I was a young man I vowed never to marry until I found the ideal woman. Well, I found her?but, alas, she was waiting for the perfect man." (AP, 6/26/97) 1886 1965 Paul Tillich, American theologian: "The first duty of love is to listen." (AP, 11/28/97) 1886 1967 Bruce Barton, American advertising executive: "Conceit is God?s gift to little men." (AP, 8/11/00) 1886 1967 Mir Osman Ali Khan, 7th and last ruler of the Sif Jahi dynasty in India. He ruled Hyderabad up to 1948 and amassed a fortune from taxation. He donated to hundreds of universities and hospitals regardless of caste and religion. When he died rooms were found filled with bank notes eaten through by rats. (WSJ, 1/11/98, p.R18) 1886 1967 Siegfried Sassoon, English poet and novelist. He met Wilfred Owen in a sanatorium and published his poetry after Owen died at the front. (WUD, 1994, p.1270) 1886 1969 Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, member of Bauhaus, established a new dept. of architecture at Armour Institute (later Illinois Institute of Technology) in Chicago. (V.D.-H.K.p.363) 1886 1975 Rex Stout, American author: "There are two kinds of statistics, the kind you look up and the kind you make up." (AP, 7/14/97) 1886 1966 Karl Barth, Swiss theologian: "Conscience is the perfect interpreter of life." (AP, 3/9/01) 1887 nend Jan 11, At Fort Smith, Ark., hang man deluxe George Maledon dispatched four more victims in a multiple hanging. (HN, 1/11/99) 1887 nend Jan 20, The U.S. Senate approved an agreement to lease Pearl Harbor in Hawaii as a naval base. [see Nov 29] (AP, 1/20/98) 1887 nend Feb 2, People began gathering at Gobbler's Knob in Punxsutawney, Pa., to witness the groundhog's search for its shadow. (WSJ, 2/2/99, p.B1) 1887 nend Feb 3, Congress created the Electoral Count Act to avoid disputed natl. elections. (MC, 2/3/02) 1887 nend Feb 4, The US federal Interstate Commerce Commission Act was passed. It was enacted to restrict monopolies but did not have much power of enforcement. It regulated railroads and protected farmers from fees that it judged excessive. The US Congress designated rail a common-carrier service. (www.classbrain.com/artteenst/publish/article_85.shtml)(SFC, 7/8/96,p.D2)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R48)(Econ, 5/15/10, p.86) 1887 nend Feb 5, Verdi?s opera "Otello," based on the play by Shakespeare, premiered at La Scala. (AP, 2/5/97)(WSJ, 8/1/01, p.A12) 1887 nend Feb 5, Peder Balke (b.1804), Norwegian painter, died. He was known for portraying the nature of Norway in a positive manner and influenced a dramatic and romantic view of Norwegian landscape. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peder_Balke) 1887 nend Feb 8, US Senator Henry Dawes sponsored the Dawes Severalty Act that authorized the survey of Indian territories in the West, in order that the commonly held tribal lands might be broken up into property allotments of 40 to 160 acres. The Dawes Act gave citizenship to Indians living apart from their tribe. Section Six stated that upon completion of a Land Patent process, the allotment holder will become a United States citizen and "be entitled to all the rights, privileges, and immunities of such citizens." Native Americans in general did not become citizens until the Snyder Act of 1924. (NG, 5/95, p.91)(HN, 2/7/97)(AP, 6/2/97) 1887 nend Feb 8, The Allotment Act (Dawes Act) tried to break up tribal land ownership and awarded individual allotments. Trust accounts were established for both Indian tribes and individual American Indians. The lands were then held in trust, managed by the government and leased out to gas, oil and timber companies. The status of the accounts brought to question in 1996 when the Bureau of Indian Affairs could not account for about 15% of an estimated $450 million held for some 300,000 Indians. In 1999 a federal judge cited Sec. Bruce Babbitt and Robert Rubin in contempt for official deceit in accounting for the trusts that involved some 500,000 Indians. (SFC, 6/11/96, p.A12)(SFC, 2/23/99, p.A1)(WSJ, 5/3/99, p.A24) 1887 nend Feb 8, Luke Short, owner of the classy Fort Worth White Elephant saloon, engaged in a gunfight with Longhair Jim Courtright, gunfighter extraordinaire. Short won. (HT, 4/97, p.51) 1887 nend Feb 8, Aurora Ski Club of Red Wing, Minn., became the 1st US ski club. (MC, 2/8/02) 1887 nend Feb 11, Ernst "Putzi" Hanfstangl, German politician and confidante of Hitler, NSDAP & American school chum of Roosevelt ), was born. (MC, 2/11/02) 1887 nend Feb 13, Alvin York, famed US soldier with 25 kills in WW I, was born. (MC, 2/13/02) 1887 nend Feb 15, Alexander Borodin (b.1833), Russian composer, died. He had worked on his epic opera "Prince Igor" for 18 years. It was completed in 1888 by Glazunov and Rimsky-Korsakov. [see Feb 27] (WSJ, 9/19/96, p.A18)(WSJ, 5/7/98, p.A21)(WSJ, 2/6/00, p.A16)(MC,2/15/02) 1887 nend Feb 18, Nikos Kazantzakis, Greek writer, was born. [see Dec 2, 1885] (MC, 2/18/02) 1887 nend Feb 19, The 49th US Congress passed the Edmunds-Tucker Act. It abolished women's suffrage, forced wives to testify against their husbands, disincorporated the LDS Church, dismantled the Perpetual Emigrating Fund Company, abolished the Nauvoo Legion, and provided that LDS Church property in excess of $50,000 would be forfeited to the United States. no_source 1887 nend Feb 21, The 1st US bacteriology laboratory opened in Brooklyn. (MC, 2/21/02) 1887 nend Feb 24, Mary Ellen Chase (d.1973), New England writer, was born. "Suffering without understanding in this life is a heap worse than suffering when you have at least the grain of an idea what it?s all for." (AP, 6/23/97)(HN, 2/24/01) 1887 nend Feb 26, Sir Benegal Narsing Rau, president of UN Security Council (1950), was born in India. (SC, 2/26/02) 1887 nend Feb 27, Alexander Porfiryevich Borodin (53), Russian physician, composer (Prince Igor), died. [see Feb 15] (MC, 2/27/02) 1887 nend Mar 2, The American Trotting Association was organized in Detroit, Mi., on this day. (HC, Internet, 2/3/98) 1887 nend Mar 3, Anne Mansfield Sullivan arrived at the Alabama home of Capt. and Mrs. Arthur H. Keller to become the teacher of Helen, their blind and deaf 6-year-old daughter. (AP, 3/3/00) 1887 nend Mar 3, The anti-Catholic American Protective Association formed in Clinton, IA. (SC, 3/3/02) 1887 nend Mar 4, William Randolph Hearst (23) became "Proprietor" of the SF Examiner newspaper. (SFC, 8/7/99, p.A9) 1887 nend Mar 5, Heitor Villa-Lobos, composer, was born in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. (HN, 3/5/01)(MC, 3/5/02) 1887 nend Mar 7, Helen Parkhurst, educator, was born. She developed a technique later known as the Dalton Plan. (HN, 3/7/01) 1887 nend Mar 8, Everett Horton of Connecticut patented a fishing rod of telescoping steel tubes. (MC, 3/8/02) 1887 nend Mar 8, Henry Ward Beecher (b.1813), American clergyman and brother of Harriet Beecher Stowe, died. His books included the ?Summer in the Soul? (1858), ?Life of Jesus Christ? (1871), Yale Lectures on Preaching (1872) and Evolution and Religion (1885). In 2006 Debby Applegate authored ?The Most Famous Man in America: The Biography of Henry Ward Beecher. ? (www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USASbeecher.htm)(SSFC, 7/2/06, p.M3) 1887 nend Mar 13, Chester Greenwood of Maine patented earmuffs. (MC, 3/13/02) 1887 nend Mar 22, Chico Marx, [Leonard Martin], comedian (Marx Brothers), was born in NYC. (MC, 3/22/02) 1887 nend Mar 23, Juan Gris, cubist painter (Still Life Before an Open Window), was born in Spain. (SS, 3/23/02) 1887 nend Mar 23, Felix Felixovitch Yussupov (Youssoupoff), Russian prince, murderer of Rasputin, was born. (SS, 3/23/02) 1887 nend Mar 24, Ivan Kramskoy (b.1837), Russian portrait painter, died. (www.asopa.com/publications/2002december/kramskoy.htm) 1887 nend Apr 4, Susanna Medora Salter became the first woman elected mayor of an American community?Argonia, Kan. (AP, 4/4/97) 1887 nend Apr 5, In Tuscumbia, Ala., teacher Anne Sullivan taught her blind and deaf pupil, Helen Keller, the meaning of the word "water" as spelled out in the manual alphabet. (AP, 4/5/97) 1887 nend Apr 5, British historian Lord Acton wrote, "Power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Great men are almost always bad men." (AP, 5/5/08) 1887 nend Apr 10, President Abraham Lincoln was re-buried with his wife in Springfield, Il. (MC, 4/10/02) 1887 nend Apr 14, Start of Sherlock Holmes adventure "Reigate Squires." (MC, 4/14/02) 1887 nend Apr 26, Huntsville Electric Co. was formed to sell electricity. (MC, 4/26/02) 1887 nend Apr 28, Carl Ferdinand Pohl (67), composer, died. (MC, 4/28/02) 1887 nend May 2, Hannibal W. Goodwin patented celluloid photographic film. (MC, 5/2/02) 1887 nend May 2, The remains of composer Gioachino Rossini (1792-1868), were transferred from Paris to Santa Croce, Florence. (MC, 5/2/02) 1887 nend May 8, Alexander Ulyanov, brother of Lenin, was hanged for assassination of tsar. (MC, 5/8/02) 1887 nend May 18, Emmanuel Chabrier?s opera "Le Roi Malgré Luis" premiered in Paris, France. (SC, 5/18/02) 1887 nend May 23, The 1st transcontinental train arrived in Vancouver, BC. (MC, 5/23/02) 1887 nend May 25, Gas lamp at Paris Opera caught fire and 200 died. (SC, 5/25/02) 1887 nend Jun 7, Monotype type-casting machine was patented by Tolbert Lanston in Wash., DC. (SC, 6/7/02) 1887 nend Jun 20, Kurt Schwitters (d.1948), German artist, was born. He spent a year and a half in an internment camp on the Isle of Man during WW II where he managed to create some 200 works of art from salvaged scraps. (WSJ, 8/19/97, p.A17)(HN, 6/20/01) 1887 nend Jun 21, Britain celebrated the golden jubilee of Queen Victoria. (HN, 6/21/98) 1887 nend Jun 22, Sir Julian Huxley was born in London. He became a biologist and philosopher and served as Darwin?s Bulldog. (YarraNet, 6/22/00) 1887 nend Jun 25, George Abbott, American playwright, director and producer, was born. His plays included "Three Men on a Horse" and "Damn Yankees." (AP, 2/2/99)(HN, 6/25/99) 1887 nend Jul 7, Marc Chagall (d.1985), French painter and designer, was born in Vitebsk, Belarus, Russia, as Moishe Shagal. He left there in 1907 to attend art school in St. Petersburg. He was sent to Paris by a benefactor and befriended Chaim Soutine and Alexander Archipenko and stayed until 1914. "From late cubism he adopted a manner of making forms and space interpenetrate." His work included "Les Amoureux" (The Lovers - 1916), a portrait of himself and his wife. In 1996 it sold for $4.2 mil. In 1997 Mikhail Guerman published "Marc Chagall: The Land of My Heart - Russia." (SFC,7/2/96,p.E3)(WSJ,10/8/96,p.A20)(SFEC,12/797,Par p.6)(HN, 7/7/01) 1887 nend Jul 9, Samuel Eliot Morison (d.1976), American biographer and historian (Admiral of the Ocean Sea), was born. "If the American Revolution had produced nothing but the Declaration of Independence, it would have been worthwhile." (AP, 7/4/97)(HN, 7/9/01)(MC, 7/9/02) 1887 nend Jul 16, "Shoeless" Joe Jackson, black sox player (Say it ain?t so, Joe), was born. (MC, 7/16/02) 1887 nend Jul 18, Vidkum Quisling, Norwegian minister of Defense, premier (1942-45), was born. He was considered a traitor to his country for allowing an easy takeover by Nazi Germany. (HN, 7/18/98)(MC, 7/18/02) 1887 nend Jul 22, Gustav Hertz, German physicist, was born. (HN, 7/22/02) 1887 nend Jul 28, Marcel Duchamp (d.1968), French artist, was born. He is known best for "Nude Descending a Staircase," (1912) featured in the 1913 Armory Show in New York. Arturo Schwarz published his complete works in 1969 with a new edition in 1997. In 1996 Calvin Tompkins wrote "Duchamp: A Biography." (V.D.-H.K.p.361)(WSJ, 12/18/96, p.A18)(HN, 7/28/01) 1887 nend Jul 29, Sigmund Romberg, composer, was born. (HN, 7/29/01) 1887 nend Aug 2, Rowell Hodge patented barbed wire. (MC, 8/2/02) 1887 nend Aug 3, Rupert Brooke (d.1915), English poet who mainly wrote about World War I, was born: "Cities, like cats, will reveal themselves at night." (AP, 2/20/98)(HN, 8/3/98) 1887 nend Aug 10, A train from Peoria, Ill., bound for Niagara ran across a burning bridge near Chatsworth. Only the lead locomotive made it and 82 people were killed near Chatsworth. (THC, 12/2/97) 1887 nend Aug 12, Erwin Schrodinger, physicist, was born in Austria. (SC, 8/12/02) 1887 nend Aug 15, Edna Ferber (d.1968), American novelist, short-story writer and playwright (American Beauty, Cimarron), was born. The "Ice Palace" is a 1950s Ferber novel inspired by the Northward Building in Fairbanks, Alaska. "There are only two kinds of people in the world that really count. One kind?s wheat and the other kind?s emeralds." (WUD, 1994, p.523)(AP, 3/14/98)(MC, 8/15/02) no_source 1887 nend Aug 17, Marcus [Garvey] Garvy (d.1940), Black Nationalist and Jamaican leader who promoted the departure of African-Americans back Africa, was born. In 1914, after two years of study in London, Garvey formed the Universal Negro Improvement and Conservation Association (U.N.I.A.) in Jamaica, a group that worked for black emigration to Africa and promoted racial pride, education and black business activity. In 1916 Garvey went to New York and began organizing U.N.I.A. branches in America from 1916-1925. At his height of popularity, Garvey had several million followers. He advocated racial separation and emigration of American Negroes to Africa. He was deported in 1925. The organization waned in the 1920s with Garvey?s arrest and conviction and imprisonment on mail fraud charges. He was the founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association. He also founded the Black Star Line, a steamship company owned and operated by blacks to link black communities around the world. Marcus Garvey died in London on June 10, 1940. (AHD, p.544)(Civilization, July-Aug, 1995, p. 36)(WSJ, 2/7/96,p.A-12)(HN, 8/17/98)(HNQ, 6/18/99) 1887 nend Aug 21, Mighty (Dan) Casey Struck-out in a game with the NY Giants. (SC, 8/21/02) 1887 nend Aug 31, Inventor Thomas A. Edison received a patent for his Kinetoscope," a device which produced moving pictures. [see Apr 14, 1894] (AP, 8/31/97) 1887 nend Sep 5, A gas lamp at Theater Royal in Exeter started a fire killing about 200. (MC, 9/5/01) 1887 nend Sep 7, Dame Edith Sitwell (d.1964), English poet, was born. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edith_Sitwell) 1887 nend Sep 9, Alfred M. Landon, Republican governor of Kansas who carried only two states in his overwhelming defeat for the presidency by Franklin Roosevelt in 1936, was born. He ran as a presidential candidate in 1932 and 1936. (HN, 9/9/98)(MC, 9/9/01) 1887 nend Sep 14, Karl Taylor Compton, physicist and atomic bomb scientist, was born in Wooster, Ohio. (www.britannica.com) 1887 nend Sep 16, Nadia Boulanger (d.1979), conductor, was born in Paris, France. She became the 1st woman to conduct Boston Symphony (1939). no_source 1887 nend Sep 26, Barnes Wallis, British aeronautical engineer, was born. He invented the "Bouncing Bombs" that destroyed German dams during World War II. (HN, 9/26/99) 1887 nend Oct 4, The first issue of the International Herald Tribune was published as the Paris Herald Tribune. (AP, 10/4/99) 1887 nend Oct 6, Charles-Edouard Jeanneret (d.1965), aka Le Corbusier, Swiss-born French architect and city planner, was born. He became known for trenchantly stated principles, such as "a house is a machine for living in" and "a curved street is a donkey track, a straight street, a road for men." (HN, 10/6/00)(V.D.-H.K.p.363) 1887 nend Oct 6, Maria Jeritza, [Jedlicka], singer (Vienna Opera, Met Opera), was born in Austria. (MC, 10/6/01) 1887 nend Oct 11, Willie Hoppe, billiards champion, was born. (HN, 10/11/00) 1887 nend Oct 11, A. Miles patented the elevator. (MC, 10/11/01) 1887 nend Oct 22, John Reed, American journalist, poet and revolutionary who witnessed the Russian Revolution of 1917 and wrote about it in "Ten Days That Shook the World," was born. (HN, 10/22/98) 1887 nend Oct 31, Chiang Kai-shek, Chinese Nationalist, was born. (HN, 10/31/98) 1887 nend Oct 31, Rimsky-Korsakov's "Capricio Espagnol," premiered in St Petersburg. (MC, 10/31/01) 1887 nend Nov 2, Jenny Lind (b.1820), known as the Swedish Nightingale, soprano, died in London, England. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenny_Lind) 1887 nend Nov 4, Alfred Loomis (d.1975), financier and amateur physicist, was born. In 2002 Jennet Conant authored "Tuxedo Park," an account of how Loomis led research that enhanced radar and led to the atom bomb. (NAS-BM, V.51, 1980) 1887 nend Nov 5, Oscar Bossaert, chocolate manufacturer, was born in Belgium. (MC, 11/5/01) 1887 nend Nov 5, Paul Wittgenstein, left hand specialist pianist, was born in Vienna, Austria. (MC, 11/5/01) 1887 nend Nov 6, Walter Johnson, baseball pitcher, "The Big Train," was born. (HN, 11/6/00) 1887 nend Nov 8, Emile Berliner, a German immigrant working in Washington D.C., patented his gramophone, a successful system of sound recording. Berliner was the first inventor to stop recording on cylinders and start recording on flat disks or records. (http://inventors.about.com/od/gstartinventions/a/gramophone.htm) 1887 nend Nov 8, Doc Holliday, who fought on the side of the Earp brothers during the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral sixty years earlier, died of tuberculosis after waking from a 57 day delirium in Glenwood Springs, Colo. He downed a glass of whiskey and said: "I?ll be damned!" and died. In 2001 Bruce Olds authored the novel "Bucking the Tiger," based on the life of Holliday. (HN, 11/6/98)(MesWP)(SFC, 7/29/00, p.E3)(SSFC, 9/9/01, DB p.70) 1887 nend Nov 10, Arnold Zweig, German antifascist and author (Erziehung vor Verdun), was born. (MC, 11/10/01) 1887 nend Nov 11, Albert Parsons, August Spies, Adolph Fisher and George Engel were hanged for their participation in the May 4, 1886, Chicago Haymarket riot. As the noose was placed around his neck, Spies shouted out: "There will be a time when our silence will be more powerful than the voices you strangle today." (www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAspies.htm) 1887 nend Nov 14, Bernhard Paumgartner, musicologist, conductor, composer, was born in Austria. (MC, 11/14/01) 1887 nend Nov 15, Marianne Moore, poet (Pulitzer 1951, Collected Poems), was born in St. Louis. (MC, 11/15/01) 1887 nend Nov 15, Georgia O?Keeffe (d.1986), American painter, was born in Wisconsin. An introduction to her work was published in 1997 ed. by Peter H. Hassrick: "The Georgia O?Keeffe Museum." (WUD, 1994, p.1002)(HFA, ?96, p.42)(SFC, 7/16/97, p.E3)(SFEC,9/7/97, BR p.9) 1887 nend Nov 16, Philip Frohman, US architect, was born. (MC, 11/16/01) 1887 nend Nov 17, Bernard Law Montgomery, British Field Marshall who defeated Rommel in North Africa and lead allied troops from D-day to the end of World War II, was born. (HN, 11/17/98) 1887 nend Nov 19, Start of Sherlock Holmes "Adventure of Dying Detective." (MC, 11/19/01) 1887 nend Nov 19, Emma Lazarus (38), US poet ("Give us your tired & poor"), died in NY. (MC, 11/19/01) 1887 nend Nov 23, Boris Karloff (d.1969), English actor most famous for his role as the monster in the movie Frankenstein, was born in Dulwich, England. (HN, 11/23/98)(MC, 11/23/01) 1887 nend Nov 24, Victorien Sardou's "La Tosca," premiered in Paris. (MC, 11/24/01) 1887 nend Nov 27, U.S. Deputy Marshall Frank Dalton, brother of the three famous outlaws, was killed in the line of duty near Fort Smith, Ark. (HN, 11/27/98) 1887 nend Nov 28, Ernst Roehm, early Nazi and German staff member, later Bolivian leader, was born. (MC, 11/28/01) 1887 nend Nov 29, US received rights to Pearl Harbor on Oahu, Hawaii. [see Jan 20] (MC, 11/29/01) 1887 nend Dec 1, Sherlock Holmes 1st appeared in print: "Study in Scarlet." Sir Arthur Conan Doyle?s first story about the detective he named Sherlock Holmes was published in Beeton?s Christmas Annual. It wasn?t until a London magazine called the Strand began publishing Doyle?s shorter Holmes adventures in 1891 that the detective became a phenomenon. Today hundreds of books, articles and movies have been devoted to the great detective and his biographer, Dr. John Watson, at 221b Baker Street, London. (HNQ, 4/7/01)(ON, 3/06, p.11) 1887 nend Dec 13, Corporal Alvin C. York of Wolf River Valley, Tennessee, was born. York was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor and the Distinguished Service Cross for heroism during World War I Argonne Offensive. York was a reluctant soldier, but his frontier upbringing had made him an outstanding marksman. [see Oct 8, 1918] (HN, 12/13/98) 1887 nend Dec 27, Start of Sherlock Holmes "Adventure of Blue Carbuncle." (MC, 12/27/01) 1887 nend Robinson Jeffers (d.1962), poet, was born. (SFC, 4/22/01, BR p.1) 1887 nend Paul Gauguin painted "Still Life With Carafe and Lemons." (SFC, 1/18/99, p.B1) 1887 nend Van Gogh painted "The Courtesan." It was inspired by an 1820 work by the Japanese artist Keisai Eisen who pictured an intricately coifed woman that later appeared on the cover of a French magazine (SFC, 11/16/98, p.E3)(WSJ, 12/1/98, p.A20) 1887 nend Claude Monet painted "The Seine With the Pont de la Grande Jatte." (SFC, 1/18/99, p.B2) 1887 nend Camille Pissaro painted "Boulevard de Clichy." (SFC, 1/18/99, p.B1) 1887 nend Odilon Redon (1840-1916), French painter and etcher, made his "Spider" lithograph. (WUD, 1994, p.1203)(SFEM, 6/29/97, p.4) 1887 nend Chekhov?s first completed play, "Ivanov," was a technical and critical disaster. A revised version faired better in 1889. (WSJ, 11/21/97, p.A20) 1887 nend August Strindberg, Swedish playwright, wrote "The Father." (WSJ, 1/17/96, p.A-16) 1887 nend The bible of eclipses is the "Canon der Finsternisse," published by the Austrian astronomer Theodor Ritter von Oppolzer. It tracked all the eclipses from 1207 BC to 2162 AD. (SCTS, p.27) 1887 nend Edward Bellamy authored the utopian novel "Looking Backward, 2000-1887," which forecast what America might look like if people worked together for the common good. (WSJ, 12/10/99, p.W17) 1887 nend H. Rider Haggard (1856-1925), English author and poet, wrote his novel "She." (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._Rider_Haggard) 1887 nend UC Berkeley Prof. Edward J. Wickson published a colorful volume that advertised and promoted the quality of life and agricultural opportunities in California. (SFC, 5/26/96, SFEM p.4) 1887 nend Elizabeth Cochrane, journalist, faked insanity to investigate insane asylums and was admitted to Bellevue. She wrote under the pen name of Nellie Bly and was summarily diagnosed as "positively demented? a hopeless case." (SFEC, 2/13/00, BR p.8) 1887 nend Henry Lee published "The Vegetable Lamb of Tartary - a curious fable of the cotton plant." (Econ, 12/20/03, p.44) 1887 nend In Washington DC Gen. Montgomery C. Meigs, architect, oversaw the completion of his Pension Building. The Pension Bureau oversaw the benefits of the nation?s ex-soldiers. (AH, 10/01, HT p.28) 1887 nend The Grand Hotel was built on Michigan?s Mackinac Island. Its front porch was 880 feet long. The 1980 film "Somewhere in Time," starring Christopher Reeve and Jane Seymour, was filmed at here. (SFC, 3/7/98, p.E3)(SSFC, 7/27/03, p.C1) 1887 nend Cardinal Gibbons and the American hierarchy convinced Rome to back off of a papal condemnation of the Knights of Labor. (WSJ, 8/31/01, p.W17) 1887 nend Ford City, Pa., was founded by John B. Ford, head of the Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co. on the shore of the Allegheny River. Later some 47 acres of the factory grounds were fenced off due to contamination from arsenic left behind by decades of industrial glassmaking. (WSJ, 8/12/97, p.B1) 1887 nend Pennsylvania House was founded in Lewisburg, Pa., to make high-quality case furniture. In 2000 La-Z-Boy bought the company and in 2004 moved production to China. (SFC, 6/4/08, p.G3) 1887 nend Louis Keller founded the Social Register with an initial list of 5,000 people, mostly descendants of English or Dutch settlers who had built New York City. (WSJ, 5/7/96, p.A-16) 1887 nend Lord Francis Henry Hope, heir to the Hope Diamond, married the stage singer May Hoy. (THC, 12/3/97) 1887 nend The first softball game on record was held indoors at the Farragus Boat Club in Chicago. (SFC, 11/7/98, p.E5) 1887 nend In Hawaii American businessmen forced King Kalakaua to sign a new constitution that took away his power to appoint legislators to the House of Nobles. Members would hence be elected by property owners. (ON, 11/02, p.5) 1887 nend In Alaska William Moore, a former steamboat captain, homesteaded 160 acres with his son in a settlement he called Mooresville, where the Taiya River meets the Skagway. He anticipated a gold rush that arrived in 1897. His settlement was overrun and became Skagway. (SSFC, 9/18/05, p.E13) 1887 nend The Mansions Hotel, a Victorian hotel in Pacific Heights was constructed. It is allegedly haunted by a dark-haired mechante named Claudia, the shapely niece of the original owner, Utah Senator Charles Chambers. (SFE Mag, 5/5/96, p.A-7) 1887 nend The Orpheum Theater opened on O?Farrell St. (SFEC, 4/5/98, DB p.44) 1887 nend In San Francisco the 3-story Sharon Building was built next to the children?s playground in Golden Gate Park. It was designed by Percy & Hamilton. (SSFC, 1/24/10, p.C2) 1887 nend St. Boniface Church was founded as a parish for German Catholics. (SFC, 11/28/98, p.A19) 1887 nend John McLaren, a Scottish-born landscape gardener, was hired by William Hammond Hall as assistant park superintendent of Golden Gate Park. Hall was a surveyor who gave the Park its initial design under plans pushed by Governor Haight and Mayor McCoppin. (SFC, 5/19/96,City Guide, p.4)(Ind, 10/28/00, 5A) 1887 nend The land at Stern Grove was officially granted to the Greene family. (SFC, 5/19/96,City Guide, p.6) 1887 nend John Tadich acquired the New World Market Coffee Stand at 221 Leidesdorff. (SFC, 6/19/96, zz1, p.1) 1887 nend Fr. Imoda took over as president of St. Ignatius College in San Francisco and continued to 1893. During his tenure a fire destroyed the old school and church on Market St., which had become a cheap lodging house and furniture warehouse. 3 people died in the fire. (GenIV, Winter 04/05) 1887 nend In San Francisco a stranded schooner carrying some 40 tons of dynamite exploded near the Cliff House. (SFC, 2/28/09, p.B3) 1887 nend The American Graphaphone Co. was founded in Washington DC. They made a sound producing machine that was peddle operated and based on work by Alexander Bell that used a cardboard cylinder coated with a waxy material to hold sounds. (SFC,11/19/97, Z1 p.7) 1887 nend Warwick China Co. was incorporated in Wheeling, West Virginia. The company closed operations in 1951. (SFC, 1/4/06, p.G2) 1887 nend Frank Brownell, the maker of George Eastman?s roll holder, created for Eastman a simple box camera. Eastman named it ?Kodak? and patented the name with the camera. [see 1888] (ON, 3/05, p.12) 1887 nend James William Cannon founded Cannon Mills in Concord, NC. It was bought by Fieldcrest Mills in 1986, which in turn was bought by Pillowtex in 1997. In 2003 Pillotex went bankrupt. (WSJ, 8/1/03, p.B1) 1887 nend William D. Gates founded the American Terra Cotta and Ceramic Co. (Gates Potteries) in Terra Cotta, Ill. The company was sold in 1930 and renamed American Terra Cotta Co. It closed in 1966. (SFC, 5/9/07, p.G7) 1887 nend The Hearst Corporation was founded by William Randolph Hearst with help from his father, California Senator Hearst. The elder Hearst had amassed wealth from the Comstock mines of Nevada. (SFC, 4/14/99, p.A19) 1887 nend Hart Schaffner & Marx, a haberdashery, was founded and became a key military supplier. It was later renamed Hartmarx. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R40) 1887 nend The egg topper or egg opener was patented. It was a scissor type tool to cut the top of the shell from soft boiled eggs. (SFC, 8/25/99, Z1 p.6) 1887 nend The inflatable bicycle tire was invented and spawned, along with the car tire, a worldwide rubber boom. (SFEM, 5/7/00, p.9) 1887 nend A. Eugen Fick, a Swiss physician, published the results of experiments with glass lenses that fit over the entire eye, the first contact lenses. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R21) 1887 nend Albert Michelson and Edward Morley compared the speed of light in the direction of earth?s orbit with the speed of light at right angles to earth?s motion and found it is the same. (BHT, Hawking, p.20) 1887 nend An electric-powered car in Richmond got its power from a four-wheeled carriage trolled along wires overhead, hence the name trolley car. (SFC,10/18/97, p.E4) 1887 nend In western Ohio Newton S. Conway discovered the skeleton of a 10,000 year old mastodon on his farm on the Clark-Champaign County line. The skeleton, about 70% intact, became known as the Conway Mastodon. (SSFC, 1/9/11, p.A10)(http://tinyurl.com/2ecv34t) 1887 nend Aloys Zötl (b.1831), Austrian naïve artist, died. Zotl?s paintings included "The Rhinoceros." (WSJ, 4/9/03, p.D10) 1887 nend Charles Lux died. His firm, Miller and Lux, by this time owned some 700,000 head of cattle in Arizona, Nevada and Oregon. Over 700 miles of private telegraph lines connected their ranches. (SSF, 1976, p.2) 1887 nend Geographers of the Austro-Hungarian Empire set fixed points to measure altitude in connection with the European measurement of meridional and parallel degrees. One marker at Rakhiv, Ukraine, was later mis-interpreted to mark the center of Europe. (WSJ, 7/14/04, p.A1) 1887 nend In Canada a mining blast in Nanaimo killed 148 miners. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.$27) 1887 nend China?s Huang Ho (Huang He, Yellow River) flooded and killed about 900,000 people. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_toll) 1887 nend Spitalfields opened as a fruit and vegetable market in London, England. It was built over the site of a medieval hospital and construction c2000 revealed some 6,000 bodies buried 30 feet deep. (SSFC, 10/21/01, p.T7) 1887 nend In France Sadi Carnot (1837-1994) became president. (WUD, 1994 p.225) 1887 nend In Mumbai, India, the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (aka Victoria Terminus) was completed in Gothic Revival style, designed by British architect F.W. Stevens. (SSFC, 5/23/10, p.N4) 1887 nend Swami Sivananda (d.1963) was born as Kuppuswami in India. He became a doctor but opted for a spiritual path with 6 commands: Serve, Love, Give, Purify, Meditate, Realize.? (SSFC, 10/3/04, p.D5)(www.yogamag.net/yogas/inspY.shtml) 1887 nend A severe earthquake hit the Ligurian village of Perinaldo, Italy. (SFCM, 3/17/02, p.29) 1887 nend In Japan Saigo Takamori, a samurai statesman from Kyushu, led a bloody rebellion against the national government which he helped create. (NG, Jan. 94, p.96) 1887 nend Sophus Lie (1842-1899), Norwegian mathematician, recognized a mathematical structure called E8, which contained 248 dimensions. It took 120 years to solve. In 2007 Dr. Garrett Lisi proposed that this structure could be used to describe fully the laws of physics. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophus_Lie)(Econ, 11/24/07, p.87) 1887 nend The artificial international language called Esperanto was introduced in a pamphlet published by Polish ophthalmologist Dr. Lazarus Ludwig Zamenhof. Zamenhof (1859-1917), invented the artificial language known as Esperanto in 1885. Zamenhof used the pen name "Esperanto," which means "the hoper" in the new language. Esperanto vocabulary is comprised primarily of words with Latin roots and words common to several languages. Esperanto is less complicated than an earlier attempt at artificial language called Volapuk. While Esperanto associations formed around the world, it never became widely accepted. (Wired, 8/96, p.84)(HNQ, 6/15/98) 1887 nend Rabbi Joel Teitelbaum (1887-1979) founder of the Satmar Hassids in Satu Mare, Romania, was born. The ultra-orthodox sect of Judaism later established itself in NYC. (Econ, 4/29/06, p.37)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joel_Teitelbaum) 1887 nend In Russia Alexander Ulyanov, the older brother of Lenin, was executed for a conspiracy to assassinate Czar Alexander III. (WSJ, 10/5/00, p.A24) 1887 nend In Scotland the Earl of Lovelace built a shooting lodge that was later converted to the Loch Torridon Hotel. (SFEC,12/797, p.T5) 1887 nend The Marxist Hunchakian Revolutionary Party, called the Hunchaks, was founded in Geneva, Switzerland by Armenians from Russia. (http://homepages.cae.wisc.edu/~dwilson/Armenia/justin.html) 1887 1888 Van Gogh painted "Self-Portrait with Felt Hat." (WSJ, 10/30 (AP, 2/4/03)/98, p.W11) 1887 1891 German colonial administrators made Bagamoyo, Tanzania, their capital. (SSFC, 7/13/03, p.C9) 1887 1918 Amadeo de Souza Cardoso, Portuguese futurist artist. He moved to Paris in 1906 befriended Modigliani, Brancusi, Gris and others. 8 of his works were exhibited at the 1913 Armory Show in New York. (WSJ, 2/1/00, p.A24) 1887 1943 Alexander Woollcott, American author and critic: "Many of us spend half our time wishing for things we could have if we didn't spend half our time wishing." (AP, 2/29/00) 1887 1948 Ruth Benedict, American anthropologist: "The passionate belief in the superior worthwhileness of our children?it is stored up in us as a great battery charged by the accumulated instincts of uncounted generations." (AP, 7/3/98) 1887 1953 Roland Young, English actor: "I?m a self-made man, but I think if I had it to do over again, I?d call in someone else." (AP, 7/23/01) 1887 1954 Ernest Albert Hooton, American anthropologist. "History is principally the inaccurate narration of events which ought not to have happened." (AP, 3/19/97) 1887 1956 Diego Rivera, Mexican mural painter. His murals included the "History of Medicine." (SFC, 4/18/96, E-1)(NH, 7/96, p.6) 1887 1959 Theresa Helburn, American theatrical producer: "One's lifework, I have learned, grows with the working and the living. Do it as if your life depended on it, and first thing you know, you'll have made a life out of it. A good life, too." (AP, 1/9/99) 1887 1964 Hesketh Pearson, British biographer: "Misquotations are the only quotations that are never misquoted." (AP, 1/29/00) 1887 1966 A bench in Boston at the intersection of Arlington St. and the Public Garden is dedicated to Charles Pagelson Howard: "Lawyer, soldier, public servant and defender of the Artistic Integrity of Commonwealth Avenue." (SFC, 12/10/95, p.T-5) 1887 1972 Marianne Moore, American poet: "The passion for setting people right is in itself an afflictive disease." "Psychology, which explains everything, explains nothing, and we are still in doubt." (AP, 2/17/98)(AP, 11/15/98) 1887 1973 Marjorie Merriweather Post, one of the richest women of her day. Her Hillwood mansion in Washington DC was restored for $9 million in 2000. She had one daughter by financier E.F. Hutton. (WSJ, 9/22/00, p.W14) 1887 1979 Nadia Boulanger, French music composer teacher. "Life is denied by lack of attention, whether it be to cleaning windows or trying to write a masterpiece." "Loving a child doesn't mean giving in to all his whims; to love him is to bring out the best in him, to teach him to love what is difficult." (AP, 3/26/97)(AP, 2/23/99) 1887 1982 Arthur Rubinstein, pianist. A biography of Rubinstein, written in 1995 by Harvey Sachs, is titled Rubinstein: A Life. A review of the book is written by Harold C. Schonberg, author of The Great Pianists. (WSJ, 11/15/95, p.A-20) 1887 1986 Georgia O?Keeffe, American painter. [see 1887 Nov 15] (SFEC, 9/7/97, BR p.9) 1888 nend Jan 3, Marvin C. Stone of Washington, DC, patented the drinking straw. Slurp. (440 Int'l. 1/3/99) 1888 nend Jan 12, A major blizzard hit South Dakota and left hundreds of children and adults dead. In 2004 David Laskin authored ?The Children?s Blizzard.? (WSJ, 11/24/04, p.D10) 1888 nend Jan 24, Ernst Heinrich Heinkel, German inventor (1st rocket-powered aircraft), was born. (MC, 1/24/02) 1888 nend Jan 24, Henry King, US director (Jesse James, 12 O'Clock High), was born. (MC, 1/24/02) 1888 nend Jan 27, National Geographic Society was founded in Washington, DC. It 1st magazine was published Oct 1, 1888. In 2004 Robert M. Poole authored ?Explorers House: National Geographic and the World it Made.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geographic_Society)(Econ,10/16/04, p.81) 1888 nend Jan 30, Asa Gray (b.1810), American botanist, died. He made great contributions to the descriptive botany of North America. He was the chief American exponent of Darwin's concepts, defending them against the attacks of zoologist Louis Agassiz. (HNQ, 3/14/99) 1888 nend Feb 13, Georgios Papandreou, Greek prefect of Lesbos, minister, premier, was born. (MC, 2/13/02) 1888 nend Feb 20, Marie Rambert, ballet dancer and director, was born. (HN, 2/20/01) 1888 nend Feb 22, John Reid of Scotland demonstrated golf to Americans at Yonkers, NY. Reid converted his lawn to six hole for golf in Yonkers N.Y., the first golf course in the US. (SFEC, 7/18/99, Z1 p.8)(MC, 2/22/02) 1888 nend Feb 25, John Foster Dulles was born. He served as Secretary of State to President Eisenhower (1953-1959). (HN, 2/25/98)(MC, 2/25/02) 1888 nend Feb 27, Lotte Lehmann, German opera singer, was born. (HN, 2/27/01) 1888 nend Feb 28, Vincent d'Indy's Wallenstein trilogy, premiered. (MC, 2/28/02) 1888 nend Mar 4, Knute Rockne, Norwegian-US football player, coach for Notre Dame, was born. (HN, 3/4/98)(SC, 3/4/02) 1888 nend Mar 5, Friedrich Schnack, German journalist, writer (Rosewood), was born. (MC, 3/5/02) 1888 nend Mar 6, Louisa May Alcott (b.1832) died in Boston just hours after the burial of her father. Her novels included "Little Women" (1868). In 1998 "Little Women" premiered in Houston as an opera by Mark Adomo. In 2010 Susan Cheever authored ?Louisa May Alcott: A Personal Biography.? (WSJ, 8/29/01, p.A12)(SSFC, 12/5/10, p.F3) 1888 nend Mar 10, Barry Fitzgerald, actor (Academy Award - Going My Way), was born in Dublin, Ireland. (MC, 3/10/02) 1888 nend Mar 10, The 1st performance of Cesar Franck's "Psyche." (MC, 3/10/02) 1888 nend Mar 11-14, The famous "Blizzard of ?88" struck the northeastern United States, resulting in some 400 deaths. New York, Boston, Philadelphia and Washington were cut off for days. (AP, 3/11/98)(WSJ, 9/13/01, p.B11)(SSFC, 9/4/05, p.A7) 1888 nend Mar 13, Great Blizzard of 1888 raged. During the blizzard a cattle drover killed his biggest ox, gutted it, and crawled inside to survive the freeze. (SFEC, 1/25/98, Z1 p.8)(MC, 3/13/02) 1888 nend Mar 20, Start of the Sherlock Holmes Adventure, "A Scandal in Bohemia." (MC, 3/20/02) 1888 nend Mar 21, Arthur Pinero's "Sweet Lavender," premiered in London. (MC, 3/21/02) 1888 nend Mar 23, Morrison R. Waite (b.1816), US Supreme Court Chief Justice (1874-1888), died after serving for 14 years. He interpreted constitutional amendments after the Civil War. (SFC, 9/6/05, p.A4)(www.oyez.org/oyez/resource/legal_entity/43/) 1888 nend Mar 29, James E. Casey, founder of the United Parcel Service, was born. (HN, 3/29/98) 1888 nend Apr 3, Gertrude Bridget "Ma" Rainey, American singer, "the mother of the blues," was born. [see Apr 26, 1886] (HN, 4/3/01) 1888 nend Apr 7, Start of Sherlock Holmes adventure "Yellow Face." (MC, 4/7/02) 1888 nend Apr 15, Matthew Arnold (65), English poet, died. (MC, 4/15/02) 1888 nend Apr 16, Drentse and Friese peat cutters went on strike. (MC, 4/16/02) 1888 nend Apr 20, 246 people were reported killed by hail in Moradabad, India. (MC, 4/20/02) 1888 nend Apr 24, Eastman Kodak was formed. The company produced the Kodak Camera: ?You press the button ? we do the rest.? (HN, 4/24/98)(WSJ, 1/22/04, p.A1)(WSJ, 8/2/06, p.B10) 1888 nend Apr 26, Aleksandr Mikhailov, astronomer, was born in USSR. (MC, 4/26/02) 1888 nend Apr 30, John Crowe Ransom, poet and critic, was born. (HN, 4/30/98) 1888 nend May 6, Russell Stover, candy manufacturer, was born. (HN, 5/6/01) 1888 nend May 7, Edouard Lalo's opera "Le roi d'Ys," premiered in Paris. (MC, 5/7/02) 1888 nend May 7, George Eastman patented his Kodak box camera. (MC, 5/7/02) 1888 nend May 10, Maximilian Raoul Walter Steiner (Max Steiner), composer (Gone With Wind), was born in Vienna. (MC, 5/10/02) 1888 nend May 11, Songwriter Irving Berlin, composer of White Christmas, was born Israel Baline in Temun, Russia. (AP, 5/11/97)(HN, 5/11/98) 1888 nend May 13, DeWolf Hopper 1st recited "Casey at the Bat." (SS, Internet, 5/13/97) 1888 nend May 13, Slavery was abolished in Brazil. Some 4 million slaves had been imported, the most of any nation in the western hemisphere. (WSJ, 8/6/96, p.A1)(SS, Internet, 5/13/97)(HN, 5/13/98) 1888 nend May 25, Miles Malleson, writer, actor (Phantom of Opera, Postman's Knock), was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1888 nend May 28, James Francis Thorpe, American athlete, was born in Shawnee, OK. Jim Thorpe won an Olympic gold medal in 1912, and played for professional football and baseball teams. (HN, 5/28/99)(MC, 5/28/02) 1888 nend Jun 1, California got its first seismographs as three of the devices were installed at the Lick Observatory at Mount Hamilton, Ca. (DTnet, 6/1/97) 1888 nend Jun 3, The poem ?Casey at the Bat? by Ernest Lawrence Thayer was 1st published in the SF Daily Examiner. The poem was based on a game played in Stockton, Ca. (SFC, 4/28/05, p.A1)(www.aaronshep.com/rt/RTE23.html) 1888 nend Jun 13, The US Congress created the Department of Labor. (AP, 6/13/97) 1888 nend Jun 15, Wilhelm II became emperor of Germany. (MC, 6/15/02) 1888 nend Jun 16, Bobby Clark, comedian and actor, was born. (HN, 6/16/01) 1888 nend Jun 23, Abolitionist Frederick Douglass received one vote from the Kentucky delegation at the Republican convention in Chicago, effectively making him the first black candidate nominated for US president. The nomination went to Benjamin Harrison. (AP, 6/23/00) 1888 nend Jun 23, Emil Naumann (60), composer, died. (MC, 6/23/02) 1888 nend Jun 27, Antoinette Perry, actress and director, namesake of the "Tony" Awards, was born. (HN, 6/27/01) 1888 nend Jun 29, Professor Frederick Treves performed the first appendectomy in England. (HN, 6/29/98) 1888 nend Jul 4, Many believe that the first rodeo in America was held in Prescott, Arizona, on this day. Before this, informal competitions were frequently held among ranch hands from a single ranch or from neighboring spreads, but they were not full-scale rodeos. The Prescott event went on to become an annual contest. (IB, Internet, 12/7/98) 1888 nend Jul 11, Bartomeo Vanzetti, executed with Nicola Sacco for several murders during a robbery, the trial created an international storm of protest, was born. (HN, 7/11/98) 1888 nend Jul 17, S.Y. Agnon, Israeli writer (The Day Before Yesterday), was born. (HN, 7/17/01) 1888 nend Jul 22, Selman Abraham Waksman, biochemist, was born. (HN, 7/22/02) 1888 nend Jul 23, Raymond Chandler, writer of detective stories, creator of the character Philip Marlow, was born. (HN, 7/23/98) 1888 nend Jul 27, Philip Pratt unveiled the 1st electric automobile. (MC, 7/27/02) 1888 nend Jul, Harold P. Brown, on behalf of Thomas Edison, zapped dogs at Columbia College to demonstrate the supposed danger of alternating current, a mode of power favored by Edison?s rival George Westinghouse. The NY state legislature had recently designated electrocution as the official means for capital punishment. (SFEC, 3/22/98, p.A26)(ON, 10/04, p.7) 1888 nend Jul, In Japan Mount Bandai erupted and left 461 people dead. (SFEC, 4/2/00, p.A17) 1888 nend Aug 6, Martha Turner was murdered by an unknown assailant, believed to be Jack the Ripper, in London, England. Between August and November 506 women were murdered in London?s Whitechapel district. In 1994 Philip Sugden authored ?The Complete History of Jack the Ripper.? (HN, 8/6/98)(WSJ, 1/31/09, p.W8) 1888 nend Aug 7, Theophilus Van Kannel of Philadelphia received a patent for the revolving door. (HN, 8/7/00) 1888 nend Aug 12, Bertha, wife of inventor Karl Benz, made the 1st motor tour. (SC, 8/12/02) 1888 nend Aug 13, John Logie Baird, inventor (father of TV), was born in Scotland. (MC, 8/13/02) 1888 nend Aug 15, The British soldier T.E. Lawrence, better known as Lawrence of Arabia for his military exploits against the Turks in World War I, was born in Tremadoc, Wales. "There could be no honor in a sure success, but much might be wrested from a sure defeat." (AP, 8/15/97)(HN, 8/15/98)(AP, 5/19/01) 1888 nend Aug 17, Monty Wooley, actor (Pied Piper, Man Who Came to Dinner), was born in NYC. (SC, 8/17/02) 1888 nend Aug 31, Mary Ann Nicholls, a 42-year-old prostitute, was found murdered in London's East End. She is generally regarded as the first of at least five murder victims of "Jack the Ripper." [see Aug 6] (AP, 8/31/99)(YN, 8/31/99) 1888 nend Sep 4, George Eastman received patent #388,850 for his roll-film camera and registered his trademark: "Kodak." George Eastman introduced the box camera. (V.D.-H.K.p.273)(AP, 9/4/97)(MC, 9/4/01) 1888 nend Sep 6, Joseph P. Kennedy, Boston Mass, diplomat, father of JFK, RFK & Teddy, was born. (MC, 9/6/01) 1888 nend Sep 7, The 1st US incubator was used on a premature infant, Edith Eleanor McLean. It was built by Dr. William Champion Deming at the State Emigrant Hospital, Ward's Island, NY. (HN, 9/7/98)(www.medterms.com) 1888 nend Sep 12, Maurice Chevalier (d.1972), actor, was born in Paris, France. (HN, 9/12/00)(www.jimpoz.com) 1888 nend Sep 18, Start of Sherlock Holmes adventure "Sign of Four." (MC, 9/18/01) 1888 nend Sep 25, Start of Sherlock Holmes "Hound of Baskervilles." (MC, 9/25/01) 1888 nend Sep 25, The Royal Court Theatre, London, opened. (MC, 9/25/01) 1888 nend Sep 26, T.S. Eliot (d.1976), American-Anglo poet, critic, and dramatist, was born. His poetry included "The Waste Land" and "Ash Wednesday." "Those who say they give the public what it wants begin by underestimating public taste and end by debauching it." (AP, 3/28/99)(HN, 9/26/99) 1888 nend Sep 30, "Jack the Ripper" butchered 2 more women, Elizabeth Stride (45), aka Long Liz, on Berner St. and Kate Eddowes (45). Donald Rumbelow later authored "The Complete Jack the Ripper." (MC, 9/30/01)(SSFC, 10/21/01, p.T7) 1888 nend Oct 1, National Geographic magazine published for 1st time. The National Geographic Society was founded by Gardiner Hubbard, the father-in-law of Alexander Graham Bell. In 1997 Charles McCarry edited: "From the Field: A Collection of Writing from National Geographic." (NG, Nov. 1985, p. 657)(SFEC, 9/14/97, p.T13)(SFEC, 7/18/99, Z1p.8)(MC, 10/1/01) 1888 nend Oct 7, Henry A. Wallace, (D/P) 33rd VP (1941-45) and founder Progressive Party, was born. (MC, 10/7/01) 1888 nend Oct 8, Melville W. Fuller (1833-1910) was sworn in as US Supreme Court Chief Justice. (SFC, 9/6/05, p.A4)(www.oyez.org/oyez/resource/legal_entity/50/) 1888 nend Oct 9, The Washington Monument, designed by Robert Mills, was completed and the public was first admitted. Steam powered elevators carried visitors to the top in 12 minutes. It underwent a $1.5 million renovation in 1998. In 1903 Frederick L. Harvey authored "History of the Washington National Monument and Washington National Monument Association." In 1995 Craig and Katherine Doherty authored "The Washington Monument." (SFC, 5/23/98, p.A3)(ON, 3/00, p.10)(HN, 10/9/00) 1888 nend Oct 14, Katherine Mansfield, short story writer, was born. (HN, 10/14/00) 1888 nend Oct 16, Eugene O'Neill (d.1953), Nobel Prize-winning playwright (1936), was born in NYC. His work includes "A Long Day's Journey Into Night" and "The Iceman Cometh." (AP, 11/27/97)(HN, 10/16/00)(MC, 10/16/01) 1888 nend Oct 25, Richard E. Byrd, U.S. aviator and explorer who made the first flight over the North Pole, was born. (HN, 10/25/98) 1888 nend Oct 29, Lord Salisbury granted Cecil Rhodes a charter for the BSA Company. (MC, 10/29/01) 1888 nend Oct 30, John J. Loud patented a ballpoint pen. (MC, 10/30/01) 1888 nend Oct 30, In London Jack the Ripper murdered his last victim. [see Nov 3] (MC, 10/30/01) 1888 nend Oct-1888 Dec, Vincent van Gogh shared a 4-room house in Arles, France, with Paul Gauguin. During this period Van Gogh painted his portrait ?l?Arlesienne, Madame Ginoux? based on a drawing by Gauguin. In December Van Gogh cut off his ear with a razor during a quarrel with painter Paul Gauguin, who then fled to Paris. They never saw each other again. In 2006 martin Gayford authored ?The Yellow House: Van Gogh, Gauguin and Nine Turbulent Weeks in Arles.? (Econ, 4/29/06, p.89) 1888 nend Vincent van Gogh painted the "Portrait of a Young Man in a Cap." The painting later went up for auction for as much as $8 mil. Van Gogh also painted his "Boats at Saintes-Maries," "The Bedroom," "Self Portrait as an Artist," "Postman Joseph Roulin," and "Le Pont de Trinquetaille" in this year. In 1990 Robert Altman directed a film titled "Vincent and Theo" about Van Gogh and his brother. (WSJ, 4/27/95, p.C-18)(WSJ, 11/10/95, p. A-10)(SFC, 4/13/96,p.E3)(SFC, 1/14/98, p.D3)(SFEC, 10/25/98, Z1 p.12)(WSJ, 9/3/99,p.W10)(WSJ, 9/24/99, p.W9) 1888 nend Nov 3, In London Jack the Ripper murdered his last victim. In 2002 Patricia Cornwell, crime writer, reported that Walter Richard Sickert (1860-1942), English Impressionist painter, was Jack the Ripper. [see Oct 30] (WSJ, 9/27/01, p.A16)(MC, 11/3/01)(SSFC, 2/24/02, Par p.2) 1888 nend Nov 6, Benjamin Harrison of Indiana won the presidential election, beating incumbent Grover Cleveland on electoral votes, 233-168, although Cleveland led in the popular vote. Tammany Hall helped carry new York for the GOP. In 2008 Charles W. Calhoun authored ?Minority Victory: Gilded Age Politics and the Front Porch Campaign of 1888. (AP, 11/6/97)(WSJ, 11/9/00, p.A26)(WSJ, 12/3/08, p.A15) 1888 nend Nov 10, Andrej N. Tupelov, Russian aircraft builder, was born. (MC, 11/10/01) 1888 nend Nov 17, Peter Tchaikovsky's 5th Symphony premiered in St. Petersburg. (MC, 11/17/01) 1888 nend Nov 20, William Bundy patented a timecard clock. (MC, 11/20/01) 1888 nend Nov 21, Adolph Arthur "Harpo" Marx, American comedian, one of the Marx brothers, was born. The inventive American pantomimist never spoke a line in his many movies, which he starred in alongside his brothers. (HN, 11/23/00) 1888 nend Nov 24, Dale Carnegie (d.1955), public speaker, was born in Missouri. He authored "How to Win Friends and Influence People" (1937). (HN, 11/24/00)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale_Carnegie) 1888 nend Dec 2, Mehmed N. Kemal Bey (47), Turkish writer and journalist (Vatan), died. (MC, 12/2/01) 1888 nend Dec 7, Joyce Cary (d.1957), Irish-born novelist (The Horse's Mouth), was born. "It is the tragedy of the world that no one knows what he doesn't know -- and the less a man knows, the more sure he is that he knows everything." (HN, 12/7/00)(AP, 1/30/99) 1888 nend Dec 7, Ernst Toch, composer and pianist, was born. (HN, 12/7/00) 1888 nend Dec 7, John Boyd Dunlop (1840-1921), Scotland-born inventor, patented a pneumatic tire. Two years after he was granted the patent Dunlop was officially informed that it was invalid as Scottish inventor Robert William Thomson (1822?1873), had patented the idea in France in 1846 and in the US in 1847. Dunlop's patent was later declared invalid on the basis of Thomson's prior art. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Boyd_Dunlop) 1888 nend Dec 18, Robert Moses, power broker, was born. He built Long Island and NYC parks & roads. (MC, 12/18/01) 1888 nend Dec 19, Fritz Reiner, US conductor (Chicago Symphony Orch), was born in Budapest, Hungary. (MC, 12/19/01) 1888 nend Dec 27, Tito Schipa (d.1965), tenor (La Rondine), was born in Italy. His birthday was recorded as January 2, 1889 for military conscription purposes. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tito_Schipa) 1888 nend McKendree Robbins Long (d.1976), Southern gothic painter and evangelical preacher, was born in Statesville, NC. (SFC, 7/6/02, p.D6) 1888 nend James Ensor, Belgian artist, painted "Christ's Entry into Brussels in 1889." It was later acquired by the Getty Museum. (WSJ, 4/9/99, p.W16)(SFEM, 10/17/99, p.11) 1888 nend Vincent van Gogh painted the "Portrait of a Young Man in a Cap." The painting later went up for auction for as much as $8 mil. Van Gogh also painted his "Boats at Saintes-Maries," "The Bedroom," "Self Portrait as an Artist," "Postman Joseph Roulin," and "Le Pont de Trinquetaille" in this year. In 1990 Robert Altman directed a film titled "Vincent and Theo" about Van Gogh and his brother. (WSJ, 4/27/95, p.C-18)(WSJ, 11/10/95, p. A-10)(SFC, 4/13/96,p.E3)(SFC, 1/14/98, p.D3)(SFEC, 10/25/98, Z1 p.12)(WSJ, 9/3/99,p.W10)(WSJ, 9/24/99, p.W9) 1888 nend John Singer Sargent painted the portrait of Isabella Stewart Gardner titled "Mrs. Jack." (WSJ, 8/5/99, p.A16) 1888 nend Rudolph Swoboda painted "The Munshi Abdul Karim," a portrait of Queen Victoria's favorite servant after the death of Hohn Brown. (WSJ, 11/26/03, p.D10) 1888 nend Edward Bellamy published his novel "Looking Backward 2000-1887." In the book he foresaw the credit card, the radio, and the women?s movement. (SFEC, 4/19/98, Par p.10) 1888 nend Madame Blavatsky, co-founder of Theosophy, authored "The Secret Doctrine," in which she outlined the principles of all religion. (SFC, 5/17/02, p.W15) 1888 nend David Goodman Croly, a newspaper columnist known as "Sir Oracle," compiled a set of predictions in a volume titled "Glimpses of the Future." Passages were later paraphrased in the 1981 book "The Book of Predictions" by David Wallechinsky, Amy Wallace and Irving Wallace. (WSJ, 1/1/00, p.R8) 1888 nend Webster Edgerley, head of the Ralston health Club of America, authored ?Lessons in the Mechanics of Personal Magnetism.? (Arch, 5/04, p.33) 1888 nend August Strindberg wrote his drama "Miss Julie," about the sex war and class war. (SFC, 5/28/96, p.D1)(WSJ, 4/29/98, p.A20) 1888 nend Gen?l. Lew Wallace wrote "The Boyhood of Christ." (HT, 3/97, p.66) 1888 nend Debussy composed "Ariettes oubliees" to symbolist poems by Paul Verlaine. (WSJ, 8/16/01, p.A12) 1888 nend In New York City the 13-story Tower building was constructed at 50 Broadway. (HT, 5/97, p.24) 1888 nend In San Francisco a 2-story Victorian home at 50 Liberty St., designed by Absalom J. Barnett, was completed. (SSFC, 5/23/10, p.C2) 1888 nend The Hotel del Coronado was built in San Diego by 2 retired midwesterners who helped lure the railroad to San Diego. (WSJ, 10/25/96, p.B9) 1888 nend In San Francisco the Bayview Opera House was built at 4705 3rd Street. In 2007 a 3-year $4 million renovation program was begun. (SFC, 10/19/07, p.B1) 1888 nend The Lick Observatory was built atop Mt. Hamilton near San Jose, California with its 36-inch telescope, the largest in the world. (SFC, 3/5/97, p.C1) 1888 nend In Massachusetts the Searles Castle was built in Great Barrington on commission by Mary Hopkins (d.1891), the widow of railroad tycoon Mark Hopkins. Its seven turrets and blue dolomite exterior created a 60,000-square-foot fortress at the end of Main Street. Mary Hopkins hired noted interior decorator Edward Searles for the project, and the two married a year before it was finished. In 2007 it sold for $15 million. (AP, 5/19/07) 1888 nend The Blagen Block building was built in Portland, Oregon, at a cost of $50,000. Its decorations were made of cast iron. (Exc, 6/96, p.70) 1888 nend For the dedication of Skidmore Fountain in Portland, Oregon, brewer Harvey Weinhard offered to pump his beer through the fountain. The city fathers declined the offer. (Hem, 4/96, p.129) 1888 nend The fraternal order of the Moose Lodge was founded. (WSJ, 11/8/96, p.A1) 1888 nend The Geological Society of America was founded. (NG, May 1988, Mem For) 1888 nend The US Patent and Trademark Office changed its requirements due to space problems and allowed the submission of blueprints of devices to be patented instead of models. (Cont, 12/97, p.22) 1888 nend Massachusetts introduced the secret ballot. Most US states had moved to secret ballots soon after the presidential election of 1884. (http://tinyurl.com/6fxlatg) 1888 nend Blanche Kelso Bruce (1841-1898), former US Senator from Mississippi, was named recorder of deeds in Washington DC under Pres. Benjamin Harrison. (WSJ, 7/12/06, p.D12) 1888 nend In Cleveland a statue was commissioned and constructed to honor Moses Cleaveland by the city fathers. The resulting likeness seemed a little too porky so the artist simply cut a part of the midriff out and closed the gap. (SFC, 6/2/96, T10) 1888 nend Edward Katzinger founded a commercial baking-pan company in Chicago. It later became known as Ecko Housewares Co. By the 1960s it was the country?s largest manufacturer of non-electric kitchen items. (SFC, 4/16/08, p.G3) 1888 nend In Chicago Louis Glunz set up shop as a wine, beer and spirits merchant at Wells and Division streets. By 2009 the Louis Glunz Beer company represented Chicago-land consumers with the largest portfolio of Micro, Specialty and Import Beers with 665 brands and 172 breweries worldwide. (www.glunzbavarianhaus.com/glunz-bavarian-chicago.html) 1888 nend Thomas Adams installed the 1st Tutti Frutti machines on the platforms of the elevated trains of NYC. They dispensed gumballs for a penny. (WSJ, 7/28/00, p.W13) 1888 nend William Henry Belk founded a dry goods store in Monroe, NC. By 1960 the partnerships produced a chain of 362 Belk Inc. department stores under the leadership of his son, John Montgomery Belk (1920-2007). (WSJ, 8/25/07, p.A8)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belk) 1888 nend Asa Candler purchased the Coca Cola formula. In 2004 Constance L. Hays authored "The Real thing: Truth and Power at the Coca-Cola Company." (SSFC, 2/22/04, p.M3) 1888 nend Wells Fargo introduced Ocean-to-Ocean express services, the first transcontinental express that shipped all kinds of valuables. (SFC, 6/9/98, p.A10) 1888 nend In Hawaii Benjamin Franklin Dillingham, a seaman from Mass., founded the Oahu Railway and Land Co. (SFC, 10/28/98, p.A19) 1888 nend W.W. Mayo and his sons, Charles and William, established their family practice. It later grew to become the Mayo Clinic. (SFC, 7/5/96, PM, p.5) 1888 nend John Gregg introduced his system of shorthand. (SFEC, 7/18/99, Z1 p.8) 1888 nend George Parker began selling fountain pens. (SFEC, 7/18/99, Z1 p.8) 1888 nend In Colorado Richard Wetherill and Charles Mason, cowboys looking for lost cattle, came upon the abandoned 150-room Cliff Palace of the Puebloan people, who had lived in the area from about 400-1300. In 1906 the area became Mesa Verde National Park. (SSFC, 4/2/06, p.F10) 1888 nend Olaf and Edward Ohman, a Swedish immigrant farmer, while digging up tree stumps in Kensington, Minn., came upon a 202-pound stone with runic inscriptions. Dated to 1363 (1362) the inscriptions seemed to describe how a party of Vikings had returned to this spot after an exploratory survey, and found ten men left behind "red with blood and dead." Ever since the discovery, scholars have debated the stone's authenticity. (SFEM, 11/15/98, p.25)(HNQ, 6/4/01) 1888 nend Nikola Tesla (1856-1943), Serbian-American inventor, patented his rugged alternating current induction motor. (Econ, 6/4/11, TQ p.13) 1888 nend Willi Posselt, an American hunter and trader, reported on his search for treasure in the ruins of the Great Zimbabwe in East Africa. (ATC, p.145-146) 1888 nend In Afghanistan a royal decree granted Pashtun Sunnis rights to graze their herds in the central highlands, land occupied by the Hazara people. (SFC, 10/21/08, p.A12) 1888 nend The Queen Victoria Building was built in Sydney, Australia. (Hem, 6/96, p.64) 1888 nend In Belgium the first beauty contest was held. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R34) 1888 nend A gastrointestinal disorder, later known as celiac disease, was formally described by and English pediatrician. The disease was later understood as an auto-immune attack on the small intestine lining triggered by gluten proteins in grains. An effective treatment emerged in 1950 when Willem Dicke, a Dutch doctoral student, noticed that celiac children had improved after WW II disrupted flour supplies. (WSJ, 12/8/05, p.A1,9) 1888 nend Chile annexed Easter Island. The official native name of Easter Island, known for its stunning gigantic stone heads known as Moais, is Rapa Nui, and that's what many natives call themselves, refusing to identify with Chile. (AP, 12/3/10) 1888 nend An Egyptian farmer discovered thousands of cat mummies. (SFEC, 12/15/96, BR p.7) 1888 nend Etienne Henri Dumaige (b.1830), French sculptor, died. He worked in marble, plaster and bronze. His subjects included Rabelais, Sappho, Perseus and other classical figures. (SSFC, 2/10/02, p.G5) 1888 nend Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900), German philosopher, authored ?Twilight of the Idols.? It included the phrase: "What does not destroy me makes me stronger," which unwittingly inspired 21st century musicians. no_source 1888 nend German scientists discovered that small amounts of poison might actually do an organism good. The paradoxical effect was called hormesis. (WSJ, 12/19/03, p.B1) 1888 nend In Jerusalem the Mary Magdalene convent was consecrated. Its decoration was overseen by Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna, consort to Russia?s Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich, the brother of Tsar Alexander III. (Econ, 12/19/09, p.82) 1888 nend Fridtjof Nansen of Norway led a 5-man team across Greenland on skis. (ON, 7/05, p.1) 1888 nend In Mexico the Santo Tomas Winery was founded near Ensenada. (SFC, 9/27/96, p.E3) 1888 nend In Spain the fishing company Grupo Viera SA was founded. (WSJ, 1/18/07, p.A13) 1888 nend In Switzerland Dr. Eugen Frick made the first set of contact lenses. (SFEC, 1/24/99, Z1 p.8) 1888 1889 Albert G. Spalding (1850-1915), American baseball star and promoter, led a 6-month world tour to promote baseball. In 2006 Mark Lamster authored ?Spalding?s World Tour,? an account of Spalding?s 6-month world tour to promote baseball. (http://tinyurl.com/na793)(WSJ, 3/29/06, p.D10) 1888 1889 This period in Vienna, Austria, is documented by Frederic Morton in his Thunder at Twilight: Vienna 1888-1889. (WSJ) 1888 1912 A bottle-nosed dolphin escorted ships for 6 miles through the narrow channel into New Zealand?s Pelores Sound. Sailors named the dolphin Pelores Jack. (SFEC, 9/7/97, Z1 p.5) 1888 1923 Katherine Mansfield, New Zealander author: New Zealander author: I do believe one ought to face facts. If you don?t they get behind you and may become terrors, nightmares, giants, horrors. As long as one faces them one is top dog. "To be wildly enthusiastic, or deadly serious?both are wrong. Both pass. One must keep ever present a sense of humour." (AP, 6/3/97)(AP, 9/26/98) 1888 1924 Vincente Greco, Argentine composer, best know for his tango composition "Ojos Negros," or Black Eyes. He was the son of poor Italian immigrants and turned to music early on. He learned several instruments, among them the bandoneon. (E-mail, zgg@mail.sub.uni-goettingen.de, 9/15/95, Eckart Haerter) 1888 1935 T.E. Lawrence, English soldier and author: "There could be no honor in a sure success, but much might be wrested from a sure defeat." (AP, 5/19/97) 1888 1939 Heywood Broun, American journalist: "I see no wisdom in saving up indignation for a rainy day." (AP, 12/11/00) 1888 1941 Aline Kilmer, American poet: "Many excellent words are ruined by too definite a knowledge of their meaning." (AP, 2/5/99) 1888 1957 Richard Evelyn Byrd, American polar explorer. He flew over the north pole on May 9, 1926 with Floyd Bennett. Admiral Byrd flew over the South Pole on Nov. 29, 1929. (HFA, ?96, p.42)(HFA, ?96, p.30)(TMC, 1994, p.1926) 1888 1960 Vicki Baum, Austrian-born author: "Marriage always demands the finest arts of insincerity possible between two human beings." (AP, 2/1/01) 1888 1965 Mary Day Winn, American writer: "Sex is the tabasco sauce which an adolescent national palate sprinkles on every course in the menu." (AP, 1/10/01) 1888 1969 Boris Karloff, born to an upper-class British family as William Henry Pratt, renowned actor and star in the 1931 feature film: Frankenstein. (WSJ, 10/19/95, A-18) 1888 1973 Frances Marion, Hollywood screenwriter. Her films included "The Big House" (1930) and "The Champ" (1931) for which she won Oscars. (WSJ, 7/28/00, p.W6) 1888 1978 Giorgio de Chirico, Italian painter. In 1998 Paolo Baldacci published a collection his work: "De Chirico: The Metaphysical Period 1888-1919." (WUD, 1994, p.258)(WSJ, 12/3/98, p.W4) 1889 nend Jan 8, Dr. Herman Hollerith (1860-1929), statistician for the US Census Bureau, received the 1st US patent for a tabulating machine. It resembled Charles Babagge?s Analytical Engine, but used electromagnetic relays instead of metal gears. (www.answers.com/topic/herman-hollerith)(ON, 5/05, p.7) 1889 nend Jan 9, A tornado struck Brooklyn, NY, when Flatbush was farmland. A twister blew through what are now the neighborhoods of Carroll Gardens, Boerum Hill, Downtown, Fort Greene and Williamsburg, blowing roofs off houses and uprooting trees, but killing no one. 14 people were killed by the tornado in Pittsburg, Pa. (http://tinyurl.com/349275)(http://tinyurl.com/395f4q) 1889 nend Jan 14, The 1st issue of the Lithuanian "Varpas" (Bell) newspaper was published. (LHC, 1/14/03) 1889 nend Jan 16, An Australian record temperature of 128F, or 53C, was recorded in Cloncurry, Queensland. (MC, 1/16/02) 1889 nend Feb 4, Harry Longabaugh was released from Sundance Prison in Wyoming, thereby acquiring the famous nickname, "the Sundance Kid." (HN, 2/4/99) 1889 nend Feb 4, The Panama Canal project under Ferdinand de Lesseps (d.1894) went bankrupt. Over 5,000 French people died working on the project. In all over 25,000 people died during 8 years of work, mostly from malaria and yellow fever. (Econ, 2/24/07,p.97)(www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/185.html) 1889 nend Feb 17, H[aroldson] L. Hunt, Texas oil multi-millionaire, was born. (MC, 2/17/02) 1889 nend Feb 22, President Cleveland signed a bill to admit the Dakotas, Montana and Washington state to the Union. (AP, 2/22/99) 1889 nend Mar 2, Congress passed the Indian Appropriations Bill, proclaiming unassigned lands in the public domain; the first step toward the famous Oklahoma Land Rush. (HN, 3/2/99) 1889 nend Mar 2, Kansas passed 1st US antitrust legislation. (SC, 3/2/02) 1889 nend Mar 4, Benjamin Harrison was inaugurated as 23rd President. (SC, 3/4/02) 1889 nend Mar 8, Jens/John Ericsson (85), Swedish-US, engineer (fire extinguisher), died. (MC, 3/8/02) 1889 nend Mar 10, In Ethiopia Emperor Yohannes was killed in a war against the dervishes during the Battle of Gallabat (Matemma). With his dying breaths, Yohannes declared his natural son, Dejazmach Mengesha Yohannes, as his heir. On 25 March, upon hearing of the death of Yohannes, Negus Menelik immediately proclaimed himself as N?gusä Nägäst. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menelik_II_of_Ethiopia) 1889 nend Mar 19, Sarah Gertrude Millina, South African writer (The Dark River, God's Stepchildren). (HN, 3/19/01) 1889 nend Mar 23, President Harrison opened Oklahoma for white colonization. (SS, 3/23/02) 1889 nend Mar 31, French engineer Gustave Eiffel unfurled the French tricolor from atop the Eiffel Tower, officially marking its completion. Constructed of 7,000 tons of iron and steel, the 984-foot structure was designed by Alexandre Gustave Eiffel for the Paris Exhibition of 1889, commemorating the centennial of the French Revolution. The price for the Eiffel Tower was more than $1 million, but fees for the year 1889 alone nearly recouped the cost. Fifty-five years later, plans by Hitler to leave the tower and much of Paris a smoking ruin were foiled by an unlikely hero. After the Paris World Fair a church designed by Alexandre Gustave Eiffel was dismantled and shipped to Santa Rosalia in Baja, Mexico. (SFEC, 10/20/96, Par, p.23)(SFEC, 11/10/96, p.T11)(HNPD,3/31/99)(AP, 3/31/08) 1889 nend Mar, Friedrich Nietzsche entered an asylum 2 months after a mental collapse at age 44. Nietzsche's sister Elizabeth edited his writings from this time on. (WSJ, 2/4/99, p.A20) 1889 nend Apr 1, The first dishwashing machine was marketed (in Chicago). (OTD) 1889 nend Apr 5, Start of Sherlock Holmes' "Adventure of Copper Beeches." (MC, 4/5/02) 1889 nend Apr 6, George Eastman placed the Kodak Camera on sale for 1st time. (MC, 4/6/02) 1889 nend Apr 8, Adrian Boult, conductor, composer (BBC Sym Orch), was born in Chester, England. (MC, 4/8/02) 1889 nend Apr 11, Nick La Rocca, US cornetist, composer (Tiger Rag), was born. (MC, 4/11/02) 1889 nend Apr 14, Arnold Toynbee (d.1975), English historian, was born. He wrote the 12-volume "A Study of History." "The history of almost every civilization furnishes examples of geographical expansion coinciding with deterioration in quality." "Of the 20 or so civilizations known to modern Western historians, all except our own appear to be dead or moribund, and, when we diagnose each case ... we invariably find that the cause of death has been either War or Class or some combination of the two." (AP, 3/24/98)(AP, 8/24/98)(HN, 4/14/99) 1889 nend Apr 15, Thomas Hart Benton (d.1975), painter, muralist, was born in Missouri. (HN,4/15/98)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hart_Benton_%28painter%29) 1889 nend Apr 15, Asa Philip Randolph, American labor leader, was born. (HN, 4/15/98) 1889 nend Apr 15, A marshal's posse killed and captured a group of Sooners, settlers who stole onto the Public Domain territory in Oklahoma in hopes of claiming it legally, just nine days before the official start of the land rush. (HN, 4/15/99) 1889 nend Apr 15, Rev. Damien de Veuster (b.1840), Belgian priest who ministered to leprosy patients in Hawaii, died of leprosy. In 2009 Pope Benedict XVI set his canonization date for Oct 11, 2009. He was beatified in 1995 after the Vatican declared that the 1987 recovery of a nun of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary was a miracle. Audrey Toguchi recovered from lung cancer in 1999 after praying to Damien. (AP, 2/21/09)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Father_Damien) 1889 nend Apr 16, Charlie Chaplin (d.1977), actor, director, composer and silent movie comedian, was born in London into a family of music hall performers. He is best remembered for his character "Little Tramp." He was a British motion-picture actor, producer, writer, director and composer and worked in America from 1913-1952. In 1997 his biography "Charlie Chaplin and His Times" by Kenneth S. Lynn was published. (HFA, '96, p.28)(AHD, p.225)(WUB, 1994, p.247)(WSJ, 3/7/97,p.A12)(HN, 4/16/99)(AP, 4/16/00) 1889 nend Apr 20, Adolf Hitler, leader of National Socialist Party (1921-1945), was born in Braunau, Austria. He was the dictator of Nazi Germany from 1933-1945 and started World War II by invading Poland. He committed suicide in his Berlin bunker. The German Fascist leader, promised to bring Germany to the promised land on one condition: that the state would have total control over all the organs, organizations, and citizens of the nation. Brigitte Hammann later authored "Hitler in Vienna: A Dictator?s Apprenticeship." In 1998 Ron Rosenbaum published "Explaining Hitler," a look at the various agendas and needs of different scholars in their examination of Hitler. In 1999 Ian Kershaw published "Hitler 1889-1936: Hubris." (V.D.-H.K.p.309)(HN, 4/20/98)(SFEC, 10/18/98, BR p.5)(WSJ, 1/21/98,p.A16) (AP, 4/20/99)(HN, 4/20/99)(WSJ, 4/4/01, p.A6) 1889 nend Apr 22, The US federal government opened up the Unassigned Lands of Indian Territory to the country?s first land run. The Oklahoma land rush officially started at noon as thousands of homesteaders staked claims. (WSJ, 1/4/96, p.A-8)(AP, 4/22/97)(HN, 4/22/98) 1889 nend Apr 26, Ludwig Wittgenstein (d.1951), philosopher (Tractatus), was born in Vienna, Austria. He pondered the nature of knowledge and the limits of language. He argued that the criteria for the correct use of any language must be social. "The human body is the best picture of the human soul." (SFEC, 10/27/96, BR p.4)(SFC, 1/31/98, p.E1)(WSJ, 8/21/98,p.W13)(AP, 1/3/01)(MC, 4/26/02) 1889 nend Apr 28, Antonio de Oliveira Salazar, premier, dictator of Portugal (1932-68), was born. (MC, 4/28/02) 1889 nend Apr 30, Washington?s inauguration became the first U.S. national holiday. Washington?s inauguration was later depicted in a painting by Ramon de Elorriaga. (HN, 4/30/98)(SSFC, 1/21/01, p.A12) 1889 nend May 1, Bayer in Germany introduced aspirin in powder form. (MC, 5/1/02) 1889 nend May 6, The Paris Exposition formally opened, featuring the just-completed Eiffel Tower. (AP, 5/6/97) 1889 nend May 11, Major Joseph Washington Wham took charge of $28,000 in gold and silver to pay troops at various points in the Arizona Territory. The money was soon stolen in a train robbery. (HN, 5/11/99) 1889 nend May 18, Jules Massenet?s opera "Esclarmonde" premiered in Paris, France. (SC, 5/18/02) 1889 nend May 20, Felix Arndt, composer, was born. (MC, 5/20/02) 1889 nend May 24, George Henry Calvert (b.1803), American author and great grandson of Lord Baltimore, died. His writing covered historical subjects. In 1854 Calvert was sworn in as mayor of Newport, Rhode Island. (www.lib.umd.edu/RARE/MarylandCollection/Riversdale/timeline.html) 1889 nend May 25, Gilardo Gilardi, composer, was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1889 nend May 25, Sverre Jordan, composer, was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1889 nend May 25, Igor Sikorsky, aviation engineer, was born in Russia. He moved to America in 1919 and developed the first successful helicopter. (HN, 5/25/99)(ON, 3/06, p.5) 1889 nend May 29, August Strindberg's "Hemsoborna" premiered in Copenhagen. (SC, 5/29/02) 1889 nend May 30, The brassiere was invented in Paris. [see 1902] (HN, 5/30/98)(WSJ, 2/3/99, p.A1) 1889 nend May 31, Johnstown, Pennsylvania was destroyed by a massive flood. The South Fork Dam across a tributary of the Little Conemaugh River collapsed under pressure from the rain-swollen Lake Conemaugh. Water slammed into Johnstown, Pa., 55 miles southeast of Pittsburgh and killed 2,209 people in a flood and related fire. Torrential rains had weakened the poorly constructed dam, located 14 miles upstream from the city. By the afternoon of May 31, after desperate efforts to shore up the earthen dam had failed, it broke and unleashed a 40-foot-high wave of water and debris into Johnstown with the force of Niagara Falls. Buildings and trees, along with animals and people--both dead and alive--piled up against the Pennsylvania Railroad Company's Stone Bridge. The mountain of debris then caught fire, trapping hundreds. More than 2,000 people lost their lives in the devastating Johnstown Flood. The South Fork Dam had been constructed to create Lake Conemaugh, a playground for the wealthy members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club. In 1959 Richard O'Connor published "Johnstown, the Day the Dam Broke." In 1968 David McCullough authored ?The Johnstown Flood.? (SFC, 3/24/97, p.C2)(AP, 5/31/97)(HN, 5/31/98)(WSJ, 1/27/06, p.P8) 1889 nend Jun 4, Beno Gutenberg, seismologist, was born. (HN, 6/4/01) 1889 nend Jun 19, Start of Sherlock Holmes adventure "The Man with the Twisted Lip." (DTnet, 6/19/97) 1889 nend Jun 28, Maria Mitchell (b.1818), American astronomer, died in Lynn, Mass. (ON, 2/07, p.10) 1889 nend Jul 4, North Dakota founders began drafting a constitution but left out a key requirement that the governor and other top officials take an oath of office, putting the state constitution in conflict with the federal one. In 2011 State Senator Tim Mathern introduced a bill fixing the mistake that will be put to voters. no_source 1889 nend Jul 4, Washington state constitutional convention held 1st meeting. (Maggio, 98) 1889 nend Jul 5, Jean Cocteau (d.1963), French artist, writer and actor, was born. "History is a combination of reality of History becomes a lie. The unreality of the fable becomes the truth." (AP, 11/16/00)(HN, 7/5/01) 1889 nend Jul 8, In Mississippi Jake Kilrain (1859-1937) fought boxing champion John L. Sullivan in the last world heavyweight championship prizefight decided with bare knuckles under London Prize Ring rules in history. Sullivan defeated Kilrain in a match that went to 75 rounds. (AH, 2/06,p.29)(http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Sullivan_-_Kilrain_Fight) 1889 nend Jul 8, Dow Jones & Co. turned its ?Customer?s Afternoon Letter? into a full-fledged newspaper and co-founder Charles Bergstresser dubbed it the Wall Street Journal. (AP, 7/8/97)(WSJ, 5/2/07, p.C1) 1889 nend Jun 8, Gerard Manley Hopkins (54), poet, died. (MC, 6/8/02) 1889 nend Jul 13, Vincent van Gogh painted "Moonrise." The exact date was determined in 2003 by a physicist using a computer and moon data from the painting. (SFC, 7/16/03, p.D2) 1889 nend Jul 17, Erle Stanley Gardner, writer of detective stories and creator of Perry Mason, was born. (HN, 7/17/98) 1889 nend Jul 30, Vladimir Zworykin, called the "Father of Television" for inventing the iconoscope, was born in Russia. (AP, 7/30/97) 1889 nend Jul, Bare-knuckle boxer John Lawrence Sullivan reigned as America?s first sports hero at the end of the 19th century. In July 1889, when challenged by Jake Kilrain of Baltimore, Sullivan was still unbeaten despite his heavy drinking. About 3,000 fans gathered in the blazing sun of Richburg, Mississippi, for what was to be the last championship bare-knuckle fight. The marathon match went 75 rounds and lasted 2 hours and 16 minutes before the battered Kilrain?s handlers threw in the towel. Sullivan remained the champ until September 1892, when he was knocked out for the first time in his career by "Gentleman Jim" Corbett. The mighty Sullivan died in 1918. (HNPD, 7/8/98) 1889 nend Aug 1, John F. Mahoney, developed penicillin treatment of syphilis, was born. (MC, 8/1/02) 1889 nend Aug 6, Major General George Kenney, commander of the U.S. Fifth Air Force in New Guinea and the Solomons during World War II, was born. (HN, 8/6/98) 1889 nend Aug 10, Dan Rylands patented a screw cap. (MC, 8/10/02) 1889 nend Aug 12, Zerna Sharp, creator of the "Dick and Jane" reading books, was born. (HN, 8/12/00) 1889 nend Aug 13, The first coin-operated telephone was patented by William Gray of Hartford, Conn. A foreman had refused to let Gray call his sick wife from the company phone. (SFEC, 10/22/00, Z1 p.2)(AP, 8/13/08) 1889 nend Aug 14, David S. Terry, former Chief Justice of the California Supreme Court (1857-1859), was shot by a bodyguard of Stephen Field, an associate justice of the US Supreme Court, after Terry slapped Field in the face at a railroad restaurant in Lathrop, Ca. (SFC, 9/7/09, p.C6)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_S._Terry) 1889 nend Aug 16, Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show star Annie Oakley, using a Colt .45, shot the ash off the end of a cigarette held in the mouth by a young German Kaiser Wilhelm II. Appearing at Berlin's Charlottenburg Race Course, Oakley asked in jest for a volunteer from the audience and, to her horror, the young ruler of the Reich stepped forward. A nervous Oakley successfully performed the trick shot. Years later, after the start of WWI, Oakley reportedly wrote to the Kaiser, asking for a second shot. (HNPD, 8/16/99) 1889 nend Aug 23, The 1st ship-to-shore wireless message was received in US in SF. (MC, 8/23/02) 1889 nend Aug 24, Jan E. Matzeliger, Suriname inventor (shoe lacing machine), died. (MC, 8/24/02) 1889 nend Aug 24, Auguste Neal, a convicted murderer, was executed in Saint-Pierre et Miquelon, becoming the first and only person to be executed by guillotine in North America. The device was specially shipped from Martinique for the execution. (SSFC, 11/16/08, p.E5) 1889 nend Aug 31, Start of Sherlock Holmes adventure "Cardboard Box." (MC, 8/31/01) 1889 nend Sep 8, Robert A. Taft, U.S. Republican Senator from Ohio, was born. He unsuccessfully sought the presidential nomination in 1952 and helped pass the 1947 Taft-Hartley Act. He was the son of the 27th president of the U.S. William Howard Taft. Robert was known as "Mr. Republican" because of his steadfast espousal of traditional conservative values. Taft was a candidate for the Republican presidential nomination three times and served in the Senate from 1938 until his death in 1953. Taft consistently opposed the New Deal program, led the Congressional isolationist bloc and fought the Lend-Lease bill. (HN, 9/8/98)(HNQ, 7/8/99)(MC, 9/8/01) 1889 nend Sep 15, Robert Benchley, humorist, was born. (HN, 9/15/00) 1889 nend Sep 16, Robert Younger, in Minnesota?s Stillwater Penitentiary for life, died of tuberculosis. Brothers Cole and Bob remained in that prison. (HN, 9/16/98) 1889 nend Sep 23, William Wilkie Collins, English writer (Moonstone), died. (MC, 9/23/01) 1889 nend Sep 23, Walter Lippmann, journalist, was born in NYC. He was one of the founders of The New Republic Magazine in 1914. His political writings included "Men of Destiny." (HN, 9/23/00) 1889 nend Sep 23, Louise Nevelson, sculptor, was born. (HN, 9/23/00) 1889 nend Sep 26, Martin Heidegger, existentialist philosopher and writer, was born in Germany. He wrote "Being and Time," and criticized the tyranny of modern technology over man. (WUD, 1994, p.657)(WSJ, 8/28/97, p.A12)(MC, 9/26/01) 1889 nend Oct 6, The Moulin Rouge in Paris first opened its doors to the public. (AP, 10/6/97) 1889 nend Oct 6, Thomas Edison showed his 1st motion picture. (MC, 10/6/01) 1889 nend Oct 18, Fannie Hurst, novelist (Anatomy of Me), was born. (MC, 10/18/01) 1889 nend Oct 25, Abel Gance, French film director (Napoleon), was born. (HN, 10/25/00)(MC, 10/25/01) 1889 nend Nov 2, North Dakota was made the 39th state. (AP, 11/2/97)(HN, 11/2/98) 1889 nend Nov 2, South Dakota was made the 40th state. (AP, 11/2/97)(HN, 11/2/98) 1889 nend Nov 3, In Ethiopia Emperor Menelik II (1844-1913) began ruling as emperor, fending off the encroachments of European powers. (www.ethiopianembassy.org/history.shtml) 1889 nend Nov 8, Montana became the 41st state. (HFA, '96, p.18)(AP, 11/8/97)(HN, 11/6/98) 1889 nend Nov 11, Washington became the 42nd state of the US. (HFA, ?96, p.18)(AP, 11/11/97) 1889 nend Nov 12, DeWitt Wallace, founder of Reader?s Digest (1921), was born in St Paul, Minn. (HN, 11/12/00)(MC, 11/12/01) 1889 nend Nov 14, Jawaharlal Nehru (d.1964), Indian nationalist leader (1947-1964), was born. "A man who is afraid will do anything." (AP, 9/27/97)(HN, 11/14/00)(MC, 11/14/01) 1889 nend Nov 14, Nellie Bly, the pen name of journalist Elizabeth Cochran, sailed from New York to begin her record-breaking 24,899-mile trip around the world--a journey that would end on January 25, 1890. Cochran had become a reporter for the Pittsburgh Dispatch at age 18 and adopted the pen name "Nellie Bly" from a popular song by Stephen Foster. Her six-month series of stories from Mexico attracted the attention of Joseph Pulitzer and, in 1887, she went to work for Pulitzer's New York World. Feigning insanity, Nellie once had herself committed to the Blackwell's Island mental hospital and then wrote an expose that brought about needed reforms. The around-the-world trip originated in an attempt to beat the Jules Verne's fictional hero Phineas Fogg's 80-day journey. Millions of people followed the adventures of the plucky reporter through stories posted back to the World at every stop. Tremendous celebrations greeted Nellie when she arrived in New York. Her trip lasted 72 days, six hours and eleven minutes--a record that would stand until the Graf Zeppelin circled the globe in 20 days, four hours and fourteen minutes in 1929. (AP, 11/14/97)(HNPD, 11/14/98) 1889 nend Nov 15, In Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Emperor Dom Pedro II was overthrown and military officers established a republic. (AP, 11/15/97)(WSJ, 4/6/06, p.D8) 1889 nend Nov 16, George S. Kaufman, American playwright and screenwriter, was born in Pittsburgh, Pa. His plays included "Dinner at Eight," "You Can't Take it With You" and "The Man Who Came to Dinner." (HN, 11/16/99)(MC, 11/16/01) 1889 nend Nov 17, The Union Pacific Railroad Co. began direct, daily railroad service between Chicago and Portland, Ore., as well as Chicago and San Francisco. (AP, 11/17/97) 1889 nend Nov 20, Edwin Hubble (d.1953), American astronomer, was born. He proved that there are other galaxies far from our own. (HN, 11/20/98)(WSJ, 7/25/00, p.A20) 1889 nend Nov 20, Gustav Mahler's 1st Symphony premiered. (MC, 11/20/01) 1889 nend Nov 23, The first jukebox made its debut in San Francisco, at the Palais Royale Saloon. The contraption consisted of an Edison tinfoil phonograph with four listening tubes and a coin slot for each tube. (AP, 11/23/97) 1889 nend Nov 27, 1st permit issued to drive a car through Central Park, NYC, was issued to Curtis P. Brady. (MC, 11/27/01) 1889 nend Dec 6, Jefferson Davis (81), the first and only president of the Confederate States of America (1861-1865), died in New Orleans. In 2001 William J. Cooper Jr. authored "Jefferson Davis, American." (AP, 12/6/97)(SSFC, 1/28/01, Par p.12)(MC, 12/6/01) 1889 nend Dec 7, Gilbert and Sullivan?s "Gondoliers," premiered in London. (MC, 12/7/01) 1889 nend Dec 12, Robert Browning (77), English poet (Ring & Book), died. (MC, 12/12/01) 1889 nend Dec 23, Vincent van Gogh sliced his left ear in reaction to Gauguin?s announcement that he was leaving Arles for Paris. (Econ, 11/5/11, p.103) 1889 nend Dec 24, Daniel Stover and William Hance patented a bicycle with back pedal brake. (MC, 12/24/01) 1889 nend Dec, The poem Clancy of the Overflow by Banjo Paterson 1st appeared in the Christmas edition of Australia?s Bulletin magazine. (NG, 8/04, p.10) 1889 nend Roger Adams, American chemist, was born. Adamsite, a yellow crystalline compound used dispersed in air as a poisonous gas, is named after him. (WUD, 1994 p.16) 1889 nend Marc Chagall, painter, was born in Vitebsk, Belarus. He grew up here in a traditional Jewish family and studied for two years in St. Petersburg after showing a good gift for draftsmanship. He left for Paris with the help of a wealthy benefactor in 1910. [see 1887-1985] (WSJ, 5/11/95, p. A-14) 1889 nend Van Gogh painted "The Gardener," while a patient in St. Remy-de-Provence as well as ?Starry Night.? He also did "Wheatfield with a Reaper" and "Crab on Its Back" in this year. (SFC, 5/21/98, p.A14)(SFC, 1/18/99, p.B1)(WSJ, 8/14/01, p.A12)(WSJ,10/18/08, p.W12) 1889 nend Pierre Bonnard created his 3-panel screen "Marabout and Four Frogs." (WSJ, 3/27/00, p.A20) 1889 nend Joaquin Maria Machado de Assis (1839-1908), mulatto writer wrote "Dom Casmurro." The Oxford Library of Latin America published a new edition in 1998. (WSJ, 2/3/98, p.A20) 1889 nend Andrew Carnegie, Scottish-born American industrialist, authored his essay ?Gospel of Wealth,? a primer on why some people had so much money and how to give it away. (SSFC, 10/22/06, p.M3) 1889 nend Norwegian Knut Hamsun wrote "From the Cultural Life in Modern America." (SFEC, 4/20/97, DB p.47-49) 1889 nend William Temple Hornaday published "The Extermination of the American Bison." (ON, 3/02, p.9) 1889 nend J.J. Thomas (1840-1889) authored ?Froudacity,? an attack on the writings about the West Indies of English historian J. Anthony Froude. The Trinidad-born, self-educated black intellectual, wrote the work during a visit to London where he died of TB. (WSJ, 10/4/05, p.D8)(www.wwnorton.com/nael/victorian/topic_4/thomas.htm) 1889 nend Oscar Wilde wrote his novella ?The Portrait of Mr. W.H.? (WSJ, 7/8/06, p.P8) 1889 nend National Geographic depicted the area of Ashville, N.C. and inaugurated its famed map series. In 1998 a complete set of NG maps was made available on CD-ROM by Mindscape. (SFC, 11/3/98, p.D3) 1889 nend The San Jose, Ca., City Hall, an ornate Victorian style building, was constructed. (SFC, 7/14/97, p.A15) 1889 nend Juana Briones (b.1802), SF businesswoman and Santa Clara County rancho owner, died. (SFC, 11/14/03, p.I24)(SFC, 2/25/11, p.C3) 1889 nend The Greystone Cellars were completed in the Napa Valley. The Christian Brothers later sold the Cellars to Heublein. (WCG, 7/95, p.22) 1889 nend Chris L. Rutt, a newspaperman in St. Joseph, Missouri, began working on creating a self-rising pancake mix. Within a year, he and two associates developed the first pancake mix ever made. While seeking a name and package design for the world's first self-rising pancake mix, Rutt saw a vaudeville team known as Baker and Farrell whose act included Baker singing the catchy song "Aunt Jemima" dressed as a Southern mammy. Inspired by the wholesome name and image, Rutt appropriated them both to market his new pancake mix. (www.auntjemima.com/aj_history/) 1889 nend The modern pizza was reportedly invented by a Neopolitan named Raffaele Esposito. [see 1830] (SFEC,11/16/97, Z1 p.5) 1889 nend The federal government passed stricter game laws when only 551 buffalo remained. By 1902, federal efforts to prevent the extinction of the American buffalo were beginning to pay off, with more than 1,000 head thriving in protected herds. While the buffalo, often 10 feet long and weighing about 2,000 pounds, were hunted by the Plains Indians as their main source of food, clothing, weapons and shelter, massive herds continued to roam the Plains until European settlers began hunting them almost to extinction. (HNPD, 8/21/98)(HNQ, 10/29/98) 1889 nend The Great Sioux Reservation of the Dakotas was dismembered into 6 parts. (Econ, 10/15/05, p.34) 1889 nend New York first used paper ballots. Victoria, Australia, had begun using paper ballots in 1856. (WSJ, 11/9/00, p.A1) 1889 nend A 5,300 pound bell was commissioned for $17,000 from a Baltimore foundry to hang in the St. Mary?s Cathedral at Van Ness and O?Farrell, San Francisco. It hung in the church until 1962 when an arsonist destroyed the cathedral. The bell was moved to new cathedral grounds near Gough and Geary and sat for some 40 years until it was stolen in 2011 as the metal value of its 80% copper reached $75,000. The bell was recovered at a salvage yard in West Oakland. (SFC, 10/25/11, p.A8)(SFC, 10/27/11, p.C1) 1889 nend The San Francisco Examiner sent out reporter Allen Kelly to dispel the myth that grizzlies were extinct in California. After 3 months he saw only one and failed to capture it and was fired by Citizen Hearst via Western Union. Kelly later wrote "Bears I Have Met?and Others." He later found a bear captured on Gleason Mountain by a Mexican known as Mateo. The bear, named Monarch, was brought back to SF and housed in a "pleasure garden near Dolores and Market streets." (Pac. Disc., summer, ?96, p.16,17) 1889 nend The North Pacific Coast Railroad established a train station in Marin County called Manzanita atop a shell mound site previously settled by coastal Miwok Indians. In 1906 a liquor license was granted for an establishment there called Manzanita Villa and in 1916 a building was erected for a hotel and dance hall by Thomas, James and George Moore, SF liquor and cigar dealers. In 1947 new owners built a motel behind the building and renamed it ?The Fireside.? In 1957 2 skeletons of American Indians were found during renovation. In 2008 the site was re-developed as a new affordable housing complex. (SFC, 4/21/08, p.B2) 1889 nend The Hills of Peace (Home of Peace) and Hills of Eternity Jewish cemeteries were established in Lawndale (Colma), Ca. (GTP, 1973, p.45)(www.colmahistory.org/History.htm) 1889 nend Seattle-based Washington Mutual Inc., was founded. During the economic crises in 2008 it became the largest ever US bank to fail. (AP, 9/26/08) 1889 nend The dexterity game "Pigs in Clover" was built by Charles Crandall. It dared a player to move little balls into a center pen. (SFC, 9/10/02, p.A15) 1889 nend The American Cotton Oil Company succeeded the American Cotton Oil Trust. (WSJ, 5/28/96, p. R-45) 1889 nend The first commercial transparent roll film, perfected by George Eastman and his research chemist, was put on the market. This flexible film made possible the development of Thomas Edison's motion picture camera in 1891. A new corporation, The Eastman Company, was formed, taking over the assets of the Eastman Dry Plate and Film Company. (www.kodak.com/US/en/motion/about/chrono1.shtml) 1889 nend Louis Frederick Nonnast (41), a German immigrant (1865), had his own Chicago furniture factory by this time. In 1914 the firm was renamed Louis F. Nonnast & Sons. (SFC, 8/31/05, p.G3) 1889 nend The Tifflin Glass Co. was founded in Tifflin, Ohio. It became part of U.S. Glass in the 1920s and started making figural lamps. (SFC, 12/23/96, z-1 p.5) 1889 nend In Toledo, Ohio, the W.I. Libbey & Son Co. made a pattern of milk glass that resembled ears of corn. (SFC,11/19/97, Z1 p.7) 1889 nend Harry David Lee started H.D. Lee Mercantile in Kansas. (SSFC, 8/20/06, p.M4) 1889 nend The steam elevator began to be supplanted by electric power. (HT, 5/97, p.23) 1889 nend John Alexander MacWilliam, Scottish physiologist, discovered that he could restore heart rhythms in cats using a metronome and a needle electrode. His work went unrecognized until his paper on the subject resurfaced in 1972. (Econ, 3/7/09, TQ p.25) 1889 nend There was a major flu epidemic this year. Virologists in 2002 attempted to gather viral tissue from frozen grave sites in Siberia. (SFCM, 2/17/02, p.27) 1889 nend W.K. Brooks published a technical article on the "Lucayans," the original inhabitants of the Bahamas. (NH, 11/96, p.26) 1889 nend Seattle, Wa., burned to the ground. (WSJ, 9/19/95, p.A-1)(ST, 5/20/04, p.A1) 1889 nend Five people were shot dead in Dodge City, Kansas, this year. (SFEC, 1/4/98, Z1p.8) 1889 nend Ella Watson of Sweetwater, Wyo., was hanged for rustling cattle. (SFEC, 1/19/97, Z-1 p.6) 1889 nend Fr. James Chrysostom Bouchard, SJ, (b.1823), died. His French mother was adopted by the Delaware Lenni-Lenappi tribe after her parents were killed by members of the Comanche tribe. His father was Kistalwa, the Delaware tribe?s chief. After he moved to California his sermons attracted great crowds to the local Jesuit church. He traveled to many Western states, preaching in cities, towns, and mining camps. When he died, a New York newspaper called him "the Father Damen of the West." In 1949 John Bernard McGloin authored ?Eloquent Indian.? (GenIV, Winter 04/05)(www.companymagazine.org/v154/preachers.html) 1889 nend Argentina established a reputation for having a troubled currency. After a few years Finance Minister Ernesto Tornquist put the country on a gold standard and limited the issue of money to the holdings in the treasury. The economy expanded to become one of the leading economies in the world. (WSJ, 2/28/97, p.A15) 1889 nend Hendrik Baekeland (b.1863), Belgian professor of natural science, sailed for America. (ON, 9/05, p.10) 1889 nend The British Royal Society for the Protection of Birds was founded. (www.infomat.net/infomat/rd741/rd1/database/rspb/index.asp) 1889 nend In New Brunswick, Canada, the Algonquin Hotel was built at the seaside resort of St. Andrews. (SFEC, 7/30/00, p.T5) 1889 nend In Canada a dispute with Manitoba on territory in northwest Ontario was settled on behalf of Ontario. (www.canadiana.org/citm/themes/constitution/constitution13_e.html) 1889 nend In Canada a telegraph line connected Victoria to India by way of an undersea cable from Bamfield. (SSFC, 3/3/02, p.C8) 1889 nend Canada?s Bank of Nova Scotia opened a branch in Jamaica. (Econ, 3/29/08, p.50) 1889 nend In Cuba Friar Jose Olallo Valdes (b.1829), a member of the Hospitaller Order of St. John of God, died. He earned the nickname, "father of the poor,? by caring for the needy and chronically ill. In 2008 he was beatified in the first ceremony of its kind on Cuban soil. (AP, 11/30/08) 1889 nend In Egypt the double statue of Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye was discovered. An Italian team restored the statue after it was first unearthed, filling in the missing pieces with modern stonework. In 2011 six missing pieces from the 3,400-year-old colossal double statue were discovered on the west bank of the Nile in the southern city of Luxor. (AP, 1/9/11) 1889 nend The Ahmadiyah sect of Islam was established in India and considered its founder Mirza Ghulam Ahmad to be a savior and messiah, counter to traditional Islamic teaching. By 2011 it had tens of millions of members worldwide and around 200,000 in Indonesia. (AP, 8/9/11) 1889 nend The first real constitution was promulgated for Japan. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215) 1889 nend Nintendo of Japan was founded by the great-grandfather of President Hiroshi Yamauchi to produce hand-painted Japanese flower cards. A book about Nintendo was later written by David Sheff. (Hem, 4/96, p.29)(SFC, 10/11/97, p.A19) 1889 nend Prussia under Chancellor Otto von Bismarck adopted old-age and invalidity pensions. Prussian average life expectancy was about 45. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25)(Econ, 6/27/09, p.18) 1889 nend In southern Africa [later Rhodesia, then Zimbabwe] Cecil Rhodes and his cronies conned King Lobengula into signing away his powers over the Ndebele kingdom. Lobengula?s father, Mzilikazi, founded the Ndebele nation and was buried in the Matopos Hills. (WSJ, 12/9/98, p.A13) 1889 nend The young Ottoman army and navy officers who revolted against the despotic sultan Abdulhamid, known as the Young Turks, belonged to a secret society formed in 1889 called the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP). Members of the committee worked for the union of all the various nationalities of the Ottoman Empire into a community of citizens with equal rights and duties and progress toward constitutional government along European lines. (HNQ, 5/28/99) 1889 1890 Nellie Bly (1867-1922), famed muckraking reporter for the New York World, was sent on a trip around the world by Joseph Pulitzer?s New York World and completed the trip in 72 days. (WSJ,2/11/97, p.A20)(SFC, 4/28/97, p.B1) 1889 1890 In South Dakota, Sioux warrior Kicking Bear became the leading spokesman for the new Indian religion, the "Ghost Dance," which promised a return to ancient ways for a people disheartened by reservation life. Kicking Bear continued to resist the U.S. Army for several weeks after many of his fellow Sioux were killed in the Massacre at Wounded Knee on December 29, 1990. Kicking Bird was a Kiowa Chief. Bear?s Head was a Crow chief. (HNQ, 12/24/99) 1889 1893 Benjamin Harrison became the 23rd President of the US. He was quoted to say: "We Americans have no commission from God to police the world." (A&IP, ESM, p.96b, photo)(SFC, 7/14/96, Z1 p.2) 1889 1893 John Wanamaker, Philadelphia merchant, served as the US Postmaster-General in recognition of his services during the election campaign of 1888. He introduced the Parcel Post system. {Pennsylvania, USA, Postage} (http://tinyurl.com/ck74o) 1889 1893 Over a period of 42 months a string of train robberies hit the Southern Pacific Railroad in the San Joaquin Valley of California near the vicinity of Mussel Slough. (Smith., 5/95, p.72) 1889 1937 Prof. John Wirth (d.2002) of Stanford covered this period of Brazil in his book "Minas Gerais in the Brazilian Federation." (SSFC, 6/30/02, p.A29) 1889 1914 A series of small wars of position occurred in various parts of Africa and Asia minor. These little conflicts served to define frontiers and to exert pressure. (V.D.-H.K.p.289) 1889 1933 Gao Qifeng, artist. He was a founder of the Lingnan School, a group of artists and social activists bent on modernizing Chinese painting. (SFC, 4/22/97, p.D2) 1889 1944 Philip Guedalla, British writer: "History repeats itself; historians repeat each other." (AP, 7/24/99) 1889 1944 Thomas Midgely, Jr., chemist for General Motors. He invented the chloro-fluorocarbons and the anti-knock gasoline agent tetraethyl lead. He caught polio in early middle age and invented a harness to help himself out of bed in the morning. Early in November of 1944 he got tangled in the harness and strangled to death. (NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.47) 1889 1945 Robert Benchley, American humorist: "For a nation which has an almost evil reputation for bustle, bustle, bustle, and rush, rush, rush, we spend an enormous amount of time standing around in line in front of windows, just waiting." (AP, 9/18/97) 1889 1945 Emmy Esther Scheyer was a promoter and collector of the Weimar artists known as the Blue Four. In 1998 the book "The Blue Four: Feininger, Jawlensky, Kandinsky, Paul Klee" was edited by Vivian Endicott Barnett and Josef Helfenstein" to accompany an exhibition. (SFEC, 8/23/98, BR p.12) 1889 1950 Vaslav Nijinsky was born in Kiev, Ukraine, and died in London. He was the pre-eminent ballet artist of his day and at 20 became the protege and lover of Sergei Diaghilev. He spent some time in psychotherapy during which he made a number of abstract drawings. He went mad at age 29 and wrote a diary of his experiences. (SFC, 9/29/97, p.E5) 1889 1953 Edwin P. Hubble, astronomer, discovered that the more distant a galaxy seemed to be, the more its light was shifted toward the lower frequencies. This is know as the Doppler redshift, named after C.J. Doppler (1803-1853), an Austrian Physicist. (WUB, 1995, p.426) 1889 1961 Soetsu Yanagi, Japanese artist. The philosophically inclined aesthete and writer created the concept of folk art and promoted its taste among the Japanese. (SFC, 4/28/96, B-7) 1889 1964 Jawaharlal Nehru, Indian statesman: "A man who is afraid will do anything." "Our chief defect is that we are more given to talking about things than to doing them." (AP, 9/27/97)(AP, 12/28/97) 1889 1973 Conrad Potter Aiken, American poet, was born (Aug 5) and died (Aug 17) in Savannah, and was buried in the Boneventure Cemetery. (SFEC,11/30/97, p.T5) 1889 1989 In 1998 Harold Evans published "The American Century," which recounts these 100 years with illustrations. (SFEC, 10/11/98, Par p.19)(SFEC, 10/11/98, BR p.2) 1890 nend Jan 1, In Pasadena a parade of flower-decorated horse and buggies was staged. It was followed by an afternoon of public games on the "town lot" east of Los Robles between Colorado and Santa Fe. The parade was intended to resemble a version of the festival of roses in Nice, France. (www.tournamentofroses.com/photogallery/timeline/TL-1890s.htm) 1890 nend Jan 4, Alfred G. Jodl, German Wehrmacht general and chief of staff, was born. (MC, 1/4/02) 1890 nend Jan 7, William B. Puris patented a fountain pen. (MC, 1/7/02) 1890 nend Jan 9, Karel Capek (d.1938), Czech writer and playwright, was born. He is best remembered for his 1921 play R.U.R. which contained the first use of the word "robot." (Econ, 4/2/11, p.65)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karel_%C4%8Capek) 1890 nend Jan 22, Fred Vinson, Thirteenth Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, was born. (HN, 1/22/99) 1890 nend Jan 22, Jose Marti formed La Liga (Union of Cuban exiles) in NYC. (MC, 1/22/02) 1890 nend Jan 25, The United Mine Workers of America was founded. (AP, 1/25/98) 1890 nend Jan 25, Reporter Nellie Bly (Elizabeth Cochrane) of the New York World received a tumultuous welcome home after she completed a round-the-world journey in 72 days, 6 hours, 11 minutes. (AP, 1/25/00) 1890 nend Feb 2, Charles Correl, "Andy" of the "Amos and Andy" radio program, was born. (HN, 2/2/99) 1890 nend Feb 10, Boris Pasternak (d.1960), Russian novelist and author, was born. His greatest novel, Dr. Zhivago, was rejected for publication in the USSR "No single man makes history. History cannot be seen, just as one cannot see grass growing." [OS][see Feb 18] (AP, 10/6/98)(HN, 2/10/99) 1890 nend Feb 10, Around 11 million acres, ceded to US by Sioux Indians, opened for settlement. (MC, 2/10/02) 1890 nend Feb 15, Robert Ley, German chemist, MP (NSDAP), was born. (MC, 2/15/02) 1890 nend Feb 18, Boris L. Pasternak, Russian poet, writer (Dr. Zhivago), was born. [ NS][see Feb 10] (MC, 2/18/02) 1890 nend Feb 28, Vaslav Nijinsky, ballet dancer (3/12 NS), was born in Kiev, Ukraine. He was the pre-eminent ballet artist of his day and at 20 became the protégé and lover of Sergei Diaghilev. He spent some time in psychotherapy during which he made a number of abstract drawings. Nijinsky died in 1950 in London. [see Mar 12] (SFC, 9/29/97, p.E5)(MC, 2/28/02) 1890 nend Feb, Charles E. Kincaid, correspondent for the Louisville Times, shot former Representative William Taulbee, a democrat from Kentucky, at the Capital during an argument over a scandal involving the lawmaker. Taulbee died ten days later. (SFC, 7/25/98, p.A6) 1890 nend Mar 1, 1st US edition of Sherlock Holmes (Study in Scarlet) was published. (SC, 3/1/02) 1890 nend Mar 9, Vyacheslav Molotov, former Soviet Prime Minister and signer of a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany, was born. (HN, 3/9/99) 1890 nend Mar 11, Vannevar Bush was born. He developed the 1st electronic analogue computer. (MC, 3/12/02) 1890 nend Mar 12, Vasav Nijinsky (d.1950), Russian dancer, was born. He was considered the world's greatest ballet dancer. [see Feb 28] (HN, 3/12/99) 1890 nend Mar 18, The 1st US state naval militia was organized in Massachusetts. (MC, 3/18/02) 1890 nend Mar 20, Lauritz Melchior, baritone, tenor (Met Opera), was born in Copenhagen, Denmark. (MC, 3/20/02) 1890 nend Mar 20, Germany?s Kaiser Wilhelm II fired republic chancellor Otto Von Bismarck. (MC, 3/20/02) 1890 nend Mar 21, Austrian Jewish communities were defined by law. (MC, 3/21/02) 1890 nend Mar 28, Paul Whiteman, orchestra leader (Paul Whiteman's TV Teen Club), was born in Denver, Co. (MC, 3/28/02) 1890 nend Apr 6, Anthony Herman Gerard Fokker (d.1939), aircraft pioneer, was born in Java. (www.britannica.com) 1890 nend Apr 7, Marjory Stoneman Douglas, environmentalist (1st Lady of Everglades), was born. (MC, 4/7/02) 1890 nend Apr 11, Ellis Island was designated as an immigration station. (MC, 4/11/02) 1890 nend Apr 14, The First International Conference of American States met in Washington, where delegates agreed to form the International Union of American Republics, a forerunner of the Organization of American States. (AP, 4/14/08) 1890 nend Apr 25, J. Palisa discovered asteroids #291 Alice & #292 Ludovica. (SS, 4/25/02) 1890 nend May 2, The Oklahoma Territory was organized. (AP, 5/2/97)(HN, 5/2/98) 1890 nend May 5, Christopher Morley (d.1957), author-journalist (Kitty Foyle), was born. "Religion is an attempt, a noble attempt, to suggest in human terms more-than-human realities." "My theology, briefly, is that the universe was dictated but not signed." "Truth is not a diet but a condiment." (HN, 5/5/01)(AP, 11/1697)(AP, 11/25/98)(AP, 1/19/99) 1890 nend May 6, Mormon Church renounced polygamy. [see Sep 24] (MC, 5/6/02) 1890 nend May 12, Louisiana legalized prize fighting. (SC, Internet, 5/12/97) 1890 nend May 19, Ho Chi Minh, revolutionist and leader of North Vietnam (1946-1969), was born. He fought the Japanese, French and United States to gain independence for his country. (HN, 5/19/99)(MC, 5/19/02) 1890 nend May 20, Beniamino Gigli, tenor (Enzo-La Gioconda), was born in Italy. (MC, 5/20/02) 1890 nend May 22, George Washington Steele, on appointment by Pres. Benjamin Harrison, took the oath of office as the 1st territorial governor (1890-1891) of Oklahoma. (http://digital.library.okstate.edu/chronicles/v020/v020p218.html) 1890 nend May 29, Francis de Bourguignon, composer, was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1890 nend May, Vincent van Gogh arrived in the French village of Auvers-sur-Oise, seeking a new life after a year in a mental asylum. He embarked on an explosion of creativity, producing more than 70 paintings within two months. (AP, 6/12/07) 1890 nend Jun 1, The US census stood at 62,622,250. The US government used the Jean Baptiste Pacard card punch to tabulate the results of the census. Herman Hollerith designed a system that used a machine with a sorter. Hollerith formed a firm that eventually became IBM. (DTnet, 6/1/97)(SFC, 8/5/97, p.A20)(WSJ, 10/15/01, p.R23)(WSJ,11/12/04, p.W10) 1890 nend Jun 2, Hedda Hopper, gossip columnist (From Under My Hat), was born. (SC, 6/2/02) 1890 nend Jun 10, Sessue Hayakawa, Japanese actor (Bridge on River Kwai, Hell to Eternity), was born. (MC, 6/10/02) 1890 nend Jun 16, Stan Laurel (d.1965), entertainer, was born in England. He teamed up with Oliver Hardy (Laurel & Hardy) to make over 100 comedy films. (WUD, 1994 p.811)(HN, 6/16/01)(MC, 6/16/02) 1890 nend Jun 22, The SF Chronicle trumpeted its new 10-story building at Kearny and Market, the first steel-framed building in the West. It was designed by Burnham & Root of Chicago. In 1924 the Chronicle moved to its new building at Fifth and Mission. In 1962-1963 Home Mutual Savings and Loan draped the De Young Building at 690 Market in metal. In 2004 planned renovations included conversion to residential and hotel use. (SFC, 3/17/04, p.C4)(SFC, 8/15/05, p.C5)(SFC, 1/17/09, p.E1) 1890 nend cJun, Vincent Van Gogh painted his Portrait of Dr. Gachet. He described the painting in detail to his brother and sister. A 2nd portrait of Dr. Gachet, held by the Musee d'Orsay is a variant of the first and is suspected to be unfinished by Van Gogh and completed by someone else. (WSJ, 2/16/99, p.A20) 1890 nend Jul 2, Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act. It put some teeth into earlier antitrust law. It was initially used against labor unions and then came to be used against businesses engaged in monopolistic practices. (SFC, 7/8/96, p.D2)(AP, 7/2/97)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R48) 1890 nend Jul 3, Idaho became the 43rd state of the US. (HFA, ?96, p.32)(AP, 7/3/97) 1890 nend Jul 10, Wyoming became the 44th state. (AP, 7/10/97)(HN, 7/10/98) 1890 nend Jul 13, John C. "Pathfinder" Fremont (76), US explorer, governor (Arizona, California), died. He was buried in obscurity in Sparkill, NY. Fremont (b.1830) was the 1st Republican presidential candidate in 1856. In 1999 David Roberts authored "A Newer World: Kit Carson, John C. Freemont and the Claiming of the American West." In 2002 Tom Chaffin authored ?Pathfinder: John Charles Fremont and the Course of American Empire.? In 2007 Sally Denton authored ?Passion and Principle: John and Jessie Fremont, the Couple Whose Power, Politics and Love Shaped Nineteenth-Century America.? (WUD, 1994, p.567)(SFEC, 2/13/00, BR p.5)(SSFC, 12/22/02,p.M1)(SSFC, 7/1/07, p.M1) 1890 nend Jul 18, Charles Wilson, Pres. of General Motors (1940-53), Sec. of Defense (1953-57), was born. (MC, 7/18/02) 1890 nend Jul 20, Theda Bara, actress (Love Goddesses), was born as Theodosia Goodman in Cincinnati. (MC, 7/20/02) 1890 nend Jul 22, Rose Kennedy, mother of President John F. Kennedy and senators Robert and Edward Kennedy, was born. (HN, 7/22/98) 1890 nend Jul 27, Artist Vincent van Gogh shot himself in Auvers-sur-Oise, France. He survived the impact, but not realizing that his injuries were to be fatal, he walked back to the Ravoux Inn. He died 2 days later. (Econ, 10/31/09, p.95)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh) 1890 nend Jul 29, Artist Vincent van Gogh died 2 days following a self-inflicted gunshot wound in Auvers-sur-Oise, France, while painting "Wheatfield with Crows." He spent his last 70 days in the care of Dr. Gachet and 78 paintings have been attributed to this period. Earlier in the year he painted his "Garden at Auvers." In 2009 his letters were published in a 6-volume edition titled: Vincent Van Gogh: The Letters.? Earlier editions had appeared in 1914 and 1958. In 2011 Steven Naifeh and Gregory White Smith authored ?Van Gogh: The Life.? (WSJ, 2/8/96, p.A-12)(SFC, 5/26/96, Z1 p.2)(WSJ, 2/16/99, p.A20)(AP,7/29/07)(Econ, 10/31/09, p.95)(Econ, 11/5/11, p.102) 1890 nend Aug 5, Erich Kleiber, conductor (NBC Symphony 1945-46), was born in Vienna, Austria. (MC, 8/5/02) 1890 nend Aug 6, Cy Young gained the first of his 511 major league victories as he pitched the Cleveland Spiders to a win over the Chicago Colts. However, the score is a matter of dispute, with some sources saying 6-1, and others saying 8-1. (AP, 8/6/07) 1890 nend Aug 6, Convicted murderer William Kemmler became the 1st person to be executed in the electric chair. He was put to death at Auburn State Prison in New York for murdering his lover, Matilda Ziegler, with an axe. In 2003 Jill Jonnes authored "Empires of Light," and account of how Edison, Tesla and Westinghouse brought electric power to public use. In 2003 Mark Essig authored "Edison and the Electric Chair: A Story of Light and Death." (AP, 8/6/97)(HN, 8/6/98)(MC, 8/6/02)(WSJ, 8/19/03, p.D5)(Econ,9/20/03, p.81) 1890 nend Aug 8, Daughters of American Revolution (DAR) organized. [see Oct 11] (MC, 8/8/02) 1890 nend Aug 12, Al Goodman Nikopol, orchestra leader (NBC Comedy Hour), was born in Russia. (SC, 8/12/02) 1890 nend Aug 15, Jacques Ibert, composer (Escales), was born in Paris, France. (MC, 8/15/02) 1890 nend Aug 17, Harry Hopkins, organized the Works Projects Administration (WPA) under President Roosevelt, was born. (HN, 8/17/98) 1890 nend Aug 20, H.P. Lovecraft (d.1937), author of horror tales, was born in Providence, RI. (HN, 8/20/98)(SSFC, 2/27/05, p.B1) 1890 nend Aug 21, Bill Henry, newscaster (Who Said That?), was born in SF, Calif. (SC, 8/21/02) 1890 nend Aug 24, Jean Rhys, author of "Wild Sargasso Sea," was born. (HN, 8/24/00) 1890 nend Aug 27, Man Ray (d.1976) was born as Emmanuel Radinski in Philadelphia, Pa. A painter and photographer, he and Marcel Duchamp founded the Dadaism movement. (Reuters, 8/28/01) 1890 nend Sep 1, The 1st baseball tripleheader was between Boston and Pittsburgh. (SC, 9/1/02) 1890 nend Sep 9, Colonel Harland Sanders (d.1980), originator of Kentucky Fried Chicken fast-food restaurants, was born in Henryville, Ind. (HN, 9/9/98)(www.born-today.com/Today/09-09.htm) 1890 nend Sep 10, Franz Werfel, author (40 Days of Musa Dagh), was born in Austria. (MC, 9/10/01) 1890 nend Sep 13, Cecil Rhodes' colonies hoisted the Union Jack in Mashonaland and Salisbury. (MC, 9/13/01) 1890 nend Sep 15, Agatha Christie, English writer of mystery novels, was born. Her books included "Death on the Nile" and "And Then There Were None." (HN, 9/15/99) 1890 nend Sep 15, Claude McKay, poet and novelist, was born. He was part of the Harlem Renaissance. (HN, 9/15/00) 1890 nend Sep 25, President Benjamin Harrison signed a measure establishing Sequoia National Park. Sequoia National Park, the nation?s 2nd oldest, was created by Congress. The army was assigned park patrol duty. (AP, 9/25/99)(SFC, 7/21/96, p.T3)(SFC, 2/1/03, p.A15) 1890 nend Sep 25, Congress established California?s Yosemite National Park. (MC, 9/25/01) 1890 nend Sep 25, Wilford Woodruff, president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, issued a Manifesto formally renouncing the practice of polygamy. The Mormons renounced the practice of polygamy after six decades in exchange for statehood for Utah. Smith?s revelation that God authorized polygamy remained in Article 132 of the church?s Doctrine and Covenants. (SFC, 8/6/98, p.A11)(NW, 9/10/01, p.48)(SSFC, 2/25/07, p.A4)(AP,9/25/07) 1890 nend Oct 1, Congress created the Weather Bureau. (MC, 10/1/01) 1890 nend Oct 1, Congress passed the McKinley Tariff Act, which raised tariffs to a record level. (AP, 10/1/97) 1890 nend Oct 1, Yosemite National Park, created by Congress, was dedicated in California. (SFEC, 5/18/97, Z1 p.4)(HN, 10/1/98) 1890 nend Oct 2, Julius Henry "Groucho" Marx (d.1977), American comedian, was born. Although there is some discrepancy about the exact date, Groucho was most likely born on this date in New York. He later went on to host the television quiz show "You Bet Your Life." He began singing as a boy and then performed wisecracking comedy on stage and screen with his brothers (Chico, Harpo, Zeppo and Gummo). Groucho also had radio shows, wrote books and screenplays, and became the most famous Marx Brother for his mustached, cigar-smoking persona and lines like, "I sent the club a wire stating, ?please accept my resignation. I don?t want to belong to any club that will accept me as a member.?" "There?s one way to find out if a man is honest?ask him. If he says ?yes,? you know he is crooked." Groucho Marx died in 1977. (SFEC, 5/25/97, p.C15)(HNPD, 10/2/98)(AP, 10/2/97) 1890 nend Oct 8, Edward Vernon Rickenbacker (d.1973) was born in Columbus, Ohio. He became America?s "Ace of Aces" in World War I with more than 20 kills. Rickenbacker was already a famous race car driver when he entered World War I at age 28. Although he was considered too old to become an aviator, "Rick," ultimately won the Medal of Honor for his wartime exploits. "If a thing is old, it is a sign that it was fit to live. ... The guarantee of continuity is quality." (HNPD, 10/7/98)(AP, 10/8/98)(HN, 10/8/98) 1890 nend Oct 11, The Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR) was founded in Washington, D.C. (AP, 10/11/97) 1890 nend Oct 13, Conrad Richter, novelist and short story writer, was born. (HN, 10/13/00) 1890 nend Oct 14, Dwight D. Eisenhower, 34th president of the United States, was born in Denison, Texas. (AP, 10/14/97)(HN, 10/14/98) 1890 nend Oct 16, Michael Collins (d.1922), Irish revolutionist, was born. (MC, 10/16/01) 1890 nend Oct 19, Richard Francis Burton (b.1821), explorer, British consul, translator, died. In 1893 Lady Burton published a biography of her late husband. (www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=6445) 1890 nend Oct 23, Borodin's Opera "Prince Igor" was produced posthumously in St. Petersburg. (MC, 10/23/01) 1890 nend Oct 26, Collodi, [Carlo Lorenzini], Italian writer (Pinocchio), died. (MC, 10/26/01) 1890 nend Oct 30, Emperor Meiji issued the Imperial Rescript on Education to illustrate the moral principles that each citizen was to follow. (Econ, 1/22/05, p.39)(www.danzan.com/HTML/ESSAYS/meiji.html) 1890 nend Oct, Dr. William Penny Brookes (81) met Baron Pierre de Coubertin (27) of France, widely regarded as the founder of the modern Olympics, over several hours at the Raven Hotel in Much Wenlock, England. The two spoke about de Coubertin's wish to stage an international Olympic festival in Athens. (AP, 7/1/11) 1890 nend Nov 8, Cesar-Auguste Franck (67), Belgian organist and composer (Symphony in D), died. (MC, 11/8/01) 1890 nend Nov 11, D. McCree patented a portable fire escape. (MC, 11/11/01) 1890 nend Nov 22, Charles de Gaulle (d.1970), French general and president (1958-1969), was born in Lille, France. "Nothing great will ever be achieved without great men, and men are great only if they are determined to be so." (AP, 11/22/97)(AP, 11/22/98)(HN, 11/22/98) 1890 nend Nov 23, Grand Duchy of Luxembourg separated from the Netherlands. (AP, 11/23/02) 1890 nend Nov 29, The first Army-Navy football game was played, at West Point, New York. Navy defeated Army by a score of 24-to-nothing. (AP, 11/29/00) 1890 nend Nov 29, The Imperial Diet, forerunner of Japan's national legislature, opened its first session, four days after its members were summoned by Emperor Meiji. (AP, 11/29/99) 1890 nend Dec 5, Fritz Lang (d.1976), film director, was born. His work included "Metropolis," "M," and "The Big Heat." (WSJ, 4/3/00, p.A46)(HN, 12/5/00) 1890 nend Dec 5, Berlioz' opera "Les Troyens," premiered in Karlsruhe. (MC, 12/5/01) 1890 nend Dec 13, Marc Connelly, playwright, actor, director and journalist (The Green Pastures), was born. (HN, 12/13/00) 1890 nend Dec 15, Sioux Indian Chief Sitting Bull and 11 other tribe members were killed in Grand River, S.D., during a fracas with Indian police [US troops]. In an attempt to arrest Sitting Bull at his Standing Rock, South Dakota, cabin, shooting broke out and Lt. Bullhead shot the great Sioux leader. The killing of Indian leader Sitting Bull was one factor that led to the Wounded Knee Massacre on the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota. The reservation was left in disarray when Sioux leader Sitting Bull was killed by Indian police. (WUD, 1994, p.1680)(AP, 12/15/97)(HN, 12/15/98)(HNQ, 1/5/99) 1890 nend Dec 18, Edwin Howard Armstrong, radio pioneer and inventor of FM, was born in NYC. (MC, 12/18/01) 1890 nend Dec 19, Start of Sherlock Holmes "Adventure of Beryl Coronet." (MC, 12/19/01) 1890 nend Dec 26, Heinrich Schliemann (86), German businessman and archaeologist, died. He excavated the site of ancient Troy in 1870-1871. (NH, 4/96, p.48)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Schliemann) 1890 nend Dec 28, As Big Foot, another Sioux leader, led his tribe away from the reservation they were surrounded by 7th Cavalry troops at Wounded Knee Creek. The next morning, when the cavalry tried to disarm the Sioux, shots rang out and during the next 6 hours, 146 Sioux men, women and children, including Big Foot, were killed. The 7th Cavalry lost 30 killed. (HNQ, 1/5/99) 1890 nend Dec 29, The last major conflict of the Indian wars took place at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota after Colonel James W. Forsyth of the 7th Cavalry tried to disarm Chief Big Foot and his followers. Seventy-year-old Sioux chief Big Foot was killed by the 7th U.S. Cavalry during the massacre at Wounded Knee on December 29, 1890. Three days later his body was found frozen where he had been killed. The South Dakota reservation had been left in disarray when Sioux leader Sitting Bull was killed by Indian police on December 15, and as Big Foot led his tribe away from the reservation on December 28, they were surrounded by 7th Cavalry troops. The next morning, when the cavalry tried to disarm the Sioux, shots broke out and during the next 6 hours, 146 Sioux men, women and children were killed. The 7th Cavalry lost 30 killed. The Wounded Knee massacre took place in South Dakota as some 300 Sioux Indians were killed by U.S. troops sent to disarm them. (HFA, '96, p.44)(AP, 12/29/97)(HN, 12/29/98)(HNPD, 12/29/98) 1890 nend Dec 31, Ellis Island, NYC, opened as a US immigration depot. (MC, 12/31/01) 1890 nend Cezanne began his still-life painting "Still Life with a Ginger jar and Eggplants." He also created his watercolor "Tree Study." (WSJ, 6/4/97, p.A16)(WSJ, 2/6/00, p.A16) 1890 nend Leon Frederic, Belgian painter, began his work "The Stream," a vast triptych of thousands of naked babies frolicking in water. He completed it in 1899. (WSJ, 2/16/00, p.A14) 1890 nend Van Gogh painted "A Woman from Arles" shortly before his suicide. He also painted "Thatched Huts of Cordeville." (SFC, 5/21/98, p.A14)(SFC, 5/25/99, p.C1) 1890 nend Claude Monet painted "Field of Poppies." (SFC, 7/11/01, p.D1) 1890 nend Paul Signac (1863-1935), French neo-impressionist pointillist painter, began his work "Portrait of Felix Feneon, Opus 217" (1890-1891). (WSJ, 11/6/01, p.A24) 1890 nend Alfred Sisley painted "The Alley of the Poplars." In 1998 it was stolen from the French Fine Arts Museum of Nice. (SFC, 9/22/98, p.B7) 1890 nend Daisy Ashford (9) wrote a novel for her ailing mother titled ?The Young Visiters.? Discovered 29 years later, it was turned into a real book and became a British classic. (SFC, 11/1/04, p.E1) 1890 nend Agnes M. Clerke published "System of the Stars," a popular work on astronomy. (NH, 10/98, p.87) 1890 nend Joseph Conrad published "Lord Jim." (WSJ, 4/24/98, p.W1) 1890 nend Arthur Conan Doyle?s 2nd Sherlock Holmes novel, ?The Sign of Four,? was published. (ON, 3/06, p.11) 1890 nend George Grove published a 4-volume compilation of musical knowledge. (SSFC, 3/18/01, DB p.49) 1890 nend William James authored his 2-volume work: ?The Principles of Psychology.? (WSJ, 2/23/08, p.W8) 1890 nend Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840-1914), American Navy officer, authored ?The Influence of Sea Power Upon History: 1660-1783.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Thayer_Mahan)(Econ, 6/13/09, p.48) 1890 nend Alfred Marshall, English economist, published his "Principles of Economics," considered the bible of British economics. He stressed that the output and price of a good are determined by supply as well as demand. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R20) 1890 nend Jacob A. Riis (1849-1914), Danish-born author and photographer, published ?How the Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements of New York.? (ON, 3/03, p.7)(www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAriis.htm) 1890 nend Leo Tolstoy wrote his novel "The Kreutzer Sonata." (WUD, 1994, p.795) 1890 nend P.I. Tchaikovsky composed his opera "Queen of Spades." It was first performed in St. Petersburg at the Marinsky theater. (BFST, 1937, p.473) 1890 nend The first production of "Sleeping Beauty" was made. (SFEC, 8/17/97, DB p.48) 1890 nend The gospel railroad song: "Life?s a Railway to Heaven," was first published. (WSJ, 8/21/97, p.A12) 1890 nend The Literary Digest, a US general-interest weekly, was founded. (WSJ, 10/2/06, p.B1) 1890 nend The Michigan Daily, a campus newspaper at U of M, began publishing. (MT, Fall. ?97, p.18) 1890 nend William Sheppard (b.1865 in Virginia) left the US for missionary work in Congo. In 2002 Pagan Kennedy authored "Black Livingstone: A True Tale of African Adventure." (SSFC, 2/3/02, p.M1) 1890 nend The Century Magazine published "Ranch and Mission Days in Alta California" by Guadalupe Vallejo, niece of Gen. Mariano Vallejo. (SFC, 11/21/03, p.I14) 1890 nend The Thatcher Hotel, later the Hopland Inn, was built in Hopland, Ca. (SSFC, 8/18/02, p.C1) 1890 nend In California Katherine Layne Curran and Townshend S. Brandegee founded the botanical journal, Zoe. (PacDis, Winter ?97, p.26) 1890 nend The Native Sons of the Golden West dedicated the John [James Wilson] Marshall (d.1885) Monument on a hill overlooking Coloma, for the man who discovered gold in California. (SFEC, 7/6/97, p.T3) 1890 nend The Dominican College of San Rafael was founded. It was associated with women?s education until 1971, when a transition to accept males was completed under Sister M. Samuel Conlan (d.2004). (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.W21)(SFC, 7/14/04, p.B7) 1890 nend Lincoln, a railhead in the Sierra foothills, was incorporated. (SFC, 4/25/03, A22) 1890 nend The town of Rodeo, just south of the Carquinez Strait, was named. (SFC, 10/22/03, p.A23) 1890 nend The Sunset oil field in Kern County, California, and the Coalinga field in Fresno County were discovered. (SSFC, 10/29/06, p.F6) 1890 nend In California the first opossums were released by humans in Los Angeles County about this time. Tow more releases were documented in 1910 and 1924. (SFC, 11/26/08, p.G3) 1890 nend Unable to raise the money to promote Aunt Jemima pancake mix, Chris L. Rutt and his associates sold their company to R.T. Davis Mill and Manufacturing Company, which promoted the new product at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. The company hired Nancy Green (d.1923), a famous African-American cook born in Montgomery County, Kentucky, to play the part of Aunt Jemima and demonstrate the pancake mix. In 1917, Aunt Jemima was redrawn as a smiling, heavy-set black housekeeper with a bandanna wrapped around her head. (www.toptags.com/aama/bio/women/ngreen.htm) 1890 nend Frank and Charles Menches included a recipe for the first known chopped-beef sandwich called a "hamburger." They named it after the town of Hamburg, N.Y. (SFC, 6/6/98, p.E3) 1890 nend Kenton Hardware Manufacturing Co. was founded in Kenton, Ohio, to make locks. Within a few year the company began making toys. (SFC, 5/28/08, p.G2) c 1890 nend Golf balls began to be made of a rubber thread wound around a solid rubber core. (SFEC, 6/14/98, p.A12) 1890 nend John Montgomery Ward led baseball player to form the Players League in opposition to the National League. The league lasted a year. In 1999 Bryan Di Salvatore authored "A Clever Base-Ballist: The Life and Times of John Montgomery Ward." (SFEC, 10/3/99, BR p.4) 1890 nend The US census categorized the population as "White, Black, Mulatto, Quadroon, Octoroon, Chinese, Japanese, and Indian." (SFC,12/26/97, p.A21) 1890 nend The US government sold its buildings at Fort Laramie and the site fell into disrepair until rescued by the National Park Service. (HT, 3/97, p.43) 1890 nend The US Bureau of Census declared that there was no longer any difference between "frontier" and "settlements." (SFC, 6/12/99, p.B3) 1890 nend A tradition of rivalry began between the Army and Navy Academies. (WSJ, 12/9/96, p.A12) 1890 nend The Louisiana state Legislature passed the Louisiana Separate Car Act, which called for railroad companies to provide equal but separate accommodations for white and colored races. (SFC, 5/12/96, p.A-6)(ON, 11/03, p.5) 1890 nend The US Board of Geographic Names began a primitive database of US place names. (SFEC, 8/11/96, p.A20) 1890 nend Mary Harris Jones (aka Mother Jones) helped organize the United Mine Workers with the slogan "Join the union, boys." (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1890 nend A Congress of world Socialist parties selected May 1 as Int'l. Workers Day to support the US labor struggle. (SFEC, 5/2/99, p.C7) 1890 nend Israel C. Russell, sponsored by the National Geographic Society, returned from an expedition to Mt. St. Elias, Alaska, with fossil bearing rocks. (NG, 12/97, p.1) 1890 nend The railroad arrived to St. Michaels on the Chesapeake Bay. (SMBA, 1996) 1890 nend The Canton Art Metal Co. was founded [may be 1880] and specialized in institutional furniture designed to last longer than wood furniture. (SFC, 4/1/98, Z1 p.7) 1890 nend American Tobacco was formed by James B. Duke as a consolidation of the principal cigarette factories in the US. (WSJ, 5/28/96, p. R-45) 1890 nend Distilling and Cattle Feeding company was formed as a successor to the Distillers and Cattle Feeders Trust. It was broken up in the late 1890s and a handful of operations continued under the umbrella of American Spirits Manufacturing Co. (WSJ, 5/28/96, p. R-45) 1890 nend North American Co. was formed and controlled street railways, natural gas and electricity businesses up to 1955. (WSJ, 5/28/96, R45) 1890 nend In Chicago Henry C. Niemann organized the H.C. Niemann & Co. to make tables. In 1909 the company moved to the 1800 block of Rockwell Street. It closed in 1929. (SFC, 5/14/08, p.G6) 1890 nend The Orinoco Furniture Company was started by the Rohminger brothers in Columbus, Indiana. It was sold in 2 years to a group headed by Harvey Lincoln. The Lincoln Chair Co. went out of business in the 1930s. (SFC, 1/29/97, Z1 p.2) 1890 nend The Pacific Coast Borax Company, a United States mining company, was founded by the American borax magnate Francis Marion Smith. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Coast_Borax_Company) 1890 nend Cook, Baker & Co was founded in Allegan, Mich., to make wood architectural products. The name changed to Baker & Co. in 1903 and later to Baker Furniture Inc. In 1986 it became part of Kohler Co. of Kohler, Wis. (SFC, 12/5/07, p.G2) 1890 nend Parker Brothers introduced its board game Across the Continent. The game was re-released a number of times until 1952. (SFC, 6/25/08, p.G3) 1890 nend Roseville Pottery did business in Roseville and Zanesville, Ohio, from 1890 to 1954. (SFC, 9/20/06, p.G3) 1890 nend The Royal Dutch Petroleum Co. was founded. (WSJ, 11/2/04, p.A14) 1890 nend The Westmoreland Glass Co. began making glass containers in Grapeville, Pa. Operations continued to 1984. (SFC, 7/11/07, p.G4) 1890 nend The tuberculin skin test (TST or Mantoux) was developed. (SFC, 3/24/04, p.B9) 1890 nend The star T Pyxidis flared up as a recurrent novae. It recurred in 1902 and 1960. (SCTS, p.1182) 1890 nend The population of Chicago was nearly one million people. (Hem., 7/95, p.77) 1890 nend The population of NYC at this time was about 1.2 million with some 37,000 living in tenements. (WSJ, 8/25/08, p.A11) 1890 nend The population of US buffalo was reduced to 1,000. (NH, 12/96, p.10) 1890 nend Eugene Schieffelin, a German immigrant, released 40 pairs of European starlings in NYC?s Central Park. By 1959 the birds reached the Pacific coast. To honor his new homeland he had attempted to release every species of bird mentioned in the plays of Shakespeare. In 2002 the starling population in North America exceeded 200 million. (HNQ, 5/1/02)(AH, 6/02, p.42) 1890 nend Mt. Logan, Canada?s highest peak, was discovered by I.C. Russell on the first expedition sponsored by the National Geographic Society. (NG, Nov. 1985, B.C. Bishop, p.657) 1890 nend Woodsmen marched west to Minnesota clearing forests of white pine, yellow birch, hemlock, maple, and oak. (NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.51) 1890 nend Junius Morgan, father of J. Pierpont Morgan, died and left his son in charge of both the London and New York Morgan firms. (WSJ, 3/30/99, p.A24) 1890 nend John T. Wood, archeologist, died at age 69. In 1869 he discovered the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, Turkey, built in 323BC. He authored "Discoveries at Ephesus" in 1877. (ON, 11/00, p.5) 1890 nend Argentina defaulted on its foreign debt and caused a near-collapse to Barings Bank. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R48) 1890 nend James F. Wiltshaw and brothers J.A. Robinson and W.H. Robinson founded their Wiltshaw & Robinson pottery in Staffordshire, England. Their pieces were marked ?Carlton Ware,? which became the company?s name in 1958. In 1973 it began producing ?Walking Ware.? In 1989 the company went into receivership. (SFC, 3/21/07, p.G2) 1890 nend In England Jenny Pipes, convicted of being a scold, was sentenced to public humiliation and underwent ducking in the Kenwater river by order of the Magistrates. This was the last recorded use of the ducking stool, in which the victim was strapped to a stool and plunged into water. (WSJ, 1/18/08, p.W10)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumbrel) 1890 nend The French restaurant Tour d?Argent began numbering its servings of Caneton Tour d?Argent, a meal of pressed duck. (WSJ, 5/15/96, p.A-12) 1890 nend French foreign legionnaires massacred the amazonian army of Dahomey (Benin). (Econ, 12/18/04, p.62) 1890 nend August Kuehne and Friedrich Nagel founded the forwarding and commissioning business in 1890 in Bremen, northern Germany, concentrating on cotton and consolidated freight. By 2006 the company was a world leader in arranging seaborne cargo. (www.kn-portal.com/about/)(Econ, 6/17/06, Survey p.12) 1890 nend The Home Rule movement of the Irish Nationalist Party led by Charles Stewart Parnell was set back when his love affair with Katherine O?Shea was revealed in the London Times. (WSJ, 9/3/96, p.A14) 1890 nend The Ecole Biblique of Jerusalem, a research center for Biblical and archeological studies, was founded. (WSJ, 8/28/01, p.A12) 1890 nend In Jerusalem a small tract known as Sergei's Courtyard, named for Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich, a son of Czar Alexander III, was built. It became part of the larger Russian Compound, most of which Israel purchased in 1963, when Israel paid in oranges because it lacked hard currency. In 2008 Israel approved handing back Sergei's Courtyard to Russia. The actual transfer took place in 2011. (AP, 10/7/08)(AP, 3/21/11) 1890 nend Philippine brewer San Miguel began making beer. (WSJ, 4/9/09, p.B1) 1890 nend Anton Chekhov visited the Russian penal colony at Sakhalin. The experience crystallized his political awareness. (SFEC, 5/31/98, p.8) 1890 nend The Marxist Armenian Revolutionary Federation, called the Dashnaks, was founded in the Russian Empire, in Tiflis (Georgia). (http://homepages.cae.wisc.edu/~dwilson/Armenia/justin.html) 1890 nend Bobsled racing was introduced at St. Moritz, Switz. (SSFC, 1/23/05, p.E14) 1890 nend s William Vanderbilt spent some $3-11 million on his Marble House in Newport, R.I. (WSJ, 10/25/96, p.B10) 1890 nend s The US federal government purchase Plum Island, located off the tip of Long Island. It was used as a fort during both world wars. An Army project for conversion to a biological warfare lab was later halted and the island was turned over to the Agriculture Dept. (WSJ, 1/8/02, p.A8) 1890 nend s The great land runs in the US continued. (SFC, 4/14/96, T-6) 1890 nend s A rash of violent mining strikes began in the West. Strikes in Colorado and Idaho were led by the ultra-militant Western Federation of Miners. (SFC, 10/7/97, p.A20) 1890 nend s A $5 silver note called "Electricity" that showed a scantily clad female holding a light bulb was taken out of circulation due to the drapery falling so low below her waist. (SFC, 4/30/97, p.B3) 1890 nend s Beeman?s Chewing Gum came out as a heartburn remedy. (SFC, 6/30/96, Zone 1 p.5) 1890 nend s Peanut Butter was invented for people with missing teeth. (SFEC, 4/25/99, Z1 p.8) 1890 nend s In New Bern N.C., Pharmacist Caleb Bradham produced Brad?s drink, a mixture of syrup and soda water, as a digestive aid and energy booster. It became a hit and was renamed in 1898 to Pepsi-Cola. The story of Pepsi, "Pepsi, 100 Years" was later written by Bob Stoddard of Upland, Ca. (SFC, 2/18/98, p.B2) 1890 nend s Turquoise Mountain, a sacred place for native Americans in Arizona, was rediscovered by Anglo prospectors, who then mined the semi-precious stone for over the next 50 years. (SFC, 7/20/96, p.A7) 1890 nend s Pierce's disease, spread by the glassy-winged sharpshooter, destroyed the Southern California grape industry. (SFC, 9/1/99, Z1 p.4)(SFC, 5/20/00, p.A3) 1890 nend s In Africa a great rinderpest, a virus-caused distemper in cattle, occurred. Millions of animals died including nearly 80% of all livestock. It raged across Africa till the 1930s. (NH, 6/96, p.16) 1890 nend s Cultured pearls were developed in Japan. (WSJ, 5/14/96, p.A-17) 1890 nend s In Malaysia a tin rush was on and the elite gathered at the Royal Selangor Club in Kuala Lumpur. (SFEC, 8/3/97, p.T3) 1890 nend s British settlers led by Cecil Rhodes marched north from South Africa and appropriated vast stretches of arable land. The Shangaani people, a hunting tribe, were gradually forced to become poachers after the British took control. (SFC, 3/28/98, p.A12)(SFC, 8/10/98, p.A14) 1890 nend s A rail line was established between Nairobi and Mombasa, Kenya, and became the Lunatic Express from media speculation that the planners were insane. (SSFC, 12/22/02, p.C4) 1890 1891 Paul Gauguin created his painting "Loss of Virginity." (WSJ, 4/12/04, p.D8) 1890 1892 Cezanne painted his oil on canvas: "Card Players." It is part of the Dr. Barnes collection and on the Corbis CD. [see 1972-1951, Barnes] (Civil., Jul-Aug., ?95, p.85) 1890 1895 George Washington Vanderbilt built his Biltmore Estate, a 250-room mansion on 125,000 acres overlooking the Blue Ridge Mountains. Richard Morris Hunt designed the home. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R37) 1890 1899 Two conspiratorial traditions crystallized into their current form in Russia in the 1890s. Two publications had a key role: On the right, the czar?s secret police forged "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion," the standard text of anti-Semitism; on the left, Lenin produced his main theoretical writings on imperialism. (WSJ, 4/26/95, p.A-16) 1890 1900 Black River Falls, Wisc., was plagued by a series of suicides, murders, financial ruin and bizarre eruptions of violence. These events were described in the 1973 book "Wisconsin Death Trip" by Michael Lesy. In 2000 a documentary film was completed based on the book and this period. (SFC, 1/2/02, p.D1) 1890 1900 Australia experienced a big drought that caused a major retreat and reassessment by farmers. (AP, 5/24/05) c 1890 1910 Jim Crow, the regime of legalized segregation, exclusion and disenfranchisement of black people in the US, hardened into place. (WSJ, 6/12/01, p.A20) 1890 1912 In France a 151-km. private railroad was constructed from Nice to Digne above the River Var. It was brought under state control in 1933 and again privatized in 1972. (Hem., 1/97, p.116) 1890 1917 Some 2-3 black southerners were hanged, burned at the stake, or quietly murdered every week to enforce deference and submission to whites. (SFEC, 4/19/98, BR p.4) 1890 1930 The California Plein Air movement in art was based in outdoor scenes that captured the state?s colors and light. Later Ruth Lilly Westphall edited "Plein Air Painters of California." (SFEC, 8/9/98, p.B6) 1890 1930 This period marks the 3rd Great Awakening in America according to Robert Fogel of the Univ. of Chicago, who argued that America is undergoing its fourth religious revival and that it started about 1960. This is from his Bradley lecture at the American Enterprise Institute. (WSJ, 10/6/95, p.A-10) 1890 1954 Edwin Howard Armstrong, engineer and inventor, was known as the "Father of FM" or frequency modulation. In 1939 Armstrong perfected his system of static-free radio, which was widely adopted in the U.S. and Europe. Born in New York in 1890, Armstrong developed the superheterodyne circuit, basic to radio receivers, in 1918. His super-regenerative circuit, devised in 1920, was used in 2-way police and aircraft radio systems. (HN, 5/12/99) 1890 1958 Elmer Davis, American news commentator: "The first and great commandment is: Don't let them scare you." (AP, 5/29/99) 1890 1960 Gene Fowler, American journalist and author: "Men are not against you; they are merely for themselves." (AP, 5/6/97) 1890 1964 Idwal Jones, California writer. His work included the classic novel "The Vineyard," set in Napa Valley with a foreword by Robert Mondavi, and the non-fiction work "Vines in the Sun." (SFEM,10/26/97, p.36) 1890 1969 Dwight D. Eisenhower, the 34th president of the US, was born on Oct 14. He was a general through World War II and president from 1953-1961. (HFA, ?96, p.40)(AHD, 1971, p.418) 1890 1972 Gabriel Heatter, American radio commentator: "Life is never so bad at its worst that it is impossible to live; it is never so good at its best that it is easy to live." (AP, 5/19/00) 1890 1976 Paul Strand, American photographer. He documented the streets of New York City from 1915-1917 and did early experiments in photographic abstraction. (SFEM, 5/31/98, p.13) 1890 1980 Gerald W. Johnson, American journalist: "What makes a leader?intelligence, integrity, imagination, skill: in brief, statecraft? Not at all. It is the fact that the man has a following." (AP, 9/28/97) 1890 1980 Katherine Anne Porter, American author: "Love is purely a creation of the human imagination ... the most important example of how the imagination continually outruns the creature it inhabits." (AP, 7/30/97) 1890 1995 Rose Kennedy: "I have always believed that God never gives a cross to bear larger than we can carry. ... No matter what, God wants us to be happy. He doesn?t want us to be sad. Birds sing after a storm. Why shouldn?t we?" (AP, 7/25/98) 1891 nend Jan 1, An office was opened on Ellis Island, New York, to cope with the vast flood of immigrants coming into the United States. (HN, 1/1/99) 1891 nend Jan 8, Walter Bothe, subatomic particle physicist (Nobel 1954), was born in Germany. (MC, 1/8/02) 1891 nend Jan 11, Georges-Eugene Haussmann (b.1809), French town planner, died. He designed modern-day Paris. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baron_Haussmann) 1891 nend Jan 20, Mischa Elman, US violinist, was born in Talnoye, Ukraine. (MC, 1/20/02) 1891 nend Jan 20, King David Kalakaua, sovereign of the Hawaiian Islands, died at the SF Palace Hotel of Bright's disease. The USS Charleston returned his body. (SFEC, 11/17/96, p.C1)(SFC, 5/29/98, p.C18)(SFEC, 8/29/99, p.T11) 1891 nend Jan 20, Princess Lili?uokalani (52) became queen upon the death of her brother. She fought against making Hawaii a part of the United States, making her unpopular among those Hawaiians who felt they had more to gain from annexation. She believed in "Hawaii for Hawaiians," and conceded less to foreign businesses and governments than her predecessors had. (HNPD, 1/25/99)(ON, 11/02, p.5) 1891 nend Jan 24, Max Ernst, German-French surrealist painter, sculptor, was born. [see Apr 2] (MC, 1/24/02) 1891 nend Jan 26, Ilya G. Ehrenburg, writer, propagandist (Fall of Paris, The Thaw), was born in Kiev, Ukraine. (MC, 1/26/02) 1891 nend Jan 26, Nicholaus Otto, auto pioneer (internal combustion engine), died. (MC, 1/26/02) 1891 nend Jan 31, Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier (b.1815), French academic painter, died. His painting ?Friedland, 1807,? begun in 1863, was completed in 1875. (www.newadvent.org/cathen/10149a.htm) 1891 nend Feb 6, The Dalton Gang committed its first crime, a train robbery in Alila, Calif. on Southern Pacific #17. In 1979 Ron Hansen authored "Desperadoes," a fictional account of the Dalton gang. (HN, 2/6/99)(WSJ, 8/1/00, p.A20)(MC, 2/6/02) 1891 nend Feb 7, US Great Blizzard of 1891 began. (MC, 2/7/02) 1891 nend Feb 9, Ronald Colman, 1947 Academy Award actor (Tale of 2 Cities), was born in England. (MC, 2/9/02) 1891 nend Feb 13, David Dixon Porter (77), US rear admiral (Union), died. (MC, 2/13/02) 1891 nend Feb 14, William Tecumseh Sherman (b.1820), Union Civil War general, died. His famous "March to the Sea" changed the face of modern warfare. "Vox populi, vox humbug." (The voice of the people is the voice of humbug). (HN, 2/8/99)(AP, 4/7/99)(MC, 2/14/02) 1891 nend Feb 22, "Chico" Marx, actor, comedian (Marx Brothers, Animal Crackers), was born in NYC. (MC, 2/22/02) 1891 nend Feb 26, Henrik Ibsen?s "Hedda Gabler" premiered in Oslo. (SFC, 4/14/01, p.B1)(SC, 2/26/02) 1891 nend Feb 26, The 1st buffalo was purchased for Golden Gate Park in SF under John McLaren. A pair of bison, named Benjamin Harrison and Sarah Bernhardt, were settled in Golden Gate Park following reports that only 1000 were left in the US. (SFC, 12/13/99, p.A18)(SC, 2/26/02)(SFC, 10/30/08, p.B1) 1891 nend Feb 27, David Sarnoff, RCA Board Chairman and a pioneer of U.S. television, was born. (HN, 2/27/98) 1891 nend Feb 28, US Senator George Hearst (b.1820) of California died. He was the father of William Randolph Hearst. (Ind, 10/17/98, p.5A)(SFEM, 10/24/99, p.20) 1891 nend Mar 3, Congress created the Office of Superintendent of Immigration (Treasury Department). (SC, 3/3/02) 1891 nend Mar 3, Congress created the US Courts of Appeal. (SC, 3/3/02) 1891 nend Mar 8, Sam Jaffe, actor (Gunga Din, Dr Zorba-Ben Casey), was born in NYC. (MC, 3/8/02) 1891 nend Mar 14, A mob in New Orleans broke open a jail after a court dismissed charges against 19 Italian men indicted for the murder of police chief David C. Hemmessey. 11 of 19 defendants were hanged. The book "Vendetta" by Richard Gambino, and the movie of the same name, covered the event. (SSFC, 2/1/04, p.M3) 1891 nend Mar 17, The British steamer Utopia sank off the coast of Gibraltar. (HN, 3/17/98) 1891 nend Mar 19, Earl Warren, governor of California, was born. He was appointed 14th Supreme Court Chief Justice (1953-1969) and led the commission that investigated the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. "I always turn to the sports page first. The sports page records people?s accomplishments; the front page nothing but man?s failure." (HN, 3/19/99)(AP, 7/19/00) 1891 nend Mar 24, The Evening Sun published a tribute to P.T. Barnum (b.1810) that included his obituary so as to allow the old man to read it. Barnum died 2 weeks later. In 2001 James W. Cook authored "The Arts of Deception" with a focus on P.T. Barnum. (SFEC, 3/14/99, Z1 p.10)(WSJ, 7/12/01, p.A14) 1891 nend Mar 29, Georges-Pierre Seurat (31), French painter (Pointillism), died. (MC, 3/29/02) 1891 nend Mar 31, Erich Walter Sternberg, composer, was born. (MC, 3/31/02) 1891 nend Mar, Congressman millionaire Charles N. Felton of Menlo Park, California, was appointed to succeed Sen. Hearst. (Ind, 10/17/98, p.5A) 1891 nend Mar, David Starr Jordan (40) of Indiana Univ. accepted an offer as president of the new Stanford Univ. in Palo Alto, Ca. (Ind, 10/17/98, p.5A)(Ind, 11/17/01, 5A) 1891 nend Apr 1, The London-Paris telephone connection opened. (OTD) 1891 nend Apr 1, Paul Gauguin (1848-1903), French painter, abandoned his wife and 5 children and left Marseille for Tahiti. (SFEC, 3/2/97, p.T12)(MC, 4/1/02)(SSFC, 5/11/03, p.C7) 1891 nend Apr 2, Max Ernst, German painter and sculptor, founder of surrealism, was born. [see Jan 24] (HN, 4/2/98) 1891 nend Apr 7, Nebraska introduced an 8 hour work day. (MC, 4/7/02) 1891 nend Apr 7, Phineas T. Barnum (88), US circus promoter (B & Bailey), died. (MC, 4/7/02) 1891 nend Apr 11, A Jewish tailor's daughter (8) disappeared in Greece. A rumor spread that she was a Christian girl ritually killed by Jews. (MC, 4/11/02) 1891 nend Apr 23, Sergey Sergeyevich Prokofiev, composer (Peter & the Wolf), was born in Ukraine. [see Apr 27] (MC, 4/23/02) 1891 nend Apr 23, Jews were expelled from Moscow. (MC, 4/23/02) 1891 nend Apr 24, Start of Sherlock Holmes adventure "Final Problem." (MC, 4/24/02) 1891 nend Apr 25, Pres. Benjamin Harrison visited SF. (SS, 4/25/02) 1891 nend Apr 27, Sergei Sergeyevich Prokofiev, composer, was born. [see Apr 23] (MC, 4/27/02) 1891 nend Apr 29, Pres. Benjamin Harrison arrived in Menlo Park, Ca., by special train for a visit with senators Stanford and Felton. (Ind, 10/17/98, p.5A) 1891 nend May 4, Sherlock Holmes, Arthur Conan Doyle?s fictional detective, "died" at Reichenbach Falls. (MC, 5/4/02) 1891 nend May 5, Carnegie Hall (then named Music Hall) had its opening night in New York City. Tchaikovsky was the guest conductor. Musicians, painters, dancers and actors thrived in two towers built by 19th-century industrialist Andrew Carnegie just after the hall went up. The Carnegie Towers, one 12 stories high, the other 16, housed more than 100 studios. In 2010 the city-owned towers were gutted in a $200 million renovation program. (AP, 5/5/97)(AP, 8/2/10) 1891 nend May 8, Helena Petrovna Blavatskaya (b.1831), Russian theosophist (Madame Blavatsky), died. (WUD, 1994 p.157)(MC, 5/8/02) 1891 nend May 11, Alexandre Becquerel (b.1820), French physicist, died. In 1839, Becquerel observed the photoelectric effect via an electrode in a conductive solution exposed to light. (www.patent-invent.com/electricity/inventors/alexandre_becquerel.html) 1891 nend May 15, Mikhail Bulgakov (d.1940), Russian novelist (Notes of a Dead Man, Heart of a Dog), was born. (HN, 5/15/01)(Econ, 3/13/04, p.86) 1891 nend May 15, Jules Massenet's opera "Griselde," premiered in Paris. (MC, 5/15/02) 1891 nend May 15, Gerard and Anton Philips began their Philips & Co. operations in Eindhoven, Holland, with the production of light bulbs. (www.vedpuriswar.org/book/PHILIPS.htm)(WSJ, 1/7/04, p.A1) 1891 nend May 18, Rudolf Carnap, philosopher (German Logical Positivist), was born. (SC, 5/18/02) 1891 nend May 19, Rice Institute Chartered, Building, now Rice University. (DTnet, 5/19/97) 1891 nend May 21, James J. Corbett fought Peter "Black Prince" Jackson (1861-1901), in a much-heralded bout between San Francisco cross-town rivals. Since Corbett and Jackson were boxing instructors at the two most prestigious athletic clubs. They fought to a draw after 61 rounds. Jackson had won the Australian heavyweight championship in 1886 and the British Empire title in 1892. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_J._Corbett) 1891 nend May 23, Par Lagerkvist, Swedish writer (The Dwarf, Barabbas), was born. (HN, 5/23/01) 1891 nend May 25, Robert W.P. Peereboom, Dutch editor in chief (Haarlem Newspaper), was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1891 nend Jun 9, Cole Porter (d.1964), American composer and lyricist, was born. [see Jun 9, 1893] (HN, 6/9/02) 1891 nend Jun 9, Painter Paul Gauguin arrived in Papeete, Tahiti. (MC, 6/9/02) 1891 nend Jun 11, A. Charlois discovered asteroid #311 Claudia. (SC, 6/11/02) 1891 nend Jun 11, Portugal assigned Barotseland, now in Zambia, to Britain and Nyasaland becomes a British protectorate. (AP, 6/11/03) 1891 nend Jun 21, Hermann Scherchen, conductor (Nature of Music), was born in Berlin, Germany. (MC, 6/21/02) 1891 nend Jun 28, Esther Forbes, author (Johnny Tremain), was born. (HN, 6/28/01) 1891 nend Jun, The Chicago Herald built a monument to Columbus on San Salvador. (NH, 10/96, p.26) 1891 nend Jul 5, John Northrop, US biochemist, crystallized enzymes (Nobel 1946), was born. (MC, 7/5/02) 1891 nend Jul 8, Warren G. Harding married Florence K. DeWolfe in Marion, Ohio. Harding called her "the Duchess." Harding had a long affair with Nan Britton, who bore him a daughter. From 1905-1920 he had an affair with Carrie Phillips. In 1998 Carl Sferrazza Anthony published "Florence Harding: The First Lady, The Jazz Age and the Death of America?s Most Scandalous President." (AP, 7/8/97)(SFC, 8/1/98, p.A19) 1891 nend Jul 31, Great Britain declared territories in Southern Africa up to the Congo to be within their sphere of influence. (HN, 7/31/98) 1891 nend Aug 2, Arthur Edward Drummond Bliss, composer (Olympians), was born in London. (MC, 8/2/02) 1891 nend Aug 5, The 1st travelers checks were issued by American Express. (MC, 8/5/02) 1891 nend Aug 5, Henry Charles Litolff (73), French pianist, composer, died. (MC, 8/5/02) 1891 nend Aug 22, Jacque Lipchitz (d.1973), sculptor, was born in Poland. (HN, 8/22/00) 1891 nend Aug 24, Thomas Edison filed a patent for the motion picture camera. (HN, 8/24/98) 1891 nend Aug 25, Luis Iruarrizaga Aguirre, composer, was born. (MC, 8/25/02) 1891 nend Sep 3, Cotton pickers organized a union & strike in Texas. (MC, 9/3/01) 1891 nend Sep 15, The Dalton gang held up a train and took $2,500 at Wagoner, Okla. (HN, 9/15/99) 1891 nend Sep 16, Karl Doenitz, German Admiral who succeeded Hitler in governing Germany, was born. (HN, 9/16/98) 1891 nend Sep 18, Harriet Maxwell Converse was 1st white woman to become an Indian chief (her Indian name was Ga-is-wa-noh: the Watcher). She devoted herself to the study and preservation of Native American culture, was a staunch defender of Indian property rights during the 1880s. (MC, 9/18/01) 1891 nend Sep 20, Lamine Gueye, Senegalese political leader, was born. (HN, 9/20/98) 1891 nend Sep 26, Charles Munch (d.1968), Alsatian conductor (French Legion D'Honeur), was born in Strasbourg. (WUD, 1994 p.941)(MC, 9/26/01) 1891 nend Sep 28, Herman Melville (b.1819), writer (Billy Budd, Moby Dick), died at 72. In 1921 Raymond Weaver authored a pioneering study of Melville. In 2002 Hershel Parker authored "Herman Melville: A Biography, Volume 2." In 2005 Andrew Delbanco authored ?Melville: His World and Work.? (SSFC, 7/14/02, p.M5)(SSFC, 10/2/05, p.F6)(WSJ, 10/6/05, p.D8) 1891 nend Oct 1, The Leland Stanford Junior Memorial Univ. in Palo Alto, Ca., was dedicated. Stanford Univ. opened its Mission Romanesque Quadrangle in Palo Alto. It was established by Leland and Jane Stanford in honor of their late son. (SFEC, 2/9/97, p.W4,5)(SFC, 7/8/96, p.D1)(SFC, 12/30/96, p.A15)(SFC,6/20/98, p.A15)(Ind, 10/17/98, p.5A)(Ind, 10/17/98, p.5A) 1891 nend Oct 6, Charles Stewart Parnell (b.1846) died in Brighton, England. Irish statesman and leader of the Irish nationalists in the British House of Commons from 1880-?90, Charles Parnell?s popularity in Ireland was so great that he was called "the uncrowned king of Ireland." Parnell formed a coalition with William Gladstone, who became prime minister and introduced a bill for Irish home rule in 1886. The bill was defeated. In 1890, as a result of a divorce scandal, Parnell was deposed as leader of the Irish nationalists. (AP, 10/6/97)(HNQ, 7/20/98) 1891 nend Oct 11, Charles Stewart Parnell (d.Oct 6) was buried in Ireland. (MC, 10/11/01) 1891 nend Oct 12, Edith Stein was born to a Jewish family at Breslau. Through her passionate study of philosophy she searched after truth and found it in reading the autobiography of St. Teresa of Jesus. In 1922 she was baptized a Catholic and in 1933 she entered the Carmel of Cologne where she took the name Teresa Benedicta of the Cross. She was gassed and cremated at Auschwitz on August 9, 1942, during the Nazi persecution and died a martyr for the Christian faith after having offered her holocaust for the people of Israel. (WWW, Teresa Benedicta, 10/6/98) 1891 nend Oct 20, Sir James Chadwick, physicist, was born. He won the Nobel Prize for discovering the neutron. (HN, 10/20/00) 1891 nend Oct 20, Jomo Kenyatta, Kenya opposition leader and 1st premier (1963-78), was born. (MC, 10/20/01) 1891 nend Oct 24, Rafael L. Trujillo Molina, was born. He became president and dictator of the Dominican Republic (1930-61). (MC, 10/24/01) 1891 nend Oct 27, D. B. Downing, inventor, was awarded a patent for the street letter box, i.e. mailbox. (HN, 10/27/98) 1891 nend Oct 28, An earthquake struck Mino-Owari, Japan and killed 7,300. (MC, 10/28/01) 1891 nend Oct 29, Fanny Brice, comedian, singer and actress, was born in NYC. (HN, 10/29/00)(MC, 10/29/01) 1891 nend Nov 3, Louis L. Bonaparte (78), English-French linguist and senator, died. (MC, 11/3/01) 1891 nend Nov 6, Comanche, the only 7th Cavalry horse to survive George Armstrong Custer?s "Last Stand" at the Little Bighorn, died at Fort Riley, Kan. Comanche, belonged to Captain Myles Keogh. The wounded horse, Comanche, was taken to Fort Abraham Lincoln in Dakota Territory, where he recovered and became a pampered celebrity. Comanche died at the age of 28. (HN, 11/6/98)(HNQ, 2/26/99) 1891 nend Nov 10, The 1st Woman's Christian Temperance Union meeting was held in Boston. (MC, 11/10/01) 1891 nend Nov 10, Granville T. Woods patented an electric railway. (MC, 11/10/01) 1891 nend Nov 10, J.N. Arthur Rimbaud (b.1854), French poet and arms merchant (Saison en Enfer), died in Marseille after doctors amputated his leg. In 1961 Enid Starkie authored a biography. In 2000 Graham Robb authored "Rimbaud." Rimbaud stopped writing poetry at age 21 and ended his last years in Africa as an arms dealer. In 2008 Edmund White authored ?Rimbaud: The Double Life of a Rebel.? (WUD, 1994 p.1234)(HN, 10/20/00)(SFC, 2/12/02, p.D3)(Econ, 10/11/08,p.115) 1891 nend Nov 15, W. Averell Harriman, (Gov-D-NY) and US ambassador to USSR (1943-46), was born. (MC, 11/15/01) 1891 nend Nov 15, Erwin Rommel, field marshal in World War II, was born. He commanded the Afrika Korps in North Africa and defended the Normandy coast on D-Day. (HN, 11/15/99) 1891 nend Nov 22, Edward L. Bernays (d.1995), public relations pioneer, was born in Vienna, Austria. In 1892 his family moved to New York City. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Bernays) 1891 nend Nov 23, Deodoroda Fonseca, the 1st president of Brazil, was ousted by a navy revolt. (AP, 11/23/02) 1891 nend Nov 28, The National Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (now IBEW) was founded in St. Louis, home of Local 1. (DTnet, 11/28/97) 1891 nend Dec 1, The Canadian, Dr. James B. Naismith, sports figure, inventor, teacher, invented the game of basketball at the YMCA in Springfield, Mass. A janitor provided peach baskets instead of the requested boxes. (Hem, Dec. 94, p.126)(DTnet, 11/28/97)(MC, 12/1/01) 1891 nend Dec 10, Nelly Sachs, Nobel Prize-winning poet, was born. (HN, 12/10/00) 1891 nend Dec 26, Henry Miller (d.1980), American writer, was born. His work included "Tropic of Cancer" and "Tropic of Capricorn". "Until we lose ourselves there is no hope of finding ourselves." "Like ships, men founder time and again." (AP, 3/16/97)(AP, 5/2/98)(HN, 12/26/98) 1891 nend Dec 29, Edison patented the "transmission of signals electrically" (radio). (MC, 12/29/01) 1891 nend Painter Paul Gauguin painted his landscape ?Haere Mai,? which means ?Come here!? in Tahitian. (SSFC, 10/23/11, p.M5)(http://tinyurl.com/3qex6r3) 1891 nend Claude Monet painted his impressionist "Grainstacks: Snow Effect." (SFC, 6/13/98, p.E1) 1891 nend Camille Pissarro painted "Two Young Peasant Women." It was later analyzed as an attempt to marry painting and anarchism. (SFEC, 3/21/99, BR p.8) 1891 nend William Fletcher authored ?The History and Development of Steam.? (http://tinyurl.com/y98cs3h) 1891 nend Thomas Hardy published "Tess of the d?Urbervilles." (V.D.-H.K.p.279) 1891 nend Herman Melville authored "Billy Budd." (WSJ, 6/29/00, p.A24) 1891 nend William Morris (1834-1896), English poet, designer, painter, decorator and author, portrayed a vision of utopia in his novel entitled "News from Nowhere." The book describes a utopian fantasy in which people return to handicrafts. The ideas in the novel reflected the emphatic socialist views Morris would further explore in "How I Became a Socialist," published in 1896. A pioneer of the British socialist movement, Morris was apprenticed to an architect and later founded a manufacturing and decorating firm. He was of the Pre-Raphaelite school with a taste for simplicity and beauty in art and literature. (HNQ, 5/2/00) 1891 nend John Wesley Powell (d.1902) published the first complete classification and distribution map of native languages in the United States and Canada. He had led an expedition down the Green and Colorado rivers, through the Grand Canyon even though he had lost the lower part of his right arm in the Battle of Shiloh during the Civil War. Powell, a geographer and ethnologist, held a number of positions after resigning from the army in 1865, many for government agencies such as director of the U.S. Geographical Survey. (HNQ, 10/13/00) 1891 nend Emile Zola (1840-1902), French novelist, authored ?L?Argent? (Money), the story of a scheming financier. It was first published a a newspaper serial. (WSJ, 7/19/08, p.W6) 1891 nend The magazine "The Strand" was established in London and devoted itself to popular fiction and celebrity interviews. Arthur Conan Doyle became an early contributor. (WSJ, 4/12/99, p.A21) 1891 nend Pope Leo XIII wrote his encyclical "Rerum Novarum." It endorsed trade unionism and the safeguarding of property rights. (WSJ, 8/31/01, p.W17) 1891 nend The sumptuous Tampa Bay Hotel with great Moorish spires was built. It later became the Henry B. Plant Museum. (Hem., 3/97, p.60) 1891 nend James J. Corbett fought Peter Jackson to a draw after 61 rounds, Corbett?s first notable fight. He lost his title to Robert Fitzsimmons in 1897. (HNQ, 6/20/00) 1891 nend The New Mexico Military Institute was founded in Roswell, NM. (SSFC, 8/1/04, p.D8) 1891 nend The largest concrete dam in the world was completed across the neck of Crystal Springs canyon south of San Francisco, Ca. It trapped the waters of San Mateo Creek and was the culmination of a 5 reservoir project. (Ind, 5/11/02, 5A) 1891 nend In San Francisco brothers, Behrend and Isaac Joost, organized The San Francisco and San Mateo Railroad Company. The Joost line did not pay expenses and was sold at a foreclosure sale on April 11, 1896. (www.noehill.com/sf/landmarks/sf079.asp) 1891 nend The Wheeler Hot Springs installation was set up 6 miles from Ojai, Calif. The springs gush from Matilija Canyon. (AAM, 3/96, p.47)(SFEC, 10/13/96, p.T7) 1891 nend A California bond measure raised almost $1 million for the construction of the SF Ferry Building. It was designed by Arthur Page Brown and finished in 1898. Brown died before the building was completed [see 1875]. (SFEC, 7/12/98, p.B1) 1891 nend Stanford Univ. opened its Mission Romanesque Quadrangle in Palo Alto. It was established by Leland Stanford in honor of his late son. (SFEC, 2/9/97, p.W4,5)(SFC, 7/8/96, p.D1)(SFC, 12/30/96, p.A15) 1891 nend The Salem memorial Park Jewish cemetery was established in Lawndale (Colma), Ca. (www.colmahistory.org/History.htm) 1891 nend The Del Monte brand appeared on premium canned fruits and vegetables of the Oakland Preserving Co. It was named after a fancy Monterey Hotel that suggested good taste. (SFC, 3/1/97, p.B1) 1891 nend The hay schooner Alma was built at San Francisco?s Hunters Point shipyard. In 1993 mariner Al Lutz (d.2010 at 55) took over the boat, the last survivor of the fleet of sailing schooners built to handle cargo on the SF Bay and the Sacramento River Delta. (SFC, 7/5/10, p.C6) 1891 nend Delaware State University was established as the State College for Colored Students. In 2006 it had about 3,690 students. The 400-acre campus is in the northern section of Dover, across the street from the racetrack. (AP, 9/21/07) 1891 nend Philosopher John Dewey and Fred Scott founded "The Inlander" journal at the U of M to promote literature and the same year began to allow free discussion in one of his courses. (MT, Fall. ?97, p.17,19) 1891 nend The University Record was founded at U of M as a record of the educational and scientific work at the university. (MT, Fall. ?97, p.18) 1891 nend Alice Dewey founded the Women?s League at the Univ. of Mich. (MT, Fall. ?97, p.18) 1891 nend The Multnomah Athletic Club opened in Portland, Oregon. (WSJ, 5/22/06, p.A1) 1891 nend The US meteorological program under the US Signal Service was transferred to the United States Weather Bureau, a division of the Dept. of Agriculture. (ON, 2/06, p.7) 1891 nend An international copyright law was passed. (WSJ, 12/20/01, p.A14) 1891 nend American Sugar Refining Company incorporated. (WSJ, 5/28/96, p. R-45) 1891 nend The Thomas Houston Electric Co., the Thomas Houston International Electric Co., and Edison General Electric merged. Houston had made its fortune selling AC powered arc lights for city streets. In 1892 the new company was incorporated as General Electric. (WSJ, 5/28/96, p. R-45)(ON, 10/04, p.8) 1891 nend National Lead was incorporated. (WSJ, 5/28/96, R45) 1891 nend George A. Hormel, son of German immigrants, opened a small retail meat shop in Austin, Minn. Within months he opened a packinghouse. His son Jay became president in 1929. Their canned ham product, developed in 1926, was named Spam on Jan 1, 1937, and registered as a trademark on May 11, 1937. (SFEM, 6/16/96, BR p.26)(WSJ, 4/29/04, p.D10)(www.hormel.com) 1891 nend Pennsylvania?s first free library was chartered. (Econ, 2/14/09, p.40) 1891 nend Pierre Lallemont (47), French mechanic, died in Boston. In 1866 he was granted a US patented for his velocipede, a rotary crank bicycle. (ON, 2/10, p.3) 1891 nend Argentine ants were 1st noticed New Orleans. By 1908 they were seen in California. (SFC, 4/25/01, p.A1) 1891 nend In Austria Daniel Swarovski invented a machine to cut crystal stones to resemble faceted diamonds. His company prospered and in 2004 the Swarovski company placed a crystal star atop the Christmas tree at Rockefeller Center in NYC. (WSJ, 12/22/04, p.A1) 1891 nend British captain and spy H. Bower noted antelope and yak in incredible numbers in the Aru basin of Tibet. (NH, 5/96, p.50) 1891 nend The Brownfields Guild Pottery Society began business in Staffordshire, England, and continued operations to 1900. (SFC, 10/5/05, p.G3) 1891 nend Madame Blavatsky died in London at age 60 during an epidemic of influenza. (Smith., 5/95, p.72) 1891 nend The Golenischeff papyrus was found at El Khibeh in Upper Egypt. This document was a personal report of an Egyptian messenger to Lebanon that dates back to 1110 BC. (R.M.-P.H.C.p.29) 1891 nend In Paris Alexandre Darracq started Gladiator Cycles as one of the dozens of bicycle companies that saturated the market when the cycling craze boomed. The eccentric later became famous for manufacturing automobiles. The Golden Age of cycling reached its pinnacle in 1895, and that same year printer G. Massias unveiled one of the great Parisian advertising posters. Only four of these original posters exist today. The poster was later used by California vintner Hahn Family Wines, a led to a 2009 ban on the wine in Alabama. (www.cyclesgladiator.com/AboutCyclesGladiator) 1891 nend Montaudon, a French champagne maker, began operations. In 2008 it was acquired by LVMH, a luxury goods conglomerate. (Econ, 8/22/09, p.59)(www.champagnemontaudon.com/uk/home_uk.html) 1891 nend Eugene Dubois, Dutch health officer, discovered the skull of a human in Java, Indonesia that he named Pithecanthropus erectus [Java Man]. The first Homo erectus skullcap was found near Trinil, Java. (RFH-MDHP, p.153)(SFC, 12/13/96, p.A4)(SFC, 11/14/00, p.A9) 1891 1892 Sir John Abbott, Conservative Party, served as the 3rd Prime Minister of Canada. (CFA, ?96, p.81) 1891 1892 In Russia a severe famine led to the death of many peasants. (WSJ, 10/5/00, p.A24) 1891 1893 Lili?uokalani (1838-1917) reigned as the last monarch of Hawaii. (WSJ, 1/23/97, p.A12) 1891 1899 During this period the Hopi of Arizona began to produce silver jewelry. A man named Sikyatala learned silversmithing from a Zuni man. (NH, 11/1/04, p.30) 1891 1903 The Model Flint Glass Co. of Findley, Ohio, produced the pressed-glass "bread plate" pattern called the "Last Supper." (SFC, 6/10/98, Z1 p.3) 1891 1918 The Edison Company produced films during this period. In 2005 Kino Int?l. brought out a 4-DVD set titled ?Edison: The Invention of the Movies? containing 140 films made during this period. (Sm, 3/06, p.104) 1891 1921 Japanese dishes imported the US during this period were marked with only the word ?Nippon.? After 1921 US law required the name of the exporting country to be in English. (SFC, 3/16/05, p.G4) 1891 1932 In Grand Rapids, Mich., the "Quaint Furniture" name was used by Albert and John George Stickley, who founded the Stickley Bros. Co. and produced furniture inspired by pieces made from their brother Gustav. (SFC, 1/14/98, Z1 p.2) 1891 1951 Fanny Brice, American actress and singer: "Let the world know you as you are, not as you think you should be, because sooner or later, if you are posing, you will forget the pose, and then where are you?" (AP, 11/10/00) 1891 1959 Stanley Spencer, English painter. He lived and worked in the village of Cookham and experienced visions of sexual and religious feelings that he translated into paintings. (SFC, 10/14/97, p.B1,5)(SFC, 6/5/98, p.C1) 1891 1967 Ilya Ehrenburg, Russian writer. He was the Paris correspondent for Izvestia at the outset of Stalin?s purges in 1932, and won the Stalin Peace Prize in 1953. His books include: "The Ninth Wave" (1951), "The Thaw," and "People, Years and Life," his memoirs that began coming out it Novy Mir in 1960. Joshua Rubenstein wrote his biography in 1996 titled: "Tangled Loyalties: The Life and Times of Ilya Rubenstein." (WSJ, 4/2/96, p.A-12) 1891 1969 Thurman Arnold, American lawyer: "Dissent is not sacred; the right of dissent is." (AP, 5/14/98) 1891 1971 David Sarnoff, American broadcasting pioneer: "Competition brings out the best in products and the worst in people." (AP, 6/30/98) 1891 1973 Edith Mason, American opera singer. She is discussed in the 1997 book "The American Opera Singer" by Peter G. Davis. (WSJ, 11/6/97, p.A20) 1891 1982 Margaret Culkin Banning, American writer: "Regrets are as personal as fingerprints." (AP, 8/12/00) 1892 nend Jan 1, The US Immigration Service, after two years of construction, opened Ellis Island in New York Harbor, a new facility for "processing" immigrants. Annie Moore (15) of County Cork, Ireland, was the 1st person processed. The new facility replaced Castle Garden, which was closed because of massive overcrowding and corruption. The money changing concession was later granted to American Express to end the cheating of immigrants. Formerly used as a munitions dump and landfill, Ellis Island was designed, its architects claimed, to handle more than 8,000 newcomers a day. Orderly lines funneled bewildered immigrants past doctors and officials who examined them for signs of disease. The physically and mentally ill were refused admittance, forcing thousands of families to make the difficult decision to return home with a relative refused entry or push on without them. A final brusque interview by an immigration official determined whether the newcomers had already been promised jobs. About 80% of those who entered Ellis Island received landing cards permitting them to board ferries for NYC. In the 1890s, 75% of all immigrants entered the US through Ellis Island. It was closed in 1954. (AP, 1/1/98)(HNPD, 1/1/99)(AP, 1/1/98)(SFC, 3/21/98, p.E3)(HNPD,9/18/98)(SFEC, 6/20/99, p.T10) 1892 nend Jan 1, The contagious Disease hospitals on Ellis Island were designed by the Boring & Tilton firm of New York in the French Renaissance Style. The hospital closed in 1951. (WSJ, 12/9/99, p.A24) 1892 nend Jan 3, J.R.R. Tolkien, author of the "Lord of the Rings" trilogy, was born in Bloemfontein, South Africa. "All that is gold does not glitter; not all those that wander are lost." (440 Int'l. 1/3/99)(AP, 1/5/99)(AP, 1/3/00) 1892 nend Jan 5, The 1st successful auroral photograph made. (MC, 1/5/02) 1892 nend Jan 6, The local sultanates of Grande Comore were suppressed. (www.worldstatesmen.org/Comoros.html) 1892 nend Jan 8, Coal mine explosion killed 100 in McAlister, Okla. (HN, 1/8/99) 1892 nend Jan 15, The rules of basketball were published for the first time, in Springfield, Mass., where the game originated. (AP, 1/15/00) 1892 nend Jan 17, In Exeter, Rhode Island, Mercy Brown (19), rumored to be a vampire, died of consumption. Some believed her story inspired Bram Stoker?s 1897 novel ?Dracula.? (www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=6628164)(SFC,9/2/11, p.A8) 1892 nend Jan 18, Oliver Hardy, member of Laurel and Hardy comedy duo who starred in numerous films, was born in Harlem, Ga. (HN, 1/18/99)(MC, 1/18/02) 1892 nend Jan 21, Samuel Marsden Brookes, English-born artist, died in SF. He emigrated to the US in 1833, settled in Chicago and moved to SF in 1862. He was a founder of the SF Art Association and the Bohemian Club. (SFCM, 10/28/01, p.20) 1892 nend Jan 25, In Buganda (Uganda) the Battle of Mengo took place. Catholics advanced against Anglicans armed with machine guns just outside what is now Kampala. (Econ, 2/14/04, p.16)(www.africa2000.com/UGANDA/tribute.html) 1892 nend Feb 1, Judge Abraham Jefferson Seay was sworn in as the 2nd territorial governor (1892-1893) of Oklahoma. (http://digital.library.okstate.edu/chronicles/v020/v020p218.html) 1892 nend Feb 2, Bottle cap with cork seal was patented by William Painter in Baltimore. (MC, 2/2/02) 1892 nend Feb 8, Fritz Todt, German Reichs minister (Organization Todt) succeeded by Albert Speer, was born. (MC, 2/8/02) 1892 nend Feb 12, Illinois made President Lincoln's birthday a state holiday. Other states followed suit over the years. (AP, 3/9/05) 1892 nend Feb 13, Grant Wood, painter (American Gothic), was born in Eldon, Iowa. Wood studied at the University of Iowa, taught there and made Iowa the focus of his paintings. His is considered one of America's first 'regionalist' painters. His most famous work 'American Gothic', often spoofed, is a painting of the puritanical farmer and his wife or daughter. (HN, 2/13/01)(SSFC, 7/3/05, p.E3) 1892 nend Feb 16, The opera ?Werther? premiered at the Imperial Theatre Hofoper in Vienna. It was composed in 1887 by French composer Jules Massenet based on Goethe?s 1774 novel "The Sorrows of Young Werther.? (SFC, 9/17/10, p.F1)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werther) 1892 nend Feb 18, Wendell Wilke was born. He was a presidential candidate against President Franklin Roosevelt. (HN, 2/18/99) 1892 nend Feb 22, Edna St. Vincent Millay, poet, writer, feminist, was born in Rockland, Maine. (HN, 2/22/01) 1892 nend Feb 22, "Lady Windermere's Fan," a melodrama by Oscar Wilde, was first performed, at London's St. James's Theater. It was about suspected infidelity. (WSJ, 7/29/98, p.A13)(AP, 2/22/99) 1892 nend Mar 3, 1st cattle tuberculosis test in US was made at Villa Nova, PA. (SC, 3/3/02) 1892 nend Mar 9, David Garnett, novelist, editor (Lady into Fox), was born in England. (MC, 3/9/02) 1892 nend Mar 9, Frank Puglia, actor (Black Orchid, Jungle Book), was born in Sicily, Italy. (MC, 3/9/02) 1892 nend Mar 9, Joseph Weinheber, Austrian poet, writer (Adel und Untergang), was born. (MC, 3/9/02) 1892 nend Mar 9, Vita Sackville-West (d.1962), English poet and writer, was born. "Summer makes a silence after spring." (AP, 6/21/97)(HN, 3/9/01) 1892 nend Mar 10, Arthur Oscar Honegger, composer (King David), was born in Le Havre, France. (MC, 3/10/02) 1892 nend Mar 10, Eva Turner, British soprano, was born. (MC, 3/10/02) 1892 nend Mar 11, Raoul Walsh, director (Thief of Baghdad, Battle Cry), was born in NYC. (MC, 3/12/02) 1892 nend Mar 13, Janet Flanner, writer ("Letter from Paris"), was born. (HN, 3/13/01) 1892 nend Mar 15, New York State unveiled the new mechanical lever, automatic ballot voting machine. (HN, 3/15/98)(WSJ, 11/9/00, p.A1) 1892 nend Mar 15, Jesse W. Reno, inventor, patented the 1st escalator in NYC. (MC, 3/15/02) 1892 nend Mar 26, Poet Walt Whitman died in Camden, N.J. In 1997 Gary Schmidgall published the biography: "Walt Whitman: A Gay Life." It focused on the poet?s homosexuality. In 1999 a critical biography: Walt Whitman: The Song of Himself" by Jerome Loving was published along with "A Whitman Chronology" by Joann P. Krieg. (AP, 3/26/97)(SFEC, 9/14/97, BR p.7)(SFC, 3/3/99, p.E4)(SFEC,4/4/99, Par p.15) 1892 nend Mar 27, Ferde (Ferdinand Rudolf von) Grof, composer, was born in NY. (MC, 3/27/02) 1892 nend Mar 27, Thorne Smith, author (Topper, Rain in the Doorway, Stray Lamb), was born. (MC, 3/27/02) 1892 nend Mar 29, Jozsef Mindszenty, [Joseph Prehm], Hungarian cardinal, was born. (MC, 3/29/02) 1892 nend Mar 29, The Canadian Cricket Assn. was established. (CFA, ?96, p.42) 1892 nend Apr 6, Donald Wills Douglas, US aircraft pioneer (McConnell Douglas), was born. (MC, 4/6/02) 1892 nend Apr 6, Lowell Thomas (d.1981), author, journalist, broadcaster and world traveler was born in Woodington, Ohio. "After the age of 80, everything reminds you of something else." (AP, 4/6/00) 1892 nend Apr 10, Victor de Sabata, conductor, composer (Il Macigno), was born in Trieste, Italy. (MC, 4/10/02) 1892 nend Apr 12, George C. Blickensderfer received the first US patent for a portable typewriter. (www.todayinsci.com/4/4_12.htm) 1892 nend Apr 13, Arthur ("Bomber") Harris, Marshal of the RAF, was born in Cheltenham. (MC, 4/13/02) 1892 nend Apr 15, General Electric Co., formed by the merger of the Edison Electric Light Co. and other firms, was incorporated in New York State. (AP, 4/15/02) 1892 nend Apr 19, The prototype of the first commercially successful American automobile was completed in Springfield, Mass., by Charles E. Duryea and his brother Frank. (AP, 4/19/97) 1892 nend Apr 25, Maud Hart Lovelace, children's author, was born. (HN, 4/25/01) 1892 nend Apr 27, Louis Victor de Broglie, physicist (studied electrons), was born. (MC, 4/27/02) 1892 nend Apr 28, John Jacob Niles, American folk singer and folklorist, was born. (HN, 4/28/01) 1892 nend Apr 28, The 1st performance of Antonin Dvorak's overture "Carneval." (MC, 4/28/02) 1892 nend May 1, Howard Barlow, conductor (Voice of Firestone), was born in Plain City, Ohio. (MC, 5/1/02) 1892 nend May 1, A US quarantine station opened on Angel Island, SF Bay. (MC, 5/1/02) 1892 nend May 2, Manfred von Richthofen (the Red Baron), was born. He was a German pilot and greatest ace of world War I with 80 planes to his credit. (HN, 5/2/99) 1892 nend May 5, US Congress passed the Geary Chinese Exclusion Act, which required Chinese in the United States to be registered and carry an identity card or face deportation. The Six Companies of San Francisco ordered all 110,000 immigrants to refuse compliance. (AP, 5/5/97)(SSFC, 6/3/07, p.M5) 1892 nend May 5, Jan Nepomuk Skroup (80), composer, died. (MC, 5/5/02) 1892 nend May 7, Archibald MacLeish, American poet and statesman, was born. (HN, 5/7/02) 1892 nend May 7, Josip Broz Tito, leader of Yugoslavia (1943-80), was born. (HN, 5/7/98) 1892 nend May 16, Richard Tauber, [Ernst Seiffert], Austria-British, tenor, conductor ("Deine ist mein ganzes Herz"), was born. (MC, 5/16/02) 1892 nend May 19, Charles Brady King of Detroit invented the pneumatic hammer. [see Jan 30, 1894] (DTnet, 5/19/97) 1892 nend May 20, George Sampson patented a clothes dryer. (MC, 5/20/02) 1892 nend May 21, The opera "I Pagliacci," by Ruggiero Leoncavallo, was first performed, in Milan, Italy. The verismo opera was about Sicily in the 1870s. (AP, 5/21/97)(Econ, 11/26/05, Survey p.16) 1892 nend May 22, Dr. Washington Sheffield invented toothpaste tube. (MC, 5/22/02) 1892 nend May 28, The Sierra Club was organized in San Francisco by John Muir. (AP, 5/28/97)(MC, 5/28/02) 1892 nend May 29, Alfonsina Storni, Argentine poet (La inquietud del rosal), was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1892 nend May 29, Baha'u'llah [Mirza HA Noeri], Persian founder of Baha?i faith, died at 74. (SC, 5/29/02) 1892 nend May 31, Gregor Strasser, German pharmacist, NSDAP-Reich organization founder, was born. (MC, 5/31/02) 1892 nend Jun 4, The Sierra Club was incorporated in San Francisco. (SFC, 5/25/96, p.A1)(AP, 6/4/97) 1892 nend Jun 7, Homer Plessy was arrested after buying a railroad ticket in New Orleans and seating himself in the white-only section. He was an "octoroon," 7/8 white and 1/8 black. He had been selected to test the validity of the 1890 Louisiana law mandating separate cars for whites and blacks. (SFC, 5/12/96, p.A-6) 1892 nend Jun 10, The Republican National Convention in Minneapolis nominated President Harrison for re-election and Whitelaw Reid for vice president. Harrison, however, lost the election to former President Cleveland. (AP, 6/10/97) 1892 nend Jun 13, Basil Rathbone, actor (Sherlock Holmes), was born in Johannesburg, South Africa. (MC, 6/13/02) 1892 nend Jun 18, Macadamia nuts were 1st planted in Hawaii. (MC, 6/18/02) 1892 nend Jun 21, Reinhold Niebuhr (d.1971), American Protestant clergyman and author was born. "God, give us grace to accept with serenity the things that cannot be changed, courage to change the things which should be changed, and the wisdom to distinguish the one from the other." "The tendency to claim God as an ally for our partisan values and ends is ... the source of all religious fanaticism." (AP, 5/4/97)(AP, 11/2/97)(HN, 6/21/01) 1892 nend Jun 23, The Democratic national convention in Chicago nominated former President Cleveland on the first ballot. (AP, 6/23/02) 1892 nend Jun 26, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, Nobel Prize winning author (1938), was born. Her work included "The Good Earth." The basic discovery about any people is the discovery of the relationship between its men and women. "It is no simple matter to pause in the midst of one?s maturity, when life is full of function, to examine what are the principles which control that functioning." (AP, 6/18/97)(HN, 6/26/98)(AP, 6/27/98)(MC, 6/26/02) 1892 nend Jul 1, James M. Cain (d.1977), fiction writer, was born in Annapolis, Maryland. His work included "The Postman Always Rings Twice" and "Mildred Pierce." As a member of the "hard-boiled" school of crime fiction of the 1930s and 1940s he is often associated with the equally popular writers Dashiell Hammett and Raymond Chandler. (HN, 7/1/98)(iUniv. 7/1/00) 1892 nend Jul 4, The Omaha Platform was adopted at the formative convention of the Populist (or People's) Party held in Omaha, Nebraska. The People's party, more commonly known as the Populist party, was organized in St. Louis to represent the common folk, especially farmers, against the entrenched interests of railroads, bankers, processors, corporations, and the politicians in league with such interests. At its first national convention in Omaha in July 1892, the party nominated James K. Weaver for president and ratified the so-called Omaha Platform, drafted by Ignatius Donnelly of Minnesota. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omaha_Platform) 1892 nend Jul 4, James Keir Hardie was 1st socialist chosen in British Lower house. (Maggio, 98) 1892 nend Jul 5, Andrew Beard was issued a patent for the rotary engine. (HN, 7/5/98) 1892 nend Jul 9, A stray 500-pound shell from the Sandy Hook, New Jersey, testing range sank the schooner Henry R. Tilton. (AM, 7/04, p.35) 1892 nend Jul 12, In France flood waters burst from a lake buried under a glacier on Mt. Blanc killing at least 175 people in the St. Gervais valley. (SFC, 8/26/10, p.A4)(http://tinyurl.com/2aygvoz) 1892 nend Jul 18, Thomas Cook (83), English tour director (Thomas Cook & Son), died. (MC, 7/18/02) 1892 nend Jul 22, Arthur Seyss-Inquart, Austrian chancellor, Nazi war criminal, was born. (MC, 7/22/02) 1892 nend Jul 23, Haile Selassie (d.1975), Emperor of Ethiopia (1930-74), was born as Tafari Makonnen at Ejarsa Goro, near Harer. He pleaded with the League of Nations to halt the Italian invasion of his country. "Outside the kingdom of the Lord there is no nation which is greater than any other." (AP, 7/23/02)(www.imperialethiopia.org/history3.htm) 1892 nend Jul 28, Joe E. Brown, comedian (Buck Circus Hour), was born in Holgate, Ohio. (SC, 7/28/02) 1892 nend Aug 2, Jack Warner, US movie studio head (Warner Bros), was born. (MC, 8/2/02) 1892 nend Aug 2, Charles A. Wheeler patented a prototype of the escalator. [see Mar 15] (MC, 8/2/02) 1892 nend Aug 4, Lizzie Borden?s father and stepmother, Andrew and Abby Durfee Gray Borden, were killed with an ax in Fall River, Mass. Based on strong circumstantial evidence, Sunday school teacher Lizzie (32), Andrew Borden's daughter from a previous marriage, was charged and acquitted of the murders by an all-male jury. Later an opera titled "Lizzie Borden" by Jack Beeson drew a portrait of family pathology that depicted her as guilty of the crime. (WSJ,3/13/95, p.A-13)(AP, 8/4/97)(SFC, 9/17/97, p.A16)(HNPD, 8/4/98) 1892 nend Aug 5, Harriet Tubman received a pension from Congress for her work as a nurse, spy and scout during the Civil War. (HN, 8/5/98) 1892 nend Aug 11, Hugh MacDiarmid, founder of the Scottish Nationalist Party , was born. (HN, 8/10/98) 1892 nend Aug 13, The first issue of the "Afro American" newspaper was published in Baltimore, Maryland. (HN, 8/13/98) 1892 nend Aug 17, Mae West (d.1980), American actress in burlesque, vaudeville, Broadway, and movies, was born in Brooklyn. "Marriage is a great institution, but I?m not ready for an institution, yet." (HN, 8/17/98)(AP, 8/31/00)(SC, 8/17/02) 1892 nend Aug 27, Fire seriously damaged New York City?s original Metropolitan Opera House, located at Broadway and 39th Street. (AP, 8/27/97) 1892 nend Aug 30, The Moravia, a passenger ship arriving from Germany, brought cholera to the United States. (HN, 8/30/98) 1892 nend Sep 4, Darius Milhaud, Aix-en-Provence France, composer, was born. (MC, 9/4/01) 1892 nend Sep 5, Joseph Szigeti, Budapest Hungary, violinist (Violinist Notebook 1933), was born. (MC, 9/5/01) 1892 nend Sep 7, In New Orleans the 1st heavyweight-title boxing match, fought with gloves under the rules of the Marquis of Queensbury [Queensberry], aka John S. Douglas, ended when James J. Corbett (1866-1933) knocked out John L. Sullivan (1858-1918) in the 21st round. In 1891 Corbett had fought Peter Jackson to a draw after 61 rounds. Corbett lost his title to Robert Fitzsimmons in 1897. (AH, 2/06,p.29)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_L._Sullivan)(SFEC, 3/7/99, Z1 p.8) 1892 nend Sep 7, John G. Whittier, US poet and secretary of the Anti-Slavery Society, died. (MC, 9/7/01) 1892 nend Sep 8, An early version of "The Pledge of Allegiance" appeared in "The Youth?s Companion," published in Boston and edited by Francis Bellamy, a Christian socialist, and cousin of writer Edward Bellamy. James Upham (d.1906), Bellamy?s supervisor, collaborated on the pledge. Frank E. Bellamy (1876-1915) of Cherryvale High School in Kansas had authored a 500-word patriotic essay which included the words of the Pledge of Allegiance and instructions on saluting the American Flag. His teacher entered the "Salute to the Flag" in a contest sponsored by the popular scholastic publication The Youth's Companion. His essay won first place in this national school contest. [see Oct 12] (AP, 9/8/97)(SSFC, 6/30/02,p.A3)(www.leatherockhotel.com/FrankBellamy.htm)(WSJ, 7/6/04, p.A23) 1892 nend Sep 10, Arthur Compton, physicist, was born in Wooster, Ohio. (HN, 9/10/00) 1892 nend Sep 12, Alfred A. Knopf, American publisher, was born. In 1966 he received the Alexander Hamilton Medal. (HN, 9/12/98)(MC, 9/12/01) 1892 nend Sep 26, John Philip Sousa and his newly formed band performed publicly for the first time, at the Stillman Music Hall in Plainfield, N.J. (AP, 9/26/07) 1892 nend Sep 26, The Diamond Match Co. patented book matches. [see Sep 27] (MC, 9/26/01) 1892 nend Sep 27, Book matches were patented by Diamond Match Company. [see Sep 26] (MC, 9/27/01) 1892 nend Oct 1, John Philip Sousa started his 12-year tour as director of the US Marine Band. He premiered many of his marches and produced the first commercial phonograph recordings. [see Oct 1, 1880] (SFC, 5/20/96, p.A-3) 1892 nend Oct 1, The University of Chicago opened. (MC, 10/1/01) 1892 nend Oct 4, Engelbert Dollfuss, Austrian Fascist chancellor, was born. He was killed by Nazis in 1934. (MC, 10/4/01) 1892 nend Oct 5, The Dalton Gang, notorious for its train robberies, was practically wiped out while attempting to rob a pair of banks in Coffeyville, Kan. They were trying to rob the Condon National Bank and the First National Bank simultaneously in their hometown. They were recognized by home town citizens who sounded the alarm and then armed themselves. A fierce gun battle ensued in which four citizens and four members of the Dalton Gang lost their lives. (AP, 10/5/97)(www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/daltons.htm) 1892 nend Oct 6, Alfred Tennyson (b.1809), writer and poet laureate, died at 83. (MC, 10/6/01) 1892 nend Oct 8, Sergei Rachmaninoff first publicly performed his piano "Prelude in C-sharp Minor" in Moscow. (AP, 10/8/97) 1892 nend Oct 12, The American Pledge of Allegiance was 1st recited in public schools to commemorate Columbus Day. Francis Bellamy, a magazine editor of Rome, NY, wrote the "Pledge of Allegiance." [see Sep 8] (SFEC, 2/21/99, Z1 p.8)(Internet) 1892 nend Oct 15, US government convinced the Crow Indians to give up 1.8 million acres of their reservation (in the mountainous area of western Montana) for 50 cents per acre. Presidential proclamation opened this land to settlers. (MC, 10/15/01) 1892 nend Oct 18, The first long-distance telephone line between Chicago and New York was formally opened. It could only handle one call at a time. (AP, 10/18/07) 1892 nend Oct 20, The city of Chicago dedicated the World?s Columbian Exposition. (AP, 10/20/97) 1892 nend Oct 30, Angelo Siciliano (d.1972) was born in Italy. In 1903 he and his mother moved to Brooklyn to live with an uncle. He later became known as body builder Charles Atlas. (ON, 12/09, p.5)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Atlas) 1892 nend Oct, The Univ. of Chicago began operations under Pres. William Rainey Harper. It was founded by John D. Rockefeller. (MT, Fall. ?97, p.19)(WSJ, 1/7/98, p.W11) 1892 nend Nov 2, Lawmen surrounded outlaws Ned Christie and Arch Wolf near Tahlequah, Indian Country (present-day Oklahoma). It would take dynamite and a cannon to dislodge the two from their cabin. (HN, 11/2/98) 1892 nend Nov 6, John Sigvard "Ole" Olsen, comedian (Olsen & Johnson), was born in Wabash, Ind. (MC, 11/6/01) 1892 nend Nov 6, Harold Ross, New Yorker editor, was born. (HN, 11/6/00) 1892 nend Nov 8, Former President Cleveland beat incumbent Benjamin Harrison and became the first (and, to date, only) president to win non-consecutive terms in the White House. (AP, 11/8/97) 1892 nend Nov 8, In Paris, France, anarchist Emile Henry placed a time bomb at the offices of the Carmaux Mining Company that killed 5 policemen. (www.marxists.org/reference/archive/henry/biography.htm) 1892 nend Nov 16, King Behanzin of Dahomey (now Benin), led soldiers against the French. (HN, 11/16/98) 1892 nend Dec 2, Jay Gould (b.1836), American financier, died. In 1986 Maury Klein authored "The Life and Legend of Jay Gould." His fortune was estimated at $72 million. (WSJ, 3/21/00, p.A24)(www.nndb.com/people/421/000050271/) 1892 nend Dec 4, Francisco Franco (y Bahamonde), Spanish general and dictator (1936-75), was born. He came to power as a result of the Spanish Civil War. (HN, 12/4/00)(MC, 12/4/01) 1892 nend Dec 6, E. Werner von Siemens (75), German industrialist (Siemens AG), died. (MC, 12/6/01) 1892 nend Dec 9, "Widowers' Houses," George Bernard Shaw's first play, opened at the Royalty Theater in London. (AP, 12/9/06) 1892 nend Dec 15, J. Paul Getty, American oilman and art collector, was born into oil money. His father, George Getty, owned a drilling company and Paul hit a gusher on the first hole he drilled. He decided to retire at age 24 but returned to the business after his father had a stroke. (HN, 12/15/98)(WSJ, 1/11/98, p.R18) 1892 nend Dec 18, Anton Bruckner's 8th Symphony, premiered. (MC, 12/18/01) 1892 nend Dec 18, Tchaikovsky?s "The Nutcracker Suite" ["Nutcracker Ballet"] publicly premiered in St. Petersburg, Russia, at the Maryinsky Theater. (SFEC, 11/24/96, DB p.44)(AP, 12/18/97) 1892 nend Dec 20, Phileas Fogg completed his around the world trip, according to Jules Verne. (MC, 12/20/01) 1892 nend Dec 20, Pneumatic automobile tire was patented in Syracuse, NY. (MC, 12/20/01) 1892 nend Cicily Fairfield (aka Rebecca West), writer, was born. Her books included "The Return of the Soldier" and "Black Lamb and Grey Falcon," which was written following a trip through Yugoslavia. She had a relationship with H.G. Wells that led to the birth of a son, Anthony. In 1996 Carl Rollyson wrote her biography: "Rebecca West: A Life." Her pen name came from a character in Ibsen?s play "Rosmersholm." Rebecca West died in 1983. (SFEC, 11/3/96, BR p.5)(WSJ, 11/21/96, p.A20)(WSJ, 3/6/00, p.A28) 1892 nend E.F. Holt painted "A Farmyard Scene." (SFEM, 10/18/98, p.14) 1892 nend Thomas Moran painted his geological extravaganza "Grand Canyon of the Colorado." (WSJ, 9/19/02, p.D12) 1892 nend John Singer Sargent, artist, began his painting of "Lady Agnew of Locknaw." It was completed in 1893. (SFC, 3/31/97, p.E6) 1892 nend Alfred Sisley painted "View of the Village of Moret." (WSJ, 2/29/00, p.B16) 1892 nend Anatole France wrote his novella ?Le Procurateur de Judee.? (WSJ, 7/8/06, p.P8) 1892 nend In Fort Worth, Texas, 20 women founded the state?s 1st art museum with $50,000 from Andrew Carnegie. (WSJ, 12/17/02, p.D8) 1892 nend John Philip Sousa, the 17th director of the US Marine Band was given a gold baton that became ceremoniously passed to future directors. (SFC, 7/7/96, Par, p.12) 1892 nend The settlement of Goldfield, Arizona, got its start when low grade gold ore was found in the area between the Superstition Mountains and the Goldfield Mounts. Low-grade or not, a town soon sprang up and on October 7, 1893 it received its first official post office. (Econ, 4/17/10, p.34)(www.goldfieldghosttown.com/history.html) 1892 nend Barbed wire that fenced the west at this time is on display at Oracle Junction, Arizona, and includes Curtis 4 Point. (NOHY, 3/90, p.173) 1892 nend In California the Romanesque style post office of San Jose built. It was designed by federal architect Willoughby Edbrooke in the Richardsonian style and later became part of the San Jose Museum of Art. (SFC,10/15/97, p.D1) 1892 nend Hibernia Bank set up headquarters in a temple-style building at 1 Jones St. and Market near the SF Civic Center. In 2008 the building ,vacant since 2000, was sold for $3.95 million. (SFC, 3/25/05, p.F2)(SFC, 9/11/08, p.B1) 1892 nend In SF the Trinity Episcopal Church at Bush and Gough was completed. It was based on England?s Durham Cathedral. The church was originally established in 1849. In 2009 the main sanctuary was mothballed due to seismic issues and the lack of funds for repair. (SFEM, 8/9/98, p.27)(SFC, 5/29/09, p.B1) 1892 nend John H. Baird, a San Francisco capitalist, subdivided and sold a set of lots along Haight Street, site of the Haight Street Grounds sports field. (Randolph Delehanty "S.F., The Ultimate Guide", p. 252) 1892 nend The Brown Palace Hotel opened in Denver, Colorado. (WSJ, 6/24/08, p.D7) 1892 nend Thomas Green Ryman, saloon and riverboat owner, built the Union Gospel Tabernacle in Nashville, Tenn., for revivalist Sam Jones. It later became the original home of the Grand Ole Opry. (SFCM, 3/11/01, p.43) 1892 nend A group of avocational archeologists founded the American Archeological Association. Their 1st magazine," The Archeologist," appeared a year later. The magazine was bought by Popular Science in 1895. (AM, 9/01, p.38) 1892 nend The word "homosexual" first appeared in print. (SFC, 6/22/96, p.E4) 1892 nend Buffalo Bill Cody?s Wild West Show toured in England with Sioux Chief Long Wolf (59) and 7-year-old White Star, a girl whose real name was Rose Ghost Dog. They both died on tour, he of pneumonia and she of a riding accident. Their bodies were returned to Wolf Creek, South Dakota, in 1997 and reburied. (SFC, 9/29/97, p.A8) 1892 nend The first Fig Newtons were created. (SFEC, 10/31/99, Z1 p.2) 1892 nend The National League sanctioned Sunday games for baseball. (WSJ, 7/27/00, p.A20) 1892 nend The first CAL-Stanford Big Game was held at the field called the Haight Street Grounds in SF. Legend says that Herbert Hoover, Stanford manager and future US president, forgot the requisite football and caused a several hour game delay. (SFEC,12/797, p.B12) 1892 nend Pennsylvania?s Mansfield Univ. played college football?s first night game. (WSJ, 9/26/08, p.A1) 1892 nend The US Supreme Court declared ?this is a Christian nation? in a case concerning the use of foreign labor. (AH, 4/07, p.30) 1892 nend Bankers Manifesto: ?At the coming Omaha Convention to be held July 4th (1892), our men must attend and direct its movement, or else there will be set on foot such antagonism to our designs as may require force to overcome. This at the present time would be premature. We are not yet ready for such a crisis. Capital must protect itself in every possible manner through combination (conspiracy) and legislation.? Congressman Charles A. Lindbergh, Sr. revealed the Bankers Manifesto of 1892 to the U.S. Congress somewhere between 1907 and 1917. no_source 1892 nend In New York state the Seneca Indians set up a treaty whereby non-Indian residents of Salamanca, a town built on the Seneca Nation of Indians' Allegheny Reservation, paid rent to the Seneca. (SFC, 8/18/99, p.C14) 1892 nend Voting machines were first used in the US in Lockport, New York. (BD emp letter, 9/27/96) 1892 nend John D. Rockefeller broke the Standard Oil Trust up into 20 separate companies after antitrust action against the Standard Oil Company. (HNQ, 1/23/00) 1892 nend Henry Clay Frick, partner of Andrew Carnegie, engineered a bloody clash with the labor union at the Pittsburgh Homestead Mill. 9-10 workers and 3 Pinkerton guards were killed and the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers union was crushed. The strike had arisen over Carnegie's efforts to automate steel production. (SFEC,1/20/97, p.D1)(WSJ, 5/12/03, p.A6)(WSJ, 3/29/04, p.A8) 1892 nend In Marietta, Ohio, Collins R. Stevens (d.1921) and Orin C. Klock began manufacturing reed organs under the name Stevens & Klock. The company went out of business in 1924. (SFC, 12/17/08, p.G6) 1892 nend Abercrombie & Fitch, clothing retailers, began operations. (Econ, 3/6/04, Survey p.11) 1892 nend Barbour Silver was organized in Hartford, Conn. In 1898 it became part of the Int?l. Silver Co. of Meriden, Conn. (SFC, 10/19/05, p.G2) 1892 nend The Gill Clay Pot Co. moved from Bellaire, Ohio, to Muncie, Ind., to be near glass companies and natural gas supplies. The company made pots and tanks to hold melting glass. In 1923 a family member opened Muncie Pottery next door. (SFC, 9/21/05, p.G3) 1892 nend The Central Glass Co. of Wheeling, W. Va., made a pattern of glass called Coin based on real US coins. After 8 months of production the US Treasury Dep. ruled that using the coins was a form of counterfeiting money and the pattern was discontinued. (SFC, 3/28/07, p.G7) 1892 nend The Macey Furniture Co. of Grand Rapids, Mich., opened as a mail-order operation. By 1900 it made its own furniture and in 1905 merged with Wernicke Furniture of Cincinnati. In 1907 the company became Globe-Wernicke. (SFC, 10/24/07, p.G2) 1892 nend The Royal furniture Co. began operating in Grand Rapids, Mich., and continued to 1931. In 1901 Robert Irwin bought a controlling interest and in 1919 combined royal with the Phoenix furniture Co., also in Grand Rapids, to form the Robert W. Irwin Co, which closed in 1953. (SFC, 1/7/09, p.G2) 1892 nend US Rubber was formed as the consolidation of nine domestic makers of rubber products. (WSJ, 5/28/96, R45) 1892 nend Joshua Pusey came out with his book matches. (SFC, 6/22/96, p.E4) 1892 nend Robert Ingersoll came out with his $1 pocket watch. (SFC, 6/22/96, p.E4) 1892 nend The 1st electrical hearing aid was invented. It weighed several pounds. (SSFC, 5/13/01, Par p.4) 1892 nend At the Univ. of Virginia the underground social club "Zs" was founded. (USAT, 1/15/97, p.6D) 1892 nend In California rains flooded the entire Central Valley and produced a lake that was some 250-300 miles long and 20-30 miles wide. (SFC, 5/27/98, p.A1) 1892 nend Cypress Lawn, a non-sectarian cemetery, was established in Lawndale (Colma), Ca. (GTP, 1973, p.45)(www.colmahistory.org/History.htm) 1892 nend E.E. Barnard, US astronomer, discovered Amalthea, a small potato-shaped moon of Jupiter. (SFC, 12/10/02, p.A2) 1892 nend Edwin Holmes discovered Comet 17P/Holmes. On Oct. 23, 2007, the comet, which had been visible to modern astronomers only with a telescope, suddenly erupted and expanded, possibly due to sinkholes in its nucleus. (AP, 11/4/07) 1892 nend In Vienna the Hotel Bristol opened. (WSJ, 9/26/08, p.A20) 1892 nend Bohemia granted Ludwig Moser (d.1916) permission to make his own glass. He had started decorating glass in 1857. In2008 Moser Glass Works was still operating in Karlsbad, Czech Republic. (SFC, 4/2/08, p.G2) 1892 nend Sun Yat-Sen (d.1925), Chinese statesman and revolutionary leader, graduated from the Hong Kong School of Medicine. (HFA, ?96, p.18)(AP, 6/22/97)(HNQ, 6/3/98) 1892 nend Plague hit China and spread throughout south Asia. It ended after killing 6 million people in India. (SFC, 7/2/05, p.F9) 1892 nend Camille Flammarion of France explained the changing brightness of features on Mars to seasonal changes of yellow vegetation and shallow seas. (SFC, 11/29/96, p.A16) 1892 nend In Germany Count Zeppelin left the army and began work on his lighter-than-air ship. (AHM, 1/97) 1892 nend Ernst von Mendelssohn Bartholdy acquired the mansion at Boernicke, Germany and 4,500 acres. The mansion was lost to the Nazis in the early 1930s and to the Soviets in 1945. In 1994 it passed to the control of a former Communist leader, Karl Heinz Posselt, the local deputy mayor. The Mendelssohn family was still seeking control in 1995. (WSJ, 12/5/95, p.A-1) 1892 nend Italy made it illegal for girls to marry before age 12. (SFC, 7/7/96, Z1 p.5) 1892 nend Pavel Tretyakov, a wealthy Moscow businessman and patron of the arts, donated his collection of about 1200 works to the city of Moscow, together with the wing of his residence in which the works were housed. In the Hall of Ivanov the "Appearance of Christ to the People" dominates the room. (WSJ, 2/21/96, p.A-12)(WSJ, 8/12/96, p.A11) 1892 nend Samoa made a decision to stay behind a day on the international date line and align it-self with US traders based in California. In 2011 it planned to leap 24 hours into the future so that it can be on the same weekday as Australia, New Zealand and eastern Asia. (AP, 5/9/11) 1892 nend In Serbia public transportation began in Belgrade. (SFC, 1/14/98, p.C3) 1892 nend A Boer government grabbed 90% of the land of southern Africa?s biggest woman, the Rain Queen of the Lobedu. She was immortalized by H. Rider Haggard as ?She.? (Econ, 12/18/04, p.62) 1892 nend In Switzerland the Brienz Rothornbahn steam-powered cog-wheeled train began operating a 5-mile run from Brienz to the 7,700 Rothorn mountain top. (SFEC, 12/1/96, p.T5) 1892 1894 Sir John S.D. Thompson, Conservative Party, served as the 4th Prime Minister of Canada. (CFA, ?96, p.81) 1892 1894 The US Biological Survey sponsored Edgar Alexander Mearns and a field party to survey the borderlands, an area 100 miles wide and 250 miles long along the US-Mexican border from the boot heel of New Mexico to the Organ Pipe National Monument in south-central Arizona. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.58-61) 1892 1937 The Gilbert Islands (Kiribati Islands) were amalgamated as British possessions. (WSJ, 1/22/96, p.A-1) 1892 1944 Wendell Wilkie, candidate for US presidency against F.D. Roosevelt. He visited many foreign countries after his defeat as a sort of personal ambassador of the president. "The Constitution does not provide for first and second class citizens." (V.D.-H.K.p.318)(AP, 4/14/99) 1892 1950 Edna St. Vincent Millay, American author and poet: "It?s not love?s going hurts my days / But that it went in little ways." (AP, 3/4/98) 1892 1954 Robert H. Jackson, U.S. Supreme Court Justice: "Men are more often bribed by their loyalties and ambitions than by money." (AP, 2/23/00) 1892 1964 Eddie Cantor, American comedian-singer: "Matrimony is not a word, it?s a sentence." (AP, 10/12/00) 1892 1964 J.B.S. Haldane, scientist. He was one of the 3 founders (R.A. Fisher and Sewall Wright) of the modern theory of population genetics and integrated the Mendelian rules for heredity with Darwinian natural selection. He later proclaimed that mustard gas would be a good weapon for wars because its effects could be readily controlled. (NH, 10/98, p.2,22) 1892 1969 Dame Ivy Compton-Burnett, English author: "There are different kinds of wrong. The people sinned against are not always the best." (AP, 10/21/98) 1892 1969 Walter C. Hagen, American golfer: "Don?t hurry, don?t worry. You?re only here for a short visit. So be sure to stop and smell the flowers." (AP, 5/18/97) 1892 1969 Osbert Sitwell, English poet and author. His 50 books included a 5-volume autobiography, one of which was titled "Left Hand, Right Hand!" He and his siblings, Edith and Sacheverell, attained some fame in their day. In 1999 Philip Ziegler authored the biography "Osbert Sitwell." (WSJ, 12/14/99, p.A20) 1892 1972 Henry Darger, outsider artist, was the author of a 15,000 page illustrated novel titled: "The Story of the Vivian Girls, in What Is Known as the Realms of the Unreal." The work inspired the 1999 work by poet John Ashbury: "Girls on the Run," a single long poem divided into 21 numbered sections. (SFEC, 4/4/99, BR p.2) 1892 1973 Pearl S. Buck, American author: "The basic discovery about any people is the discovery of the relationship between its men and women." (AP, 6/18/97) 1892 1978 Margarett Sargent, painter and socialite. Her granddaughter, Ms. Moore, wrote her biography: "The White Blackbird: The Life of the Painter Margarett Sargent." She had studied under Mount Rushmore?s sculptor, Gutzon Borglum. From 1916 to 1936 her work was included in as many as 30 shows. (WSJ, 3/25/96, p.A-15)(WSJ, 4/9/96, p.A-1) 1892 1979 Mary Pickford, silent film actress, was born as Gladys Marie Smith in Toronto. Her life is documented in the 1997 book: "Pickford: The Woman Who Made Hollywood" by Eileen Whitfield. (SFC,11/26/97, Z1 p.E6) 1892 1983 Dame Rebecca West, Irish author and journalist: "Those who foresee the future and recognize it as tragic are often seized by a madness which forces them to commit the very acts which makes it certain that what they dread shall happen." "There is no such thing as conversation. It is an illusion. There are intersecting monologues, that is all." (AP, 9/5/98)(AP, 4/9/99) 1892 1984 George Aiken, U.S. Senator: "If we were to wake up some morning and find that everyone was the same race, creed, and color, we would find some other causes for prejudice by noon." (AP, 4/11/99) 1893 nend Jan 4, US president Cleveland granted amnesty to Mormon polygamists. (MC, 1/4/02) 1893 nend Jan 6, Great Northern Railway connected Seattle with east coast. (MC, 1/6/02) 1893 nend Jan 6, Vincas Mykolaitis-Putinas (d.1967), writer and poet, was born in Lithuania. (LHC, 1/6/03) 1893 nend Jan 9, Mohara, Arab ivory and slave trader, died in battle and was eaten. (MC, 1/9/02) 1893 nend Jan 11, Benjamin Butler (b.1818), former Union general, lawyer and governor of Massachusetts (1883-1884), died in New Hampshire. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Butler_%28politician%29) 1893 nend Jan 12, Hermann Goring, Reichsmarshal of the Third Reich and commander of the Luftwaffe, was born. He committed suicide before he was to be hung for war crimes. (HN, 1/12/99) 1893 nend Jan 13, Britain's Independent Labor Party, a precursor to the current Labor Party, had its 1st meeting. (AP, 1/13/00) 1893 nend Jan 15, Fanny Kemble (b.1809), actress and writer, died in London. Her work included "Journal of a Residence on a Georgia Plantation.? In 2000 Catherine Clinton authored "Fanny Kimble?s Civil Wars" and edited "Fanny Kemble?s Journals." In 2007 Deirdre David authored ?Fanny Kemble: A Performed Life.? (WSJ, 9/21/00, p.A24)(Econ, 6/23/07,p.95)(www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p1569.html) 1893 nend Jan 17, Hawaii's monarchy was overthrown by a group of businessmen and sugar planters under Sanford Ballard Dole, who forced Queen Lili?uokalani to abdicate and formed the Republic of Hawaii. This coup occurred with the knowledge of John L. Stevens, the US Minister to Hawaii. 300 Marines from the USS Boston were called to Hawaii, allegedly to protect American lives. Queen Lili?uokalani wrote to Pres. Harrison for support. (AP, 1/17/98)(HNPD, 1/25/99)(SFEC, 8/29/99, p.T11)(ON, 11/02, p.6) 1893 nend Jan 17, A state record temperature of 17F, -27C, was recorded in Millsboro, Delaware. (MC, 1/17/02) 1893 nend Jan 17, The 19th president of the United States, Rutherford B. Hayes, died in Fremont, Ohio, at age 70. (AP, 1/17/98) 1893 nend Jan 20, Bessy Colman, first African American aviator, was born. (HN, 1/20/99) 1893 nend Jan 26, Bessie Coleman, first black airplane pilot, was born. (HN, 1/26/99) 1893 nend Jan 26, Abner Doubleday (b.1819), credited with inventing baseball, died on his 74th birthday. (MC, 1/26/02) 1893 nend Feb 1, The US Minister to Hawaii, at the request of Pres. Dole, placed the Provisional Government under formal US protection and raised the US flag over Hawaii. (ON, 11/02, p.6) 1893 nend Feb 1, Inventor Thomas A. Edison completed work on the world?s first motion picture studio, his "Black Maria," in West Orange, N.J. (AP, 2/1/97) 1893 nend Feb 1, The opera "Manon Lescaut," by Giacomo Puccini, premiered in Turin, Italy. (AP, 2/1/01) 1893 nend Feb 2, The first movie close-up (of a sneeze) was made at the Edison studio, West Orange, NJ. (HFA, '96, p.24)(MC, 2/2/02) 1893 nend Feb 9, Giuseppe Verdi?s last opera, "Falstaff," was first performed, in Milan, Italy. (AP, 2/9/01) 1893 nend Feb 9, Suez Canal builder De Lesseps and others were sentenced to prison for fraud. (MC, 2/9/02) 1893 nend Feb 10, Jimmy Durante, ?Schozzel,? American comedian and film actor, was born in NYC. "Be nice to people on the way up. They?re the same people you?ll pass on the way down." (HN, 2/10/99)(AP, 2/10/01)(MC, 2/10/02) 1893 nend Feb 12, Omar Bradley (d.1981), U.S. army general, was born in Clark, Missouri. He was called "the soldier?s soldier" because of his interest in the welfare of enlisted men. He was a 1915 graduate of West Point, and won fame as commander in North Africa and France during WWII. Gen. Bradley became chief of staff in 1948, succeeding Gen. Dwight Eisenhower. In 1949 he became the first Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. He led the largest concentration of ground troops in Europe during World War II." The world has achieved brilliance without conscience. Ours is a world of nuclear giants and ethical infants." (HNQ, 6/28/98)(HN, 2/12/99)(AP, 4/8/00) 1893 nend Feb 20, Russel Crouse, journalist, novelist, playwright (Life with Father), was born. (MC, 2/20/02) 1893 nend Feb 21, Andés Segovia (d.1987), Spanish classical guitarist, was born in Linares, Spain. (WUD, 1994 p.1291)(HN, 2/21/01)(MC, 2/21/02) 1893 nend Feb 26, Ivor Armstrong Richards (I.A. Richards), writer, critic and teacher (Meaning of Meaning), was born. (HN, 2/26/01)(SC, 2/26/02) 1893 nend Feb 26, 2 Clydesdale horses set a record by pulling 48 tons on a sledge in Michigan. (SC, 2/26/02) 1893 nend Feb 26, Einar Halvorsen skated to a world record 500 meter (48 seconds). (SC, 2/26/02) 1893 nend Feb 28, Edward Acheson of Pennsylvania, patented an abrasive he named "carborundum." (MC, 2/28/02) 1893 nend Mar 1, The US Diplomatic Appropriation Act authorized the rank of ambassador. (SC, 3/1/02) 1893 nend Mar 2, 1st federal railroad legislation was passed; required safety features. (SC, 3/2/02) 1893 nend Mar 3, Congress authorized 1st federal road agency in the Department of Agriculture. (SC, 3/3/02) 1893 nend Mar 3, Columbian Isabella silver quarter was authorized. (SC, 3/3/02) 1893 nend Mar 4, Grover Cleveland (D) was inaugurated as 24th US President (2nd term). (SC, 3/4/02) 1893 nend Mar 4, Francis Dhanis' army attacked the Lualaba and occupied Nyangwe (Congo). (SC, 3/4/02) 1893 nend Mar 5, Emmett J. Culligan, founder of water treatment organization, was born. (MC, 3/5/02) 1893 nend Mar 5, Hippolyte Taine (64), French philosopher, historian, died. (MC, 3/5/02) 1893 nend Mar 9, Edgar Scauflaire, Belgian muralist, decorator, was born. (MC, 3/9/02) 1893 nend Mar 9, Hans Munch, composer, was born. (MC, 3/9/02) 1893 nend Mar 9, Congo cannibals killed 1000s of Arabs. (MC, 3/9/02) 1893 nend Mar 10, New Mexico State University canceled its first graduation ceremony, because the only graduate Sam Steele was robbed and killed the night before. (HN, 3/10/98)(MC, 3/10/02) 1893 nend Mar 18, Wilfred Owen (d.1918), World War I English poet, was born. He was killed one week before Armistice Day of WW I. His fellow poet Siegfried Sassoon published Owen?s single slim volume of poetry. (NH, 10/98, p.18)(HN, 3/18/01) 1893 nend Mar 24, George Sisler, baseball player, was born. (HN, 3/24/01) 1893 nend Mar 27, The American Bell telephone Company made its first long distance telephone call to its branch office in New York. (HN, 3/27/99) 1893 nend Mar 29, US Congressman James Blount arrived in Hawaii to investigate the change in government. He later reported to Congress that annexation to the US was being forced and that the people of Hawaii supported their queen. (ON, 11/02, p.7) 1893 nend Mar 31, Clemens Krauss, conductor (Berlin State Orch-1937), was born in Vienna. (MC, 3/31/02) 1893 nend Apr 3, Leslie Howard, [Stainer], actor (Gone With the Wind), was born in London. (MC, 4/3/02) 1893 nend Apr 6, Mormon Temple in Salt Lake City was dedicated. (MC, 4/6/02) 1893 nend Apr 7, Allan W. Dulles, US diplomat, CIA head (1953-61) (Germany's Underground), was born. (MC, 4/7/02) 1893 nend Apr 8, Edgar "Yip" Harburg, lyricist ("Brother, Can You Spare a Dime?," "Over the Rainbow"), was born. (HN, 4/8/01) 1893 nend Apr 8, Mary Pickford, silent film actress (Poor Little Rich Girl), was born. (HN, 4/8/98) 1893 nend Apr 8, The Critic reported that ice cream soda is the national drink of the US. (MC, 4/8/02) 1893 nend Apr 11, Dean G. Acheson, statesman, U.S. secretary of state (1949-53) , was born. (HN, 4/11/98) 1893 nend Apr 19, The Oscar Wilde play "A Woman of No Importance" opened at the Haymarket Theatre in London. (WSJ, 9/16/98, p.A20)(AP, 4/19/03) 1893 nend Apr 20, Harold Lloyd, film comedian, was born. He is best remembered for his film "Safety Last." (HN, 4/20/99) 1893 nend Apr 20, Joan Miró (Joan Miro), Spanish painter, was born. (HN, 4/20/01) 1893 nend Apr 26, Anita Loos, author and playwright, was born. Her work included: "Gentlemen Prefer Blondes," "I Married an Angel," "San Francisco," "Saratoga," and "The Women." (440 Int?l. Internet, 4/26/97, p.6) 1893 nend Apr 29, Harold C. Urey, physicist (Deuterium, Nobel 1934), was born in Indiana. (MC, 4/29/02) 1893 nend May 1, The World?s Columbian Exposition was officially opened in Chicago by President Cleveland. The El in Chicago was erected to take visitors to the World?s Columbian Exposition. It created a section of town called the Loop encircled by the railway. The exposition grounds covered over 600 acres of south Chicago along Lake Michigan. The exposition attracted over 21 million visitors who saw such wonders as the Ferris Wheel and electricity (first displayed in the Paris Exposition in 1889, but still unknown to most Americans). It was the first American exposition to make a profit. In 2003 Erik Larson authored "The Devil in the White City: Murder, Magic and madness at the Fair That Changed America." (AP, 5/1/97)(Hem. 7/96, p.25)(HNQ, 2/18/01)(SSFC, 3/30/03, p.M1) 1893 nend May 5, Panic hit the New York Stock Exchange; by year's end, the country was in the throes of a severe depression. [see June 27] (AP, 5/5/99) 1893 nend May 29, A runaway circus train near Tyrone, Pa., left 5 dead and a lot of wild animals roaming the countryside. (THC, 12/2/97) 1893 nend Jun 1, "Falstaff," the last opera by Giuseppe Verdi, was produced in Berlin. (DTnet, 6/1/97)(SFEM, 9/10/00, p.20) 1893 nend Jun 9, Cole Porter, American composer and lyricist, was born in Indiana. His songs include "Night and Day," "You're the Tops," and "I Get a Kick Our of You." In 1998 William McBrian published the biography "Cole Porter." [see Jun 9, 1891] (WUD, 1994 p.1120)(CFA, '96, p.48)(SFEC, 11/22/98, BR p.4) 1893 nend Jun 13, Dorothy Leigh Sayers (d.1957), English detective writer, creator of Lord Peter Wimsey, was born. "The worst sin -- perhaps the only sin -- passion can commit, is to be joyless." (AP, 5/17/97)(HN, 6/13/01) 1893 nend Jun 14, Philadelphia observed the first Flag Day. (HN, 6/14/98) 1893 nend Jun 20, A jury in New Bedford, Mass., found Lizzie Borden innocent of the ax murders of her father, wealthy Fall River, Massachusetts, businessman Andrew Borden and his wife, Abby Borden. Lizzie Borden, defended by a team of skilled lawyers, was acquitted?some say on the strength of her lawyers? portrayal of Lizzie as a respectable woman who could not have committed such brutal acts. Local townspeople were unconvinced, however, and Lizzie Borden was ostracized for the rest of her life. (AP, 6/20/97)(HNPD, 8/4/98) 1893 nend Jun 21, George Washington Gale Ferris, engineer, completed the construction of a 254-foot high revolving steel wheel with 38 passenger cars, each with 40 plush chairs, for the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. (ON, 11/99, p.7)(MC, 6/21/02) 1893 nend Jun 26, William "Big Bill" Broonzy, blues singer and guitarist, was born. (HN, 6/26/01) 1893 nend Jun 27, The New York stock market crashed. The crash triggered the failure of 642 banks and over 16,000 businesses. Railroad overbuilding led to scores of train-related bankruptcies. (AP, 6/27/97)(ON, 10/99, p.11)(WSJ, 2/1/00, p.B1) 1893 nend Jun 30, Harold Laski, political scientist, was born. He believed the state was responsible for social reform and wrote "Authority in the Modern State" and "The American President." (HN, 6/30/99) 1893 nend Jun 30, Pres. Cleveland issued a proclamation calling for a special session of Congress on August 7 to deal with the financial crises. (ON, 10/99, p.11) 1893 nend Jun 30, Excelsior diamond (blue-white 995 carats) was discovered. (MC, 6/30/02) 1893 nend Jun, Pierre de Coubertin convinced the General Assembly of the USFSA, an amateur sporting society, to host a congress in France that would examine the issue of amateurism in sports. (ON, 8/07, p.3) 1893 nend Jun, Fridtjof Nansen left Norway for the North Pole aboard the Fram. He theorized that the ship would become ice-bound and cross the Arctic and the North Pole in 3 years. (ON, 7/05, p.1) 1893 nend Jul 1, Pres. Cleveland underwent a secret oral surgery aboard the yacht Oneida for a cancerous growth in his upper palate. The cancer operation remained a secret until July 1, 1917, when the doctor who performed the operation revealed the story. (ON, 10/99, p.11)(HNQ, 11/6/99) 1893 nend Jul 1, Canada enacted a riot act as part of its criminal code. (SSFC, 7/26/09, p.A4)(http://tinyurl.com/lfqouh) 1893 nend Jul 4, A Borrelly discovered asteroid #369 Aeria. (Maggio, 98) 1893 nend Jul 7, In Bardwell, Ky., C.J. Miller, a black man accused of murdering two white girls, was mutilated, torched and left hanging from a telegraph pole. Ida Wells (1862-1931) was commissioned to investigate the story by the Chicago Inter-Ocean newspaper and published her findings under the title ?History Is a Weapon.? (WSJ, 3/8/08, p.W8)(www.historyisaweapon.com/defcon1/wellslynchlaw.html) 1893 nend Jul 7, Guy de Maupassant (42), writer, died. (MC, 7/7/02) 1893 nend Jul 9, Daniel Hale Williams (1858-1931), an African-American surgeon, performed successful heart surgery on a teenager in Chicago. (WSJ, 11/17/07, p.W11)(http://tinyurl.com/37gnkk) 1893 nend Jul 17, Pres. Cleveland underwent a 2nd oral surgery aboard the yacht Oneida in a follow-up operation for a cancerous growth in his upper palate. (ON, 10/99, p.11) 1893 nend Jul 19, Vladimir Mayakovsky, Russian poet, was born. (HN, 7/19/01) 1893 nend Jul 22, Karl Menninger, psychiatrist and founder of the Menninger Foundation for studies mental health problems, was born. (HN, 7/22/98) 1893 nend Jul 22, Katherine Lee Bates (1819-1910), Wellesley professor, wrote the words to the song "America the Beautiful," while atop Pike?s Peak during a trip to Colorado. It appeared in print on July 4, 1895. In 1904 Clarence Barbour adapted it to the melody of Samuel Ward?s ?Materna? (1890). Bates? final version was completed in 1911. (WSJ, 9/28/01, p.W13)(SSFC, 10/21/01, Par p.8)(AH, 10/04, p.26) 1893 nend Jul 26, George Grosz (d.1959), German satiric artist and illustrator, was born. He arrived in Berlin in 1911 and began drawing what he saw in a style of expressionism and the journalistic style of Heinrich Zille. A collection of his work was published in 1997 based on an exhibition catalog titled: "The Berlin of George Grosz: Drawings, Watercolors and Prints, 1912-1930." (SFEC, 7/13/97, BR p.10)(HN, 7/26/01) 1893 nend Aug 1, Henry Perky and William Ford patented a machine for making shredded wheat breakfast cereal. (HN, 8/1/00)(MC, 8/1/02) 1893 nend Aug 7, Alfredo Catalani (39), Italian composer, died. (MC, 8/7/02)(Internet) 1893 nend Aug 10, Chinese were deported from SF under the 1892 Exclusion Act. (MC, 8/10/02) 1893 nend Aug 12, Howard Smith, actor (Harvey Griffin-Hazel), was born in Attleboro, Mass. (SC, 8/12/02) 1893 nend Aug 20, Shechita (ritual slaughtering) was prohibited in Switzerland. (MC, 8/20/02) 1893 nend Aug 22, Dorothy Parker (d.1967), poet, satirist, screenwriter and founding member of the Algonquin Round Table, was born in West Bend, N.J. "Authors and actors and artists and such / Never know nothing, and never know much." (AP, 8/22/97)(HN, 8/22/02) 1893 nend Aug 24, A fire in south Chicago left 5,000 people homeless. (Reuters, 8/24/01) 1893 nend Aug 29, The ?clasp locker,? a clumsy slide fastener and forerunner to the zipper was first patented by Whitcomb L. Judson. He demonstrated it at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. He invented an improved C-Curity fastener in 1902. (Wired, Dec., ?95, p.138)(SFEC, 6/6/99, Z1 p.10)(ON, 7/04, p.3) 1893 nend Aug 30, Huey P. Long, Louisiana politician who served as governor and U.S. senator, known as "The Kingfish," was born. (HN, 8/30/98) 1893 nend Sep 4, Beatrix Potter, English author, first told the story of Peter Rabbit in the form of a "picture letter" to Noel Moore, the son of Potter's former governess. A 2nd illustrated letter the same month later became ?The Tale of Jeremy Fisher.? The ?Tale of Peter Rabbit? was published in 1901. (HN, 9/4/00)(AP, 9/4/04)(Econ, 1/6/07, p.67) 1893 nend Sep 6, Floriano Vieira Peixoto, acting president of Brazil, faced a rebellion by officers of his navy led by Admiral Custodio Jose de Mello. (ON, 12/06, p.11) 1893 nend Sep 7, The Rhine river was officially closed for bathing. It had been determined the Rhine was infected with cholera. (MC, 9/7/01) 1893 nend Sep 9, Frances Cleveland, wife of President Cleveland, gave birth to a daughter, Esther, in the White House. It was the first time a president?s child was born in the executive mansion. (AP, 9/9/97) 1893 nend Sep 14, In Virginia the Randolph-Macon Women?s College opened under Pres. William Waugh Smith. The first session began with 36 boarding students and 12 professors. (SSFC, 9/10/06, p.A2)(www.rmwc.edu/about/history.asp) 1893 nend Sep 16, Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, biochemist who isolated vitamin C, was born. (HN, 9/16/98) 1893 nend Sep 16, More than 100,000 settlers ("Sooners") claimed land in the Cherokee Strip during the first day of the Oklahoma land rush. (AP, 9/16/97)(HN, 9/16/98) 1893 nend Sep 19, New Zealand became the first nation to grant women the right to vote. (SFC, 8/15/98, p.E4)(HN, 9/19/01) 1893 nend Sep 21, Frank Duryea drove the 1st US made gas propelled car. [see Sep 22] (MC, 9/21/01) 1893 nend Sep 22, Bicycle makers Charles and Frank Duryea showed off the first American automobile produced for sale to the public by taking it on a maiden run through the streets of Springfield, Massachusetts. (HN, 9/22/00) 1893 nend Oct 1, In the 3rd worst hurricane in US history 1,800 people were killed in Mississippi. (MC, 10/1/01) 1893 nend Oct 6, Nabisco Foods invented Cream of Wheat. (MC, 10/6/01) 1893 nend Oct 6, Ford Madox Brown (b.1821), English painter, died in London. In 2010 Angela Thirlwell authored ?Into the Frame: The Four Loves of Ford Madox Brown.? (Econ, 3/13/10, p.87)(http://tinyurl.com/yhpg5ut) 1893 nend Oct 15, The NY Times declared Coney Island ?Sodom-by-the-Sea? for the thrilling rides that let men and women clutch each other. (Econ, 9/1/07, p.28)(http://tinyurl.com/39yjht) 1893 nend Oct 18, Lucy [Blackwell-] Stone, US abolitionist and feminist, died. (MC, 10/18/01) 1893 nend Oct 18, Charles F. Gounod, French composer (Faust, Romeo et Juliette), died at 75. (MC, 10/18/01) 1893 nend Oct 27, Hurricane hit the US coast between Savannah, Ga., and Charleston, SC. (MC, 10/27/01) 1893 nend Oct 27, Gustav Mahler (1860-1911), Austrian composer, conducted a revised version of his First Symphony at Hamburg's Ludwig Konzerthaus, still in its original five-movement. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Mahler) 1893 nend Oct 28, Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky conducted the first public performance of his Symphony Number Six in B minor ("Pathetique") in St. Petersburg, Russia, just nine days before his death. (AP, 10/28/98) 1893 nend Oct 30, Charles Atlas, [Angelo Siciliano], US bodybuilder, was born. (MC, 10/30/01) 1893 nend Oct, Floriano Vieira Peixoto, acting president of Brazil, contacted his ambassador in Washington with instructions to buy a fleet of warships for a new navy. Dr. Salvador de Mendonca soon authorized Charles R. Flint, an American businessman, to purchase ships and weapons for Brazil. Over the next 21 days Flint spent $1.5 million acquiring ships and guns including the new Zalinski dynamite gun. (ON, 12/06, p.11) 1893 nend Nov 6, Composer Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky died in St. Petersburg, Russia, at age 53. In 2000 Alexander Poznansky authored "Tchaikovsky Through Others? Eyes." (HFA, ?96, p.18)(AP, 11/6/97)(SFEC, 6/11/00, Par p.16) 1893 nend Nov 7, The state of Colorado granted women residents the right to vote. (AP, 11/7/97) 1893 nend Nov 7, In Barcelona, Spain, 23 people including 9 women, were killed at Liceo Opera House by a bomb thrown by anarchist Salvador Franch. no_source 1893 nend Nov 13, Queen Lili?uokalani met with Albert Willis, the new US Minister to Hawaii, and refused pardon for the Provisional Government. (ON, 11/02, p.7) 1893 nend Nov 20, The struggling Western League of Professional Baseball Clubs, meeting in Detroit, Michigan, elected Byron Bancroft Johnson (29), a former ballplayer and Cincinnati sportswriter, as president. He had been recommended by Charles Comiskey, a potential investor in the league and manager of the National League?s Cincinnati Reds. (ON, 6/09, p.10) 1893 nend Nov 22, M. Kaganovitsj Kogan, people's commissioner for Stalin, was born. (MC, 11/22/01) 1893 nend Nov 25, Joseph W. Krutch, US naturalist, was born. (MC, 11/25/01) 1893 nend Dec 2, Pauline C. Fryer (b.1833), stage performer and Union spy during the Civil War, died in San Francisco. (www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=6333443) 1893 nend Dec 5, 1st electric car was built in Toronto. It could go 15 miles between charges. (MC, 12/5/01) 1893 nend Dec 9, Auguste Vaillant (b.1861) threw a nail bomb from the second row of the public gallery in the Palais Bourbon into the chamber: 20 deputies were slightly injured. A symbolic gesture, meant to wound rather than kill, Vaillant was condemned to death, and guillotined February 5 1894. The deputies use the event to suppress the anarchist press. (http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/Encyclopedia/VaillantAuguste.htm) 1893 nend Dec 12, Edward G. Robinson, actor famous for gangster roles, was born. (HN, 12/12/00) 1893 nend Dec 15, Anton Dvorak's Symphony No. 9 in E-minor, Opus 95, "From the New World," was performed during a "public rehearsal" at New York's Carnegie Hall (the official world premiere was the next day). (AP, 12/15/03) 1893 nend Dec 20, The 1st state anti-lynching statute was approved in Georgia. (MC, 12/20/01) 1893 nend Dec 23, The Engelbert Humperdinck opera " Haensel und Gretel " was first performed, in Weimar, Germany. (AP, 12/23/07) 1893 nend Dec 24, Henry Ford completed his 1st useful gas motor. (MC, 12/24/01) 1893 nend Dec 25, Robert Leroy Ripley, artist, author and radio broadcaster (Believe It or Not), was born in Santa Rosa, Calif. (www.ripleysf.com/ripley/about/about.html) 1893 nend Dec 26, Mao Tse-tung, founding father of the People?s Republic of China (PM 1949-76), was born in Shaoshan. (HFA, ?96, p.44)(HN, 12/26/98)(SFC, 8/24/99, p.A12)(MC, 12/26/01) 1893 nend Dorothy Rothschild Parker, American author, was born. She observed that: "Most good women are hidden treasures who are only safe because nobody looks for them." (WUD, 1994, p.1049) 1893 nend Chaim Soutine (d.1943), artist, was born in Minsk. He studied art in Vilnius and moved to Paris. His work is seen in 3 distinct ways: as a crude primitive, as a master continuing in the French tradition, and as a prophet who helped form later painters. (WSJ, 5/14/98, p.A20) 1893 nend Mary Jane West (aka Mae West) was born in Brooklyn, NY. She wrote the plays "The Drag" and "Sex" for which she was convicted on obscenity charges. She starred in 8 Hollywood films. In 1997 Emily Wortis Leider wrote her biography: "Becoming Mae West: The Shaping of an Icon." (SFEC, 6/1/97, BR p.3) 1893 nend Mary Cassatt painted a 58-foot "Modern Woman" for the Women?s Building of the Chicago World?s Fair. (WSJ, 11/3/98, p.A20) 1893 nend Cezanne painted "Rideau, Cruchon, et Compotier" (Still Life With Curtain, Pitcher and Bowl of Fruit). In 1999 it was auctioned for $60.5 million. (SFC, 5/11/99, p.A3)(WSJ, 5/11/99, p.B4) 1893 nend Claude Monet created his "water garden" at Giverney. (WSJ, 7/1/99, p.A21) 1893 nend Edvard Munch (1863-1944), Norwegian artist, painted "The Scream." The red sky in the painting was later said to have resulted from his views of the red skies over Norway during the 1883 volcano explosion at Krakatao. (AP, 12/10/03) 1893 nend Camille Pissarro painted "Place du Havre, Paris." It was the first of four urban scenes of his lifetime and was painted from his hotel window across from the St. Lazare train station. (DPCP 1984) 1893 nend John Singer Sargent painted his portrait of "Elizabeth Winthrop." (SFC, 4/11/01, p.E1) 1893 nend Charles Frye and his wife began their art collection at the Chicago World?s Fair where they bought Edmond Louyot?s "Small Girl with Pigs." They added mostly German or German-schooled works by painters such as Franz von Stuck, Franz von Lembach, and others of the Munich Secession movement. (WSJ, 3/19/97, p.A16) 1893 nend German artist Franz von Stuck painted "Sin," a shocking work of a bare-breasted woman whose shoulders were entwined with a gleaming-eyed snake. (WSJ, 3/19/97, p.A16) 1893 nend Gen?l. Lew Wallace wrote "The Prince of India." (HT, 3/97, p.66) 1893 nend Charles Young wrote "Lessons in Astronomy." (NH, 10/98, p.87) 1893 nend Emile Zola completed the last volume of "Les Rougon-Macquart," his saga of a French family branching throughout society during the Second Empire. (WSJ, 8/1/96 p.A13) 1893 nend Claude Debussy completed his only opera: "Pelleas et Melisande." It was based on a symbolist drama by Maeterlinck. (SFEC,11/9/97, DB p.13) 1893 nend Mildred and Patty Hill wrote a song called "Good Morning to All" as a welcome song for schoolchildren. It later became the "Happy Birthday" Song with a 1935 copyright on the lyrics. (SSFC, 10/5/03, Par p.24) 1893 nend Engelbert Humperdinck composed his opera "Hansel and Gretel" with a libretto by his sister, Adelheid Wette. (WSJ, 10/27/98, p.A20) 1893 nend The SF Japanese Tea Garden was built in Golden Gate Park as part of the 1894 Midwinter Fair. It was designed by Makoto Hagiwara. (SFC, 7/29/97, p.A6)(BS, 5/3/98, p.5R)(Ind, 9/28/02, 5A) 1893 nend Chicago?s new Monadnock Building carried its 17 stories on ground-floor walls 6 feet thick. (SFC, 8/23/08, p.F4) 1893 nend The Field Museum opened in Chicago. (WSJ, 8/30/04, p.A1) 1893 nend The Chicago Stock Exchange, designed by Louis Sullivan, was completed. It was demolished in 1972. (WSJ, 10/8/03, p.D6) 1893 nend Charlie Wacker, director of the World's Columbian Exposition and a friend of Louis Glunz, was instrumental in making Louis a bottler of Schlitz beer for the Chicago Exposition. (www.glunzbavarianhaus.com/glunz-bavarian-chicago.html) 1893 nend At the Chicago Exposition Milton Hershey was impressed with an exhibition featuring chocolate-making machinery from Germany and commented to his cousin, Frank Snavely, "Caramels are only a fad. Chocolate is a permanent thing." With that, Hershey decided to go into the chocolate business, purchasing the German-made machinery and installing it at his Lancaster Caramel Company in Pennsylvania. With the help of expert chocolate makers, Hershey was soon producing chocolate-covered caramels, called "novelties." In 1900, Hershey sold the Lancaster Caramel Company for $1 million, but retained the chocolate-making machinery. Soon thereafter, he launched the Hershey Chocolate Company and built a town around it, Hershey, Pennsylvania. (HNQ, 10/31/00) 1893 nend F.W. Rueckheim introduced a confection of popcorn, peanuts and molasses at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago. It was given the name Cracker Jack in 1896. (AH, 10/04, p.71) 1893 nend There was a Parliament of World Religions but it failed to develop a consensus and infrastructure. (SFEC, 6/22/97, Z1 p.3) 1893 nend The Anti-Saloon League formed in Ohio. It became national in 1895 when it merged with an organization in Washington D.C. (AH, 2/05, p.72) 1893 nend Swami Vivekananda was sent to Chicago by his guru, Ramakrishna, from India to spread his teachings on yoga. (WSJ, 6/23/00, p.A1) 1893 nend Frederick Jackson Turner, American historian, defined elements of the American character drawn from the country?s encounter with the frontier: "that dominant individualism... that buoyancy and exuberance which came with freedom - these are the traits of the frontier, or traits called out elsewhere because of the existence of the frontier." (WSJ, 8/17/95, p.A-12) 1893 nend Chatauqua, a nationwide traveling lecture and entertainment program, came to Ashland, Oregon. (SFEC, 6/15/97, p.T3) 1893 nend The baseball pitching mound was moved back 5 feet to 60 feet 6 inches from home plate. (WSJ, 4/2/99, p.W7) 1893 nend Lord Stanley, the 6th governor general of Canada, established the Stanley Cup. It was presented to the champion hockey league team. The Stanley Cup, the trophy of professional ice hockey?s championship, is named for Frederick Arthur, Lord Stanley of Preston, governor general of Canada. The trophy was first played for in 1893-94 and was won by the Montreal Amateur Athletic Association team. Since 1917, it has gone to the winner of the National Hockey League playoffs. (WSJ, 9/6/96, p.A1)(HNQ, 7/28/00) 1893 nend The US Supreme Court ruled that the tomato must be considered a vegetable for purposes of trade because it was used as a vegetable. (SFC, 5/5/99, Z1 p.3) 1893 nend Lili?uokalani (1838-1917), the last monarch of Hawaii, surrendered at gunpoint to American troops. (WSJ, 1/23/97, p.A12) 1893 nend A US commemorative half-dollar featured Christopher Columbus. (WSJ, 12/12/03, p.W15) 1893 nend Buck Duke began buying up farmland in rural New Jersey. His daughter Doris Duke died in 1993 and was said to be the richest woman in the world. In 2003 Duke Farms opened 700 of 2,700 acres to the public. (WSJ, 10/1/03, p.D9) 1893 nend Chicago was engulfed in the Panic of 1893 after the close the World?s Columbian Exposition. (Hem., 7/95, p.79)(CFA, ?96, p.89) 1893 nend Emma Goldman was jailed for exhorting poor people to demand bread in the US. (WSJ, 12/11/95, p.A-1) 1893 nend The National Cordage Co. was reorganized after the market panic as US Cordage. (WSJ, 5/28/96, R46) 1893 nend Pickard China was established in Edgerton, Wisconsin, by Wilder Austin Pickard, and moved to Chicago in 1897. For some forty years the Pickard China Studio, as the firm was then known, was a decorating company specializing in hand painted art pieces, dessert and tea sets. (www.pickardchina.com/About_us.htm) 1893 nend Richard W. Sears adopted the corporate name of Sears, Roebuck and Co. Sears had begun selling watches in North Redwood, Minn. in 1886 and opened a Chicago headquarters after hiring watchmaker Alvah C. Roebuck in 1887. In 1888 the 1st Sears catalog sold watches and jewelry. (SFC, 11/18/04, p.A1) 1893 nend Otto H.L. Wernicke founded the Wernicke Furniture Co. in Minneapolis, Minn., to manufacture his patented elastic bookcases, later known as stackable bookcases. In 1897 he moved the business to Grand Rapids, Mich. (SFC, 8/9/06, p.G3) 1893 nend Charles Duryea (1861-1938) and his brother Jack were the first to successfully build a gasoline-engine motor vehicle in Springfield, Mass. (WSJ, 6/19/96, Adv. Supl) 1893 nend Henry D. Perky invented a machine to make what he called "little whole wheat mattresses," later known as shredded wheat. (SFC, 6/10/00, p.B3) 1893 nend Rudolph Diesel, German engineer, developed his diesel engine. (WSJ, 1/14/05, p.W10) 1893 nend The box kite was invented. (SFC, 2/5/97, z-1 p.7) 1893 nend The first vasectomy was performed. (SFC, 8/16/97, p.E3) 1893 nend An oil field was discovered in Los Angeles, California. (SSFC, 10/29/06, p.F6) 1893 nend The San Andreas Fault in California was detected. (SFC, 5/19/96,City Guide, p.17) 1893 nend In San Francisco the cascade at Stow Lake in Golden Gate Park was first turned on. In 1894 it was dedicated and named Huntington Falls after Collis P. Huntington, who contributed $25,000 for the project. The falls collapsed in 1962 and were turned off for 22 years. (Ind, 10/28/00, 5A)(SSFC, 6/7/09, DB p.46) 1893 nend In San Francisco Fr. Edward Allan, SJ (1849-1911) took over the administration of St. Ignatius College. (GenIV, Winter 04/05) 1893 nend Chicago's Mayor Carter Harrison was killed, the 1st US mayor shot in a political killing. (SFC, 11/28/03, p.E2) 1893 nend Francis Parkman (b.1823), American historian, died. His work covered in part France's struggle for possession of North America. (WUD, 1994, p.1049)(WSJ, 2/10/00, p.A16) 1893 nend Leland Stanford, co-founder of Stanford Univ., died. (SFC, 6/20/98, p.A15) 1893 nend Ivan Turgenev, Russian novelist and playwright, died. His best play was A Month in the Country. (WSJ, 4/26/95, p.A-14) 1893 nend John Tyndall, British physicist, died from an overdose of chloral given to him by his young wife, Louise, who mixed up the chloral (a small dose for insomnia at night) with his normal big dose of magnesia (for his indigestion in the morning). "Yes, my poor darling," he said, "you have killed your John." Tyndall appreciated the powerful effect that carbon dioxide had on the Earth and even suggested that it might be the explanation for the ice ages. (NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.28) 1893 nend The Durand line, drawn by British diplomat Sir Mortimer Durand, fixed the borders of Afghanistan with British India, splitting Pushtun tribal areas and leaving half of these Afghans in what is now Pakistan. The agreement was first signed by Sir Mortimer Durand and Abdur Rahman Khan, the ruler of Afghanistan. (www.afghan-web.com/history/)(Econ, 7/22/06, p.44)(Econ, 8/18/07,p.34)(Econ, 6/4/11, p.18) 1893 nend The first electric bread toasters were made in England about this time. (SFC, 1/23/08, p.G4) 1893 nend Antonio Vicente Mendes Maciel, aka Antonio Conselheiro, founded the settlement of Canudos in the "certao" region of Bahia, Brazil. He was a charismatic religious leader and established an independent community of some 25,000. the movement favored the deposed monarchy and was crushed by government troops. (SFC, 10/7/97, p.A14)(Econ, 1/10/04, p.74) 1893 nend The first automobile license plates were issued in Paris, France. The first American city to require drivers to be licensed and register their vehicle was Boston. (HNQ, 7/18/00) 1893 nend The Royal Hong Kong Police set up a police training school for its British led force. (WSJ, 2/2/04, p.A12) 1893 nend The Kresty Prison in St. Petersburg, Russia, was built to hold political prisoners. In 2001 some 8,800 men were crammed into it with as many as 14 men per cell. (SFC, 5/23/01, p.A10) 1893 nend The Russalka, a 19th century ironclad, Russian vessel sank in the Baltic Sea with 177 sailors aboard. In 2003 it was discovered off the Finnish coast. (AP, 7/26/03) 1893 nend Many Russian pilgrims for the ceremony of the Holy Fire Shrine at the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem died in a snowstorm north of Jerusalem. (Econ, 12/16/06, p.61) 1893 nend Mohandas Gandhi (24) moved to South Africa to work as a legal advisor to an Indian businessman. (ON, 9/03, p.1) 1893 nend Johan August Strindberg (43), Swedish writer, married Frida Uhl (20), the daughter of a renowned Viennese theater critic and newspaper editor. The marriage lasted 4 years. In 2000 Monica Strauss authored "Cruel Banquet: The Life and Loves of Frida Strindberg." (SFEC, 8/13/00, BR p.3) 1893 nend Vietnam?s highland town of Dalat was founded as a retreat from the tropical coast. (WSJ, 1/3/06, p.A14) 1893 1894 During the economic crisis of 1893-94, groups of jobless men organized into so-called "armies" with their leaders referred to as "generals." (HNQ, 8/24/99) 1893 1894 Clarence Bloomfield Moore excavated 83 Indian mounds in Florida using his steamer Gopher of Philadelphi as a research station. (AM, 7/00, p.56) 1893 1897 Grover Cleveland became the 24th President of the US. (A&IP, ESM, p.96b, photo) 1893 1897 Adlai Ewing Stevenson (b.Oct 23, 1835) (D) served as 23rd VP. (MC, 10/23/01) 1893 1899 Fred Holland Day and Herbert Copeland founded the avant-garde publishing house Copeland & Day. [see 1864-1933] (Civilization, July-Aug. 1995, p.40-47) 1893 1924 Henry Cabot Lodge was the Republican senator from Massachusetts. (SFC, 5/7/96, p.A-6) 1893 1932 Helen Hathaway, American writer: "More tears have been shed over men's lack of manners than their lack of morals." (AP, 3/5/99) 1893 1935 Huey P. Long, American politician: "It ain?t enough to get the breaks. You gotta know how to use ?em." (AP, 8/29/97) 1893 1939 Ernst Toller, German poet and dramatist: "History is the propaganda of the victors." (AP, 10/7/97) 1893 1944 Israel Joshua Singer, brother of Isaac Bashevis Singer, wrote realistic novels of in the mainstream Yiddish tradition. (WSJ, 12/30/97, p.A8) 1893 1952 Fulton Oursler, American journalist and author: "We crucify ourselves between two thieves: regret for yesterday and fear of tomorrow." (AP, 4/2/01) 1893 1962 Elbert Botts, Caltrans chemist, died. He invented the "Botts dots," highway lane markers that were first installed in California in 1966. (SFC, 1/18/97, p.A15) 1893 1963 Evelyn Scott, American author: "I realized a long time ago that a belief which does not spring from a conviction in the emotions is no belief at all." (AP, 4/5/99) 1893 1967 Charles Burchfield, American painter. He looked for essences in nature and saw a "Buzzing, blooming confusion of energies." He was the nearest American painter to the style of Van Gogh. (SFC,10/15/97, p.D3) 1893 1970 Vera Brittain, British author: "Politics are usually the executive expression of human immaturity." (AP, 10/8/00) 1893 1973 Samuel Nathaniel Behrman, American author and dramatist: "There are two kinds of people in one?s life -- people whom one keeps waiting?and the people for whom one waits." (AP, 7/9/00) 1893 1976 Mao Tse Tung was born on Dec 26. He led the Chinese Communists to victory over the Nationalists of Chiang Kai-shek . He was Chairman of the Party from 1943-1976 and Chairman of the People?s Republic of China from 1949-1959. (HFA, ?96, p.44)(WUD, 1994, p. 874) 1893 1977 Gen. Lewis B. Hershey, Selective Service director: "A boy becomes an adult three years before his parents think he does, and about two years after he thinks he does." (AP, 11/4/99) 1893 1990 Dr. Karl Menninger, American psychiatrist: "I never could see why people were so happy about Dickens? ?A Christmas Carol? because I never had any confidence that Scrooge was going to be different the next day." (AP, 12/19/97) 1893 1991 Martha Graham, American modern dance pioneer: "Censorship is the height of vanity." [see 1893-1991] (AP, 9/8/97) 1893 1996 Geoffrey Dearmer, poet and BBC radio editor. He fought during WW I at Gallipoli and the Somme and wrote the poems "The Sentinel" and "The Somme." (SFC, 8/20/96, p.A18) 1894 nend Jan 7, One of the earliest motion picture experiments took place at the Thomas Edison studio in West Orange, N.J., as comedian Fred Ott was filmed sneezing. (AP, 1/7/98) 1894 nend Jan 8, Fire caused serious damage at the World?s Columbian Exposition in Chicago. (AP, 1/8/98) 1894 nend Jan 9, The "Edison Kinetoscopic Record of a Sneeze" was released in movie theaters. (MC, 1/9/02) 1894 nend Jan 9, Georges Feydeau's "Un Fil a la Patte," ("Cat Among the Pigeons") premiered in Paris. (MC, 1/9/02) 1894 nend Jan 30, Boris III (d.1943), czar of Bulgaria (1918-43), was born. (SFC, 9/6/00, p.A10)(MC, 1/30/02) 1894 nend Jan 30, Pneumatic hammer was patented by Charles King of Detroit. [see May 19, 1892] (MC, 1/30/02) 1894 nend Jan, US Rear Admiral Andrew Benham led a fleet of US Navy ships into the harbor of Rio de Janeiro escorting American merchants ships. The outgunned Brazilian rebel fleet made no serious challenge. (ON, 12/06, p.12) 1894 nend Jan, Golden Gate Park was the site of the Mid-Winter International Exposition and featured an Electric Tower, a Fine Arts Building and a Royal Pavilion. The Tennis courts were situated at their current site. It was the result of a campaign led by Michael de Young, founding publisher of the SF Chronicle. The Egyptian-styled fine arts building became the M.H. de Young Memorial Museum. (SFC, 5/19/96,City Guide, p.4)(SFC, 7/29/97, p.A5,6)(SFC, 10/3/97,p.A22) 1894 nend Feb 3, Norman Rockwell, artist and illustrator, was born. He painted scenes of small-town America. Most of his work appeared in the Saturday Evening Post. (HN, 2/3/99) 1894 nend Feb 4, Antoine J "Adolphe" Sax (b.1814), Belgium-born instrument maker (saxophone), died in Paris. In 2005 Michael Segell authored ?The Devil?s Horn: The Story of the Saxophone, From Noisy Novelty to King of Cool.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolphe_Sax)(SSFC, 10/16/05, p.M3) 1894 nend Feb 7, The US House of Representatives passed a resolution that prevented the sending of US troops to Hawaii to restore Queen Lili?uokalani. (ON, 11/02, p.7) 1894 nend Feb 8, The US Enforcement Act was repealed making it easier to disenfranchise blacks. (MC, 2/8/02) 1894 nend Feb 10, Harold MacMillan, British prime minister from 1957 to 1963, was born. (HN, 2/10/97)(HN, 2/10/99) 1894 nend Feb 12, In Paris, France, anarchist Emile Henry hurled a bomb into the Cafe Terminus killing one and injuring twenty. (www.marxists.org/reference/archive/henry/biography.htm) 1894 nend Feb 13, In Brazil peace talks between Pres. Peixoto and navy rebels broke down completely when Admiral Saldanha da Gama led a landing party that stormed a republican fort at Nictheroy on the Guanabara Bay opposite from Rio de Janeiro. The rebels were driven back. (ON, 12/06, p.12) 1894 nend Feb 14, Jack Benny (d.1974), comedian, radio and television performer... and violinist, was born as Benjamin Kubelsky in Waukegan, Ill: "Age is strictly a case of mind over matter. If you don't mind, it doesn't matter." (HN, 2/14/01)(AP, 2/14/08) 1894 nend Feb 14, Mary Lucinda Cardwell Dawson, was born. She founded the National Negro Opera Company (NNOC) and was appointed to President John F. Kennedy's National Committee on Music. (HN, 2/14/99) 1894 nend Feb 20, Curt Richter, biologist, was born. (HN, 2/20/01) 1894 nend Feb 25, Meher Baba, spiritual leader, was born. (HN, 2/25/01) 1894 nend Feb 28, Ben Hecht (d.1964), American author and screenwriter, was born. "There?s one thing that keeps surprising you about stormy old friends after they die - their silence." (AP, 11/17/00)(HN, 2/28/01) 1894 nend Mar 3, The first Greek newspaper in America was published on this day. It was known as the "New York Atlantis". (HC, Internet, 3/3/98)(SC, 3/3/02) 1894 nend Mar 3, British PM William Gladstone submitted his resignation to Queen Victoria, ending his fourth and final premiership. Gladstone was later quoted as saying this year: ?Do not let me be told that one nation has no authority over another. Every nation, and if need be every human being, has authority on behalf of humanity and justice.? (AP, 3/3/08)(Econ, 9/27/08, p.98) 1894 nend Mar 4, There was a great fire in Shanghai; over 1,000 buildings were destroyed. (SC, 3/4/02) 1894 nend Mar 8, NY passed the 1st state dog license law. [see Mar 10] (MC, 3/8/02) 1894 nend Mar 10, New York Gov. Roswell P. Flower signed the nation's first dog-licensing law. The license fee was $2, renewable annually for $1. (AP, 3/10/99) 1894 nend Mar 12, Edward W. White (1845-1921) was sworn in as associate Justice on the US Supreme Court. He became Chief Justice in 1910. (www.oyez.org/oyez/resource/legal_entity/55/) 1894 nend Mar 12, Coca-Cola was sold in bottles for the first time. (HN, 3/12/98) 1894 nend Mar 13, The Dynamite Squadron of ships, purchased and outfitted in the US, steamed into the harbor of Rio de Janeiro. Rebel sailors immediately surrendered in exchange for safe passage to Argentina aboard Portuguese warships. The rebellion ended a weeks later when the rebel flagship, Aquidbada, was captured off Desterro by the American crew of the Nictheroy, the former Morgan steamship El Cid. (ON, 12/06, p.12) 1894 nend Mar 16, The opera "Thais," composed by Jules Massenet, premiered in Paris. The libretto was by Louis Gallet. It was based on a novel by Anatole France. The heroine is a 4th century Egyptian courtesan. (AP, 3/16/00)(WSJ, 11/9/00, p.A24)(WSJ, 12/19/02, p.D10) 1894 nend Mar 17, US and China signed a treaty preventing Chinese laborers from entering US. The Chinese government abandoned its migrant workers in exchange for a profitable trade deal with the US. (PC, 1992 ed, p.610)(SSFC, 6/3/07, p.M5) 1894 nend Mar 19, Jackie "Moms" Mabley, comedienne (Merv Griffin Show), was born in Brevard, SC. (MC, 3/19/02) 1894 nend Mar 20, Lajos Kossuth (91), Hungarian freedom fighter, president (1849), died. (MC, 3/20/02) 1894 nend Mar 22, Hockey?s first Stanley Cup championship game was played; the home team Montreal Amateur Athletic Association defeated the Ottawa Capitals, 3-1. [see 1893] (AP, 3/22/97) 1894 nend Mar 25 Jacob S. Coxey began leading an "army" of unemployed from Massillon, Ohio, to Washington, D.C., to demand help from the federal government. Coxey advocated, as a way to provide jobs and increase the amount of money in circulation, a public works program of road construction and local improvements to be financed by the issuance of $500 million in legal tender notes. Coxey's Army of unemployed disbanded when Coxey and two other leaders were arrested for trespassing on the White House lawn in 1894. (AP, 3/23/97)(HNQ, 8/24/99) 1894 nend Apr 1, The manufacture and sale of Kinetoscopes and films were assigned to the Edison Manufacturing Company, thus moving them out of the experimental laboratory. The Kinetograph Department, a new division in the Edison Company, was launched. (http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edmvhist1.html) 1894 nend Apr 5, 11 strikers were killed in riot at Connellsville, Penn. (MC, 4/5/02) 1894 nend Apr 5, Start of Sherlock Holmes' "Adventure of Empty House." (MC, 4/5/02) 1894 nend Apr 14, Thomas Edison made his first public showing of the kinetoscope. The first Kinetoscope Parlor opened in New York City where you could view moving film through a magnifying lens. Thomas Edison invented the Kinetograph in 1889, a cinema camera that utilized celluloid roll film that had been developed by George Eastman in 1888. The Kinetoscope, developed by Edison in 1891, was a peephole viewer in which the developed film moved continuously under a magnifying glass. The Cinematographe and Vitascope were later machines that actually projected images onto a screen. The Stroboscope and Phenakistoscope were devices developed in 1832, pre-dating photography, that attempted to show apparent motion from a series of drawings on a revolving disc. (HN, 4/14/98)(HNQ, 2/17/00) 1894 nend Apr 17, Nikita S Khrushchev, Soviet premier (1958-64) during the Cold War, was born. (HN, 4/17/99) 1894 nend Apr 19, Jules Massenet's opera "Werther," premiered in NYC. (MC, 4/19/02) 1894 nend Apr 21, George Bernard Shaw's "Arms & the Man," premiered in London. (MC, 4/21/02) 1894 nend Apr 26, Rudolf Hess, Nazi leader, was born. He was the Hitler deputy who flew to England to negotiate an Anglo-German treaty. (HN, 4/26/99)(MC, 4/26/02) 1894 nend Apr 29, The Commonweal of Christ, called Coxey's Army, arrived in Wash, DC, 500 strong to protest unemployment; Coxey was arrested for trespassing at Capitol. (MC, 4/29/02) 1894 nend Apr 30, Giuseppe Farnara and Francis Polti were convicted and sentenced to 30 years in prison for attempted terrorism in London. (Econ, 5/3/08, p.65) 1894 nend May 10, Dimitri Tiomkin, composer (Academy Award 1954- High and Mighty), was born in Russia. (MC, 5/10/02) 1894 nend May 11, Martha Graham, choreographer (Appalachian Spring), was born in Allegheny, Penn. (MC, 5/11/02) 1894 nend May 11, Mari Sandoz, writer and biographer (Crazy Horse), was born. (HN, 5/11/02) 1894 nend May 11, Workers at the Pullman Palace Car Company in Illinois went on strike. The American Railway Union, led by Eugene Debs, subsequently began a boycott of Pullman that blocked freight traffic in and out of Chicago. Pullman had cut wages due to the recession but left high rents in his company town. Mail cars were coupled to Pullman cars and Pres. Cleveland ordered federal troops onto the trains to insure the delivery of mail. Illinois Gov. John Peter Altgeld opposed Cleveland?s plans. 34 union workers were killed when federal troops intervened. (AP, 5/11/97)(SFC, 12/3/98, p.A3)(SFC, 10/4/02, p.A17) 1894 nend May 14, Fire in Boston bleachers spread to 170 adjoining buildings. (MC, 5/14/02) 1894 nend May 15, Katherine Anne Porter (d.1980), American author, was born. She is best remembered for her book "Ship of Fools." "Love must be learned, and learned again and again; there is no end to it. Hate needs no instruction, but wants only to be provoked." "I do not understand the world, but I watch its progress." (AP, 1/25/98)(AP, 3/4/99)(HN, 5/15/99) 1894 nend May 21, In France anarchist Emile Henry (22) went to the guillotine, his last words being: ?Courage camarades! Vive l'anarchie!? (www.marxists.org/reference/archive/henry/biography.htm) 1894 nend May 25, Dirk Vansina, Flemish playwright (Verschaeve Gives Evidence), was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1894 nend May 27, (Samuel) Dashiell Hammett (d.1961), detective writer was born in Maryland. His work include "The Maltese Falcon," "The Continental Op," and "The Dain Curse." (WUD, 1994, p.641)(SFC, 6/28/97, p.A15)(HNPD, 9/24/98)(HN, 5/27/01) 1894 nend May 29, Bea Lillie, comic actress, was born. (HN, 5/29/01) 1894 nend May 29, Josef von Sternberg, film director (Blue Angel), was born. (HN, 5/29/01) 1894 nend May 31, Fred Allen [John Florence Sullivan], American comedian, was born. (HN, 5/31/01) 1894 nend May 31, The US Senate passed a resolution encouraging Hawaii to establish its own form of government without interference from the US. (ON, 11/02, p.7) 1894 nend May 31, Victor Horsley, medical researcher, published a report in Nature indicating that cats shot through the head stop breathing and that resuscitative efforts helped them survive. (WSJ, 8/21/96, p.A15) 1894 nend Jun 4, Blanch Knopf, publishing CEO (Knopf), was born. (MC, 6/4/02) 1894 nend Jun 8, Erwin Schulhoff (d.1942), composer, was born in Prague. He composed a body of jazz-inspired music that included "Rag Music" and "String Quartet No. 1." http://www.fuguemasters.com/schulhoff.html (WSJ, 3/14/97, p.A11) 1894 nend Jun 13, Mark Van Doren (d.1972), American poet, writer and educator, was born. "There are two statements about human beings that are true: that all human beings are alike, and that all are different. On those two facts all human wisdom is founded." (AP, 5/30/00)(HN, 6/13/01) 1894 nend Jun 17, 1st US poliomyelitis epidemic broke out in Rutland, Vermont. (MC, 6/17/02) 1894 nend Jun 20, George Delacorte, philanthropist, publisher (Dell Books), was born in NYC. (MC, 6/20/02) 1894 nend Jun 23, Edward VIII [Duke of Windsor], King of England, was born. He abdicated his throne for American Wallis Simpson. (HN, 6/23/99) 1894 nend Jun 23, Alfred Kinsey, zoologist and sociologist, was born. (HN, 6/23/01) 1894 nend Jun 24, Sadi Carnot (b.1837), French Pres. (1887-1894), was assassinated by an Italian anarchist. (AH, 10/01, p.25)(NG, 11/04, p.76)(http://tinyurl.com/78pc6) 1894 nend Jun 26, The American Railway Union with 125,000 workers, led by Eugene Debs, called a general strike in sympathy with Pullman workers that blocked freight traffic in and out of Chicago. [see May 11] (AP, 6/26/97)(SFC, 10/4/02, p.A17) 1894 nend Jun 26, Karl Benz of Germany received a US patent for a gasoline-driven auto. (MC, 6/26/02) 1894 nend Jun 28, Labor Day was established as a holiday for federal employees on the first Monday of September. The U.S. Congress passed an act making the first Monday in September a legal holiday. (AP, 9/5/97)(HNPD, 9/5/98) 1894 nend Jun 30, Gavrilo Princip, Bosnian assassin (arch-duke Franz Ferdinand), was born. (MC, 6/30/02) 1894 nend Jun 30, Korea declared independence from China and asked for Japanese aid. (HN, 6/30/98) 1894 nend Jul 2, Andre Kertesz, photographer, was born. (HN, 7/2/01) 1894 nend Jul 2, The US Government obtained an injunction against striking Pullman Workers. (SC, 7/2/02) 1894 nend Jul 4, The Provisional Government under Judge Stanford B. Dole declared Hawaii a republic. (HN, 7/4/98)(ON, 11/02, p.7) 1894 nend Jul 4, Elwood Haynes successfully tested one of 1st US autos at 6 MPH. (Maggio, 98) 1894 nend Jul 9, Dorothy Thompson, journalist, writer and radio commentator, was born. (HN, 7/9/98) 1894 nend Jul 16, Many negro miners in Alabama were killed by striking white miners. (MC, 7/16/02) 1894 nend Jul 17, Georges Lemaitre, Belgian astronomer, was born. (HN, 7/17/01) 1894 nend Jul 18, Charles Marie Leconte de Lisle (born 1818), French poet, died. (MC, 7/18/02)(WUD, 1994, p.817) 1894 nend Jul 20, 2000 federal troops were recalled from Chicago with the end of the Pullman strike. (MC, 7/20/02) 1894 nend Jul 22, The first major automobile race with prizes and a promoter was organized as a reliability trial by Le Petit Journal of Paris. It took place on the 78-mile route between Paris and Rouen, France [see Aug 30, 1867]. (http://wapedia.mobi/en/Auto_racing)(Econ, 4/22/06,p.65)(http://tinyurl.com/ycbvsah) 1894 nend Jul 23, Japanese troops took over the Korean imperial palace in Seoul. (AP, 7/23/97)(HN, 7/23/98) 1894 nend Jul 25, Walter Brennan, actress (Real McCoys, At Gun Point), was born in Swampscott, Mass. (SC, 7/25/02) 1894 nend Jul 25, Japanese forces sank the British steamer Kowshing which was bringing Chinese reinforcements to Korea. (HN, 7/25/98) 1894 nend Jul 26, Aldous L. Huxley (d.1963), author (Brave New World), was born in Surrey, England. "Most human beings have an almost infinite capacity for taking things for granted." "Parodies and caricatures are the most penetrating of criticisms." (AP, 7/13/97)(AP, 7/26/98)(MC, 7/26/02) 1894 nend Aug 1, The First Sino-Japanese War erupted, the result of a dispute over control of Korea; Japan's army routed the Chinese. (AP, 8/1/04) 1894 nend Aug 16, George Meany, the first president of the AFL-CIO, was born in New York City. (AP, 8/16/97) 1894 nend Aug 16, Indian chiefs from the Sioux & Onondaga tribes met to urge their people to renounce Christianity and return to their old Indian faith. (MC, 8/16/02) 1894 nend Aug 18, US Congress established the Bureau of Immigration. (AP, 8/18/97) 1894 nend Aug 24, Congress passed the first graduated income tax law, which was declared unconstitutional the next year. It imposed a 2% tax on incomes over $4000. The Supreme Court ruled it unconstitutional. [see Aug 27] (WSJ, 3/11/98, p.A20)(HN, 8/24/98) 1894 nend Aug 27, The US Congress passed the Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act, providing for a graduated income tax that was down by the Supreme Court May 20, 1895. Pres. Grover Cleveland enacted the tax to cope with the deficit. (AP, 8/27/99)(WSJ, 9/25/02, p.D8) 1894 nend Aug 28, Karl Boehm, Austrian conductor, was born. Famed for his interpretations of Wagner and Beethoven. (RTH, 8/28/99) 1894 nend Sep 1, By an act of Congress, Labor Day was declared a national holiday. (WSJ, 9/25/95, p.A-1)(HN, 9/1/99) 1894 nend Sep 1, The Great Hinckley Fire destroyed Hinckley, Minn., and five other communities and killed over 400 people. (WSJ, 9/13/01, p.B11)(AP, 9/1/08) 1894 nend Sep 3, Richard Niebuhr, theologian, was born. (HN, 9/3/00) 1894 nend Sep 4, Some 12,000 tailors in New York City went on strike to protest the existence of sweatshops. (AP, 9/4/97) 1894 nend Sep 13, J.B. Priestley (d.1984), British novelist and playwright, was born. "The weakness of American civilization, and perhaps the chief reason why it creates so much discontent, is that it is so curiously abstract. It is a bloodless extrapolation of a satisfying life. ... You dine off the advertiser's 'sizzling' and not the meat of the steak." (AP, 9/13/98)(HN, 9/13/00) 1894 nend Sep 13, Alexis-Emmanuel Chabrier, French composer (Espana, L'etoile), died at 53. (MC, 9/13/01) 1894 nend Sep 15, Jean Renoir (d.1979), French film director, was born. He was the son of Pierre Renoir (1841-1919), the impressionist painter. His work included "Grand Illusion" and "The Rules of the Game." "When a friend speaks to me, whatever he says is interesting." (HN, 9/15/00)(AHD, p.1215)(AP, 10/11/00) 1894 nend Sep 15, Japan defeated China in the Battle of Ping Yang (Pyongyang). (http://24.1911encyclopedia.org/C/CH/CHINKIANG.htm) 1894 nend Sep 19, Rachel Field, novelist and playwright who wrote "All This and Heaven Too" and "And Now Tomorrow," was born. (HN, 9/19/98) 1894 nend Sep 24, E. Franklin Frazier, first African-American president of the American Sociological Society, was born. (HN, 9/24/98) 1894 nend Sep, Guglielmo Marconi, Italian engineer, built his first radio equipment. By the end of this month he could flit a switch and make a bell ring at the other end of his attic workspace. Originally, radio or radiotelegraphy was called 'wireless telegraphy', which was shortened to 'wireless'. The prefix radio- in the sense of wireless transmission was first recorded in the word radioconductor, coined by the French physicist Edouard Branly in 1897. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14)(ON, 11/99,p.9)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio) 1894 nend Sep, A major fire in Wisconsin burned several million acres. (SFC, 10/30/03, p.A15) 1894 nend Oct 14, e.e. cummings (d.1962), American poet, was born. "To be nobody but myself?in a world which is doing its best, night and day, to make you everybody else?means to fight the hardest battle which any human being can fight, and never stop fighting." (AP, 10/14/98)(HN, 10/14/98) 1894 nend Oct 15, Captain Alfred Dreyfus (1859-1935), a Jewish army officer in France, was arrested for allegedly betraying military secrets to Germany. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Dreyfus) 1894 nend Oct 17, Ohio national guard killed 3 lynchers while rescuing a black man. (MC, 10/17/01) 1894 nend Oct 20 (OS), Alexander III (b.1845), Russian tsar (b.1881-94), died in Livadia, Crimea. (MT, Fall/03, p.12)(www2.sptimes.com) 1894 nend Oct 24, J. Anthony Froude (b.1818), English historian, died. In 2005 Julia Markus authored ?J. Anthony Froude: The Last Undiscovered Great Victorian.? (WSJ, 10/4/05, p.D8)(http://en.thinkexist.com/birthday/October_24/) 1894 nend Oct 29, The opera ?Rob Roy? opened at the Herald Square Theater, NYC. The old Waldorf Hotel was near Herald Square and soon produced the Rob Roy drink, Scotch whisky and sweet vermouth. (www.ibdb.com/production.asp?ID=7669)(WSJ, 12/9/06, p.P10) 1894 nend Oct 30, Peter Warlock, composer, was born as Philip Heseltine. (MC, 10/30/01) 1894 nend Oct 30, Daniel Cooper patented a time clock. (MC, 10/30/01) 1894 nend Nov 1, A vaccine for diphtheria was announced by Dr. Roux of Paris. (MC, 11/1/01) 1894 nend Nov 5, Richard Strauss' "Till Eulenspiegel," premiered. (MC, 11/5/01) 1894 nend Nov 6, The Tammany Hall officials lost. It had been a powerful Democratic political organization in NYC, founded in 1879 as a fraternal benevolent society. The name is based after a Delaware Indian Chief, Tamanen or Temmenund, later facetiously canonized as patron saint of the US. (HFA, ?96, p.42) 1894 nend Nov 16, 6,000 Armenians were massacred by Turks in Kurdistan. (MC, 11/16/01) 1894 nend Nov 18, 1st Sunday newspaper color comic section published in the NY World. (MC, 11/18/01) 1894 nend Nov 20, Anton Rubinstein (64), Russian composer (Dmitri Donskoi), died. (MC, 11/20/01) 1894 nend Nov 26, Norbert Weiner, American mathematician who is considered the father of automation (cybernetics), was born. (HN, 11/26/98)(MC, 11/26/01) 1894 nend Nov, Swami Vivekananda founded the Vedanta Society in NYC. It was the first Hindu organization intended to attract American adherents. (AH, 4/07, p.31)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedanta_Society) 1894 nend Dec 3, Robert Louis Stevenson (b.1850), Scottish-American writer, died in Samoa. He was the author of such works as "Treasure Island," "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde," "The Master of Ballantrae," "The Silverado Squatters, "Kidnapped" and "Travels with a Donkey." In 2005 Clair Harman authored ?Robert Louis Stevenson: A Biography.? (Smith., 8/95, p.51-58)(AP, 12/3/97)(Econ, 1/29/05, p.79) 1894 nend Dec 5, Georges Feydeau's "L'Hotel du Libre Echange," premiered in Paris. (MC, 12/5/01) 1894 nend Dec 8, James Thurber (d.1961), American humorist, writer and editor, best known for "The Secret Life of Walter Mitty," was born. "You can fool too many of the people too much of the time." "It is better to know some of the questions than all of the answers." (AP, 10/22/98)(HN, 12/8/98)(AP, 1/1/99) 1894 nend Dec 17, Arthur Fiedler, conductor (Boston Pops), was born in Boston, Mass. (MC, 12/17/01) 1894 nend Dec 22, Debussy's "Prelude l'apres-midi d'un faune," premiered. (MC, 12/22/01) 1894 nend Dec 22, French army officer Alfred Dreyfus was fraudulently convicted of treason in a court-martial that triggered worldwide charges of anti-Semitism. Dreyfus, a Jewish artillery captain on the General Staff, was accused of passing secret French military documents found in to the German embassy in Paris. Dreyfus was eventually vindicated. [see 1906] (WSJ, 4/22/96, p.A-20)(AP, 12/22/97) 1894 nend Dec 26, Antonio Molina, composer, was born. (MC, 12/26/01) 1894 nend Dec 30, Amelia Jenks Bloomer (76), suffragist, died in Council Bluffs, Iowa; she had gained notoriety for wearing a short skirt and baggy trousers that came to be known as "bloomers." (AP, 12/30/02) 1891 nend Dec, In San Francisco Salvation Army Capt. Joseph McFee used a large crab pot for the 1st time at the Market St. ferry landing to solicit food for a charity Christmas dinner to feed poor dockworkers and sailors. The organization had come to the US in 1880. (SFC, 12/1/04, p.A1) 1894 nend Dec, An uprising in Eritrea was swiftly put down by the Italians. Italian troops under Gen. Oreste Baratieri then marched south from Eritrea and seized the northwestern Agame region of Ethiopia. (ON, 2/11, p.7) 1894 nend Roland Paris, Austrian sculptor, was born. He specialized in satirical bronzes and was a student of Henry van de Velde, one of the founders of the Bauhaus. (SFC, 9/2/98, Z1 p.6) 1894 nend Paul Gauguin painted "Breton Village in the Snow." (SFC, 1/29/99, p.D6) 1894 nend Frederic Leighton began his painting "Flaming Jane." It was completed in 1895. (WSJ, 5/29/98, p.W10) 1894 nend Monet completed his painting "Cathedral at Rouen (La Cour d?Albane)." (SFC, 7/11/01, p.D1) 1894 nend A German-Swiss-Austrian consortium founded Banca Commerciale Italiana. (Econ, 5/21/05, Survey p.13) 1894 1895 Edvard Munch (1863-1944), Norwegian artist, painted "Madonna." In 2004 it was stolen from the Oslo Munch Museum. (WSJ, 8/24/04, p.D8) 1894 nend Le Douanier Rousseau painted "War, or the Ride of Discord." (WSJ, 2/3/00, p.A24) 1894 nend George Curzon authored "Problems of the Far East." (WSJ, 6/11/03, p.D10) 1894 nend John Muir produced his book: "The Mountains of California." (Civil., Jul-Aug., ?95, p.77) 1894 nend H. Bower published his "Diary of a Journey Across Tibet." (NH, 5/96, p.68) 1894 nend John Dewey published "The Psychology of Infant Language." (MT, Fall. ?97, p.17) 1894 nend George Du Maurier authored "Trilby," most likely the best selling novel of the 19th century. In it he introduced the satanic character of Svengali, a Jewish mesmerist. In 2000 Daniel Pick authored "Svengali?s Web," a study of the connection between hypnotism and anti-Semitism (WSJ, 5/30/00, p.A24) 1894 nend The Christian Science Mother Church was built in Boston, USA. (SFC, 12/10/95, p.T-5) 1894 nend The Church of the Holy Ghost was built by Portuguese immigrants on Maui. (SSFC, 8/24/03, p.C6) 1894 nend Waterman Gymnasium was built at the Univ. of Michigan and named after Joshua W. Waterman, a major contributor. He had intended that the money be used for the women of the university as well as the men. Waterman gym was constructed for $62,000. It was demolished in the spring of 1977 to make way for an addition to the chemistry buildings. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.15,16) 1894 nend The National Guard Armory at Glen Falls, NY, was built. In 2009 it was put up for sale. (SSFC, 10/25/09, p.A20) 1894 nend The Secret Service began informal part-time protection of President Cleveland. (http://www.ustreas.gov/usss/history.shtml) 1894 nend Dr. John Harvey Kellogg of Battle Creek, Mich., filed for a patent for ?flaked cereals and [the] process of preparing same.? search for the perfect food led to the development of breakfast food flakes made of wheat called Granose. Will Keith Kellogg, John's brother, improved on the Granose idea and founded the W.K. Kellogg Company in 1906. (HNPD, 2/26/99)(SFEC, 8/15/99, p.A4)(ON, 2/05, p.9) 1894 nend The US began keeping records on the weather. (WSJ, 4/8/98, p.A1) 1894 nend Louisiana extended the Separate Car Act to include train station waiting rooms. The Legislature in this year also passed a law prohibiting interracial marriage. (ON, 11/03, p.5) 1894 nend The SF Mint struck 24 Liberty dimes (1894-S). Philadelphia minted 1.3 million and New Orleans produced 720,000. The SF dimes were produced by the mint director as a special gift for visiting big shots. In 1980 a SF minted 1894-S dime sold for $160,000. In 2007 an 1894-S dime sold for $1.9 million. (SFC, 9/23/05, p.F3)(SFC, 7/27/07, p.A11) 1894 nend The city of Palo Alto, Ca., was founded. (SFC, 11/26/96, p.D5) 1894 nend The Mountain Copper Co. of Great Britain bought the Iron Mountain Mine north of Redding, California, and developed it into the only big copper producer on the Pacific Coast. The exposure of a large concentration of pyrite to oxygen water and bacteria created a poisonous runoff that ran into the Sacramento River. The mind was abandoned in 1966 but by the 1980s tons of acidic water still flowed into the river. The site became known as one of the most polluted places on Earth. In 2004 the EPA built the Slip Rock Creek Retention Dam to capture most of the toxic sludge. EPA management costs in 2010 were estimated at $200 million over the next 30 years. (http://ice.ucdavis.edu/education/esp179/?q=node/164)(SFEC,11/2/97,p.A13)(SSFC, 8/29/10, p.A15) 1894 nend Helena became the capital of Montana. (HIR, 9/11/97, p.5A) 1894 nend Wheeling Gaunt, a former slave, bequeathed 9 acres of land to the village of Yellow springs, Ohio, with the stipulation that the "poor worthy widows" of the town receive 25 lbs. of flour every Christmas. (WSJ, 12/4/96, p.B1) 1894 nend Lord Francis Henry Hope, owner of the Hope Diamond, went bankrupt and sold the diamond for $140,000. (THC, 12/3/97) 1894 nend The Denver Press Club was founded. In 1996 it was the longest continually operating press club. (SFC, 10/24/96, p.A2) 1894 nend Cattlemen on the Roan Plateau of Colorado drove some 4,000 sheep of cliffs in a clash known as the Peach Day Massacre. This was such an outrage that the state legislature passed the Rees-Oldman Act to divide up Roan Plateau grazing rights between cattle and sheep operators. Conflicts between cattle and sheep operators continued for several decades well into the 1930?s. It was later found that some 5.5 trillion cubic feet of natural gas rested beneath the plateau. (USAT, 3/5/04, p.6A)(Internet) 1894 nend Milton Hershey (1857-1945) founded Hershey Foods in Pennsylvania. He built an industrial town near where he was born and named it after himself. (WSJ, 7/26/02, p.B1)(SSFC, 4/13/03, p.D1)(Econ, 3/24/07, p.18) 1894 nend The Pope Manufacturing Co. built a bicycle with Colt six-shooters fixed to the seat and 2 Colt repeating carbines fixed to the handlebars. It was called the Columbia Army Cycle and built on a contract bid against the horse. The horse won. (SFEC, 10/6/96, zone 1 p.4) 1894 nend The Forbes Silver Co. was organized as a division of the Meriden Brittania Co. of Meriden, Conn. It became part of Int?l. Silver in 1898. (SFC, 8/5/98, Z1 p.3) 1894 nend Louis Comfort Tiffany (1848-1933) made his first lamps. (SFC, 5/26/99, Z1 p.6) 1894 nend Percival Lowell (1855-1916), American astronomer, built a private observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona and commenced a decade long series of observations with emphasis on Mars. He "confirmed" water filled canals and proclaimed Mars the home of an advanced civilization. (Smith., 8/95, p.72)(SFC, 11/29/96,p.A16)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percival_Lowell) 1894 nend W.W. Campbell and Edward Barnard of Lick Observatory in California detected no water vapor on Mars and said that the canals were optical illusions. (SFC, 11/29/96, p.A16) 1894 nend William Harris, US Education Secretary, lamented that American children?s class time was reduced from 193.5 to 191 days. (SFEC, 1/11/98, p.D1,10) 1894 nend The Regents of the Univ. of Michigan declared that: ?Henceforth in the selection of professors and instructors and other assistants in instruction in the University, no discrimination be made in selection between men and women. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.13) 1894 nend The Bonaparte collection of some 14,000 books on linguistics was sold to the Newberry Library in Chicago from a London bookseller. Prince Louis-Lucien Bonaparte (1813-1891), linguist, had amassed the collection. (DrEE, 9/28/96, p.4) 1894 nend The Decatur Fairest Wheel Works of Decatur, Ill., made its first "Fairest Wheel," a glass wheel with a wood framed glass coin box that dispensed cigars for coins. (SFC, 3/31/99, Z1 p.6) 1894 nend A great fire swept through Biloxi, Mississippi. (ON, 11/06, p.11) 1894 nend A fireball was seen streaking across the skies of southern Nevada. 14 years alter a prospector found a 1.45 kg meteorite that was named the Quinn Canyon meteorite. (www.viamagazine.com/top_stories/articles/treasures_rock_jan10.asp) 1894 nend Norton Bush (b.1834), artist, died in Oakland. He came to SF in 1853 established a studio and made many trips to South America to make sketches for tropical paintings. (SFCM, 10/28/01, p.20) 1894 nend Andrew Clemens (b.1857), deaf sand artist, died. He created pictures in attractive bottles using natural color sands from Iowa. (SFC, 5/24/06, p.G3) 1894 nend George Dickel, producer of Cascade Tennessee Whisky, died. His widow and relatives renamed the whiskey after him. (SFC, 2/04/04, p.D2) 1894 nend In Britain William Harcourt introduced the estate duty to replace 5 death duties. (Econ, 10/27/07, p.90)(www.tax.org.uk/showarticle.pl?id=1566) 1894 nend The plague in China reached its port cities and began to circle the globe. In Hong Kong it killed some 10,000 people. Dr Alexander Yersin, a French bacteriologist sent to Hong Kong by the Institute Pasteur, found in the buboes of the plague victims "a swarm of microbes, all similar in appearance...short bacilli with rounded ends." (NG, 5/88, p.684) 1894 nend French poet Pierre Louys (1870-1925) authored ?The Songs of Bilitis? (1894) a book of lesbian love poetry. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Songs_of_Bilitis) 1894 nend French Baron Pierre de Coubertin proposed an international Olympics competition to be held every 4 years in a different nation to emphasize int?l. peace and cooperation. (WSJ, 7/19/96, p.R16) 1894 nend In Germany the Zum Auspannen der Pferde (Z.A.D.P.) was founded by Sophie von Sell as a society to honor the ex-chancellor Bismarck by unharnessing his horses and drawing his carriage on his return to Berlin after being dismissed by Wilhelm II. (BLW, Geiringer, 1963 ed.p.107) 1894 nend Heinrich Hertz (b.1857, German physicist, died of blood poisoning. He was the first person to broadcast and measure radio waves. (WUD, 1994, p.666)(USAT, 2/13/97, p.4B) 1894 nend The town of Copan Ruinas was founded in Honduras. (Nat. Hist., 4/96, p.29) 1894 nend The British introduced the Land Acquisition Act in India in order to build railroads and canals. It obliged private owners to part with land required for a public purpose. (Econ, 8/30/08, p.63) 1894 nend In Mali Touareg nomads first rebelled against the French and were bloodily suppresed. (Econ, 1/20/07, p.58) 1894 nend In Mexico Edward Herbert Thompson, American consul, purchased land in the Yucatan that contained the ruins of the Mayan city of Chichen Itza. (ON, 5/02, p.6) 1894 nend A disastrous breach of Dutch coastal defenses occurred. (www.metoffice.com/education/secondary/students/flood.html) 1894 nend New Zealand passed the world's first minimum wage law. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R25) 1894 nend A ship of the Tsar?s navy visited Tokyo on the occasion of the 25th wedding anniversary of Emperor Meiji. It was the last Russian ship to visit until 1997. (SFC, 6/28/97, p.A12) 1894 nend Sir Arthur Conan Doyle visited Klosters, Switzerland, and predicted that skiing would grow in popularity: "I am convinced that the time will come when hundreds of Englishmen will come to Switzerland for the skiing season." (Hem, Dec. 94, p.76) 1894 1895 Webster Edgerly, head of the Ralston movement, bought up large chunks of farmland in central New Jersey?s Hopewell Valley. The name of the movement was an acronym for his 7 principles for living: regime, activity, light, strength, temperation, oxygen and nature. His plan was to build the City of Ralston, a utopian community based on his 7 principles. (Arch, 5/04, p.31) 1894 1895 Japan went to war against China. (Jap. Enc., BLDM, p. 215) 1894 1896 Thousands of Armenians were massacred by the Turks after attempts for autonomy and self-defense failed. This issue was then referred to as the "Armenian Question." (Compuserve Online Enc. / Armenia) 1894 1896 Sir Mackenzie Bowell, Conservative Party, became the 5th prime Minister of Canada. (CFA, ?96, p.81) 1894 1956 Fred Allen, American comedian: "Television is a triumph of equipment over people, and the minds that control it are so small that you could put them in a gnat?s navel with room left over for two caraway seeds and an agent?s heart." (AP, 6/3/98) 1894 1956 Lawrence D. Bell, American aircraft manufacturer: "Show me a man who cannot bother to do little things and I?ll show you a man who can not be trusted to do big things." (AP, 8/24/00) 1894 1961 Dorothy Thompson, American journalist and author: "It is not the fact of liberty but the way in which liberty is exercised that ultimately determines whether liberty itself survives." "When liberty is taken away by force, it can be restored by force. When it is relinquished voluntarily by default, it can never be recovered." (AP, 1/19/98) 1894 1964 Norbert Wiener, American mathematician: "A conscience which has been bought once will be bought twice." (AP, 3/23/00) 1894 1966 Abbe Georges Lemaitre, Belgian physicist, author of the theory of an expanding universe begun in the explosion of a primeval atom. (V.D.-H.K.p.334) 1894 1971 T.V. Soong, Chinese financier and government official. He was an official for the Chinese Nationalist government from 1927-1949. In 1923 he financed the Nationalist party of Sun Yat-Sen, his brother-in-law, and established the Central Bank of China. The bank became the government treasury in 1924 when Soong was appointed minister of finance. Chiang Kai-shek was another brother-in-law to Soong, and appointed him minister of foreign affairs in 1942. He invested heavily in foreign stock and moved to San Francisco in 1949 when mainland China was captured by the Soviets. (WSJ, 1/11/98, p.R18) 1894 1975 Jackie "Moms" Mabley, American singer and comedian: "The teen-agers aren?t all bad. I love ?em if nobody else does. There ain?t nothing wrong with young people. Jus? quit lyin? to ?em." (AP, 7/16/98) 1894 1980 George Meany, American labor leader: "The most persistent threat to freedom, to the rights of Americans, is fear." (AP, 8/16/98) 1894 1981 Paul Green, American playwright. He received the Pulitzer Prize in 1926 for "In Abraham?s Bosom." He is best known as the godfather of outdoor drama and the art form called theater of the people, symphonic dramas for out door amphitheaters. (WSJ, 8/3/95, p.A-8) 1894 1984 Brooks Atkinson, American drama critic: "The most fatal illusion is the settled point of view. Since life is growth and motion, a fixed point of view kills anybody who has one." (AP, 1/24/99) 1894 1985 Susan Ertz, American author. "Millions long for immortality who do not know what to do with themselves on a rainy Sunday afternoon." (AP, 3/22/97) 1894 1985 Robert Nathan, American author and composer: "Love hath no physic for a grief too deep." (AP, 6/8/00) 1894 1988 Adela Rogers St. Johns, American journalist: "Happiness is a sort of atmosphere you can live in sometimes when you're lucky. Joy is a light that fills you with hope and faith and love." (AP, 11/26/98) 1894 1991 Martha Graham, modern dance pioneer: "No artist is ahead of his time. He is his time. It is just that others are behind the time." [see 1893-1991] (AP, 4/2/00) 1895 nend Jan 1, J. Edgar Hoover, director of the Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI), was born. (HN, 1/1/99) 1895 nend Jan 2, Count Folke Bernadotte (d.1948), statesman (Red Cross, UN), was born in Swe-den. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folke_Bernadotte) 1895 nend Jan 5, French Capt. Alfred Dreyfus, convicted of treason, was publicly stripped of his rank. He was ultimately vindicated. Dreyfus, a Jew falsely accused of spying for the Germans, was imprisoned alone on Devil?s Island until 1899. (AP, 1/5/98)(SSFC, 12/15/02, p.L5) 1895 nend Jan 7, The new government of Hawaii placed the country under martial law following news of a planned revolt. Queen Lili?uokalani was convicted of treason and sentenced to 5 years in prison. She was released after serving 2 years under house arrest. (ON, 11/02, p.7) 1895 nend Jan 10, Benjamin Louis Paul Godard (45), composer, died. (MC, 1/10/02) 1895 nend Jan 13, J.R. Seeley (b.1834), English essayist and historian, died. His essay Ecce Homo, published anonymously in 1866, and afterwards acknowledged by him, was widely read, and prompted many replies, being deemed an attack on Christianity. (WSJ, 12/8/08, p.A17)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Robert_Seeley) 1895 nend Jan 24, Hawaii?s Queen Lili?uokalani formally abdicated her throne and swore allegiance to the Republic of Hawaii. (AH, 2/05, p.16) 1895 nend Jan 31, Jose Marti and others left NYC for invasion of Spanish Cuba. (MC, 1/31/02) 1895 nend Feb 1, John Ford was born. (Sean O?Feeney) (Academy Award-winning director: The Informer [1935], The Grapes of Wrath [1940], How Green Was My Valley [1941], The Quiet Man [1952]. (440 Int'l, 2/1/1999) 1895 nend Feb 2, George Halas, National Football League co-founder, was born. (HN, 2/2/99) 1895 nend Feb 4, The 1st rolling lift bridge opened in Chicago. (MC, 2/4/02) 1895 nend Feb 6, George Herman "Babe" Ruth, baseball's most dominant player, was born in Bal-timore. He played with the Boston Red Sox, the New York Yankees and the Boston Braves and was the first player to hit 60 home runs in one season. (USAT, 1/29/97, p.1D)(AP, 2/6/97)(HN, 2/6/99) 1895 nend cFeb 6, Silas Burroughs (b.1846), American-born co-founder of the British pharmaceuti-cal firm Burroughs Wellcome (1880), died in Monte Carlo. His sudden death made Henry Well-come the sole owner of the company. (http://tinyurl.com/7jhqv) 1895 nend Feb 8, Tchaikovsky's "Swan Lake," premiered in Petersburg. (MC, 2/8/02) 1895 nend Feb 9, Volleyball was invented by W.G. Morgan in Massachusetts. A game called "min-tonette" was created by William George Morgan, physical director at the YMCA in Holyoke, Mass., to accommodate players who thought basketball was too strenuous. The objective was to hit a basketball over a rope. It was the predecessor to volleyball. (SFC,11/15/97, p.C4)(HNQ, 11/26/99)(MC, 2/9/02) 1895 nend Feb 11, Georgetown became part of Wash, DC. (MC, 2/11/02) 1895 nend Feb 13, A moving picture projector was patented. (MC, 2/13/02) 1895 nend Feb 14, Nigel Bruce, actor (Dr Watson in Sherlock Holmes movies), was born in Baja, Mexico. (MC, 2/14/02) 1895 nend Feb 14, Oscar Wilde?s final play, "The Importance of Being Earnest," opened at the St. James? Theatre in London. (AP, 2/14/98) 1895 nend Feb 15, 23 cm (9") of snow fell on New Orleans. (440 Int?l., 2/15/99) 1895 nend Feb 18, Semjon Timoshenko, Russian marshal, inspector-general (WW II), was born. (MC, 2/18/02) 1895 nend Feb 20, Frederick Douglass (77), Abolitionist and escaped slave, died in Washington, D.C. In 1881 Douglass authored "The Life and Times of Frederick Douglass." (AP, 2/19/98)(MC, 2/20/02)(ON, 7/02, p.8) 1895 nend Feb 21, The NC Legislature adjourned for the day to mark the death of Frederick Doug-lass. (MC, 2/21/02) 1895 nend Feb 24, The Cuban War of Independence began. [see Oct 10, 1868] (HN, 2/24/98) 1895 nend Feb 26, Michael Owens of Toledo, OH., patented a glass-blowing machine. (SC, 2/26/02) 1895 nend Feb 27, Rudolf von Eschwege, German fighter pilot with 20 victories in World War I, was born. He was the only German fighter pilot on the Macedonian Front. (Internet) 1895 nend Feb 28, Guiomar Novaes, pianist (Brazilian Order of Merit), was born in Brazil. (MC, 2/28/02) 1895 nend Feb 28, Marcel Pagnol, French playwright, director (Marchands de Gloire), was born. (MC, 2/28/02) 1895 nend Mar 2, Berthe Morisot (b.1841) French impressionist painter, died of pneumonia. (NMWA, 12/04, p.10) 1895 nend Mar 3, General Matthew Ridgeway, U.S. Army leader in World War II and Korea, was born. (HN, 3/3/99) 1895 nend Mar 3, Ragnar Frisch, economist (1st Nobel prize in economy-1969), was born in Nor-way. (SC, 3/3/02) 1895 nend Mar 4, Gustav Mahler's 2nd Symphony, premiered in Berlin. (SC, 3/4/02) 1895 nend Mar 5, Henry Creswicke Rawlinson (85), soldier and scholar, died in England. In 1835 he had begun examining the ancient inscriptions on the rock of Behistun in the Kurdish foothills of the Zagros mountain range and found that they had been made to honor Darius the Great, Persian ruler in the 5th century BCE. He deciphered text from Old Akkadian cuneiform. In 2004 Lesley Adkins authored ?Empires of the Plain: Henry Rawlinson and the Lost Languages of Babylon.? (www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/biography/pqrst/rawlinson_henry.html) (ON, 4/04, p.9)(WSJ, 12/21/04, p.D8) 1895 nend Mar 9, Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, Austrian writer (Masochism), died. (MC, 3/9/02) 1895 nend Mar 15, Bone Mizell, the famed cowboy of Florida, appeared before a judge for altering cattle brands. (HN, 3/15/00) 1895 nend Mar 15, Fridtjof Nansen and Hjalmar Johansen left their ship Fram in an attempt to reach the North Pole by dogsled. [see Jun 17, 1896] (ON, 7/05, p.5) 1895 nend Mar 17, Shemp Howard, comedian (3 Stooges, Bank Dick), was born in Brooklyn. (MC, 3/17/02) 1895 nend Mar 18, Some 200 blacks left Savannah, Ga., for Liberia. (MC, 3/18/02) 1895 nend Mar 19, Los Angeles Railway was established to provide streetcar service. (MC, 3/19/02) 1895 nend Mar 22, Auguste and Louis Lumiere showed their first movie to an invited audience in Paris; this is generally regarded as the first-ever public display of a movie projected onto a screen. [see Dec 28] One of their first films was "L'Arrivee d'un Train en Gare." (AP, 3/22/97)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R40) 1895 nend Mar 24, Arthur Murray, American dancer, was born. (HN, 3/24/98) 1895 nend Mar 26, King Alfonso planted a pine sapling in Madrid and started Spain's Arbor Day. (SS, 3/26/02) 1895 nend Mar 28, Spencer W. Kimball, 12th Prophet of the Mormon Church, was born. (HN, 3/28/98) 1895 nend Mar 31, Vardis A. Fisher, US author (Darkness & Deep), was born. (MC, 3/31/02) 1895 nend Mar 31, John Jay McCloy, lawyer, banker (Sec of War 1941-45, High Commissioner for Germany, pres Chase Manhattan), was born. (MC, 3/31/02) 1895 nend Mar, In Ireland Bridget Cleary (26) disappeared from her home in County Tipperary. Her burned body was found several days later. Her husband, father and several relatives and friends were charged with murder. Prosecutors maintained that she was burned because her husband believed her to be a changeling. In 2000 Angela Bourke authored "The Burning of Bridget Cleary: A True Story," and Joan Hoff and Marion Yeates authored ""The Cooper?s Wife Is Missing: The Trials of Bridget Cleary." (SFEC, 9/10/00, BR p.5) 1895 nend Apr 1, Alberta Hunter, blues singer, was born. (HN, 4/1/01) 1895 nend Apr 3, Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, composer, was born in Firenze (Florence), Italy. (MC, 4/3/02) 1895 nend Apr 5, Start of Sherlock Holmes' "Adventure of 3 Students." (MC, 4/5/02) 1895 nend Apr 5, Playwright Oscar Wilde lost his criminal libel case against the Marquess of Queensberry, who?d accused the writer of homosexual practices. (AP, 4/5/97) 1895 nend Apr 11, Anaheim, Ca., completed it's new electric light system. (MC, 4/11/02) 1895 nend Apr 13, Start of Sherlock Holmes "Adventure of Solitary Cyclist." (MC, 4/13/02) 1895 nend Apr 14, 1st performance of Gustav Mahler's (incomplete) 2nd Symphony. (MC, 4/14/02) 1895 nend Apr 15, Josephine Blatt of the US made a record hip-and-harness lift of 3564 lb. (MC, 4/15/02) 1895 nend Apr 17, China and Japan signed the peace treaty of Shimonoseki. This followed a war over control of the Korean peninsula. (HN, 4/17/98)(Econ, 1/15/05, Survey p.4) 1895 nend Apr 23, Russia, France, and Germany forced Japan to return the Liaodong peninsula to China. (HN, 4/23/99) 1895 nend Apr 24, Joshua Slocum (1844-1909), a Canadian-American sailor, began a voyage around the world from Boston in a 37-foot rebuilt fishing boat called the Spray. He ended on Jun 27, 1898, at Newport, Rhode Island. His record was not beaten until 1938. In 1899 Slocum authored "Sailing Alone Around the World." (www.millicentlibrary.org/slocum.htm)(WSJ, 3/9/00, p.A27)(WSJ,6/21/08, p.W8) 1895 nend Apr 24, S. Constantine Timoshenko, Russian marshal, people's commissioner, was born. (MC, 4/24/02) 1895 nend Apr 29, Malcolm Sargent, English conductor (Promenade Concerts), was born. (MC, 4/29/02) 1895 nend May 2, Lorenz Milton Hart, lyricist, collaborator with Richard Rodgers. (HN, 5/2/02) 1895 nend May 6, Legendary silent-screen star Rudolph Valentino was born in Castellaneta, Italy. (AP, 5/6/97) 1895 nend May 8, Edmund Wilson, American critic and essayist, was born. (HN, 5/7/02) 1895 nend May 8, China ceded Taiwan to Japan under the Apr 17 Treaty of Shimonoseki. This fol-lowed a war over control of the Korean peninsula. Japan began administering the Senkaku Is-lands between Okinawa and Taiwan following the Treaty of Shimonoseki. Japanese occupation ended in 1945. The US took over after WW II but returned them to Japan in 1972. China later disputed Japanese control of the islands. (SFEC, 10/8/96, A8)(Econ, 1/15/05, Survey p.4)(SSFC, 2/18/07,p.G5)(Econ, 9/25/10, p.54) 1895 nend May 11, William Grant Still was born. He is considered the Dean of black African com-posers. (HN, 5/11/99) 1895 nend May 19, Johns Hopkins, merchant and philanthropist, was born. (HN, 5/19/01) 1895 nend May 20, The 1st commercial movie performance was at 153 Broadway in NYC. (MC, 5/20/02) 1895 nend May 20, The US income tax was declared unconstitutional. (SFEC, 1/25/98, Z1 p.8) 1895 nend May 23, The New York Public Library had its origins with an agreement combining the city?s existing Astor and Lenox libraries. (HFA, ?96, p.30)(AP, 5/23/97) 1895 nend May 24, Samuel I. Newhouse, US millionaire publisher (Parade, Vogue, Glamour), was born. (HN, 5/24/98)(MC, 5/24/02) 1895 nend May 25, Playwright Oscar Wilde was convicted of a morals charge in London; he was sentenced to two years in prison. (AP, 5/25/08) 1895 nend May 25, Ahmed Djevdet Pasja (73), Turkish minister of Justice, died. (SC, 5/25/02) 1895 nend May 26, Dorothea Lange, documentary photographer, was born. (HN, 5/26/01) 1895 nend May 26, Paul Lukas, actor (Watch on the Rhine, Sphynx), was born in Budapest, Hun-gary. (MC, 5/26/02) 1895 nend May, Newspaper cartoonist Richard Felton Outcault introduced a new and "distinctly dif-ferent" cartoon to the readers of Joseph Pulitzer's New York World. "At the Circus in Hogan's Alley" set the standard for modern newspaper comic strips with a zany cast of recurring charac-ters in boisterous plots printed in a color supplement. Americans loved the cartoon, especially the character Mickey Dugan, the goofy-looking boy described as having big ears, a gap-toothed grin and a long yellow nightshirt. By the summer of 1896, "The Yellow Kid" was so closely iden-tified with Pulitzer's newspaper that the term "yellow journalism" was coined to describe the new style of sensationalistic reporting that characterized the World and many of its competitors. (HN, 5/18/99) 1895 nend Jun 4, Dino Conte Grandi, Italy?s delegate to League of Nations, was born. (HN, 6/4/98) 1895 nend Jun 10, Hattie McDaniel was born in Wichita, Kansas. She was the first African-American actress to win an Oscar which she won for her role as a maid in Gone With the Wind. (www.imdb.com/name/nm0567408/) 1895 nend Jun 11, Nikolai A. Bulganin, premier of the Soviet Union from 1955 to 1958, was born. (HN, 6/11/99) 1895 nend Jun 11, Charles E. Duryea received the first U.S. patent granted to an American inven-tor for a gasoline-driven automobile. (HN, 6/11/98) 1895 nend Jun 24, Jack Dempsey, American boxer, was born. He later became world heavyweight champion with a record of 62-1-0 and 49knockouts. (HN, 6/24/99) 1895 nend Jul 4, The words to "America the Beautiful" appeared for the first time in "The Congre-gationalist", a Boston magazine; the author was Katherine Lee Bates (1819-1910), a Wellesley professor, who penned it in 1893. It has often been suggested that this song be adopted as the national anthem of the US since it is easier to sing than the "The Star Spangled Banner." In 1904 Clarence Barbour adapted it to the melody of Samuel Ward?s ?Materna? (1890). Bates? fi-nal version was completed in 1911. In 2001 Lynn Sherr authored "America the Beautiful." (WSJ, 9/28/01, p.W13)(SSFC, 10/21/01, Par p.8)(AH, 10/04, p.26) 1895 nend Jul 5, Gordon Jacob, composer (William Byrd Suite), was born. (MC, 7/5/02) 1895 nend Jul 10, Carl Orff, composer (Carmina Burana/Antigonae; Mozart prize 1969), was born in Munich, Germany. (MC, 7/10/02) 1895 nend Jul 12, Kirsten Flagstad, Norwegian opera singer, was born. (HN, 7/12/01) 1895 nend Jul 12, R. Buckminster Fuller (d.1983), architect and engineer, was born. "The more we learn the more we realize how little we know." (AP, 7/1/97)(HN, 7/12/01) 1895 nend Jul 12, Oscar Hammerstein II, lyricist who worked with Richard Rodgers, was born in NYC. (MC, 7/12/02) 1895 nend Jul 14, William Leefe Robinson, the first man to win the Victoria Cross for shooting down a German Zeppelin, was born. (HN, 7/14/98) 1895 nend Jul 15, Stephen Stambulov, ex-prime minister of Bulgaria was murdered by Macedonian rebels. (HN, 7/15/98) 1895 nend Jul 24, Robert Graves, poet and novelist (Goodbye to All That, I Claudius), was born. (HN, 7/24/02) 1895 nend Jul 26, Gracie Allen, vaudeville, screen, radio and television personality, wife and foil of George Burns, was born. (HN, 7/26/01) 1895 nend Aug 5, Friedrich Engels (b.1820), English socialist who collaborated with Karl Marx on ?The Communist Manifesto? (1848) and ?Das Kapital? (1867), died. Engels had edited the sec-ond and third volumes of Das Kapital after Marx's death (1883). In 2009 Tristram Hunt authored ?Marx?s General: The Revolutionary Life of Friedrich Engels.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Engels) 1895 nend Aug 10, The 1st Queen's Hall Promenade Concert featured Wagner's "Rienzi." (MC, 8/10/02) 1895 nend Aug 19, John Wesley Hardin was gunned down. (MesWP) 1895 nend Aug 20, Start of Sherlock Holmes "Adventure of Norwood Builder." (MC, 8/20/02) 1895 nend Aug 24, Richard Cushing, the director of the Society for the Propagation of the Faith, was born. (HN, 8/24/98) 1895 nend Sep 3, The first professional American football game was played in Latrobe, Pennsyl-vania between the Latrobe Young Men?s Christian Association and the Jeannette Athletic Club. Latrobe wins 12-0. (HN, 9/3/00) 1895 nend Sep 8, Adam Opel (58), German manufacturer of sewing machines and bicycles, died. In 1899 the firm acquired a car factory. (MC, 9/8/01)(www.histomobile.com) 1895 nend Sep 17, Ethiopia?s Emperor Menelik II issued a mobilization proclamation calling on men to gather to resist the Italian army. (ON, 2/11, p.7) 1895 nend Sep 18, John G. Diefenbaker, conservative prime minister (13th) of Canada from 1957 to 1963, was born in Neustadt, Ontario. (HN, 9/18/98)(MC, 9/18/01) 1895 nend Sep 18, D.D. Palmer of Davenport, Iowa, founded the 1st "college" of chiropractic near a duck farm in Iowa. (MC, 9/18/01) 1895 nend Sep 18, The Montana State Capital Site Commission received the four property deeds from developer Peter Winne for the new seat of government in Helena. (HIR, 9/11/97, p.5A) 1895 nend Sep 21, Juan de la Cierva, aeronautical engineer who invented the autogyro, was born. (HN, 9/21/98) 1895 nend Sep 21, The Duryea Motor Wagon Company, the 1st auto manufacturer, opened. (MC, 9/21/01) 1895 nend Sep 22, Paul Muni, actor (Academy Award 1936-Angel on My Shoulder), was born in Juarez. (MC, 9/22/01) 1895 nend Sep 28, Louis Pasteur (b.1822), French chemist (Pasteurization), died at 72. In 1995 Gerald Geison (d.2001) authored "The Private Science of Louis Pasteur. (SFC, 7/13/01, p.D6)(MC, 9/28/01) 1895 nend Oct 1, Romanians in Constantinople were massacred. (MC, 10/1/01) 1895 nend Oct 2, The 1st cartoon comic strip was printed in a newspaper. [see May, 1895] (MC, 10/2/01) 1895 nend Oct 4, Buster Keaton (Joseph F. Keaton), star of silent film comedies including Sher-lock, Jr. and The General, was born in Piqua, Kan. He is considered a legendary presence in the history of cinema. Nicknamed 'The Great Stone Face', he graduated to full-length films in the 1920s, which featured his amazing stunts rivaled only by Chaplin. (AP, 10/4/97)(HN, 10/4/98)(MC, 10/4/01) 1895 nend Oct 4, Hattie McDaniel, actress (Gone With the Wind, Academy Award), was born. (MC, 10/4/01) 1895 nend Oct 4, Richard Sorge, German spy for USSR in Tokyo (WW II), was born. (MC, 10/4/01) 1895 nend Oct 4, The first U.S. Open golf tournament was held, at the Newport Country Club in Rhode Island. At the US Amateur Golf Championship at Newport, R.I., officials ruled against the prone position use of a pool cue to sink a put. (AP, 10/4/97)(SFC, 11/29/97, p.C3) 1895 nend Oct 6, Caroline Gordon, writer, was born. Her work included "The Strange Children." (HN, 10/6/00) 1895 nend Oct 8, Juan Peron, Argentinean dictator, was born. He served as President from 1946-55 and 1973-74. (HN, 10/8/98)(MC, 10/8/01) 1895 nend Oct 17, Doris Humphrey, modern dance choreographer, was born. (HN, 10/17/00) 1895 nend Oct 19, Lewis Mumford, American social critic who wrote "The City in History," was born. (HN, 10/19/98) 1895 nend Oct 22, David Belasco's "Heart of Maryland," premiered in NYC. (MC, 10/22/01) 1895 nend Oct 31, Basil H. Liddell Hart, English military historian and publicist, was born. (MC, 10/31/01) 1895 nend Nov 2, In San Francisco the Chutes amusement park first opened on Haight Street, fea-turing the shoot-the-chutes water slide. It relocated to Fulton Street and 10th Avenue in 1902 and was extremely popular right after the 1906 earthquake and fire, because it was the only amusement park and theater that survived. In the post-quake years, Fillmore Street became the entertainment area, with numerous nickelodeons and other attractions. The Chutes on Fulton Street closed after New Years Eve, 1908, and reopened on Fillmore and Turk Streets on July 14, 1909, but without the shoot-the-chutes. The New Chutes offered a host of other amusement attractions and soon built a first class vaudeville Theater, where in 1910, Sophie Tucker revived her career after being black-balled by Flo Ziegfeld back in New York. The New Chutes would burn on the Memorial Day weekend of the opening of the Summer season, on May 29, 1911, the same weekend that Dreamland at Coney Island would be destroyed on the other side of the continent. The theater was saved, but the entire wooden Chutes amusement park was de-stroyed and never reopened. (AJSF, Vol. 14. No. 2, Winter, 2003) 1895 nend Nov 5, Walter Gieseking, German pianist and composer, was born. (MC, 11/5/01) 1895 nend Nov 5, US state of Utah accepted female suffrage. (MC, 11/5/01) 1895 nend Nov 5, George B. Selden of Rochester, N.Y., received the first U.S. patent for an "im-proved Road Engine." (AP, 11/5/07) 1895 nend Nov 5, King Edward VII said "We are all Socialists nowadays." (MC, 11/5/01) 1895 nend Nov 8, Wilhelm Konrad von Röntgen (50), German physicist, discovered X-rays. (ON, 11/04,p.6)(www.slac.stanford.edu/pubs/beamline/25/2/25-2-assmus.pdf) 1895 nend Nov 10, John Knudsen Northrop, aircraft designer (Northrop Air), was born. (MC, 11/10/01) 1895 nend Nov 13, 1st shipment of canned pineapple from Hawaii. (MC, 11/13/01) 1895 nend Nov 16, Paul Hindemith (d.1963), composer and violinist, was born in Hanau, Germany. His work included "Cardillac." (WUD, 1994, p.672)(WSJ, 8/20/96, p.A8)(MC, 11/16/01) 1895 nend Nov 17, Grace Carolyn Swanson, the mother of future Playboy Magazine publisher Hugh Hefner, was born in Holdrege, Nebraska. (SFC, 3/22/97, p.A21) 1895 nend Nov 19, Frederick E. Blaisdell patented the pencil. (MC, 11/19/01) 1895 nend Nov 25, Wilhelm Kempff, pianist (Unter dem Zimbelstern), was born in Juterbog, Ger-many. (MC, 11/25/01) 1895 nend Nov 26, Bertil Lindblad, Swedish astronomer (Milky Way system), was born. (MC, 11/26/01) 1895 nend Nov 26, Hawaiian Sugar Planters Assn. formed. (MC, 11/26/01) 1895 nend Nov 27, Alfred Nobel, explosives magnate, signed his last will and testament at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris, setting aside his estate to establish the Nobel Prize after his death (see Dec 10, 1896). He named Ragnar Sohlman (25), his favorite lab assistant, as his executor and Rudolf Lilljequist as co-executor. (http://nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/will/will-full.html)(ON, 4/07, p.6) 1895 nend Nov 28, Jose Iturbi, pianist (Pequena danza Espanola), was born in Valencia, Spain. (MC, 11/28/01) 1895 nend Nov 28, America's first auto race between gasoline-powered automobiles was staged on Thanksgiving Day. The race, sponsored by the Chicago Times Herald, was to be run along a 52-mile course of muddy, frozen streets from Jackson Park to Waukegan, Illinois. The race at-tracted 80 entries but only six starters. James Franklin Duryea drove his brother?s car (Charles Edgar Duryea) in the first automobile race from Chicago to Waukegan over 52 miles of snowy roads at an average 7.5 mph. He collected $2,000 from the Chicago Times-Herald. It took him 7 hours and 53 minutes to complete the round trip. The average speed was 7 mph. 80 cars en-tered the race, 6 started and 2 finished. J. Frank Duryea, driving the Duryea at an average speed of 5 mph, crossed the finish line 10 hours and 23 minutes after the start. One other par-ticipant was forced to drop out of the race, suffering from hypothermia. (SFC, 5/17/97, p.E3)(AP, 11/28/97)(DTnet, 11/28/97)(HNPD, 11/28/98) 1895 nend Nov 29, Busby Berkeley, director, was born. His work included "42nd Street." (HN, 11/29/00) 1895 nend Dec 7, Sir Milton Margay, first Prime Minister of Sierra Leone, was born. (HN, 12/7/98) 1895 nend Dec 14, Britain?s King George VI (d.1952), was born. He rule from 1936-1952. (HN, 12/14/98)(MC, 12/14/01) 1895 nend Dec 17, Anti-Saloon League of America was formed in Washington, DC. (MC, 12/17/01) 1895 nend Dec 28, The French Lumiere Brothers showed the first commercial moving pictures in Paris to a small audience of around 40 people. This event is considered to mark the birth of the movie industry. (NPR, 12/28/95) 1895 nend Frank Raymond Leavis, English literary critic, was born. He edited the journal "Scrutiny." In 1997 Ian McKillop published his biography: "F.R. Leavis: A Life in Criticism." (WSJ, 6/10/97, p.A16) 1895 nend English landscape painter Francis Barraud painted "His Master?s Voice." The work fea-tured his dog, Nipper, listening to a gramophone. It was commissioned by the Gramophone Co. The Philadelphia Victor Talking machine Co. acquired rights to use it as a trademark and it first appeared in the US in 1903. (SFC, 2/19/96, zz-1 p.2) c 1895 nend Degas painted "Jockeys." (SFEC, 6/21/98, BR p.8) c 1895 nend Elizabeth Jane Gardner, American artist, painted ?The Shepherd David? and exhibited it at the Paris Salon of 1895. She was the 1st American woman to exhibit in the Paris Salon. (NMWA, 12/04, p.28) 1895 nend Ethel Reed, graphic artist, designed the cover for the Arabella & Araminta Stories. (Smith., 5/95, p.36, illus.) 1895 nend John Singer Sargent painted "Mrs. Carl Meyer and Her Children." (WSJ, 2/16/00, p.A14) 1895 nend Kate Sowerby painted "A Portrait of a Bulldog." (SFEM, 10/18/98, p.15) 1895 nend A Parisian artist and 5 assistants completed a 15,400-sq.-foot circular painting of Jeru-salem at the moment of Christ?s crucifixion after 4 years of work. It went on display at the St. Anne Museum in St. Anne de Beaupre, Quebec. (SSFC, 1/21/01, p.T10) 1895 nend The American best seller book list 1st appeared. Fiction by George du Maurier and Ar-thur Conan Doyle appeared on the list. (WSJ, 12/20/01, p.A1) 1895 nend Stephen Crane (b.1871) published "The Red Badge of Courage." (SFEC, 8/23/98, BR p.3) 1895 nend Theodore Fontane (1819-1898), German novelist and poet, authored Effi Briest, the last of the great 19th-century novels of adultery. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effi_Briest) 1895 nend Thomas Hardy published "Jude the Obscure." "The bold sexual content of Jude caused a Victorian outcry that prompted Hardy to abandon narrative writing for verse." (V.D.-H.K.p.279)(SFC, 11/1/96, p.C3) 1895 nend H.G. Wells wrote "The Time Machine." In 1960 it was made into a film. (NH, 4/97, p.6)(NH, 4/97, p.7) 1895 nend George Whitefield Chadwick, composer and long time director of the New England Con-servatory of Music, began work on the first of 4 "Symphonic Sketches," completed in 1904. (SFC, 2/3/97, p.D3) 1895 nend A.A.B. Peterson, aka Banjo Paterson, (1864-1941) wrote his poem Waltzing Matilda while on holiday in Queensland, Australia. The name referred to a slang term for drifting around the outback with a bedroll (your matilda) slung over the shoulder. Christina Macpherson adopted the poem to the Scottish tune ?Thou Bonnie Wood o? Craigielea.? He later had his im-age pictured on Australia's $10 bill. (SFEC, 5/30/99, Z1 p.8)(NG, 8/04, p.24) 1895 nend Oscar Wilde wrote his play "An Ideal Husband." (WSJ, 5/9/96, p.A-16)(WSJ, 9/16/98, p.A20) 1895 nend Henry James was hissed by a theater audience at the presentation of his first and only play. Cynthia Ozick described the event in an essay in her 1996 book: "Fame & Folly." (WSJ, 5/22/96, p.A-18) 1895 nend John Philip Sousa composed his march "El Capitan." (SI-WPC, 12/6/96) 1895 nend The National Trust started in the Lake District of NY state to "hold places of national in-terest and natural beauty for the benefit of the nation." (SFCM, 3/17/02, p.18) 1895 nend The first Mormon missionaries went to Russia. (SFC, 3/21/98, p.A12) 1895 nend The Biltmore House in Asheville N.C. boasted all the new electrical conveniences. (WSJ, 10/25/96, p.B10) 1895 nend Cornelius Vanderbilt built his 70-room mansion, the Breakers, in Newport, Rhode Island. [Cornelius died in 1877, it must have been William] (USAT, 5/8/98, p.3D) 1895 nend Booker T. Washington addressed a crowd at an exposition in Atlanta and expounded on the need for self-reliance among Blacks. (WSJ, 11/16/98, p.A36) 1895 nend The first pizza joint in Manhattan opened for business. (Hem., Nov.?95, p.129) 1895 nend Emile Levassor won the Paris to Bordeaux auto race. Later in auto racing a yellow flag with a red stripe came to mean oil on the track. (SFC, 8/24/96, p.E1)(SFC, 7/3/97, p.D4) 1895 nend US Congress passed corrective legislation for the counterfeiting or possession of coun-terfeit stamps. (http://www.ustreas.gov/usss/history.shtml) 1895 nend Captain Michael A. Healy (b.1839) was stripped of his command in the US Revenue Cutter Service and his position with the Arctic Patrol, in which he served for 21 years. During his service he ferried reindeer across the Bering Strait to Alaska provide a food source for the Inuit. (SFC, 4/15/05, p.E15) 1895 nend The New York Stock Exchange first proposed that companies distribute an annual statement of earnings to shareholders. (WSJ, 1/8/96, p.C-1) c 1895 nend Capital flows between Europe and America reversed with a net credit to America. In 2003 Thomas Kessner authored "Capital City," the story of New York?s rise to a world financial center. (WSJ, 4/2/03, p.D8) 1895 nend George Henderson founded Dorchester Pottery outside Boston. Charles A. Hill, his brother-in-law, was the plant manager and decorator. It went out of business in 1979. (SFC, 6/17/98, Z1 p.3)(SFC, 12/26/07, p.G3) 1895 nend Diebold Co. introduced its Tisco time lock and safe. It was advertised as ?anti-dynamite? and production continued to 1900. (WSJ, 12/2/06, p.P9) 1895 nend William Randolph Hearst (1863-1951) bought the New York Morning Journal for $180,000 and moved from SF to NYC. He soon renamed it the New York Journal. In 2008 Ken-neth Whyte authored ?The Uncrowned King: The Sensational Rise of William Randolph Hearst,? an account of Heart?s first three years in NYC. (SFEM, 11/8/98, p.16)(SFC, 8/7/99, p.A9)(WSJ, 12/27/08, p.W8) 1895 nend Sears Roebuck issued its 1st catalog. Within 2 years it was advertising 6,000 items. (WSJ, 12/17/03, p.B1) c 1895 nend John E. Wells was editor and publisher of the Caldwell (Kansas) Weekly Advance. (SFEC, 3/8/98, BR p.1) 1895 nend King Camp Gilette imagined an inexpensive double-edged razor that could be discarded after a few shaves. (WSJ, 2/13/98, p.A13) 1895 nend Charlie Fey, a German immigrant, sold the first Liberty Bell nickel slot machine, to a San Francisco saloon keeper. (SFEC, 5/30/99, Z1 p.8) 1895 nend By this year the US produced more steel than did Great Britain. (WSJ, 5/28/96, p. R-26) 1895 nend Bastian Brothers was founded in Rochester, NY, as a jewelry store. It later expanded to manufacture custom award pins, medals and similar items. (SFC, 5/21/08, p.G7) c 1895 nend In Chicago the Fairbank?s Company introduced ?Fairbank?s Fairy Soap.? The brand dis-appeared in the 1930?s when the company was bought out. Nathaniel Kellogg Fairbank had be-gun producing soap following his involvement in the lard-rending business in the 1880s. (SFC, 5/4/05, p.G5) 1895 nend The Montgomery Ward catalog offered the game of Tiddledy Winks for 20 cents. (WSJ, 12/17/03, p.B1) 1895 nend The J&E Stevens Co. began making Rival toy stoves. The mass-produced cast-iron toys were sold with a coal bucket, a tea kettle, frying pan and cooking pot. The company was in business until the 1930s. (SFC, 3/19/97, z1 p.3) 1895 nend The US Bowling Congress began keeping league records. (WSJ, 5/24/08, p.A7) 1895 nend US Cordage failed and was again reorganized. Standard Rope & Twine eventually be-came successor to its operations. (WSJ, 5/28/96, R46) 1895 nend In Wisconsin Frank Grove, James Clark, J. Howard Jenkins and George Jones co-founded OshKosh B?Gosh. (SSFC, 8/20/06, p.M4) 1895 nend Philosopher John Dewey founded the Dept. of Education at the Univ. of Chicago. Clo-sure of the dept. was announced in 1997. (MT, Fall. ?97, p.19) 1895 nend Prof. Emile Pierre van Ermengem of Belgium identified the bacterium Bacillus botulinus. (NW, 5/13/02, p.54) 1895 nend While searching for gold in Montana?s Yogo Gulch, Jake Hoover found sapphires. Hoo-ver found little gold in the Yogo Creek and Gulch, however, the small, translucent blue pebbles that frequently cluttered the riffles of his sluice box turned out to be gem-quality sapphires. From 1898 to 1923, the Yogo Dike yielded 16 million carats of sapphire-2.4 million carats of gem quality. (HNQ, 5/13/98) 1895 nend Richard Wetherill, a young cowboy and amateur archeologist, discovered the Keet Seel Anasazi ruins in northern Arizona. Shards of broken pottery marked the site and some say that Keet Seel in Navajo means "place of broken pottery." (Hem., 5/97, p.80) 1895 nend John Hardin (b1853), gunslinger, was shot in the back of the head by gunslinger, John Selman. Hardin used a .38 caliber Colt six-shooter and killed 44 men during his life. The book "The last Gunslinger" by Richard C. Marohn tells his story. (SFC, 10/12/96, p.E1,3) 1895 nend Etienne Leopold Trouvelot (b.1827), French artist, amateur entomologist and immigrant to the US, died. In 1869 he imported gypsy-moth eggs to set up a silk production project in the backyard of his Medford, Mass., home. The moth became a national pest. (WSJ, 5/1/01, p.A24)(SSFC, 5/22/05, Par p.4) 1895 nend Paul Otlet (1868-1944), Belgian librarian, met future Nobel Prize winner Henri La Fontaine, who joined him in planning to create the Mundaneum, a master bibliography of all the world?s published knowledge. Otlet and LaFontaine eventually persuaded the Belgian govern-ment to support their project, proposing to build a ?city of knowledge? that would bolster the government?s bid to become host of the League of Nations. no_source 1895 nend Chinese authorities discovered a consignment of some 1000 revolvers hidden in casks of cement that had been shipped by the Scientific Agricultural Society, a group organized by Sun Yat-sen aiming to overthrow the Qing emperor. (ON, 10/08, p.6) 1895 nend Winston Churchill was garrisoned in Havana, Cuba, and began smoking cigars at age 22. On leave for several months from his unit, the 4th Hussars, he reported on the events for the Daily Graphic. (SFEM, 12/15/96, p.15)(HNQ, 1/25/01) 1895 nend In Paris, France, the Castel Beranger at 14 Rue la Fontaine, designed by Hector Gui-mard (1867-1942), was completed. The Art Nouveau building was nicknamed ?Castel Derange? (Mad Castle). (WSJ, 1/6/06, p.P16) 1895 nend The Central Market Hall was built in Budapest, Hungary. (Sm, 3/06, p.82) 1895 nend Bank Rakyat (BRI) was founded by the Dutch in Indonesia as an institution for the elite. In 1983 the state bank reorganized and began lending successfully to poor people. (Econ, 11/5/05, Survey p.10) 1895 nend The Venice Biennale was launched as a display for decorative arts. (Econ, 6/11/11, p.84)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice_Biennale) 1895 nend The Heian Shrine was built in Kyoto, Japan as a 2/3 replica of the Imperial Palace. It was built to commemorate the 1,100th anniversary of Kyoto and exhibits regal Heian architec-ture. (Hem., 2/96, p.57) 1895 nend Japan?s Nara National Museum was established. (Hem, 9/04, p.46) 1895 nend Modern-day Kenya became part of the British East African Protectorate. (WSJ, 1/30/08, p.A18) 1895 nend Work began on a rail line between Nairobi and Mombasa, Kenya, and became the Lu-natic Express from media speculation that the planners were insane. [see 1905] (SSFC, 12/22/02, p.C4)(AP, 10/19/05) 1895 nend In Nigeria a massacre occurred in Nembe over palm oil. (SFC, 9/30/98, p.A10) 1895 nend In Senegal French authorities, fearing his growing influence, exiled religious leader Sheikh Ahmadou Bamba to their other colonial holdings in West Africa. (AP, 4/22/03) 1895 nend Abdullah Hassan, the ?Mad Mullah? of Somaliland, returned from a pilgrimage to Mecca with inspiration to defy the British in emulation of the Mahdi in Sudan. (Econ, 8/26/06, p.20) 1895 nend In South Africa Barney Barnato, a mining magnate, bought a block of land at the corner of Eloff and Commissioner streets in Johannesburg to develop a world-class hotel. His untimely death and the Boer War delayed the opening of the Carlton Hotel to 1906. (SFEC, 5/31/98, p.A22) 1895 nend Cecil Rhodes supported the Jameson Raid to help rebellious British settlers in the Dutch Transvaal. (WSJ, 7/11/03, p.W19) 1895 1896 Prince Henri d?Orleans encountered the dwarf T?rung people of Burma during a journey to the sources of the Irrawaddy River. (CW, Fall ?03, p.9) 1895 1905 The Central Station of Antwerp, Belgium, was built. It looks like a Baroque church and is often referred to as the Railway Cathedral. (www.aviewoncities.com/antwerp/centralstation.htm) 1895 1935 The C.A. Lehmann & son Co. ran a porcelain factory in Kuhla, Thuringia. (SFC, 8/19/98, Z1 p.6) 1895 1937 Ninety-three men were hanged at California?s Folsom Prison. (SFEC, 1/26/97, p.B4) 1895 1946 Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, Bauhaus member, founds new Bauhaus in Chicago. (V.D.-H.K.p.363) 1895 1956 Michael Arlen, English novelist: "Any man should be happy who is allowed the patience of his wife, the tolerance of his children and the affection of waiters." (AP, 9/27/98) 1895 1972 Edmund Wilson, American literary critic, becomes a major literary figure for his analysis of writers such as Hemingway, Eliot, Joyce, Lawrence, James, Fitzgerald, and other modern-ists. (WSJ, 4/26/95, p.A-14) 1895 1978 William Grant Still, the first important black symphonic composer. (WSJ, 12/9/98, p.A20) 1895 1979 Bishop Fulton J. Sheen, American religious leader: "Freedom is the right to do what you ought to do." (AP, 5/22/00) 1895 1982 Anna Freud, Austrian-born psychoanalyst: "Creative minds always have been known to survive any kind of bad training." (AP, 5/12/98) 1895 1985 Robert Graves, English poet: "There's no money in poetry, but then there's no poetry in money either." (AP, 4/8/99) 1895 1986 Jiddu Krishnamurti, Indian author and philosopher: "To seek fulfillment is to invite frus-tration." (AP, 6/19/98) 1895 1991 Martha Graham, founder of the Graham Modern Dance Company. (WSJ, 11/21/95, p.A-12) 1896 nend Jan 4, Utah was admitted to the Union as the 45th state. (AP, 1/4/98) 1896 nend Jan 5, An Austrian newspaper (Wiener Presse) reported the discovery by German physicist Wilhelm Roentgen of a type of radiation that came to be known as "X-rays." (AP, 1/5/98) 1896 nend Jan 7, Fanny Farmer published her 1st cookbook. (MC, 1/7/02) 1896 nend Jan 8, Jaromir Weinberger, composer (Bird's Opera, Schwanda der Duddelsacpfeifer), was born in Prague, Czechoslovakia. (MC, 1/8/02) 1896 nend Jan 12, The 1st X-ray photo on record in the US was made by Dr. Henry Louis Smith at Davidson, NC. Dr. Henry Smith shot a bullet into the hand of a dead human body and made a 15 minute x-ray exposure to reveal the bullet. (SFEC, 6/14/98, Z1 p.8)(MC, 1/12/02) 1896 nend Jan 15, Matthew B. Brady (73), US Civil War photographer, died in the charity ward of a New York hospital at age 73. His project "Gallery of Illustrious Americans" included many lead-ing figures of his time. In 1955 James D. Horan authored "Matthew Brady, Historian with a Camera." In 1946 Roy Meredith authored "Mr. Lincoln?s Camera man, Matthew B. Brady." (ON, 1/00, p.12)(ON, 12/06, p.10) 1896 nend Jan 20, George Burns (d.3/9/96), vaudeville comedian and actor, was born Nathan Birn-baum in New York City. He hosted radio and television show with his wife Gracie Allen before going into movies like The Sunshine Boys. "By the time you're 80 years old, you've learned eve-rything. You only have to remember it." (WSJ, 3/11/96, p. A1)(AP, 1/20/98)(HN, 1/20/99) 1896 nend Feb 1, The first production of Puccini?s opera "La Boheme" was performed in Turin. (SFC, 5/26/96, SFEM p.4)(AP, 2/1/97) 1896 nend Feb 8, Georges Feydeau's "Le Dindon," premiered in Paris. (MC, 2/8/02) 1896 nend Feb 11, Oscar Wilde's "Salome," premiered in Paris. (MC, 2/11/02) 1896 nend Feb 14, Theodor Herzl published "Der Judenstaat." (MC, 2/14/02) 1896 nend Feb 18, Andre Breton (d.1966), French writer, founder and principal provocateur of the surrealist movement, was born. An exhaustive biography was published in 1995 by Mark Poliz-zotti titled: Revolution of the Mind: The Life of Andre Breton. (WSJ, 8/1/95, p.A-9)(MC, 2/18/02) 1896 nend Feb 23, Tootsie Roll was introduced by Leo Hirschfield. (MC, 2/23/02) 1896 nend Feb 28, Philip Showalter Hench, physician (cortisone-Nobel), was born in Pittsburgh. (MC, 2/28/02) 1896 nend Feb 29, A person born on this day would have celebrated their first birthday in 1904. The year 1896 was a leap year, thus February had 29 days. The next leap year was not until 1904. Leap years, which have 366 days instead of the common 365, are those years divisible by four, except centesimal (those ending in 00) years unless they are divisible by 400. Therefore, three of every four centesimal years are common years, including 1900. (HN, 2/29/00) 1896 nend Feb, Teddy Roosevelt, Police Commissioner of NYC, closed all the police lodging houses on the advice of Jacob A. Riis (1849-1914), Danish-born author and photographer. (WSJ, 8/25/08, p.A11) 1896 nend Feb, Georges Melies, a French professional magician, purchased a film projector from Robert Paul, an English camera maker. He then designed his own camera based on the projec-tor and began making movies in March. (ON, 1/00, p.8) 1896 nend Mar 1, The Battle of Adowa (Adwa, Adua) began in Ethiopia between the 80,000 forces of Negus Menelik, Emperor Menelik II, and 18-20,000 Italian troops. The Italians suffered a crushing defeat with some 6,000 killed. Menalik II and his wife Taitu led Ethiopia to independ-ence from Italy. In 2000 Haile Gerima made a 90 minute documentary of the event, "Adwa: An African Victory." (WSJ, 5/16/96, p.A-12)(AP, 3/1/98)(SFC, 5/15/00, p.D3)(Econ,2/26/11, p.89)(ON, 2/11, p.9) 1896 nend Mar 2, Bone Mizell, the famed cowboy of Florida, was sentenced to two years of hard labor in the state pen for cattle rustling. He would only serve a small portion of the sentence. (HN, 3/2/00) 1896 nend Mar 6, Charles B. King rode his "Horseless Carriage," the 1st auto in Detroit. (MC, 3/6/02) 1896 nend Mar 7, Gilbert and Sullivan's last operetta "Grand Duke," premiered in London. (MC, 3/7/02) 1896 nend Mar 10, Bob Fitzsimmons KO?d much larger Jim Corbett to win world Heavy Weight championship and said, "The bigger they are, the harder they fall." (MC, 3/10/02) 1896 nend Mar 13, The 1st telephone station in Vilnius began operating. (LHC, 3/13/03) 1896 nend Mar 17, Adolph Ochs in Tennessee received a telegram from Harry Alloway that the New York Times available for acquisition. (SFEM, 1/16/00, p.17) 1896 nend Mar 20, U.S. Marines landed in Nicaragua to protect U.S. citizens in the wake of a revo-lution. (AP, 3/20/97) 1896 nend Mar 23, Umberto Giordano's opera "Andrea Chénier" premiered in Milan. (SS, 3/23/02) 1896 nend Mar 25, The 1st modern Olympic Games officially opened in Athens. Greece was on the old Julian calendar at this time. The revival was masterminded by Baron Pierre de Coubertin of France. [see Apr 6] (Econ, 5/29/04, p.81)(www.forthnet.gr/olympics) 1896 nend Mar 28, The opera "Andrea Chenier," by Umberto Giordano, premiered in Milan, Italy. (AP, 3/28/97) 1896 nend Mar, Brahms spent time in Vienna with the Norwegian composer Edvard Grieg. (BLW, Geiringer, 1963 ed.p.193) 1896 nend Apr 2, Theodore Robinson (b.1852), American Impressionist painter, died in NYC. (WSJ, 10/1/04, p.W2)(http://97.1911encyclopedia.org) 1896 nend Apr 4, Arthur Murray, ballroom dance instructor, was born. (HN, 4/4/01) 1896 nend Apr 4, Robert Sherwood, playwright, was born. (HN, 4/4/01) 1896 nend Apr 4, Tristan Tzara, [Samuel Rosenfeld] French poet (Approximate Man), was born. (MC, 4/4/02) 1896 nend Apr 6, The first modern Olympic Games formally opened in Athens, Greece, after a lapse of 1,500 years. 13 countries besides Greece participated. [see Mar 25] Pierre de Couber-tin (d.1937) administered the Games and subsequent ones until 1924. (SFC, 7/14/96, p.T1)(AP, 4/6/97)(ON, 8/07, p.5) 1896 nend Apr 6, James Connolly, a self-educated 27-year-old American, won the first gold medal at the 1896 Olympic games in Athens. Connolly?s event, the triple jump, which was then called the hop, step, and jump, was the first final of the games. The U.S. Olympic team hadn?t realized that the Greeks followed the Hellenic calendar, so they arrived not days in advance but just a few hours before the opening ceremonies. Despite being hastily prepared, Connolly competed last and beat his opponents? distances by more than three feet. He went on to become a suc-cessful author of 25 novels. [see Mar 25] (HNQ, 4/8/00) 1896 nend Apr 14, John Philip Sousa's opera, "El Capitan," premiered in NYC. (MC, 4/14/02) 1896 nend Apr 15, The first modern Olympic Games closed in Athens. 164 of the 241 competitors were from Greece. The remaining represented 13 countries, the largest international participa-tion of any sporting event up to that time. (ON, 8/07, p.5) 1896 nend Apr 20, 1st public film showing in US John Philip Sousa's "El Capitan," premiered in NYC. (MC, 4/20/02) 1896 nend Apr 23, The Vitascope system for projecting movies onto a screen was demonstrated in New York City. Motion pictures premiered in New York City. It was developed by Thomas Armat and C. Francis Jenkins and marketed by Thomas Edison. (AP, 4/23/97)(HN, 4/23/99)(Sm, 3/06, p.105) 1896 nend Apr 25, Fight in Central Dance Hall started a fire in Cripple Creek, Colorado. (SS, 4/25/02) 1896 nend Apr 25, In Kansas a tornado swept through several counties killing at least 9 people in Clay County. 27 farms were destroyed. (SFC, 4/25/09, p.D12) 1896 nend Apr 27, Wallace Hume Carothers (d.1937), American chemist, was born. Carothers be-came a brilliant organic chemist who, in addition to first developing nylon, also helped lay the groundwork for Neoprene. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_Carothers) 1896 nend Apr 27, Rogers Hornsby (d.1963), among the greatest hitters in baseball history, was born in Texas. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogers_Hornsby) 1896 nend Apr 28, Heinrich von Treitschke, German historian, died. (MC, 4/28/02) 1896 nend May 1, Mark Clark, American general, was born. He commanded the Fifth Army in Italy during World War II. (HN, 5/1/99) 1896 nend May 1, Nasr-ed-Din (65), shah of Persia, was murdered. (MC, 5/1/02) 1896 nend May 6, Samuel P. Langley (1834-1906), American physicist and aviation pioneer, launched the first reasonably large, steam-powered model aircraft. (NPub, 2002, p.5)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Pierpont_Langley) 1896 nend May 7, Dr. Henry Howard Holmes (b.1860), serial killer, was hanged to death in Phila-delphia, Pennsylvania. Born as Herman Webster Mudgett in Gilmantown, New Hampshire, to a devout Methodist family, Holmes spent much of his childhood torturing animals. He later gradu-ated from the University of Michigan with a medical degree. Holmes financed his education with a series of insurance scams whereby he requested coverage for nonexistent people and then presented corpses as the insured. In 1886, Holmes moved to Chicago to work as a pharmacist. A few months later, he killed the elderly owner of the store but told everyone that the man had left him in charge. With a new series of cons, Holmes raised enough money to build a giant, elaborate home across from the store. The home, which Holmes called "The Castle," had se-cret passageways, fake walls, and trapdoors. Young women in the area, along with tourists who had come to see the 1893 World's Fair in Chicago, and had rented out rooms in Holmes' castle, suddenly began disappearing. Medical schools purchased many human skeletons from Dr. Holmes during this period but never asked how he obtained the anatomy specimens. Holmes was finally caught after attempting to use another corpse, his assistant Benjamin Pitezel, in an insurance scam. He confessed, saying, "I was born with the devil in me. I could not help the fact that I was a murderer, no more than a poet can help the inspiration to sing." Reportedly, au-thorities discovered the remains of over 200 victims on his property. (www.thecrimeweb.com/hhholmes.htm) 1896 nend May 9, The 1st horseless carriage show in London featured 10 models. (MC, 5/9/02) 1896 nend May 15, A tornado killed 78 in Texas. (MC, 5/15/02) 1896 nend May 18, The US Supreme Court upheld the State of Louisiana Separate Car Act in Plessy vs. Ferguson. The Plessy v. Ferguson decision allowed that as long as accommodation existed, segregation did not constitute discrimination, establishing the doctrine of "separate but equal." The decision gave legitimacy to the segregationist policies known as Jim Crow laws. The ruling that was overturned in the 1954 Brown case, which involved elementary education. The Court ruled unanimously that segregation in public education was a denial of the equal pro-tection of the laws. (www.ferris.edu/jimcrow/links/misclink/plessy/)(SFC, 5/12/96, p.A-6) 1896 nend May 20, Clara Schumann, composer and wife of Robert Schumann, died in Frankfort, Germany. (BLW, Geiringer, 1963 ed. p. 191) 1896 nend May 25, Jan N. Bakhuizen van den Brink, theologist, church historian, was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1896 nend May 26, The Dow Jones Industrial Average [DJIA] was first published. Charles H. Dow set up an index of 12 industrial companies that began at 40.94. Of the current 30 stocks in the Dow Jones, only General Electric was in the original group. The 12 companies included: The American Cotton Oil Company, American Sugar Refining Company, American Tobacco, Chi-cago Gas, General Electric Co., Laclede Gas Light Co., National Lead, North American Co., Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Co., U.S. Leather, U.S. Rubber Co. (WSJ, 1/8/96, p.C-1)(WSJ, 5/28/96, p.R45) 1896 nend May 26, Nicholas II, the last Czar of Russia, was crowned. (HN, 5/26/98) 1896 nend May 27, 255 people were killed when a tornado struck St. Louis, Mo., and East St. Louis, Ill. (AP, 5/27/97) 1896 nend May 29, George L. Funke, botanist (Flower Physiology), was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1896 nend May 30, 1st car accident occurred when Henry Wells hit a bicyclist in NYC. (MC, 5/30/02) 1896 nend Jun 4, Henry Ford made a successful pre-dawn test run of his horseless carriage, called a quadricycle, through the streets of Detroit. The quadricycle consisted of a simple motor mounted on a buggy frame. Before Ford began to produce the automobiles that made him fa-mous, he had been an unimpressive student from a Michigan farming family. But he began to demonstrate skill and interest in mechanical work, and left farming and business school behind to work with machines. He learned about steam engines at his job with Westinghouse, and later worked as an engineer for Edison Electric Illuminating Company. As Ford Motors developed, he hoped to emulate Edison. Ford died in 1947 a fabulously wealthy and influential businessman. (AP, 6/4/97)(HNQ, 6/4/98) 1896 nend Jun 7, Vivien Kellems, TV hostess (The Power of Women), was born. (SC, 6/7/02) 1896 nend Jun 7, Robert Mulliken, US chemist, physicist (Nobel 1966), was born. (SC, 6/7/02) 1896 nend Jun 7, G. Harpo & F. Samuelson left NY to row the Atlantic. The trip took 54 days. (SC, 6/7/02) 1896 nend Jun 8, The 1st car was stolen. (MC, 6/8/02) 1896 nend Jun 11, US Assay Office in Deadwood, South Dakota, was authorized. (SC, 6/11/02) 1896 nend Jun 16, Jean Peugeot, French auto manufacturer, was born. (MC, 6/16/02) 1896 nend Jun 18, Blanche Sweet, film actress, was born. (HN, 6/18/01) 1896 nend Jun 19, Bessie Wallis Warfield Simpson, Duchess of Windsor, divorcee, was born. (MC, 6/19/02) 1896 nend Summer, W.B. Yeats and Arthur Symons make a trip to the Aram Islands off the west coast of Ireland. (WSJ, 12/6/95, p.A-18) 1896 nend Jun 24, Booker T. Washington became the first African American to receive an honorary MA degree from Howard University. (HN, 6/24/98) 1896 nend Jun 26, The 1st movie theater in US opened and charged 10 cents for admission. (MC, 6/26/02) 1896 nend Jun 30, W.S. Hadaway patented an electric stove. (MC, 6/30/02) 1896 nend Jun, Marconi filed patent papers in England for his wireless invention. (ON, 11/99, p.10) 1896 nend Jul 1, Harriet Beecher Stowe (85), US author (Uncle Tom's Cabin), died. (MC, 7/1/02) 1896 nend Jul 7, The Democratic National Convention opened in Chicago. The National Democ-ratic Party formed to run a slate of candidates in 1896 because the Democratic Party had been taken over by the free-silver faction, which called for the free and unlimited coinage of silver at the 16 to 1 ratio. They also condemned trusts, monopolies, high protective tariffs and the use of injunctions against labor. The "sound money" or gold Democrats withdrew from the party con-vention, organized the National Democratic Party and nominated John M. Palmer of Illinois its presidential candidate. The gold plank in the Republican Party caused a similar split, with free-silver Republicans bolting the party and forming the National Silver Republicans, who endorsed the Democratic Party candidate for president, William Jennings Bryan. Republican William McKinley won the presidential election. (AP, 7/7/97)(HNQ, 8/23/99) 1896 nend Jun 8, William Jennings Bryan propelled himself to presidential candidacy when he stood before the Democratic Convention and made his famous "Cross of Gold" speech. The paramount issue in the 1896 presidential election was one of economics?the U.S. government promised to pay the holder of one dollar bill one dollar in gold. Democrats, farmers and west-erners demanded that the government redeem paper money in silver as well, while Republicans and easterners protested that this policy would destroy the economy. It was on this dull, techni-cal issue that 36-year-old William Jennings Bryan, a former congressman from Nebraska, launched his national political career. When he made his "Cross of Gold" speech, the Democ-rats had no strong presidential candidate. His dramatic words?"You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns; you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold!"?electrified his audience and resulted in his nomination for president in 1896. [see Jul 9] (HNQ, 6/8/98)(MC, 7/8/02) 1896 nend Jul 14, The Pacific Mail $680,000 Steamship Colombia was destroyed on rocks near Pescadero, Ca. (Ind, 7/20/02, 5A)(Ind, 8/10/02, 5A) 1896 nend Jun 15, The Meiji Sanriku tsunami struck Japan and caused some 27,000 deaths. (CW, Spring ?99, p.28)(http://eklektikos.org/Science.html) 1896 nend Jul 16, Trygve Lie, first secretary-general of the United Nations, was born. (HN, 7/16/98) 1896 nend Jul 16, William Hamilton Gibson, illustrator, author, novelist, died. (MC, 7/16/02) 1896 nend Jun 17, Fridtjof Nansen and Hjalmar Johansen met up with English explorer Frederick Jackson at Franz Joseph Land in the Arctic. (ON, 7/05, p.5) 1896 nend Jul 19, A.J. Cronin, Scottish novelist (The Citadel, The Keys of the Kingdom), was born. (HN, 7/19/01) 1896 nend Jul 21, Mary Church Terrell founded the National Association of Colored Women in Washington, D.C. (HN, 7/21/98) 1896 nend Jul 25, An estimated 5,000 cyclists gathered in SF to demonstrate for better roads. (Ind, 8/2/03, p.5A) 1896 nend Jul 28, The city of Miami, Fla., was incorporated. (AP, 7/28/97) 1896 nend Aug 7, Ernesto Lecuona, composer (Malaguena), was born in Havana, Cuba. (MC, 8/7/02) 1896 nend Aug 8, Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings (d.1953), author of "The Yearling," was born. (HN, 8/8/00) 1896 nend Aug 9, Leonide Massine, Russian-born US choreographer (Diaghilev Ballet Russe 1914-20), was born. (WUD, 1994, p.882)(MC, 8/9/02) 1896 nend Aug 9, Jean Piaget, psychologist who did pioneering work on the development of chil-dren's intellectual faculties, was born. (HN, 8/9/98) 1896 nend Aug 9, Otto Lilienthal, German aerodynamic engineer, made his last glide when his glider No. 11 was upset by a sudden gust of wind and he was unable to regain control. Lilien-thal broke his back in the crash and died the next day in a Berlin clinic. He had made more than 2,000 test flights in gliders and convinced many people that flight was possible and set the stage for early aviation. He once wrote that "we must fly and fall, fly and fall until we can fly without falling." He also influenced flight theory by using bird flight as a model for the basis of aviation. (HNPD, 8/9/98) 1896 nend Aug 11, Harvey Hubbell patented an electric light bulb socket with a pull chain. (MC, 8/11/02) 1896 nend Aug 12, Gold was discovered near Dawson City, Yukon Territory, Canada. [see Aug 16,17] After word reached the United States in June of 1897, thousands of Americans headed to the Klondike to seek their fortunes. (HN, 8/12/01) 1896 nend Aug 13, The New-York Times Company under Adolph Ochs purchased the New-York Times Publishing Company. The control of the New York Times has rested with the Sulzberger and Ochs clans since this year. Adolph S. Ochs purchased a failing newspaper and turned it into the prestigious New York Times. Natives of Chattanooga, Adolph and Milton Ochs later as-sembled over 2,700 acres along the slopes of Lookout Mountain, site of the Civil War Battle of Chattanooga, and donated the land for a Nat?l. Park. (WSJ, 1/22/96, p.A-1)(NH, 8/96, p.78)(HT, 4/97, p.59) (SFEM,1/16/00, p.20) 1896 nend Aug, 16, A white man from California named George Carmack, a fellow not employed at anything in particular, was hiking around northwest Canada?s Yukon River area with his two In-dian brothers-in-law "Skookum Jim" Mason and "Tagish Charley." The three found gold on Rabbit Creek, a stream that feeds the Yukon River near Dawson, Alaska. [see Aug 12,17] (CFA, '96, p.88)(HN, 8/19/01) 1896 nend Aug 17, A prospecting party discovered gold in Alaska, a finding that touched off the Klondike gold rush. [see Aug 12,16] (AP, 8/17/97) 1896 nend Aug 18, Adolph Ochs (39) took over the New York Times. He served as publisher until 1935. (HN, 8/18/00)(SFC, 4/6/01, p.D3) 1896 nend Aug 18, The northern California Mount Tamalpais and Muir Woods railroad was com-pleted. It was 8 œ miles long. The Mount Tamalpais Scenic Railroad attracted visitors to what later became known as Stinson Beach. The railway continued operating to 1930. (SFC, 8/17/96, p.A17)(SFC, 11/27/07, p.A13)(SFC, 2/24/09, p.B1) 1896 nend Aug 19, Adolph Oaks proclaimed the journalistic principles for the New-York Times: "to give the news impartially, without fear of favor, regardless of party, sect or interests involved." He soon launched the "Review of Books and Arts" and a new "Illustrated Sunday Magazine." (SFEM, 1/16/00, p.22,23) 1896 nend Aug 20, Dial telephone was patented. (MC, 8/20/02) 1896 nend Aug 20, Fridtjof Nansen and Hjalmar Johansen arrived back in Norway following a 3 year Arctic venture. In 1898 Nansen published ?Farthest North,? a best-selling account of his adventure. In 1922 Nansen was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace. (ON, 7/05, p.5) 1896 nend Aug 21, Roark Bradford, writer, humorist (Ol' Man Adan an' His Chillun), was born. (SC, 8/21/02) 1896 nend Aug 24, Thomas Brooks was shot and killed by an unknown assailant, beginning a six year feud with the McFarland family. (HN, 8/24/98) 1896 nend Aug 26, North American Co. was removed the Dow Jones and US Cordage was added. (WSJ, 5/28/96, p.R45,46)(WSJ, 5/28/96, R45) 1896 nend Aug 29, The Chinese-American dish chop suey was invented in New York City by the chef to visiting Chinese Ambassador Li Hung-chang. [see 1878] (SFC, 6/9/96, Zone 1 p.2)(SFEC, 1/12/97, zone 3 p.4)(AP, 8/29/97) 1896 nend Aug, The New York Tribune reported that excessive heat and lack of rainfall in the southern states had hurt the cotton crop; and that elsewhere grain in shock and stack had been injured by excessive rain. A help wanted ad requested a skilled dressmaker for one dollar and fifty cents per day. (HFA, ?96, p.37) 1896 nend Aug, The new chief of French military intelligence, Lt Colonel Picquart, reported to his superiors that he had found evidence to the effect that the real traitor in the Dreyfus case was a Major Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy. Picquart was silenced by being transferred, in November 1896, to the southern desert of Tunisia. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Dreyfus) 1896 nend Sep 10, Elsa Schiaparelli, French fashion designer, was born. (MC, 9/10/01) 1896 nend Sep 21, General Horatio Kitchener's army occupied Dongola, Sudan. Gen?l. Herbert Kitchener led the British conquest of the Sudan. The "kit bag," another name for a knapsack, was named after him. (SFEC, 3/29/98, Z1 p.8)(WSJ, 8/25/98, p.A14)(MC, 9/21/01) 1896 nend Sep 23, Louis-Gilbert Duprez, composer, died at 89. (MC, 9/23/01) 1896 nend Sep 24, American author F. Scott Fitzgerald (d.1940) was born in St. Paul, Minnesota. He wrote about the "Jazz Age" between World War I and World War II. He published his first novel in 1920, "This Side of Paradise," and gained instant acclaim and celebrity, marrying Zelda Sayre shortly afterward. In 1924, Fitzgerald wrote what has become his best-known novel, "The Great Gatsby." Although it was not especially popular at the time, as more readers began to appreciate the novel for its perspective of how materialism drives people, it became an Ameri-can classic. As years passed, Fitzgerald battled alcoholism and his wife sought treatment for her mental illness. He died in Hollywood at age 45 in 1940. "If you're strong enough, there are no precedents." (HFA, ?96, p.38)(AP, 9/24/97)(HNPD, 9/24/98)(HN, 9/24/98)(AP, 8/16/99) 1896 nend Sep 27, Sam Ervin, (Sen-D-NC), Watergate committee chairman, was born. (MC, 9/27/01) 1896 nend Oct 1, The U.S. Post Office established Rural Free Delivery, with the first routes in West Virginia. (AP, 10/1/97) 1896 nend Oct 3, William Morris (b.1834), English artist and writer, died. In 1995 Fiona MacCarthy authored the biography: ?William Morris.? (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Morris)(WSJ, 1/21/07, p.P9) 1896 nend Oct 7, Elijah Muhammad, US, leader of Nation of Islam, was born. (MC, 10/7/01) 1896 nend Oct 7, Nicholas and Alexandra of Russia made a state visit to France and with Pres. Felix Faure laid the cornerstone for the Pont Alexandre III. (WSJ, 6/26/96, p.A16) 1896 nend Oct 11, Richard Etheridge (d.1900) and his life-saving team rescued the hurricane sur-vivors of the E.S. Newman on Pea Island, North Carolina. Pea Island later became part of Hat-teras Island. (ON, 1/02, p.2) 1896 nend Oct 11, Anton Bruckner (b.1824), Austrian composer (Te Deum, Wagner Symphony), died at 72. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Bruckner) 1896 nend Oct 14, Lilian Gish, American actress, was born. (HN, 10/14/98) 1896 nend Oct 18, H.L. Davis, novelist and poet, was born. (HN, 10/18/00) 1896 nend Oct 22, Charles Glenn King, biochemist, was born. He later discovered vitamin C. (MC, 10/22/01) 1896 nend Oct 28, Howard Hansen, composer, was born in Wahoo, Nebraska. He became the di-rector of the Eastman School of music. (HN, 10/28/00)(MC, 10/28/01) 1896 nend Oct 30, Ruth Gordon, actress (Rosemary's Baby, Harold & Maude), was born in Mass. (MC, 10/30/01) 1896 nend Oct 30, Kaspar Wicki, Swiss inventor, received Swiss patent Nr. 13329 for a key con-figuration for the concertina, that made fingering identical in any key. (WSJ, 12/7/07, p.W4)(www.concertina.com/gaskins/wicki/) 1896 nend Oct 31, Ethel Waters, actress and blues singer, was born. (HN, 10/31/00) 1896 nend Nov 1, The 1st bare women breast (Zulu) appeared in National Geographic Mag. (MC, 11/1/01) 1896 nend Nov 3, Republican William McKinley was elected 25th president. He defeated Democrat William Jennings Bryan for the presidency. McKinley and Garret Hobart supported the gold standard while The Democrats supported the free coinage of silver. Marcus Hanna, an Ohio in-dustrialist, led the fund-raising for McKinley and personally underwrote the cost of winning this 1st modern presidential campaign. In 1929 Thomas Beer authored a biography of Hanna. (AP, 11/3/97)(SFC, 10/28/98, Z1 p.7)(HN, 11/3/98)(WSJ, 3/24/04, p.B1) 1896 nend Nov 3, J.H. Hunter patented portable weighing scales. (MC, 11/3/01) 1896 nend Nov 6, Jim Jordan, radio comedian (Fibber McGee), was born in Peoria, Il. (MC, 11/6/01) 1896 nend Nov 10, U.S. Rubber Co. was removed from the Dow Jones and Pacific Mail Steamship Co. was added. (WSJ, 5/28/96, p.R45,46) 1896 nend Nov 11, Charles "Lucky" Luciano, NYC Mafia gangster, was born in Sicily. (MC, 11/11/01) 1896 nend Nov 14, Mamie G. Doud Eisenhower (d.1969), 1st lady (1953-61) of Pres. Dwight D. Ei-senhower (1890-1969), was born in Boone, Iowa. (www.whitehouse.gov/history/firstladies/me34.html) 1896 nend Nov 16, Lawrence Tibbett, baritone (Metropolitan Opera 1923-50), was born in Bakers-field Calif. (MC, 11/16/01) 1896 nend Nov 16, Oswald Mosley, baron and British Nazi, was born. (MC, 11/16/01) 1896 nend Nov 19, Start of Sherlock Holmes "Adventure of Sussex Vampire." (MC, 11/19/01) 1896 nend Nov 22, George Washington Gale Ferris, inventor (Ferris wheel), died. (MC, 11/22/01) 1896 nend Nov 25, Virgil Thompson, American composer, was born. His work included "Four Saints in Three Acts" and "The Mother of Us All." (HN, 11/25/00) 1896 nend Nov 26, Coach Amos Alonzo Stagg of Univ. of Chicago created the football huddle. (SFEC, 12/5/99, Z1 p.5)(MC, 11/26/01) 1896 nend Nov 26, Russia disclosed a plan to seize Constantinople if Britain intervenes in Crete. (AP, 11/26/02) 1896 nend Nov 27, Richard Strauss' "Also Sprach Zarathustra" (Thus Spake Zarathustra) debuted in Frankfurt. (MC, 11/27/01) 1896 nend Dec 1, 1st certified public accountants received certificates in NY. (MC, 12/1/01) 1896 nend Dec 2, Georgi Zukov, Soviet general during World War II who captured Berlin, was born. (HN, 12/2/98) 1896 nend Dec 6, Ira Gershwin (d.1983), lyricist ('S Wonderful, I Got Rhythm), was born. Together with his brother, George, he wrote 14 Broadway musicals. Many of his 700 songs were written with other composers. (SFC, 12/4/96, p.E1)(SFC, 5/10/97, p.E1) 1896 nend Dec 7, Stuart Davis, painter, was born. (HN, 12/7/00) 1896 nend Dec 10, Alfred Nobel (63), Swedish Nobel Prize ceremony on this date, died. By the time of his death Nobel had acquired a massive fortune. In his will, he left instructions that the bulk of his estate should endow the annual Nobel prizes for those who had most contributed to the areas of physics, chemistry, medicine, literature and peace. In 1968, a sixth award for eco-nomics was established [see Nov 27, 1895]. The Nobel Peace Prize is therefore awarded on December 10. The first of the Nobel Prizes was presented in 1901 according to instructions in his will. At his death he was one of the richest men in the world, he also felt it would be wrong to leave his fortune to relatives. "Inherited wealth is a misfortune which merely serves to dull man's faculties." Nobel wished the Peace Prize to be administered in Norway. (HNPD, 10/21/98)(AP,12/10/06)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize) 1896 nend Dec 14, James H. Doolittle, American Air Force general, was born. He commanded the first bombing mission over Japan. His Tokyo raid was a great boost for American war morale. (HN, 12/14/99) 1896 nend Dec 23, US Cordage was removed from the Dow Jones and replaced by its successor Standard Rope & Twine Co. (WSJ, 5/28/96, p.R45,46) 1896 nend Dec 23, Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa, Sicilian writer (The Leopard), was born. (MC, 12/23/01) 1896 nend Dec 25, "Stars & Stripes Forever" was written by John Philip Sousa. (MC, 12/25/01) 1896 nend Dec 31, The Teatro Amazonas opened in Manaus, Brazil. It was built by the rubber bar-ons over 15 years with everything imported from Europe. (SFEC, 7/16/00, p.T12) 1896 nend Henry Doelger (d.1978), SF and Daly City home builder, was born in SF. (www.dalycityhistory.org/westlake/doelgerprofile.htm) 1896 nend Roger Huntington Sessions, composer, was born. His work included the opera "The Trial of Lucullus." (WUD, 1994, p.1395)(SFC, 1/27/98, p.A20) 1896 nend Peter Carl Faberge, master jeweler and goldsmith, began work on the Imperial Corona-tion Easter Egg (1896-1908), an enameled, diamond-studded golden egg about 5 inches long that opens to reveal a three-inch-long replica of the carriage that took the czarina to her corona-tion in1896. (SFC, 5/234/96, p.D1,10) 1896 nend Paul Gauguin made his sculpture "Tahitian Girl." (SFEM, 11/24/96, p.62) 1896 nend George Bernard Shaw wrote his comedy play "You Can Never Tell." (WSJ, 6/24/98, p.A16) 1896 nend Brooks Adams wrote "The Law of Civilization and Decay." (WSJ, 8/11/97, p.A12) 1896 nend Colonel C.E. Caldwell authored ?Small Wars: Their Principles and Practice. no_source 1896 nend In Germany Magnus Hirschfeld under a pseudonym published the pamphlet "Sappho und Sokrates," that examined same sex love. (SFEC, 6/15/97, DB p.47) 1896 nend A.E. Housman, British poet, had his work "A Shropshire Lad" published. The 1997 play "The Invention of Love," by Tom Stoppard was based on Housman?s life. (SFC, 7/7/96, Par, p.10)(WSJ, 10/27/97, p.A20) 1896 nend Rev. Charles Shelton authored the novel "In His Steps," which included the phrase "What would Jesus Do?" (WWJD). (SFC, 9/15/00, p.A4) 1896 nend The Ida Tarbell biography of Madame Roland, a republican sympathizer during the French Revolution, was published. (WSJ, 3/28/08, p.W5) 1896 nend H.G. Wells wrote "The Island of Dr. Moreau." (WSJ, 8/23/96, p.A8) 1896 nend Andrew Dickson White, scientist and the 1st president of Cornell Univ., authored "His-tory of the Warfare of Science With Theology in Christendom." He argued that his fellow Prot-estants kept mankind in darkness and tried to prevent him from establishing Cornell as a secu-lar Univ. (WSJ, 10/8/99, p.W15) 1896 nend Yellow journalism was named after the color comic featuring the Yellow Kid that ran in the Hearst New York Journal and the Pulitzer New York World. (SFEM, 1/16/00, p.21) 1896 nend Henry Flagler built the Palm Beach Inn, later called the Breakers, in Palm Beach, Flor-ida, as he developed the area. (WSJ, 6/24/08, p.D7)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Flagler) 1896 nend In San Francisco construction began on the Ferry Building at the foot of Market St. and its 235-foot clock tower. It was completed in 1898. (SFC, 1/3/97, p.A1,4)(SSFC, 4/25/10, p.A2) 1896 nend Col. Griffith J. Griffith donated over 3,000 acres to California. In 2008 efforts began to formally preserve the 4,218-acre Griffith Park as a Los Angeles historic cultural monument. (SFC, 7/23/08, p.B12) 1896 nend In SF the Anchor Brewing Co. was founded and brewed beer at Pacific Ave. and Larkin St. It later moved to 8th and Bryant and then to Kansas and 17th before settling on Mariposa St. by Potrero Hill. (SFC, 10/8/97, Z1 p.4) 1896 nend Brooks Brothers introduced button down collars after observing polo players button down their collar points to keep them from flapping during play. (WSJ, 6/23/03, p.B1) 1896 nend Floodwaters swept coffins from the California Folsom Prison cemetery into the American River. (SFEC, 1/26/97, p.B4) 1896 nend The Olivet Memorial Park non-denominational cemetery was established in Lawndale (Colma), Ca. (www.colmahistory.org/History.htm) 1896 nend Giovanni Foppiano founded Foppiano Vineyards in Sonoma, Ca. (SFC, 12/19/02, p.D4)(SSFC, 5/23/10, p.L3) 1896 nend In San Francisco Fr. John P. Frieden, SJ (1844-1911) succeeded Fr. Allan as president of St. Ignatius College. Frieden continued for the next 12 years. (GenIV, Winter 04/05) 1896 nend The Molinari family began making air dried salami in San Francisco?s North Beach. (SSFC, 10/30/11, p.G3) 1896 nend Cody, Wyoming, was founded. It was named after William "Buffalo Bill" Cody in the hopes that his reputation would bring settlers. Cody guards the eastern gate to Yellowstone, the country?s first official national park, accessed through the Wapiti Valley of the Shoshone Na-tional Forest, the first such forest. Buffalo Bill guided hunting parties, and even Yale paleontolo-gist O.C. Marsh, through the Yellowstone and Big Horn Basin area as early as 1871. Although he played a limited role in the founding of the town that would eventually bear his name (at his suggestion), he contributed much to its development. (HNQ, 5/19/01) 1896 nend William Ashley "Billy" Sunday (1863-1935) was well known in America as a professional baseball player prior to becoming an evangelist in 1896. Sunday, who was born in Ames, Iowa, was among the top professional baseball players from 1883 to 1890, playing for National League teams in Chicago, Philadelphia and Pittsburgh. Sometimes called a sensationalist, the unconventional Sunday became a traveling evangelist in 1896, was ordained a Presbyterian minister in 1903 and went on to have a great following. (HNQ, 8/27/99) 1896 nend The Minneapolis Millers won the Western League baseball pennant. All the stars of the team were soon drafted by the National League and the following year it became one of the worst teams in the Western League. (ON, 6/09, p.10) 1896 nend Wyatt Earp spent some time refereeing boxing matches, including the 1896 heavy-weight title fight between Bob Fitzsimmons and Tom Sharkey. In a controversial and highly-disputed decision, Earp charged Fitzsimmons with a foul and awarded the fight to Sharkey. The two famed western lawmen, Bat Masterson and Wyatt Earp became known for their involve-ment in sporting events years after the 1881 gunfight at the O.K. Corral. Former Dodge City lawman William Barclay "Bat" Masterson went on to become a sports writer. He died at his desk in 1921. (HNQ, 9/20/98) 1896 nend Jane Addams visited Russia. Tolstoy berated her as an absentee landlord. (WSJ, 1/2/02, p.A16) 1896 nend Dr. Herman Hollerith, inventor of a tabulating machine (1889), founded the Tabulating Machine Company. In 1911 it became part of CTR. In 1924 CTR was renamed IBM. (www.answers.com/topic/herman-hollerith) 1896 nend F.W. Rueckheim & Brother of Chicago received a trademark for "Cracker Jack." The popcorn and peanuts covered with molasses syrup sold for a nickel a box in 1899. (HFA, ?96, p.67)(SFC, 7/29/98, p.)(SFC, 7/29/98, Z1 p.23)(AH, 10/01,p.34) 1896 nend The US Army took over the operation of Yellowstone National Park. (SFEC, 10/18/98, p.T5) 1896 nend Students at the Univ. of Michigan demanded a new and more representative yearbook than the one controlled by the administrators and faculty. Thus began the Ensian. (MT, Fall ?96, p.9) 1896 nend Orville H. Gibson founded his Kalamazoo musical instrument manufacturing company. In 1904 it was incorporated as the Gibson Mandolin Guitar Co. (SFC, 10/5/05, p.G3) 1896 nend The Luce Furniture Co. began operations in Grand Rapids, Mich., and continued to 1930. In 1912 it claimed to be the largest shipper of Mission dining room furniture in the coun-try. The company reorganized and reopened from 1935 to 1938. (SFC, 1/28/09, p.G2) 1896 nend Fred Macey opened his own furniture factory in Grand Rapids, Mich. His company made rolltop desks and other furniture. In 1905 he merged with Wernicke Furniture to form Macey-Wernicke Co., which name was simplified in 1908 to Macey Co. It went out of business in 1940. (SFC, 5/24/06, p.G3) 1896 nend In Pennsylvania American Rabbi Joseph Krauskopf bought 118 acres of land about 25 miles north of Philadelphia. The National Farm School (later Delaware Valley College), open to all faiths, began the following year with 10 students. Krauskopf had met Leo Tolstoy on an 1894 trip to Russia, during which the author of "War and Peace" said US immigrants would be better off tilling soil than living in cramped industrial cities. In 2010 the Warwick Foundation of Bucks County gave the school an estimated $30 million in property and cash. (AP, 11/7/10) 1896 nend Budweiser introduced Michelob beer as "draught beer for connoisseurs." (WSJ, 5/27/08, p.A18)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelob) 1896 nend J. Frank and Charles Duryea launched the American automobile industry after being the first to produce more than one vehicle off the same model, the Duryea Motor Wagon. They built 13 gasoline powered autos and put them on sale in Springfield, Mass. (WSJ, 6/19/96, Adv. Supl)(F, 10/7/96, p.66) 1896 nend An ad in Horseless Age, the first automotive trade journal, posted an ad for the Duryea Motor Wagon Company. (WSJ, 6/19/96, Adv. Supl) 1896 nend Samuel Langley, the first Secretary of the Smithsonian Museum, launched a pilotless plane from a floating platform and saw it fly nearly 4,00 feet. (WSJ, 6/12/96, p.A14) 1896 nend A. Belopolsky, Russian astronomer, discovered that the fainter component of the star Castor is itself a double star with a period of three days. (SCTS, p.162) 1896 nend Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity. The work was elaborated upon by Marie and Pierre Curie. Becquerel found that minerals containing the element uranium emit a peculiar type of radiation that is invisible to the eye but which darkens photographic plates even when they are wrapped in black paper. (NG, May 1985, , p.642)(SCTS, p.117) 1896 nend Svante Arrhenius, Swedish chemist, explained the "greenhouse effect" in an article of the April issue of the London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine. This article in-cluded a table of predictions as to how warming the planet could expect latitude by latitude. (NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.29,58) 1896 nend Franz Pfaff, American physician, discovered that the oily residue in poison oak was re-sponsible for the painful rash. (PacDis, Fall/?96, p.32) 1896 nend NYC selected William Temple Hornaday to head a new zoo. It opened in 1899 and Hor-naday bred there a herd of bison. (ON, 3/02, p.9) 1896 nend Charles Field Haviland, US-born porcelain manufacturer, died. In 1876 he took over the Alluaud factory, one of the oldest porcelain factories in Limoges, France. (SFC, 8/2/06, p.G7) 1896 nend In Afghanistan Emir Abdul Rachman converted the eastern kafirs to Islam by force. (WSJ, 11/16/01, p.W12) 1896 nend Argentina became the first nation to adopt fingerprint identification. (SFC, 6/30/96, Zone 1 p.5) c 1896 nend In Brazil police were sent to Canudos but were repelled by the settlement in what came to be call the First Military Expedition to Canudos. The government feared a threat to the na-tional order and sent the Second Military Expedition of 550 soldiers, who were also repelled by the settlement. In the Third Military Expedition 1,500 troops under Colonel Antonio Moreira Ce-sar, aka The Ground Trembler" and "The Beheader," were defeated at Canudos and the colo-nel was killed. (SFC, 10/7/97, p.A14) 1896 nend A Catholic Chaplaincy was established at Britain?s Oxford University. (Econ, 9/4/10,p.57)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Newman_Society) 1896 nend Sir Charles Tupper, Conservative Party, served as the 6th Prime Minister of Canada. (CFA, ?96, p.81) 1896 nend Erland Nordenskiold, a Swedish scientist, explored the Milodon Cave in Patagonia, Chile. He found a large piece of leather with gray-red hair and declared it to have been the hide of a Milodon, a giant sloth, extinct for 8,000 years. The site was later made famous in the Bruce Chitin book: In Patagonia. (SFEC, 11/24/96, p.T6) 1896 nend Chinese cinema was born a year after it was invented in France. (Econ, 4/29/06, p.69) 1896 nend In Egypt Solomon Schechter, a Romanian-born reader in rabinics at England?s Cam-bridge Univ., discovered a cache of hundreds of thousands of documents collected by the Jews of Fustat (Old Cairo). In 2011 Adina Hoffman and Peter Cole authored ?Sacred Trash: The Lost and Found World of the Cairo Geniza.? (SSFC, 5/29/11, p.G4) 1896 nend Chinese agents tricked Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925), Chinese revolutionary, into entering the Chinese Legation in London. They planned to ship him secretly back to China where a re-ward for his arrest amounted to half a million dollars. The story was made public by the London press and the Legation was forced to release him. In 1911 Sun Yat-sen played an important role in the overthrow of the Qing dynasty and came to be revered as the ?Father of Modern China.? (ON, 10/08, p.7) 1896 nend In England Alfred Harmsworth, later Lord Northcliffe, launched the Daily Mail newspa-per. (SFC, 9/3/98, p.C6) 1896 nend A French cinematic society held a screening in Turin, Italy. (SFC, 2/11/06, p.E10) 1896 nend The Schafer & Vater porcelain factory began operating about this time in Rudolstadt, Germany, and continued operations to 1962. (SFC, 5/24/06, p.G3) 1896 nend In Hungary the first subway in Europe was installed under Andrassy Ut in downtown Pest. (WSJ, 12/26/96, p.A4) 1896 nend Bewley?s Oriental Cafes opened a shop on Westmoreland Street in Dublin, Ireland. It later became a hangout for James Joyce. It was scheduled to close in 2004. (SSFC, 11/14/04, p.F2) 1896 nend Maria Montessori (22) graduated from the Univ. of Rome?s school of medicine, the 1st woman to earn a medical degree in Italy. (ON, 3/07, p.3) 1896 nend Numico was founded by Martinus van der Hagen, a Dutch inventor, after he won the ex-clusive right to make infant formula out of cow?s milk. (Econ, 9/2/06, p.59) 1896 nend Henrik Ibsen, Norwegian playwright, authored ?John Gabriel Borkman.? This was Ibsen?s penultimate play. (Econ, 1/22/11,p.100)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Gabriel_Borkman) 1896 nend Theodore Herzl called for a Jewish homeland in Palestine. (SFC, 4/30/02, p.A8) 1896 nend F. Hoffman-La Roche & Co. was founded in Switzerland. (SFC, 3/13/09, p.A10) 1896 nend Moises Saba Amigo arrived in Mexico from Aleppo, Syria. He was part of a large migra-tion of Jews known as "Turcos" from Syria and Palestine whose passports were issued by Ot-toman Turkey. He started peddling dry goods and moved up to a chain of stores, then textiles. The family savings were put into real estate. The Saba family were billionaires by 1997. (WSJ, 8/22/97, p.A10) 1896 nend Cecil Rhodes rode unarmed into the Matopos Hills [later Zimbabwe] in the midst of an Ndebele uprising to negotiate peace. He told the Ndebele chiefs that he wanted to be buried there and asked them to guard his grave. (WSJ, 12/9/98, p.A13) 1896 1897 The Barbour Gymnasium, dedicated exclusively for women?s use, was built at the Univ. of Mich. in Ann Arbor. It was designed by Detroit architect John Scott and was built for $50,000. It was demolished in the spring of 1977 to make way for an addition to the chemistry buildings. (LSA., Fall 1995, p.10,15,16) 1896 1911 Sir Wilfrid Laurier, Liberal Party, served as the 7th Prime Minister of Canada. (CFA, ?96, p.81) 1896 1936 The SS Tahoe, a 169-foot steamer, carried passengers and cargo to the California and Nevada towns around Lake Tahoe. The ship was scuttled in Glenbrook Cove in 1940. (SFEC, 4/2/00, p.B1) 1896 1940 Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald, American author of novels and short stories. "It is in the 30s that we want friends. In the 40s we know they won?t save us any more than love did." (HFA, ?96, p.38)(AHD, 1971, p.497)(AP, 4/27/97) 1896 1951 Peter Cheyney, English author: "The line of least resistance was always the most diffi-cult line in the long run." (AP, 11/4/98) 1896 1965 Dawn Powell, American writer, was the author of 15 novels. (SFEC, 2/14/99, BR p.5) 1896 1969 Gorham Munson, American author and editor: "We are all more average than we think." (AP, 4/18/97) 1896 1985 Ruth Gordon, American actress and playwright: "I think there is one smashing rule: ?Never face the facts." (AP, 2/6/97) 1896 1989 Virgil Thomson, American composer and critic. He wrote his autobiography in 1966. "The clearest statement of principle goes bad if it is repeated too often. It ceases to be a state-ment and becomes a slogan." (WUD, 1994, p.1477)(AP, 1/22/98) 1896 1990 Dodie Smith, English playwright: "Noble deeds and hot baths are the best cures for de-pression." (AP, 3/8/01) 1896 1974 David Alfaro Siqueiros, Mexican painter, muralist. (SFC, 4/18/96, E-1) 1896 1978 Harry Winston, jeweler to the stars. He purchased the Hope diamond in 1949 and later donated it to the Smithsonian Institute. (WSJ, 2/14/96, p.A-1) 1896 1981 E.Y. "Yip" Harburg, Broadway songwriter, wrote the lyrics of over 500 songs by 48 com-posers including such hits as "Brother, Can You Spare a Dime," "April in Paris," "Only a Paper Moon," "Old Devil Moon," and "Over the Rainbow." (MT, 10/94, P. Ephross, p.15) 1896 1982 Helen Merrell Lynd, American sociologist and author: "Our whole life is an attempt to discover when our spontaneity is whimsical, sentimental irresponsibility and when it is a valid expression of our deepest desires and values." "One of the sources of pride in being a human being is the ability to bear present frustrations in the interests of longer purposes." (AP, 3/25/98)(AP, 6/29/98) 1896 1992 The Olympiad?s Greatest Moments was a 16-hr video package that featured highlights of all the summer games since 1896 in eight 2-hr videotapes. (SFC, 6/9/96, Par, p.9) 1897 nend Jan 1, Brooklyn merged with NY to form the present NYC. [see Jan 1, 1898] (MC, 1/1/02) 1897 nend Jan 2, The S.S. Commodore, a small American ship used to smuggle weapons to Cuba, sank off the coast of Florida. Writer Stephen Crane was aboard, along with a crew of 11 and 16 Cuban rebel soldiers. Crane based his 1897 short story, ?The Open Boat,? on his survival ex-perience in a lifeboat. (ON, 4/10, p.9) 1897 nend Jan 3, Marion (Cecilia Douras) Davies actress: Runaway Romany, When Knighthood Was in Flower, The Patsy, Show People, Going Hollywood, was born. (440 Int'l. 1/3/99) 1897 nend Jan 14, The 6,960-m (22,834') Cerro Aconcagua in Argentina was 1st climbed. (MC, 1/14/02) 1897 nend Jan 22, Rosa Ponselle, opera diva (Norma, La Forza del Destino), was born. (MC, 1/22/02) 1897 nend Jan 22, Eighty-two British soldiers held off attacks by 4,000 Zulu warriors at the Battle of Rorke's Drift in South Africa. (HN, 1/22/99) 1897 nend Jan 23, In San Francisco Fong Ching (32), known as the king of Chinatown, was killed by two gunmen at the Wong Lung barbershop at 819 Washington St. Nobody was ever con-victed. ?Little Pete? had led the Sam Yup Tong and was rumored to have killed 50 men. (SFC, 2/17/09, p.A10) 1897 nend Feb 2, Fire destroyed the Pennsylvania state capitol in Harrisburg. A new statehouse was dedicated on the same site nine years later. (AP, 2/2/97) 1897 nend Feb 5, The Indiana House of Representatives unanimously passed a measure redefin-ing the area of a circle and the value of pi. The bill died in the state Senate. (AP, 2/5/97) 1897 nend Feb 6, Ebenezer C. Brewer, British writer (Dictionary of Phrase & Fable), died. (MC, 2/6/02) 1897 nend Feb 10, John F. Enders, virologist, was born. (HN, 2/10/01) 1897 nend Feb 17, The US National Congress of Mothers was founded in Washington, D.C. It later became the National congress of Parents and Teachers known as the PTA (Parent Teachers Association). (USAT, 2/14/97, p.13D)(SFC, 2/22/96, p.A20)(AP, 2/17/98) 1897 nend Feb 27, Miriam Anderson, was born. She became a world renown opera singer and civil rights pioneer, and is best remembered for singing "My Country Tis of Thee" in front of the Lin-coln Memorial. (HN, 2/27/02) 1897 nend Feb, Adolph Ochs of the New-York Times published for the 1st time his slogan "All the News That's Fit to Print." (SFEM, 1/16/00, p.23) 1897 nend Mar 2, President Cleveland vetoed legislation that would have required a literacy test for immigrants. (AP, 3/2/98) 1897 nend Mar 4, Lefty O?Doul (d.1969), baseball star, was born in SF in the old Butchertown neighborhood south of Market. He played for the SF Seals, and spent 11 years in the major leagues with the Phillies, Dodgers, Yankees and Giants before returning to manage the Seals and the Pacific Coast League. He was the National League batting champ in 1929 with the Phillies and again in 1932 with the Brooklyn Dodgers. (SFC, 3/5/96, p.C1)(SFC, 7/18/97, p.A9) 1897 nend Mar 4, William McKinley was sworn in as the 25th president. (AP, 3/4/98) 1897 nend Mar 5, Mei-ling Soong (d.2003, Madame Chiang Kai-shek, was born on Hainan Island, China. As wife of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek she was instrumental in enlisting U.S. sympa-thy and relief for China in World war II. (www.nndb.com/people/978/000086720/)(HN, 6/5/99) 1897 nend Mar 9, Premiere of (parts of) Gustav Mahler's 3rd Symphony in Berlin. (MC, 3/9/02) 1897 nend Mar 18, Fr. Anthony Maraschi (b.1820), founder of the University of San Francisco and Saint Ignatius College Preparatory as well as the first pastor of Saint Ignatius Church in San Francisco, California., died. (GenIV, Winter 04/05)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Maraschi) 1897 nend Mar 24, Wilhelm Reich (d.1957), Austrian-US psychoanalyst (character analysis), was born. In 1999 Farrar, Straus & Giroux published: "American Odyssey: Letters and Journals 1940-1947." (WUD, 1994, p.1209)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Reich) 1897 nend Apr 3, The Vienna Secession was founded by artists Gustav Klimt, Koloman Moser, Josef Hoffmann, Joseph Maria Olbrich, Max Kurzweil, and others. Although Otto Wagner is widely recognized as a fundamental member of the Vienna Secession he was not a founding member. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Secession) 1897 nend Apr 3, Johannes Brahms (63), German composer, conductor (Hungarian Dances), died. (SFEC, 1/5/97, p.B11)(MC, 4/3/02) 1897 nend Apr 6 & 16, Frank M. Chapman, ornithologist with the American Museum of Natural His-tory, observed large numbers of flying hawks over Veracruz, Mexico. (NH, 10/96, p.37) 1897 nend Apr 7, Walter Winchell, American newscaster and newspaper columnist, was born in Harlem, NYC. (HN, 4/7/97)(MC, 4/7/02) 1897 nend Apr 12, Prof. Edward Drinker Cope (b.1840), paleontologist, died in Pennsylvania. He had discovered many hitherto unknown dinosaur species. He willed his bones to science and by 1994 was settled in the Univ. of Pennsylvania?s Museum of Archeology and Anthropology and proposed as a type specimen for Homo sapiens. In 1999 David Rains Wallace authored "The Bonehunter's Revenge: Dinosaurs, Greed, and the Greatest Scientific Feud of the Gilded Age," which covered the feud between Cope and Othniel Charles Marsh. (WSJ, 11/1/94, p.1)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Drinker_Cope) 1897 nend Apr 17, Thornton Wilder (d.1975), novelist and playwright, was born. His work included "Our Town" and "The Bridge of San Luis Rey." (HN, 4/17/99)(WSJ, 10/4/08, p.W8) 1897 nend Apr 19, 1st performance of Debussy's "Pelleas et Melisande." (MC, 4/19/02) 1897 nend Apr 19, The first Boston Marathon was run from Ashland, Mass., to Boston. Winner John J. McDermott ran the course in 2 hours, 55 minutes and 10 seconds. (AP, 4/19/97) 1897 nend Apr 22, NYC Jewish newspaper "Forward" began publishing. (MC, 4/22/02) 1897 nend Apr 23, Lucius du Bignon Clay, was born. He was the U.S. military governor of occupied Berlin following WW II, who promoted German self government. (HN, 4/23/99)(MC, 4/23/02) 1897 nend Apr 27, Grant's Tomb was dedicated. (MC, 4/27/02) 1897 nend Apr 30, Physicist Joseph John Thomson described the electron as a particle of negative charge whose motion constitutes electricity at a meeting of the Royal Institution in London. J.J. Thomson worked on cathode rays and identified electrons, charged particles smaller than the hydrogen atom. (SFC, 5/1/97, p.A7)s(NG, May 1985, , p.642) 1897 nend Apr, The Jewish Daily Forward began publishing. It was a socialist and secular paper in Yiddish founded by Russian immigrant Abraham Cahan. (WSJ, 4/25/97, p.A16) 1897 nend May 14, Sidney Bechet (d.1951), jazz clarinetist and soprano saxophone player, was born. (HN, 5/14/01) 1897 nend May 14, "Stars and Stripes Forever" by John Phillip Sousa was performed for the first time in Philadelphia. (HN, 5/14/01) 1897 nend May 14, Guglielmo Marconi made the first communication by wireless telegraph. (HN, 5/14/98) 1897 nend May 18, Frank Capra, movie director, was born. He is best remembered for "It's A Won-derful Life." (HN, 5/18/99) 1897 nend May 18, A public reading of Bram Stoker?s new novel, "Dracula, or, The Un-dead," was staged at the Royal Lyceum Theatre in London, an event that roughly coincided with the book?s publication. (WUD, 1994 p.432)(AP, 5/18/97) 1897 nend May 18, Paul Dukas "L'Apprenti Sorcier Pruimtabak on the Market" premiered. (SC, 5/18/02) 1897 nend May 18, An Irish Music Festival was 1st held in Dublin. (SC, 5/18/02) 1897 nend May 29, Erich Wolfgang Korngold, movie composer (Violanta), was born in Brno, Aus-tria. (SC, 5/29/02) 1897 nend May 29, Ignace Lilien, composer, was born. (SC, 5/29/02) 1897 nend Jun 2, Responding to rumors that he was dying or perhaps even dead, humorist Mark Twain, 61, was quoted by the New York Journal in London as saying that "the report of my death was an exaggeration." (AP, 6/2/97) 1897 nend Jun 7, George Szell, conductor (Metropolitan 1942-45), was born in Budapest, Hungary. (SC, 6/7/02) 1897 nend Jun 12, Anthony Eden, British prime minister (1955-1957), was born. He helped estab-lish the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). (HN, 6/12/99) 1897 nend Jun 12, Possibly the most severe quake in history struck Assam, India. Shock waves were felt over an area size of Europe. (MC, 6/12/02) 1897 nend Jun 14, Dr. Karl Wolfert and his mechanic were killed in Germany when their dirigible, powered by a Daimler car engine, crashed on its 4th flight. (ON, 3/03, p.10) 1897 nend Jun 15, May Belle Elsas (d.2003), opera singer and actress, was born in NYC. She changed her name to Mary Ellis when she joined the Metropolitan Opera at age 18. (SFC, 2/3/03, p.B4) 1897 nend Jun 16, The US government signed a treaty of annexation with Hawaii. The US Con-gress annexed Hawaii--without a vote from the Hawaiian people. Nearly 22,000 native Hawai-ians had signed a petition opposing the annexation. (AP, 6/16/98)(HNPD, 1/25/99)(SSFC, 8/30/09, p.M1) 1897 nend Jun 19, Moe Howard, comic actor, one of the Three Stooges, was born. (HN, 6/19/98) 1897 nend Jun 19, Charles Cunningham Boycott (b.Mar 12, 1832) English land agent in Ireland, died in England. He was a faulty estate manager whose tenants "boycotted" him into poverty; when the crops failed and the farmers went broke, he unsympathetically gave them the choice of paying immediately or being evicted. The farmers retaliated and his staff quit. His family was isolated. This tactic gave us the word whose last name became part of the English language. (www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Charles-Cunningham-Boycott) 1897 nend Jun 21, In Austria a giant Ferris wheel, designed by Walter Bassett of England, opened in Vienna. It was built in the Wurstelprater amusement park to commemorate the 50th anniver-sary of the accession of Emperor Franz Joseph to the Habsburg throne. (Econ, 5/31/08, p.71)(http://tinyurl.com/3tawph) 1897 nend Jun 23, Winifred Wagner-William, German organizer (Bayreuth Wagner Festival), was born. (MC, 6/23/02) 1897 nend Jul 14, Swede Saloman Andrée (43) and 2 accomplices, Knute Fraenkle and Nils Strindberg, in the Ornen balloon were forced down after 64 hours in the first expedition to fly by balloon across the North Pole. Their attempt to return ended on White Island. Their fate was only discovered Aug 5-6, 1930, by Norwegian whalers. (HNQ, 5/22/01)(ON, 11/01, p.11) 1897 nend Jul 15, The gold-laden ship Excelsior from Alaska landed in San Francisco. Seattle mayor W.D. Wood was visiting and immediately resigned his job, hired a ship, and organized an expedition from SF to the Yukon territory. (WSJ, 7/17/97, p.A20) 1897 nend Jul 15, W. Sheldon of NY patented a seed counter for retail seed sales. (SFC, 4/13/05, p.G4) 1897 nend Jul 17, The Steamer Portland arrived into Seattle from Alaska with 68 prospectors carry-ing more than a ton of gold. The Seattle Post-Intelligencer announced that men with gold from Alaska were landing. This unleashed the Klondike gold rush and tens of thousands headed for the Yukon. The Klondike gold rush gave America and Canada a psychological boost in getting the economy moving again after the terrible depression that followed the 1893 crash. (CFA, ?96, p.88)(Hem., 7/95, p.79)(CFA, ?96, p.89)(WSJ, 5/1/97,p.A16)(WSJ, 7/17/97, p.A20) 1897 nend Jul 21, The Tate Gallery opened in England. (MC, 7/21/02) 1897 nend Jul 24, Amelia Earhart was born in Kansas. She was the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic and disappeared in the South Pacific while trying to fly around the world. Her sister Muriel (d.1998 at 98) wrote a biography of Amelia titled: "Courage Is the Price." (SFC, 3/6/98, p.E2)(HN,7/24/02)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amelia_Earhart) 1897 nend Jul 24, African-American soldiers of the 25th Infantry Bicycle Corps arrived in St. Louis, Mo., after completing a 40-day bike ride from Missoula, Montana. (HN, 7/24/99) 1897 nend Jul 31, The commercial treaty between Britain and the German zollverein (established in 1865) was denounced by Britain and pronounced to end in one year. (G&M, 7/31/97, p.A2) 1897 nend Aug 8, Anarchist Miguel Angiolillo assassinated Spanish PM Antonio Canovas del Casti-llo at Santa Agueda, Spain. Práxides Mateo Sagasta became prime minister of Spain. (NG, 11/04, p.76)(www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/chronpr.html) 1897 nend Aug 10, Felix Hoffmann, a German worker for Bayer, rediscovered aspirin (acetyl sali-cyclic acid), the active ingredient of the willow plant?s (salicin). In 1832 a French chemist named Charles Gergardt had experiments with salicin and created salicylic acid. On March 6, 1899, Bayer registered Aspirin as a trademark. (http://didyouknow.org/aspirin/)(Econ, 12/11/10, p.100) 1897 nend Aug 16, Robert Ringling, circus master, was born. (MC, 8/16/02) 1897 nend Aug 28, Charles Boyer (d.1978), French actor of film and stage, was born. Films in-cluded "Algiers,'' ?Fanny,? and "Gaslight.'' (RTH, 8/28/99) 1897 nend Aug 31, Thomas Edison patented his movie camera (Kinetograph). (MC, 8/31/01) 1897 nend Aug 31, General Kitchener occupied Berber, North of Khartoum. (MC, 8/31/01) 1897 nend Sep 1, The first section of Boston?s subway system was opened. The Park St. Station in Boston was the nation?s first subway station. The Boylston Street subway opened in 1897. (AP, 9/1/97)(BS, 5/3/98, p.5R)(HNQ, 5/17/99) 1897 nend Sep 2, "McCall's" magazine was 1st published. (MC, 9/2/01) 1897 nend Sep 5, A.C. Nielson, founder of the Nielson Ratings, was born. (HN, 9/5/00) 1897 nend Sep 10, Police shot at striking mine workers in Pennsylvania and 20 people were killed. (MC, 9/10/01) 1897 nend Sep 11, A strike by some 75,000 coal miners in Pennsylvania, Ohio and West Virginia ended after 10 weeks. Concessions included an eight-hour work day, semi-monthly pay, and the abolition of company stores (which were famous for over charging workers). The day be-fore, about 20 miners were killed when sheriff's deputies opened fire on them in Pennsylvania. (AP, 9/11/97)(MC, 9/11/01) 1897 nend Sep 12, Irene Joliot-Curie, French physicist (neutron, Nobel 1935), was born. (MC, 9/12/01) 1897 nend Sep 18, Alberto Santos-Dumont crashed his 1st dirigible into trees at the Zoological Gardens in Paris. (ON, 3/03, p.10) 1897 nend Sep 20, Alberto Santos-Dumont successfully flew his repaired motorized dirigible around the Zoological Gardens in Paris. (ON, 3/03, p.10) 1897 nend Sep 21, The New York Sun ran its famous editorial that answered a question from 8-year-old Virginia O?Hanlon: "Is there a Santa Claus?" Francis P. Church wrote, in part: "Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus. He exists as certainly as love and generosity and devotion ex-ist, and you know that they abound and give to your life its highest beauty and joy." (AP, 9/21/97) 1897 nend Sep 23, The 1st frontier days rodeo celebration in Cheyenne, Wyoming, was held. By 1998 it had become the world?s largest outdoor rodeo. (SFEC, 6/28/98, p.T3)(MC, 9/23/01) 1897 nend Sep 25, William Faulkner (d.1962), American author, was born in New Albany, Miss. "The poet?s voice need not merely be the record of man; it can be one of the props, the pillars to help him endure and prevail." (AP, 9/25/97) 1897 nend Sep 26, Pope Paul VI (Giovanni Battista Montini), the 262nd pope of the Roman Catho-lic Church, was born. (MC, 9/26/01) 1897 nend Sep, Eight whaling ships with 273 men became trapped in ice off Point Barrow, Alaska, in an early freeze. Lt. David Henry Jarvis of the Revenue Cutter Service, the forerunner of the US Coast Guard, led a 1500-mile expedition overland from Nelson Island Point Barrow with a herd of reindeer to the stranded men. (ON, 1/01, p.1) 1897 nend Sep, In Brazil Antonio Conselheiro, the founding leader of Canudos, died of dysentery. (SFC, 10/7/97, p.A14) 1897 nend Oct 4, George Bernard Shaw's "The Devil's Disciple," premiered in NYC. (MC, 10/4/01) 1897 nend Oct 5, In Brazil after a 4-month battle government forces defeated the settlement of Canudos. Pres. Prudente de Morais sent 8,000 soldiers with Krupp cannons, dynamite and ma-chine guns in the Fourth Military Expedition to overcome the settlement led by Antonio Consel-heiro. (SFC, 10/7/97, p.A14) 1897 nend Oct 8, Journalist Charles Henry Dow, founder of the Wall Street Journal, began charting trends of stocks and bonds. (HN, 10/8/00) 1897 nend Oct 8, Emperor Karl Joseph I named Gustav Mahler director of Vienna Opera. (MC, 10/8/01) 1897 nend Oct 15, Aaron and Samuel Bloch carried the 1st US Mail Pouch. (MC, 10/15/01) 1897 nend Oct 22, The world's 1st car dealer began business in London. (MC, 10/22/01) 1897 nend Oct 24, The first comic strip appeared in the Sunday color supplement of the New York Journal called the 'Yellow Kid.' [see May 1895,1896] (HN, 10/24/00) 1897 nend Oct 28, Hans Speidel, Nazi chief-staff and NATO-supreme commander, was born. (MC, 10/28/01) 1897 nend Oct 29, Joseph G. Goebbels, German Nazi Propaganda Minister who died of suicide in Hitler?s bunker, was born. (HN, 10/29/98) 1897 nend Nov 3, David Schwarz of Austria crashed his 156-foot aluminum powered airship with 2 propellers on its maiden flight. (ON, 3/03, p.11) 1897 nend Nov 13, The first metal dirigible was flown from Tempelhof Field in Berlin. (HN, 11/13/98) 1897 nend Nov 15, Sacheverell Sitwell, English poet and author (People's Palace), was born. (MC, 11/15/01) 1897 nend Nov 19, The Great "City Fire" in London. (HN, 11/19/98) 1897 nend Nov 23, Willie "The Lion" Smith, jazz and ragtime pianist, was born. (HN, 11/23/00) 1897 nend Nov 23, A pencil sharpener was patented by J.L. Love. (MC, 11/23/01) 1897 nend Nov 25, Spain granted Puerto Rico autonomy. (MC, 11/25/01) 1897 nend Dec 1, Stephen J. Field (1816-1899), US Supreme Court Justice, left office after serving on the court for 34 years. (www.oyez.org/oyez/resource/legal_entity/38/print) 1897 nend Dec 3, Kate O'Brien, Irish writer (Without My Cloak), was born. (MC, 12/3/01) 1897 nend Dec 12, Lillian Smith, Southern writer and civil rights activist, was born. (HN, 12/12/00) 1897 nend Dec 12, "The Katzenjammer Kids," the pioneering comic strip created by Rudolph Dirks, made its debut in the New York Journal. (AP, 12/12/97) 1897 nend Dec 16, The 1st submarine with an internal combustion engine was demonstrated. (MC, 12/16/01) 1897 nend Dec 26, Peter French shot and killed sodbuster, Ed Oliver, after Oliver drew a gun on him. French confessed to the murder but was acquitted. (SFEC, 7/6/97, p.T5) 1897 nend Dec 28, Edmond Rostand?s play on Cyrano de Bergerac (1619-1655), French poet, was unveiled at the Theatre de la Porte-Saint-Martin in Paris. Cyrano?s noted nose was an invention of the poet Theophile Gautier introduced in an 1844 book. (SFEC, 4/27/97, DB p.3)(AP, 12/28/97) 1897 nend Dec 31, Brooklyn, N.Y., spent its last day as a separate entity before becoming part of New York City. (AP, 12/31/97) 1897 nend The 1890 Vincent van Gogh painting "Portrait of Dr. Gachet" was sold to Alice Ruben, a Danish art collector, for $58. In 1990 Japanese businessman Ryoei Saito paid $82.5 million for the painting. (BS, 5/3/98, Par p.26) 1897 nend Gustav Klimt (1862-1918) helped found the Vienna Secessionist art movement. He was chosen as its 1st president. It rebelled against the sentimental academic painting of the 19th century. (WSJ, 10/22/99, p.W14)(WSJ, 7/11/01, p.A15) 1897 nend Claude Monet painted "The Cliffs of Dieppe." In 1998 it was stolen from the French Fine Arts Museum of Nice. (SFC, 9/22/98, p.B7) 1897 nend Giovanni Segantini painted "Primavera sulle alpi," a Divisionist landscape. It was valued at $4-6 million in 1999. (SFC, 11/6/99, p.B8) 1897 nend Bert Corgan published his autobiography "Mining Camp Lawyer." (WW, 12/96) 1897 nend Mark Twain published "Following the Equator: A Journey Around the World, " his last travelogue. (SFC, 8/25/99, p.C3) 1897 nend Edith Wharton wrote "The Decoration of Houses." (WSJ, 12/9/97, p.A20) 1897 nend Arthur Schnitzler wrote his play "Reigen." The name meant round dance and repre-sented a circle of sexual encounters. It was premiered in Vienna in 1920 and was promptly closed down by police. A 1998 adaptation by David Hare featured Nicole Kidman and AIain Glen in "The Blue Room." (WSJ, 12/16/98, p.A21) 1897 nend Alfred Stieglitz invited Fred Holland Day to contribute to Camera Notes. (Civilization, July-Aug. 1995, p.40-47) 1897 nend West Point military academy adopted the motto: "Duty, Honor, Country." (SFEC, 5/7/00, Par p.7) 1897 nend US Marine Band Conductor Francesco Fanciulli was arrested and charged for insubor-dination after refusing to play any more Sousa marches. (WSJ, 7/11/96, p.A12) 1897 nend The recording giant EMI was founded. (Sky, 9/97, p.54) 1897 nend Anson Phelps Stokes, an eccentric business man in the Reese River Valley, built Stokes Castle in Austin, Nevada. He built the 92-mile Nevada Central Railroad from Battle Mountain to Austin. (SFCM, 3/28/04, p.43)(ACC, 2004) 1897 nend The yellow brick King?s County Courthouse in Hanford, Ca., was built in neo-classical revival style. (SFEC, 1/4/98, p.T3) 1897 nend In San Francisco the 4-unit building at 425-431 Buchanan St., designed by William T. Cummins, was built. The roofline was enhanced by 4 round towers. (SSFC, 9/6/09, p.C2) 1897 nend The US Army began building Fort Michie on Great Gull Island to protect the eastern ap-proaches to Long Island Sound. (NH, 10/02, p.12) 1897 nend In Le Roy, New York, Pearle Wait, a carpenter, and his wife May, made a concoction of gelatin and fruit flavor that they named Jell-O. (SFEC, 7/27/97, p.A2) 1897 nend The American Cat Association was founded to promote the welfare of cats and their owners. (Smith., 4/1995, p.136) 1897 nend The American Negro Academy was founded by W.E.B. Du Bois and other black intellec-tuals. (Civilization, July-Aug, 1995, p. 37) 1897 nend Old Del Monte golf course in Monterey, Ca., opened. (Hem, 6/96, p.137) 1897 nend James J. Corbett lost his boxing title to Robert Fitzsimmons. (HNQ, 6/20/00) 1897 nend In Wyoming the first annual Cheyenne Frontier Days Rodeo was held. By 1998 it had become the world?s largest outdoor rodeo. (SFEC, 6/28/98, p.T3) 1897 nend Pres. Grover Cleveland established a forest reserve in the Olympic Peninsula of Wash-ington state with sharp restrictions on commercial logging. 3 years later McKinley remanded a third of the reserve back to open logging. (NG, 7/04, p.66) 1897 nend The US Library of Congress?s Jefferson Building opened to the public. (SFEC, 2/16/97, p.A6) 1897 nend The US Supreme Court ruled that "Seamen are... deficient in that full and intelligent re-sponsibility for their acts that is accredited to ordinary adults." The court added that sailors "had to be protected from themselves and therefore were not subject to the Constitution?s Thirteenth Amendment that prohibited involuntary servitude." This in essence condoned the practice of "shanghaiing." The practice was later described by Bill Picklehaupt in his 1997 book "Shang-haied in San Francisco." (SFC,1/22/97, p.E5) 1897 nend The USS Constitution (aka Old Ironsides) was put into dry-dock. (SFC, 7/22/97, p.A11) 1897 nend The American Federation of Labor backed literacy requirements for immigrants. (WSJ, 3/29/04, p.A8) 1897 nend The suffragette movement started in England as a peaceful protest. The movement turned militant in 1903. Women in England won the right to vote in 1918. (SFC, 8/23/06, p.G7) 1897 nend The Chicago Teachers Club met to protest the sale of cigarettes as "poison laden and corrupting." (Hem., 7/96, p.28) 1897 nend In NYC Col. Fred Grant withdrew from the Board of Police Commissioners as a protest against the methods employed by the NY police to gain evidence. (G&M, 7/31/97, p.A2) 1897 nend In northern California Lime Point Military Reservation was renamed Fort Baker in honor of Col. Edward D. Baker, who was killed leading a regiment of Union troops in the Civil War. The former US Senator from Oregon was active in California politics in the 1850s. (The Park, Summer "95)(SFEC, 8/1/99, p.B4) 1897 nend Marcus Hanna was elected to the US Senate. Hanna, an Ohio industrialist, led the 1896 fund-raising for Pres. McKinley and personally underwrote the cost of winning the 1st modern presidential campaign. In 1929 Thomas Beer authored a biography of Hanna. (WSJ, 3/24/04, p.B1) no_source 1897 nend American Telephone & Telegraph Co. began to use wooden poles when it put up a communication line from Washington DC to Norfolk, Va. (WSJ, 3/2/00, p.A1) 1897 nend BD was founded in 1897 in New York City by Maxwell Becton and Farleigh S. Dickinson, Sr. The company sold glass hypodermic syringes for $2.50. "It was Maxwell Becton?s kind ges-ture in closing a shade to block the glare of the sun in Dickinson?s eyes that brought the two men together." (Horizon, Fall ?95, p.12)(EIH, BDID, SLC, 1981)(cc: mail3/3/97)(SFC, 4/13/98, p.A6) 1897 nend Chicago Gas was one of a host of utilities absorbed by Peoples Gas Light & Coke Co. as part of a massive industry consolidation. (WSJ, 5/28/96, p. R-45) 1897 nend Olds Motor Vehicle Co. was the first auto maker to organize in Lansing, Michigan. R.E. Olds called his first car the Oldsmobile. (WSJ, 6/19/96, Adv. Supl) 1897 nend The Sears Roebuck catalog offered a gun for 68 cents. (WSJ, 12/17/03, p.B1) 1897 nend The Singer sewing machine company built a huge factory in Russia. (SFC, 5/16/01, p.D4) 1897 nend The Stanley Rule & Level Co. of in New Britain, Conn., began making 6-inch folding rul-ers. They introduced a 4-inch one in 1907. (SFC, 11/1/03, p.E4) 1897 nend The Sterling China Co. started working in Sebring, Ohio. In 1904 it changed its name to Limoges China and in the 1940s added "American" to its name. It experimented with some un-usual glazes in the 1930s, including a green one called "Emerald Glow." (SFC, 1/29/97, z-1 p.2) 1897 nend Orison Swett Marden founded Success magazine. The magazine began as a nonfiction monthly featuring biographical sketches and articles espousing the virtue of success, and con-tributions by such notables as Theodore Dreiser, Booker T. Washington, Edward Everett Hale, Mary A. Livermore, and Julia Ward Howe. In 1911 it merged with the National Post. no_source 1897 nend Alexander Winton organized the Winton Motor Carriage Co. in Cleveland. (F, 10/7/96, p.66) 1897 nend Victor Durand Jr., French-born glassmaker, started the Vineland Glass Manufacturing Co. in Vineland, NJ. (SFC, 3/31/99, Z1 p.6) 1897 nend Ransom E. Olds started the Olds Motor Vehicle Co. In 2004 the last Oldsmobile Alero rolled of a GM assembly line in Lansing, Mich. (SFC, 4/28/04, p.C1) 1897 nend Gilbert Loomis was the first car-owner to purchase auto insurance for his vehicle. The premium was $7.50 for $1,000 worth of liability insurance. (WSJ, 6/19/96, Adv. Supl) 1897 nend In Grand Rapids the male only Diamond Hall club was formed for Polish immigrants. In 2004 the club voted to allow women full membership. (USAT, 5/18/04, p.17A) 1897 nend Michigan passed a law prohibiting the use of obscenities in front of women and children. The law was challenged in 1999 after a canoeist, Timothy J. Boomer, hit a rock on the Rifle River and was cited for swearing in 1998. A state appeals court struck down the law in 2002 (SFC, 6/3/99, p.A8)(SFC, 4/2/02, p.A3) 1897 nend In Midland, Michigan, Herbert Dow, founder of Dow Chemical, first tapped the local brine wells for his pioneering electrolysis process. (Econ, 7/9/11, p.62) 1897 nend Otto H.L. Wernicke moved his Wernicke Furniture Co. from Minneapolis, Minn., to Grand Rapids, Mich. (SFC, 8/9/06, p.G3) 1897 nend Thaddeus Cahill (1867-1934) patented (pat no. 580,035) what was to become the "Tel-harmonium" or "Dynamophone." It can be considered the first significant electronic musical in-strument. The 1st fully completed model was presented to the public (1906) in Holyoke, Mass. (www.obsolete.com/120_years/machines/telharmonium/)(Econ, 9/3/05, p.77) 1897 nend Adolphe Chaillet, French inventor and US immigrant, developed a coiled filament carbon lamp that burned brighter than existing models. He met John C. Fish of Shelby, Ohio and be-gan an association that was to be the start of the Shelby Electric Company. In 1901 a Shelby bulb was installed in a Livermore, Ca., firehouse. Though it was moved a few times, as of 2011 it was still working. no_source 2 nend /6/11, p.C1) no_source 1897 nend Lord Kelvin calculated the age of the earth on the assumption that it had cooled from an initial molten state. His work indicated an age of between 200 and 400 million years for the earth. (DD-EVTT, p.32) 1897 nend R.D. Oldham, English seismologist, recognized the three main kinds of seismic waves recorded by his instruments. They are the primary waves (P waves) of the push-pull kind, like sound waves, secondary waves (s-waves) in which the vibrations are at right angles to the di-rection in which the shock wave is moving, and longitudinal waves (l-waves) which move over the earth?s surface. (DD-EVTT, p.77) 1897 nend The world?s first offshore oil well was drilled just east of Santa Barbara, Ca. (SSFC, 10/29/06, p.F6) 1897 nend Robert Peary, Arctic explorer, took 6 Eskimos from Greenland back to NYC as living museum specimens. In 2000 Kenn Harper authored "Give Me My Father?s Body," the story of Minik, one of the 6 Eskimos, who died in 1918 in a New Hampshire lumber camp at age 28. (SFEC, 7/16/00, Par p.8) 1897 nend The Red River in Fargo North Dakota crested at 39.1 feet. The record was broken in 1997. (SFC, 4/16/97, p.A3) 1897 nend The Ellis Island immigration center was destroyed by fire. (SFEC, 6/20/99, p.T10) 1897 nend Belgium established the Tervuren Royal Museum for Central Africa following the World Fair of this year. It was a result of the country?s colonial venture in the Belgian Congo, later Za-ire, later Democratic Republic of Congo. The museum was founded as a showcase for business opportunities on the Congo. (SFC, 2/21/98, p.E1)(www.africamuseum.be/museum/about) 1897 nend Belo Horizonte was founded in the state of Minas Gerais as the first modern planned city of Brazil. (USA Today, OW, 4/22/96, p.9) 1897 nend British officer Capt. H. Deasy encountered migrating chirus in Tibet and named the local Antelope Plain. (NH, 5/96, p.50) 1897 nend The Royal Pigeon Racing Association formed in England. In 2004 it began drug testing among its members for the use of steroids in their pigeons. (WSJ, 11/11/04, p.A1) 1897 nend Isaac Pitman (b.1813), inventor of Pitman shorthand, died in Britain. (WSJ, 8/20/04, p.A1) 1897 nend Alphonse Daudet (b.1840), French novelist, died. In 2002 Julian Barnes translated writ-ings from his last 12 years, "In the Land of Pain," in which he conveyed his thoughts on pain from his tertiary-stage syphilis. (WUD, 1994 p.369)(WSJ, 1/24/03, p.W9) 1897 nend St. Theresa of Lisiex, known to her followers as The Little Flower, died. (SFC, 1/11/00, p.A15) 1897 nend Ragnar Sohlman, executor of Alfred Nobel?s will, moved Nobel?s stock certificates and papers out of France to Sweden, and thus beyond the jurisdiction of French courts. (ON, 4/07, p.7) 1897 nend The Greeks were defeated by Turkey at Velestino in their war over the independence of Crete. (WSJ, 8/6/98, p.A13) 1897 nend Japan?s Kyoto National Museum was established. (Hem, 9/04, p.46) 1897 nend Ottoman authorities disbanded a reactivated League of Prizren, executed its leader and banned Albanian language books. (www, Albania, 1998) 1897 nend Benin City, capital of Edo state, Nigeria, was burned and ransacked by the British after the Bini killed a British diplomatic mission. 16th century brass plaques were looted from the royal palace and sold to the British Museum. (SFC, 3/29/02, p.D8) 1897 nend The first Zionist Congress was held in Basel, Switzerland. (SFEC, 4/26/98, BR p.1) 1897 nend Mbuya Nehanda, a spirit medium of the Zezuru Shona people, was executed for the kill-ing of administrator Henry Pollard, known for his brutality toward blacks. She provided inspira-tion to the Hwata Dynasty for their revolt against the British South Africa Company colonization of Mashonaland and Matabeleland (later Zimbabwe). She is believed to have had immense powers was later remembered as the ancestral grandmother of the Zimbabwe nation. (AP, 12/8/11)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nehanda_Nyakasikana) 1897 1898 Paul Gauguin created his painting "D'ou venons-nous? Que sommmes-nous? Ou al-lons-nous?" (Where do we come from? What Are We? Where are we going?) (WSJ, 4/12/04, p.D8) 1897 1901 William McKinley is the 25th President of the US. (A&IP, ESM, p.96b, photo) 1897 1902 The Jesup North Pacific Expedition was made to study the biological and cultural con-nections between peoples on each side of the Bering Strait. It was one of the first instances where a camera was used in such a study. (WSJ, 12/30/97, p.A8) 1897 1904 Henry-Louis de La Grange, French writer, focused on these years in Vienna in writing his multivolume biography of Gustav Mahler titled: Vienna: The Years of Challenge. Vol. 1 in English was released in 1973. A 3-volume French edition came out between 1979-1984. A new 4-volume English was launched in 1995. (WSJ, 6/9/95, p.A-12)(SFEC, 6/7/98, DB p.37) 1897 1946 John Steuart Curry, American painter, was known as a regionalist for his paintings of Kansas. Many of his best works were actually done in Westport, Conn. He became artist in residence at the Univ. of Wisconsin, the first to hold such an academic position in the US. (SFC, 6/13/98, p.E1) 1897 1955 Bernard De Voto, American author, journalist and critic: "History abhors determinism, but cannot tolerate chance." Determinism refers to the notion that a cause precedes every event. (AP, 8/20/97)(SSFC, 4/6/03, p.M5) 1897 1957 Erich Wolfgang Korngold, composer. He went into exile in 1938 and wrote film music in Hollywood. (WSJ, 3/5/99, p.W10) 1897 1957 The Griswold Manufacturing Co. of Erie, Pa., made cast-iron skillets, pans and other kitchen items over this time. (SFEC, 10/9/96, z1 p.8) 1897 1966 Lillian Smith, American writer and social critic: "Education is a private matter between the person and the world of knowledge and experience, and has little to do with school or col-lege." "The human heart dares not stay away too long from that which hurt it most. There is a return journey to anguish that few of us are released from making." (AP, 11/13/97)(AP, 8/8/99) 1895 1972 L.P. Hartley, British author: "The past is a foreign country; they do things differently there." (AP, 7/1/00) 1897 1973 Catherine Drinker Bowen, American author: "I speak the truth, not so much as I would, but as much as I dare; and I dare a little more, as I grow older." (AP, 3/23/98) 1897 1980 Dorothy Day, American activist and founder of the Catholic worker newspaper: "How much did I hear of religion as a child? Very little, and yet my heart leaped when I heard the name of God. I do believe every soul has a tendency toward God." "The best thing to do with the best things in life is to give them up." (AP, 6/8/97)(AP, 8/18/99)(WSJ, 3/26/03, p.D8) 1897 1988 George Sakier, designer. He designed the Myriad pattern of Fostoria Glass. he also de-signed packaging, furniture, bath fixtures, and painted abstract landscapes. (SFC, 6/12/96, Z1 p.5) 1898 nend Jan 1, The consolidation of Greater New York City occurred with the "merger" of Brooklyn and Manhattan. Before the merger Brooklyn had absorbed Williamsburg, Bushwick, Flatbush, Flatlands, and New Lots among other towns. The merger created a city of 3.4 million people. Manhattan, the Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens and Staten Island were consolidated into New York City. (WSJ, 12/31/97, p.A10)(AP, 1/1/99) 1898 nend Jan 1, The consolidation of NYC ended a rivalry with Chicago which had annexed some 20,000 people in the surrounding towns of Hyde Park, Kenwood, Pullman and Woodlawn. (WSJ, 12/31/97, p.A10) 1898 nend Jan 3, Zasu Pitts actress: Busby Berkeley's 1933 musical: Dames, was born. (440 Int'l. 1/3/99) 1898 nend Jan 7, Art Baker, TV host (You Asked For It), was born in NYC. (MC, 1/7/02) 1898 nend Jan 10, Sergei M. Eisenstein (d.1948), Russian director (Alexandr Nevski) [OS], was born in Riga, Latvia. He became a renowned film director in Russia. In 1999 Ronald Bergan published the biography: "Sergei Eisenstein: A Life In Conflict." [see Jan 23] (SFEC, 5/2/99, BR p.1,10)(MC, 1/10/02) 1898 nend Jan 10, In France a court-martial against Major Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy began behind closed doors. The next day the defendant was found not guilty. Writer Emile Zola followed this action 2 days later with a 4-thousand word letter in support of Captain Dreyfus and accusing the French military of a conspiracy in the case. (ON, 2/09, p.6) 1898 nend Jan 13, Emile Zola's famous defense of Captain Alfred Dreyfus, "J'accuse," was published in Paris. The open letter to French President Felix Faure accused the French judiciary of giving into pressure from the military to perpetuate a cover-up in the Dreyfus treason case. (AP, 1/13/98)(MC, 1/13/02) 1898 nend Jan 14, Author Charles Lutwidge Dodgson -- better known as "Alice in Wonderland" creator Lewis Carroll -- died in Guildford, England. In 2008 Robin Wilson authored ?Lewis Carroll in Numberland: His Fantastical Mathematical Logical Life.? (AP, 1/14/98)(Econ, 7/5/08, p.93) 1898 nend Jan 23, Sergei Eisenstein, Russian film director (Battleship Potemkin), was born. [see Jan 10] (MC, 1/23/02) 1898 nend Jan, Henry James (1843-1916), England-born US novelist, writer and critic, published his novella "The Turn of the Screw." (SFC, 1/17/98, p.C1)(WSJ, 10/25/08, p.W8) 1898 nend Feb 1, The Travelers Insurance Company of Hartford, CT (the company with the red umbrella over their logo) issued the very first automobile insurance policy on this day. Dr. Truman Martin of Buffalo, NY, paid $11.25 for the policy, which gave him $5,000 in liability coverage. (AP, 2/1/97)(440 Int'l, 2/1/1999) 1898 nend Feb 3, Alvar Aalto (d.1979), Finnish architect, was born. (HN, 2/3/01) 1898 nend Feb 5, Ralph McGill, editor and publisher of the Atlanta Constitution, was born. (HN, 2/5/01) 1898 nend Feb 8, John Ames Sherman patented the 1st envelope folding & gumming machine in Mass. (MC, 2/8/02) 1898 nend Feb 10, Bertolt Brecht (d.1956), German poet and dramatist, was born. He is best remembered for his plays "Three Penny Opera" and "Mother Courage." "Because things are the way they are, things will not stay the way they are." (HN, 2/10/99)(AP, 3/11/00) 1898 nend Feb 11, Leo Szilard, physicist, instrumental in the Manhattan Project, was born. (HN, 2/11/01) 1898 nend Feb 12, [Le]Roy Harris, composer (When Johnny Comes Marching Home), was born in Oklahoma. (MC, 2/12/02) 1898 nend Feb 14, Fritz Zwicky, Swiss astronomer (super nova), was born. (MC, 2/14/02) 1898 nend Feb 15, The battleship USS Maine exploded and sank in Havana harbor. The explosion killed 266 of her crew. It had been sent there to menace Imperial Spain and its sinking helped to precipitate the Spanish-American War. The explosion?never satisfactorily explained?brought the United States closer to war with Spain over the issue of Cuban independence. (Civilization, July-Aug, 1995, p.14)(NH, 4/97, p.38)(HT, 5/97,p.64) (HN, 2/15/98)(AP, 2/15/98) 1898 nend Feb 18, Enzo Ferrari (d.1988), Italian sports car manufacturer, was born. (www.britannica.com/eb/article-9034085/Enzo-Ferrari) 1898 nend Feb 20, Jimmy Yancey, American blues pianist, was born. (HN, 2/20/01) 1898 nend Feb 22, A black postmaster was lynched and his wife and 3 daughters were shot in Lake City, SC. (MC, 2/22/02) 1898 nend Feb 23, Writer Emile Zola was imprisoned in France for his letter J'accuse in which he accused the French government of anti-Semitism and the wrongful imprisonment of army captain Alfred Dreyfus. (HN, 2/23/01) 1898 nend Mar 8, Richard Straus' "Don Quixote," premiered in Keulen. (MC, 3/8/02) 1898 nend Mar 13, The ship New York, built in Philadelphia in 1888 as the T.F. Oaks, was caught in the surf of Half Moon Bay and broke up after a few days. It was 259 days out of Hong Kong and all 22 aboard under Capt. Thomas Peabody made it to shore. Most of the cargo was lost. (Ind, 4/6/02, 5A) 1898 nend Mar 14, Henry Bessemer (b.1813), English inventor and mechanical engineer, died. Bessemer developed the first process for mass-producing steel inexpensively. (ON, 9/06, p.6)(www.lucidcafe.com/library/96jan/bessemer.html) 1898 nend Mar 23, Georgios Grivas, Greek General, opposition leader on Cyprus, was born. (SS, 3/23/02) 1898 nend Mar 24, Chicago Gas, absorbed by Peoples Gas Light & Coke Co., was removed from the Dow Jones and replaced by Peoples Gas. (WSJ, 5/28/96, p. R-45,46) 1898 nend Mar 24, The 1st automobile was sold. (MC, 3/24/02) 1898 nend Mar 26, Lt. David Henry Jarvis of the Revenue Cutter Service reached Point Franklin, after a 1500-hundred mile trek, with a herd of reindeer to rescue 273 iced-in whalers stranded here and at Point Barrow. (ON, 1/01, p.1) 1898 nend Mar 28, The Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Wong Kim Ark that a child born in the United States to Chinese immigrants was a US citizen. (AP, 3/28/08) 1898 nend Apr 3, Henry R. Luce (d.1967), magazine publisher, founder of Time, Fortune and Life, was born. "Show me a man who claims he is objective and I'll show you a man with illusions." (HN, 4/3/01)(AP, 3/9/98) 1898 nend Apr 8, British General Horatio Kitchener defeated the Khalifa, leader of the dervishes in Sudan, at the Battle of Atbara. Anglo-Egyptian forces crushed 6,000 Sudanese. (HN, 4/8/99)(MC, 4/8/02) 1898 nend Apr 9, Paul Robeson (d.1976), black athlete, actor and singer, was born. He is best remembered for his role in Othello. Lloyd L. Brown later wrote the biography "The Young Paul Robeson: On My Journey Now." "The course of history can be changed but not halted." (SFC, 3/26/98, p.A26)(HN, 4/9/99)(AP, 1/18/01) 1898 nend Apr 11, American President McKinley asked Congress to authorize military intervention in Cuba. The war was fomented by New York newspapers in their own battle for circulation. (AP, 4/11/07)(WSJ, 5/19/98, p.A20) 1898 nend Apr 14, Harold Black, electrical engineer, was born. (HN, 4/14/01) 1898 nend Apr 15, Bessie Smith, American blues singer, was born. (HN, 4/15/01) 1898 nend Apr 19, Congress passed a resolution recognizing Cuban independence and demanding that Spain relinquish authority over Cuba. President McKinley was also authorized to use military force to put the resolution into effect. (AP, 4/19/97) 1898 nend Apr 20, President McKinley signed a congressional resolution recognizing Cuban independence from Spain. He signed the Joint Resolution for War with Spain that authorized U.S. military intervention to Cuban independence. (AP, 4/20/97)(SFC, 1/19/02, p.A19) 1898 nend Apr 21, The Spanish-American War began. The U.S. North Atlantic Fleet, under the command of Rear Admiral William T. Sampson, was ordered to begin the blockade of Cuba. The fleet with the armored cruiser New York steamed out of Key West, Fla., at 6:30 a.m. the next morning. The fleet had hardly left port when it pursued and captured a Spanish merchant vessel, Buenaventura. The Spanish-American War had begun. In 1998 David Traxel published "1898: The Birth of the American Century," a history of the Spanish-American War. http://lcweb.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/subjects.html (HN, 4/21/98)(SFEC, 7/5/98, BR p.6)(HNPD, 4/25/99) 1898 nend Apr 22, US Congress passed the Volunteer Army Act calling for a Volunteer Cavalry. (MC, 4/22/02) 1898 nend Apr 22, With the United States and Spain on the verge of formally declaring war, the U.S. Navy began blockading Cuban ports under orders from President McKinley. In the first Spanish-American War action the USS Nashville captured a Spanish merchant ship, the Buenaventura, off Key West, Fla. Also, Congress authorized creation of the First U.S. Volunteer Cavalry, popularly known as the "Rough Riders." In 1998 the book "Empire by Default" by Ivan Musicant retold the story of the was in detail. (AP, 4/22/97)(WSJ, 2/23/98, p.A20)(AP, 4/22/98)(HN, 4/22/98)(MC,4/22/02) 1898 nend Apr 24, Spain declared war on the United States after rejecting America's ultimatum to withdraw from Cuba. (AP, 4/24/97)(HN, 4/24/98) 1898 nend Apr 24, US fleet under commodore Dewey steamed from Hong Kong to Philippines. (MC, 4/24/02) 1898 nend Apr 25, The United States formally declared war on Spain. The US House passed the declaration 311 to 6. (AP, 4/25/97)(HN, 4/25/98)(SSFC, 3/30/03, p.A1) 1898 nend Apr 28, William Soutar, Scottish poet, was born. (HN, 4/28/01) 1898 nend May 1, US Commodore George Dewey gave the command, "You may fire when you are ready, Gridley," as an American naval force destroyed a Spanish fleet in Manila Bay. Admiral George Dewey led the US Navy in victory over the Spanish navy at the Battle of Manila Bay in the Philippines. Dewey's ships lobbed shells into Filipino-dug trenches and the battle became a massacre. (AP, 5/1/97)(Hem, Dec. 94, p.70)(SFEC, 1/31/99, Z1 p.4)(HN, 5/1/99) 1898 nend May 1, U.S. Navy Captain Charles Gridley earned a place in history during the Battle of Manila Bay. (HN 8/13/98) 1898 nend May 3, Golda Mier (d.1978), 4th Prime Minister of Israel (1969-1974) and the first woman PM, was born. "Whether women are better than men, I cannot say -- but I can say they are certainly no worse." (AP, 5/11/97)(HN, 5/3/02) 1898 nend May 6, Daniel Gerber, baby food pioneer, was born in Freemont, Mich. (MC, 5/6/02) 1898 nend May 10, Ariel Durant, writer (Story of Civilization), was born in Proskurov, Russia. (www.willdurant.com/ariel.htm) 1898 nend May 12, A US fleet under Admiral William T. Sampson attacked El Morro and San Cristobal. After 2 hours of shelling the fleet headed for Cuba. (HT, 4/97, p.30) 1898 nend May 12, Louisiana adopted a new constitution with a "grandfather clause" designed to eliminate black voters. (SC, Internet, 5/12/97) 1898 nend May 18, Juan J. Domenchina, Spanish poet, interpreter (sombra desterrada), was born. (SC, 5/18/02) 1898 nend May 19, US Congress passed the Private Mailing Card Act which allowed private publishers and printers to produce postcards. (www.si.edu/archives/postcard/chronology.htm) 1898 nend May 21, Armand Hammer, millionaire industrialist, was born. (HN, 5/21/98) 1898 nend May 25, Bennett Cerf, publisher, founder of Random House, was born. (HN, 5/25/01) 1898 nend May 25, Gustav Regler, writer, was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1898 nend May 25, Mischa Levitzki, composer, was born. (SC, 5/25/02) 1898 nend May 25, Gene Tunney, heavyweight boxing champion (1926-1930), was born. (HN, 5/25/98)(SC, 5/25/02) 1898 nend May 25, 1st US troop transport to Manila left San Francisco. (SC, 5/25/02) 1898 nend May 28, Edward Bellamy, US author (Looking Backward), died. (MC, 5/28/02) 1898 nend May 31, Norman Vincent Peale (d1993), American religious leader, was born in Ohio. He later authored "The Power of Positive Thinking." (HN, 5/31/01)(MC, 5/31/02) 1898 nend May, In Alaska construction began on the White Pass & Yukon railroad. It was led by Big Mike Heney, a Canadian Railway contractor, and Sir Thomas Tancred, who represented the British financiers. (SFEC, 2/8/98, p.T3) 1898 nend Jun 1, Molly Picon, comic actress and singer, was born. (HN, 6/1/01) 1898 nend Jun 2, So wrote Dr. Paul-Louis Simond: "I was overwhelmed. I had just unveiled a secret which had tormented man for so long." Simond had just made the connection between rats, fleas and humans in the transmittance of plague in a Bombay, India, laboratory, to which he was sent by the Institute Pasteur. (NG, 5/88, p.678) 1898 nend Jun 5, Federico Garcia Lorca (d.1936), Spanish poet and dramatist, was born. (WUD, 1994, p.584)(MT, Spg. '99, p.2)(HN, 6/5/01) 1898 nend Jun 7, Social Democracy of America party held its 1st national convention in Chicago. (SC, 6/7/02) 1898 nend Jun 9, China leased Hong Kong's New Territories to Britain for 99 years by a convention signed in Peking, respecting an extension of Hong Kong territory, the New Territories, comprising the area north of Kowloon up to the Shum Chun (Shenzhen) River and 235 islands. (www.info.gov.hk/yearbook/2003/english/chapter21/21_03.html) 1898 nend Jun 10, During the Spanish-American War, U.S. Marines landed in Cuba and camped at Guantanamo Bay where 2 Marines became the 1st war casualties. (HN, 6/10/98)(SSFC, 1/20/02, p.A7) 1898 nend Jun 11, Emperor Kuang-Hsu of China began 100 days of Reform in effort to modernize China, but conservative forces soon squelch the attempt. (AP, 6/11/03) 1898 nend Jun 12, The Philippines gained independence from Spain. Emilio Aguinaldo, rebel leader, proclaimed Philippine independence. Aguinaldo served as the first president. (SFC, 6/8/96, p.A17)(SFC, 3/31/97, p.A14)(AP, 6/12/97)(SFEC,1/31/99, Z1 p.4) 1898 nend Jun 13, The Yukon Territory of Canada was organized. (AP, 6/13/97) 1898 nend Jun 15, The U.S. House of representatives approved the annexation of Hawaii. Some 38,000 Hawaiians opposing annexation signed the "Monster Petition" that was delivered to Washington by Queen Lili?uokalani. The petition was ignored. (HN, 6/15/98)(SFEC, 8/9/98, p.D2) 1898 nend Jun 15, US marines attacked the Spanish off Guantanamo, Cuba. (MC, 6/15/02) 1898 nend Jun 17, Maurits C. Escher, Dutch graphic artist, was born. (MC, 6/17/02) 1898 nend Jun 17, Sir Edward Burne-Jones (b.1833), British painter and member of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, died. In 2011 Fiona MacCarthy authored ?The Last Pre-Raphaelite: Edward Burne-Jones and the Victorian Imagination.? (Econ, 8/20/11, p.77)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Burne-Jones) 1898 nend Jun 18, The 1st amusement pier opened in Atlantic City, NJ. (MC, 6/18/02) 1898 nend Jun 20, During the Spanish-American War on the way to the Philippines to fight the Spanish, the U.S. Navy cruiser Charleston seized the island of Guam. (AP, 6/20/98)(HN, 6/20/98) 1898 nend Jun 21, Guam became a US territory. [see Jun 20, Jul 21] (MC, 6/21/02) 1898 nend Jun 22, Erich Maria Remarque, German born novelist and author of "All Quiet on the Western Front" (Im Westen nichts Neues), was born. The book, based on Remarque's experiences in World War I, emphasized the numbing daily routine of grunts in the trenches in stark contrast to prevailing political rhetoric. The novel received international acclaim and was made into a Hollywood film in 1930. Remarque left Germany for Switzerland in 1932 because of the growing Nazi movement. He became a naturalized American citizen in the '40s, but moved back to Switzerland later in life. Remarque kept writing, but never attained the same level of critical success as his first novel. (WUD, 1994, p.1213)(SFC, 12/31/96, p.A20)(HN, 6/22/98)(HNQ, 12//00) 1898 nend Jun 22, US forces, 6000 soldiers under Lawton, Bates, Rafferty and Wheeler and under the general command of General Shafter, landed at Daiquiri, Cuba. Col. Leonard Wood and Lt. Col. Theodore Roosevelt led the Rough Riders, a volunteer cavalry regiment, onto the beach at Daiquiri in the Spanish American War. (www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/chroncuba.html)(http://tinyurl.com/ckvj3) 1898 nend Jun 24, American troops drove Spanish forces from La Guasimas, Cuba. (MC, 6/24/02) 1898 nend Jun 26, Wilhelm Emil Messerschmitt, German engineer, was born. He built fighters and jet aircraft for Nazi Germany. (HN, 6/26/99) 1898 nend Jun 27, Joshua Slocum (1844-1909) became the first person to sail single-handedly around the world. His voyage began on April 24, 1895 in Boston and ended on this day at Newport, Rhode Island. (Econ, 3/1/08, p.86)(www.millicentlibrary.org/slocum.htm) 1898 nend Jul 1, American troops took San Juan Hill and El Caney, Cuba, from the Spaniards. During the Spanish-American War, Theodore Roosevelt and his "Rough Riders" waged a victorious assault on San Juan Hill in SE Cuba. Lieutenant Colonel Theodore Roosevelt was unsatisfied with the lack of clear orders and decided to lead a charge up San Juan Hill himself. At first, Regular troops were resistant to following a volunteer officer, but Assistant Secretary of the Navy Roosevelt and his eager Rough Riders managed to rally enough troops and convince enough officers to charge. By nightfall, the Spaniards had retreated and the heights overlooking Santiago were in American hands. The black Buffalo Soldiers captured San Juan Hill. As the Rough Riders shipped off to war the band played: "There'll Be A Hot Time in the Old Town Tonight." (WUD, 1994, p.1267)(AP, 7/1/97)(SFEC, 4/5/98, p.C14)(HNPD, 7/1/99) 1898 nend Jul 1, Major Gen. Joseph Wheeler (63) led a cavalry division in the Battle of San Juan Hill. As a Confederate brigadier and then major general, "Fightin' Joe" Wheeler commanded the cavalry of the Confederate Army of Mississippi and, later, the Army of Tennessee. Captured in May 1865, he went on to have a prosperous postwar life, serving as a US congressman for eight terms. After his Spanish-American War service, Wheeler retired from the army as a brigadier general of US Regulars. When he died in January 1906, he was interred in Arlington National Cemetery. (HNQ, 2/13/02) 1898 nend Jul 1, The US Congress passed legislation regarding bankruptcy. The Bankruptcy Act of 1898, also known as the "Nelson Act," was the first Act of Congress involving bankruptcy that gave companies an option of being protected from creditors. Previous attempts at federal bankruptcy laws had lasted at most a few years. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bankruptcy_Act_of_1898) 1898 nend Jul 1, China leased the New Territories and 235 adjacent islands to Britain on a 99-year lease. (SFEC, 11/10/96, Par p.14)(SFC, 3/11/97, p.A12)(SFEC, 6/22/97,p.A14)(SFC, 7/1/97, p.A8) 1898 nend July 3, The Spanish cruisers Cristóbal Colón, Almirante Oquendo, Vizcaya and Infanta Maria Teresa, and two torpedo-boat destroyers, lay bottled up in Santiago Harbor, with seven American ships maintaining a blockade just outside. Without warning, the Spanish squadron attempted to break out, and the Americans attacked, sinking one torpedo boat and immediately running the other aground. The Americans gave to Oquendo, Vizcaya and Colón. Henry Reuterdahl's painting shows the American battleships Texas and Oregon, and the Spanish cruisers Maria Teresa, Colón and Oquendo. After a four-hour battle, all the Spanish warships were overtaken and practically all were destroyed, with only two American causalities, both from the U.S. armored cruiser Brooklyn. (AP, 7/3/98)(HNPD, 7/3/98) 1898 nend Jul 4, Gertrude Lawrence, English actress, was born. (HN, 7/4/01) 1898 nend Jul 4, A US flag was hoisted over Wake Island during the Spanish-American War. (Maggio, 98) 1898 nend Jul 4, The French liner "La Bourgogne" collided with bark Cromartyshire, and 560 people died. (Maggio, 98) 1898 nend Jul 7, The United States annexed Hawaii and acquired Wake Island to complete a set of coaling stations for ships crossing the Pacific. (HFA, '96, p.34)(AP, 7/7/97)(WSJ, 2/23/98, p.A20) 1898 nend Jul 8, Alec Waugh (d.1981), novelist (Island in the Sun); brother of Evelyn, was born in London. "If we knew where opinion ended and fact began, we should have discovered, I suppose, the absolute." (AP, 2/9/00)(MC, 7/8/02) 1898 nend Jul 8, US battle fleet under Adm. Dewey occupied Isla Grande at Manila. (MC, 7/8/02) 1898 nend Jul 13, Guglielmo Marconi patented his radio. (MC, 7/13/02) 1898 nend Jul 17, Bernice Abbott, photographer, was born. (HN, 7/17/01) 1898 nend Jul 17, U.S. troops under General William R. Shafter took Santiago de Cuba during the Spanish-American War. (HN, 7/17/98) 1898 nend Jul 17, During the Spanish-American War, Spain surrendered to the United States at Santiago, Cuba. (AP, 7/17/97) 1898 nend Jul 21, Spain ceded Guam to US. (OGA, 11/24/98) 1898 nend Jul 22, Stephen Vincent Benet, poet and short-story writer, author of John Brown's Body, was born. (HN, 7/22/98) 1898 nend Jul 22, Alexander Calder (d.1976), American artist. He is considered the inventor of the mobile as a sculpture. In 1998 Marla Prather, Alexander Rower and Arnauld Pierre published the Calder retrospective: "Alexander Calder." (SFEM,11/30/97, p.10)(HN, 7/22/02) 1898 nend Jul 25, US Gen'l. Nelson A. Miles landed troops at Guanica on the southern coast of Puerto Rico. Spain and the US came to terms at the Treaty of Paris and the US acquired Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico became a US territory. (HT, 4/97, p.65)(SFC, 3/26/97, p.C3) 1898 nend Jul 28, Start of Sherlock Holmes "Adventure of the Retired Colourman." (SC, 7/28/02) 1898 nend Jul 28, Spain, through the offices of the French embassy in Washington, D.C., requested peace terms in its war with the United States. (HN, 7/28/98) 1898 nend Jul 30, Henry Moore (d.1986), English sculptor, was born. In 1998 John Hedgecoe published "A Monumental Vision: The Sculpture of Henry Moore." (SFEC, 7/19/98, BR p.9)(HN, 7/30/01) 1898 nend Jul 30, Otto von Bismarck (b.1815), German statesman and former "Iron" chancellor (1871-1890), died. He held the German social security system as his greatest accomplishment. In 1986 Lothar Gall authored ?Bismarck.? (WUD, 1994, p.151)(WUD, 1994, p.A27)(WSJ, 6/23/07, p.P10) 1898 nend Jul, Fred Holland Day, photographer, led an entourage on a photo trip where he took some 250 photographs with himself cast as the crucified Christ. He showed his work titled "Seven Last Words of Christ" at the Philadelphia Salon and again the following year in London. At this time he also took photographs of 13 year-old Kahlil Gibran, who would later become known for "The Prophet" and "The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam." [see 1864-1933] (Civilization, July-Aug. 1995, p.40) 1898 nend Jul, Marie and Pierre Currie published their discovery of polonium from radiation in pitchblende. (ON, 3/00, p.1) 1898 nend Aug 8, Adolph Sutro (b.1830), former mayor of SF, died. He had acquired a 100,000 volume private library, most of which was destroyed in the 1906 earthquake. He served as the 24th mayor of SF (1895-1897). (G, Winter 98/99, p.2)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolph_Sutro) 1898 nend Aug 12, Hawaii was formally annexed to the United States. (AP, 8/12/97) 1898 nend Aug 12, Fighting in the Spanish-American War came to an end. The peace protocol ending the Spanish-American War was signed Dec 10 after three months and 22 days of hostilities. 460 US soldiers died in battle. The US paid Spain $20 million to vacate Cuba, Guam, Puerto Rico and the Philippines. Over the next 3 years US casualties in the Philippines war totaled over 4,000. (AP, 8/12/97)(WSJ, 2/23/98, p.A20)(HN, 8/12/00)(SSFC, 3/30/03,p.D1)(WSJ, 7/2/03, p.B1) 1898 nend Aug 13, Manila, the capital of the Philippines, fell to the U.S. Army under Adm. George Dewey. It was later reported that Dewey had agreed to sacrifice the lives of American soldiers in order to give Spanish officers, who had retained dead soldiers on payroll, a chance to report heavy fatalities back to Spain. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1898))(SSFC,6/29/08, DB p.58) 1898 nend Aug 13, Sigmund Freud (42) signed into the Schweizerhaus, a Swiss Alps inn, with Minna Bernays (33), his wife?s sister, and registered her as his wife. (SFC, 12/25/06, p.A23) 1898 nend Aug 16, Edwin Prescott patented a roller coaster. (MC, 8/16/02) 1898 nend Aug 24, Malcolm Cowley, poet and translator, literary critic and social historian was born. He wrote "The Dream of the Golden Mountains." (HN, 8/24/98) 1898 nend Aug 24, Ernest Narjot (b.1826), French-born painter, died in SF. He came to California with the Gold Rush in 1849 and became one of the state's foremost artists. Much of his work was destroyed in the 1906 earthquake. (SFCM, 10/28/01, p.20) 1898 nend Aug 26, Peggy Guggenheim, art patron and collector, was born. (HN, 8/26/00) 1898 nend Aug 29, Preston Sturges, American screenwriter, film director and playwright, was born. (HN, 8/29/00) 1898 nend Aug, US troops began arriving in the Philippines. (SFEC, 1/31/99, Z1 p.4) 1898 nend Sep 1, Lord Kitchener's army bombed Omdurman, Sudan. Lt. Winston Churchill approached Omdurman, the rebel capital, as a scout in the cavalry along with the rest of Gen. Kitchener's army of 25,000 men. [see Sep 2] (ON, 10/99, p.2)(MC, 9/1/02) 1898 nend Sep 2, Anglo-Egyptian lines under Gen'l. Kitchener were charged by 50,000 fanatical Dervishes and were mowed down by howitzers, machine guns and rifles. Lt. Winston Churchill led one of the last (and most useless) cavalry charges in history. Sir Herbert Kitchener led the British to victory over the Mahdists at Omdurman and took Khartoum. The Dervishes left 11,000 dead and 16,000 wounded. The Anglo-Egyptian army suffered fewer than a dozen casualties. In 1899 Winston Churchill published "The River War, An Account of the Reconquest of the Soudan." This was the 1st use of the machine gun in battle. (WSJ, 8/25/98, p.A14)(HN, 9/2/98)(ON, 10/99, p.3)(MC, 9/2/01) 1898 nend Sep 6, Lord Kitchener destroyed Mahdi's tomb in Omdurman (Sudan). (MC, 9/6/01) 1898 nend Sep 10, Empress Elisabeth of Bavaria (60), Queen of Hungary and wife of Emp. Franz Josef II, was assassinated in Geneva by the Italian anarchist Luigi Luccheni. A 1997 German rock musical, "Elisabeth," by Michael Kunze and Sylvester Levay was based on her life. (EWH, 1968, p.744)(WSJ, 12/8/97, p.A1,13) 1898 nend Sep 12, Ben Shahn (d.1969), American painter (1964 Arts & Letters), was born In Kaunas, Lithuania. (WSJ, 12/1/98, p.A20)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Shahn) 1898 nend Sep 13, Hannibal Goodwin (1822-1900) patented celluloid photographic film. (http://www.plastiquarian.com/goodwin.htm) 1898 nend Sep 13, 20,000 Paris construction workers went on strike. (MC, 9/13/01) 1898 nend Sep 14, General Electric was removed as a component of the Dow Jones. US Rubber was re-instated as a component of the Dow Jones. (WSJ, 5/28/96, p. R-45,46) 1898 nend Sep 20, Theodore Fontane (b.1819), German novelist and poet, died. He is regarded by many to be the most important 19th-century German-language realist writer. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Fontane) 1898 nend Sep 24, Howard W Florey, pathologist, was born in Australia. He purified penicillin and won a Nobel Prize 1945. (MC, 9/24/01) 1898 nend Sep 26, George Gershwin, American composer, was born as Jacob Gershvin in Brooklyn, N.Y. He wrote many popular songs for musicals, along with his brother Ira, and is best known for "I Got Rhythm" and "Rhapsody in Blue." His work included "An American in Paris." As Gershwin was putting together his famous "Rhapsody in Blue" in 1924, jazz was gaining widespread popularity. But Gershwin sought to do something new: "Jazz, they said, had to be in strict time. It had to cling to dance rhythms. I resolved to kill that misconception with one sturdy blow." Audiences loved it. He and his brother Ira collaborated in 1934 to create "Porgy and Bess," an opera that explored African-American culture. Many of its songs have become ingrained in American popular culture. Just a few years later, when he was only 38, Gershwin died of a brain tumor. (SFEC, 8/16/98, DB p.37)(AP, 9/26/98)(HNPD, 9/26/99) 1898 nend Sep 27, Vincent (Miller) Youmans, songwriter, was born. He is best known for "Tea for Two" and musical scores such as "No, No Nanette" and "Flying Down to Rio." (HN, 9/27/00)(MC, 9/27/01) 1898 nend Sep 30, Felix Kersten, Baltic-German-Finnish masseuse and confidant of Heinrich Himmler, was born. (MC, 9/30/01) 1898 nend Sep 30, The city of NY was established with five boroughs. (MC, 9/30/01) 1898 nend Sep, Jimmy Rogers, country singer, was born in Meridian, Miss. He died at 35 of tuberculosis. In 1997 Bob Dylan produced the album "The Songs of Jimmy Rogers: A Tribute" by a variety of artists. His biography was written by Nolan Porterfield: "Jimmy Rogers: The Life and Times of America's Blue Yodeler." (SFEC, 8/17/97, DB p.56)(WSJ, 9/26/97, p.A20) 1898 nend Oct 1, Jews were expelled from Kiev, Russia. (MC, 10/1/01) 1898 nend Oct 6, Gustav Mahler made his debut conducting Vienna Philharmonic. (MC, 10/6/01) 1898 nend Oct 16, William O. Douglas, 81st U.S. Supreme Court Justice (1939-75), was born. (HN, 10/16/00)(MC, 10/16/01) 1898 nend Oct 17, Shinichi Suzuki (d.1998), music teacher, was born. (MC, 10/17/01) 1898 nend Oct 18, Lotte Lenya, actress and singer (Appointment, Semi-Tough), was born in Vienna, Austria. (MC, 10/18/01) 1898 nend Oct 18, The American flag was raised in Puerto Rico shortly before Spain formally relinquished control of the island to the US. (AP, 10/18/97) 1898 nend Oct 25, The 300-foot steamship L.R. Doty was carrying a cargo of corn from South Chicago to Ontario, Canada, when it sailed into a terrible storm and sank in Lake Michigan. All 17 of its crew members died. The wreck of the wooden ship was found in 2010. (AP, 6/25/10)(www.ship-wreck.com/shipwreck/doty/) 1898 nend Nov 2, Theodor Herzl, founder (1897) of modern political National Zionism, arrived in Jerusalem to promote his World Zionist Organization. Zionism maintains that the Jewish people constitute a nation and are entitled to a national homeland. (www.wzo.org.il/home/movement/herzl.htm) 1898 nend Nov 9, Some white people in Wilmington, NC, issued a White Declaration of Independence, proclaiming "that we will no longer be ruled ... by men of African origin. (AP, 11/28/09) 1898 nend Nov 10, A race riot in Wilmington, NC, left many blacks killed. A vigilante group of armed supremacists forcibly removed the Republican city leaders (both black and white) from office, and took control, burning buildings and shooting blacks. Reports vary from a coroner?s total of 14 to unconfirmed eyewitness reports claiming scores of deaths. (http://statelibrary.dcr.state.nc.us/nc/bio/afro/riot.htm)(WSJ,1/22/02, p.A11)(AP, 11/28/09) 1898 nend Nov 11, Rene Clair, French film director, was born. (HN, 11/11/00) 1898 nend Nov 21, Rene Magritte (d.1967), Belgian surrealist painter, was born. His work includes "Golconda." In 1998 a collection of his work was edited by Giselle Ollinger-Zinque and Frederik Leen. It included his Surrealist paintings as well as his wallpaper designs, illustrated music scores, advertising posters, and photographs from his amateur films. (WUD, 1994, p.863)(WSJ, 12/3/98, p.W4)(HN, 11/21/00) 1898 nend Nov 22, Wiley Post, aviator and parachutist (crashed in Alaska), was born in Grand Plain, Tx. (MC, 11/22/01) 1898 nend Nov 22, Pietro Mascagni's opera "Iris" premiered (Rome). (MC, 11/22/01) 1898 nend Nov 26, The SS Portland, a 280-foot side-wheeler, left Boston for Cape Cod. A major storm arose that killed over 400 people in the next 36 hours [see Nov 27]. (AH, 6/02, p.53)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland_Gale) 1898 nend Nov 27, The SS Portland, under Capt. Hollis H. Blanchard, sank overnight in the Portland Gale off New England and all 192 people aboard were killed. In 2002 John Rousmaniere authored ?After the Storm: True Stories of Disaster and Recovery at Sea.? (AH, 6/02, p.55)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland_Gale) 1898 nend Nov 29, C.S. Lewis (d.1963), British author, was born. His work included "The Chronicles of Narnia." He chose a theistic view of reality over a materialistic one and affirmed the mutual existence of soul, god and nature. His autobiography was titled "Surprised by Joy." His work included "The Abolition of Man," "Miracles" and "The Problem of Pain." "Friendship is unnecessary, like philosophy, like art. ... It has no survival value; rather it is one of those things that give value to survival." (AP, 12/20/97)(WSJ, 10/8/98, p.W13)(SFEC, 11/15/98, p.T3) 1898 nend Dec 6, Alfred Eisenstaedt, photojournalist, was born. (HN, 12/6/02) 1898 nend Dec 6, Gunnar Myrdal, Swedish economist and sociologist, was born. (HN, 12/6/00) 1898 nend Dec 9, Emmett Kelly, circus clown (Weary Willie), was born in Sedan, Kansas. (MC, 12/9/01) 1898 nend Dec 10, The United States and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris, ending the Spanish-American War. This ceded Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam to the United States. The US Senate ratified the treaty February 6, 1899. The US military governed Puerto Rico from October 1898 until May 1900, when the US Congress instituted a civil government. The civil government underwent many changes until a Constitutional Assembly formed in 1950 and established a Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, which was proclaimed on July 25, 1952. [see Aug 12] (AP, 12/10/97)(HN, 12/10/98)(HNQ, 7/28/01) 1899 nend Dec 10, Sobhuza (1899-1982) succeeded Ngwane V as Paramount Chief of Swaziland, when he was only a few months old. His grandmother, Labotsibeni Mdluli, acted as regent until December 22, 1921. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sobhuza_II) 1898 nend Dec 16, Pavel Tretyakov (b.1832), founder of Moscow?s Tretyakov Gallery, died. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavel_Tretyakov) 1898 nend Dec 21, French scientists Pierre and Marie Curie discovered 2 new elements that they later named radium and polonium. (AP, 12/21/97)(http://fi.edu/case_files/curie/pandr.html) 1898 nend Dec, In Germany Emil and Joseph Berliner founded Deutsche Grammophon, dedicated to manufacturing the gramophone record and player invented by Emil. (SFEC,12/797, DB p.45) 1898 nend Armand Hammer (d.1990), American industrialist, was born. (SFC, 1/17/97, p.D8) 1898 nend Edward Mitchell Bannister painted "Peasants in a Forest Clearing." He was the 1st African-American painter to win a national award. (WSJ, 8/8/00, p.A20) 1898 nend Cecilia Beaux painted "Man with the Cat" (Henry Sturgis Drinker). (SFC, 4/11/01, p.E8) 1898 nend Pissaro painted "Avenue de L'Opéra, Place du Téâtre Français: Misty Weather." (WSJ, 1/7/02, p.A22) 1898 nend Henry James (1843-1916), brother of William and son of Henry, wrote "The Turn of the Screw." (WSJ, 10/10/96, p.A18) 1898 nend Lafcadio Hearn, renowned writer on Japan, authored ?Exotics and Retrospective.? One chapter on insect musicians listed prices for the 12 most popular singing insects. (NH, 3/1/04, p.70) 1898 nend Ernest Thompson Seton published his classic "Wild Animals I Have Known." (Civil., Jul-Aug., '95, p.77) 1898 nend Mark Twain authored the play "Is He Dead: A Comedy in Three Parts." It did not get published until 2003. (SSFC, 5/18/03, p.M2) 1898 nend The William Morris Agency began representing vaudeville performers. (Econ, 5/2/09, p.65) 1898 nend H.G. Wells (1866-1946) published the classic "War of the Worlds." It was about an invasion of Earth by Martians. (SFC, 11/29/96, p.A16) 1898 nend Rimsky-Korsakov fashioned a short play by Alexander Pushkin, "Mozart and Salieri," into a one-act opera. (WSJ, 1/14/04, p.D10) 1898 nend Buddy Bolden, cornetist and New Orleans brass band leader, was an early practitioner of what would be recognized today as jazz. His 1898 brass band, Kid Ory's Creole Band, played their early version of jazz while marching in parades, at funerals, weddings and dances. Blues, ragtime and brass band music were blending at the end of the 19th century into what would be known as jazz. New Orleans was one of the key cities for the development of this music. (HNQ, 5/12/98) 1898 nend Victor Herbert composed his ?Gypsy Love Song.? (SFC, 4/6/05, p.E4) 1898 nend Sunset Magazine began as a publication by the Southern Pacific Co. to promote rail travel and to sell real estate. (SFEC, 4/5/98, Z1 p.1) 1898 nend The Diamond Head Lighthouse in Hawaii began operating. (SFEC, 4/6/97, p.T12) 1898 nend Giraud Foster after having invented closure snaps for clothing, built a $2.5 million estate on 400 acres in Lee, Mass. (SFC, 4/5/97, p.E5) 1898 nend America's first forestry school was founded. It is commemorated by the Cradle of Forestry historic site and visitor center in the Pisgah Nat'l. Forest in North Carolina, the first purchased Nat'l. forest in the US. (Hem, 8/96, p.33) 1898 nend The Berghoff German restaurant in Chicago opened. (Hem., 7/96, p.26) 1898 nend William Entenmann opened his first bakery in the Flatbush section of Brooklyn, New York. In 1976 Entenmann?s went public. (http://entenmanns.gwbakeries.com/history.cfm) 1898 nend A US telephone excise tax was created to help finance the Spanish-American War. It was repealed in 1902 and reintroduced during WW I. In 1990 it was given permanent status. The tax was at 3% 2005 and faced a growing withholding by war protesters. (SFC, 3/27/00, p.A1)(SSFC, 12/4/05, p.J6) 1898 nend The US Post Office featured a stamp with the image of Eads Bridge in Missouri. (SFC, 9/3/98, p.A19) 1898 nend Simon Lake took the first successful submarine, the Argonaut First, out through Hampton Roads for trial runs in the Chesapeake Bay. (NG, Sept. 1939, J. Maloney p.356) 1898 nend Storyville, the New Orleans brothel district, was legalized. (WSJ, 2/3/95, p.A-11) 1898 nend Guam became a US naval base after the Spanish-American War. (WSJ, 2/20/97, p.A20) 1898 nend Brooklyn merged with New York City. (SFC, 5/26/96, T-8) 1898 nend Henry Barnet and Katherine Adams were murdered with mercuric cyanide. Roland Burnham Molineux (1866-1917), a Manhattan socialite, was convicted in 1899 and sent to the Sing Sing death house, but was acquitted at a 2nd trial in 1902, due to restrictions on evidence. In 2007 Harold Schechter authored ?The Devil?s Gentleman: Privilege, Poison, and the Trial That Ushered in the Twentieth Century.? (WSJ, 11/1/07, p.D6) 1898 nend The Chicago Mercantile Exchange began operations. (Econ, 9/20/03, p.68) 1898 nend Chinese Americans formed groups like the Chinese American Citizen's Alliance to protect their civil rights in America. (SFEC, 2/6/00, Rp.10) 1898 nend The Alaska Klondike gold rush was in full swing. (SFEC,11/16/97, p.T5) 1898 nend Adolph Gund, a German immigrant, founded a toy company in Norwalk, Conn. In 1925 he sold it to Jacob Swedlin, who kept the company name, Gund Mfg. (SFC, 4/12/06, p.G4) 1898 nend The northern California Mount Tamalpais and Muir Woods railroad was featured in the first documentary film made in the Bay Area. (SFC, 8/17/96, p.A17) 1898 nend In San Francisco Central Tower at 703 market St. was built by Claus Sprechels for the Call newspaper. It was designed by the Reid Brothers and Albert Roller and survived the 1906 earthquake. Its 6 stories of cupolas were removed as part of a 1938 renovation that left it with 21 stories. (SSFC, 9/12/10, p.C2) 1898 nend In SF the Ferry Building at the foot of Market St. was dedicated. It was designed by local San Francisco architect A. Page Brown, replacing its wooden predecessor. The clock on the building was silent until Dec, 1918. The original design was based on the Giralda in Seville. The design was altered to differentiate it from the Madison Square Garden Tower built in 1984. (SFC, 4/28/98, p.E8)(SFEM, 8/9/98,p.27)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferry_Building) 1898 nend In San Francisco the Holy Cross stone church at Eddy near Divisidero was built. (SFEC, 3/2/97, z1 p.7) 1898 nend A chain of lakes was constructed in San Francisco?s Golden Gate Park. (SFC, 7/29/97, p.A6) 1898 nend The "de Laveaga Dell" was created in San Francisco?s Golden Gate Park with a bequest from Jose Vincente de Laveaga. (SFC, 10/4/02, p.A26) 1898 nend In San Francisco W.A. Merralls (d.1914), an eccentric British-born machine inventor, built a structure at 236 Monterey Blvd. that became known as the Sunnyside Conservatory. He filled the building with plants and artwork and used it as a private retreat. The building was saved from demolition and purchased by the city in 1980. In 1999 community members formed the Friends of Sunnyside Conservatory and planned its restoration. In 2009 a $4.2 million restoration of the property was completed and opened to the public on Dec 5. (SSFC, 2/15/09, p.B3)(SFC, 12/5/09, p.C3) 1898 nend The SF-based Bechtel Group construction firm was founded. The firm's projects later included the Hoover Dam, the Trans-Arabian Pipeline, the Nevada Test Site, and the SF BART. (SFC, 1/16/98, p.E2) 1888 nend The Agnews State Hospital was opened in San Jose on farmland purchased from Abraham Agnews. It was once called the Agnews Insane Asylum and was closed in 1995. Sun Microsystems acquired an 82.5 acre portion of the property and planned to build an R&D campus in 1997. (SFC, 9/29/97, p.A21) 1898 nend Angelo Giurlani founded Star Fine Foods in San Francisco. His family ran Star Olive Oil in the Lucca district of Tuscany. (SFC, 12/17/02, p.A23) 1898 nend The SF Columbarium, a cemetery for cremated remains, was built as part of 27-acre cemetery in the Richmond [behind the Coronet Theater]. (SFC, 4/9/98, p.A21) 1898 nend In Berkeley, Ca., the First Unitarian Church at 2401 Bancroft Way was built. It was designed by Arts and Crafts architect A.C. Schweinfurth. (SFC, 1/29/03, p.F7) 1898 nend The Archdiocese of SF opened St. Patrick?s Seminary on 86 acres in Menlo Park. Archbishop Riordan acquired the property along Middlefield Rd. in the 1890s. (Ind, 3/9/02, 5A) 1898 nend Elections for SF city supervisors began. (SFC, 11/26/98, p.A19) 1898 nend Voters approved a City Charter calling for SF to buy up and own its public utilities and transportation system. (SFC, 10/6/99, p.A4) 1898 nend In South San Francisco the Giffra and Sons grocery store opened on Grand Ave. (SFC, 1/12/98, p.A15) 1898 nend The Levy brothers moved their operations from the coast and opened a store in San Mateo, Ca., at 2nd and Main. (Ind, 11/7/98, p.5A) 1898 nend Willis Jepson received the 1st Ph.D. in botany granted by UC Berkeley. (SFEM, 8/15/99, p.4) 1898 nend Frank Brewer purchased a marshy bay island east of San Mateo, California. He then erected levees and dried out 2,200 acres to grow hay for dairy cows. In the 1940s parts of Brewer Island and adjacent salt marshes were sold to Leslie Salt co. and the Schilling estate. In the 1960s Brewer Island was developed to become Foster City. (SFC, 6/14/09, p.H2) 1898 nend In Ohio James M. Cox (d.1957), a 28-year-old school teacher, borrowed $26,000 and bought the Dayton Daily News. It grew to become the 1998 Cox Enterprises with 18 daily newspapers, 21 cable TV systems and 20 radio and TV stations. (WSJ, 1/29/98, p.A19) 1898 nend William Entenmann Sr. founded the Brooklyn bakery that later grew to become the nation's largest baked goods company. (SFEC, 9/30/96, p.A23) 1898 nend Charles Fey built the 3-reeled Card Bell, the first machine to dispense coins as prizes. (Econ, 7/10/10, SR p.10) 1898 nend Frank Seiberling named his fledgling rubber company after Charles Goodyear (d.1860), inventor of vulcanized rubber. (SFC, 7/31/02, p.D10) 1898 nend A Campbell Soup executive admired the red-and-white colors of the Cornell football team and adopted them for Campbell Soup. (SFC, 1/8/00, p.B4) 1898 nend Federal Steel was organized in a merger of Illinois Steel Co. and other steel companies. The transaction was bankrolled by J.P. Morgan. Judge Elbert H. Gary, an Illinois Steel director, became Federal's first president. (WSJ, 5/28/96, p. R-45) 1898 nend The first independent auto dealership opened in Detroit and the first franchised dealership opened in Reading, Pa. (WSJ, 6/19/96, Adv. Supl) 1898 nend In Connecticut the Meridan Silver Plate Co. was one of many independent silver companies that merged to form the Int'l. Silver Co. (SFC,12/10/97, Z1 p.9)(SFC, 8/2/06, p.G7) 1898 nend In Chicago the Pickard China Co. was founded by Wilder Pickard. He hired artists to paint imported China blanks. About 1911 Pickard started acid-etching china pieces and coating them with gold. the "Rose and Daisy" pattern was the most popular. (SFC, 2/11/98, Z1 p.6) 1898 nend Otis Steam Elevator Works merged with 14 other elevator makers to form the Otis Elevator Company. It later became a subsidiary of United Technologies. (ON, 5/05, p.12) 1898 nend Sunset Magazine was founded by the Southern Pacific Railroad to lure travelers west. It was sold to a private publisher in 1914. (SFC, 7/8/96, p.D1) 1898 nend E.H. Harriman took over the Union Pacific Railroad. He invested heavily into the company and raised the stock price from $16 to $219 in 1907. (WSJ, 3/21/00, p.A24) 1898 nend Jim White, cowboy, was one of the 1st white settlers to venture into New Mexico?s Carlsbad Caverns. His efforts helped turn the caves into a national park in 1930. (SSFC, 6/20/04, p.D5) 1898 nend Of the 5,462 U.S. Army officers and men who died in the various theaters of operations and in camps in the U.S. during the Spanish-American War of 1898, only 379 of deaths resulted from combat. The remaining deaths were attributed to disease and other causes. Some 240,000 served in the army during the war. The total wounded was 1,604. (HNQ, 1/2/99) 1898 nend Dutchman Martinas Willem Beijerinck was the first to name viruses, as the poison of contagious living fluids. (SFEC, 10/25/98, Z1 p.12) 1898 nend A new star in the constellation of the Serpent Bearer was named RS Ophiuchi and faded out within a year. It flared up again 35 years later. It is called a recurrent novae. (SCTS, p.182) 1898 nend Frederick Law Olmsted (d.1903), the architect of Central Park in NYC, was confined to the McLean Asylum in Waverly, Mass., for dementia. He had earlier designed the grounds for the asylum. (WSJ, 5/21/99, p.W5) 1898 nend In Austria the Secession building was completed and later housed Klimt's Beethoven Frieze in its gilt-domed gallery. (Hem., Dec. '95, p.69) 1898 nend Austrian Prince Camillo Heinrich Starhemberg (1835-1900) donated Hartheim Castle as a gift to the Upper Austria Charity Organization. With the help of additional donations, they used the castle from the beginning of the 20th century as a psychiatric institution. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schloss_Hartheim) 1898 nend In Bolivia Sucre began to lose its pre-eminence to La Paz following a decline at the nearby silver mine at Potosi. (Econ, 7/28/07, p.39) 1898 nend British army officers began using the new portable Roorkhee chair. It was named in honor of the headquarters of the Indian Army corps of Engineers at Roorkhee. (SSFM, 4/1/01, p.46) 1898 nend Charles Booth, shipping magnate, led a project to color-code every street in London according to its social make-up. (Econ, 5/6/06, p.57) c 1898 nend In England Edmund Dene Morel, a London employee of the shipping line Elder Dempster, came to realize that a wealth of rubber and ivory cargo was arriving from Congo in exchange for military officers, firearms and ammunition. He deduced that forced labor was being used by King Leopold II of Belgium to extract native wealth. (SFEM, 8/16/98, p.4) 1898 nend In England chemists William Ramsay and Morris Travers discovered a new gas that they named neon. It had a natural orange-red glow. (G&M, 7/31/97, p.A20) 1898 nend William Gladstone (b.1809), former English prime minister, died. His biography, "Gladstone," by Roy Jenkins was published in 1995. (WSJ, 2/21/97, p.A12) 1898 nend Harbin, China, was built by Russian workers who extended the trans-Siberian railway across Heilongjiang province. (SFC, 5/8/01, p.C2) 1898 nend Ye Yanlan (b.1823), Chinese painter, connoisseur and Qing Dynasty official, died. (SFC, 7/1/06, p.E8) 1898 nend In France the Michelin Tire company began using its tire-man logo. The first ad offered a toast with broken nails and glass and told consumers that the Michelin tire "drinks up obstacles." (SFC, 3/19/98, p.A3)(SFEC, 3/22/98, p.T3) 1898 nend In Italy government troops killed hundreds after riots broke out in Milan during a declining economy. (WSJ, 1/28/07, p.P10) 1898 nend In the Marquesas Islands missionaries forbade the natives to tattoo their bodies. (SFEC, 8/25/96, p.T6) 1898 nend A painting titled "Golden Carriage," by Nicolaas van der Waay, was given to Queen Wilhelmina from the people of Amsterdam as a gift. The painting was intended to recreate the style of the country's 17th-century "Golden Age," in which Amsterdam became wealthy as the hub of a naval empire. The work depicts half-naked, brown-skinned women and men in servile poses bearing gifts to an enthroned white woman. (AP, 9/16/11) 1898 nend In Russia Konstantin Stanislavsky and a partner founded the Moscow Art Theater. (WSJ, 2/11/98, p.A20) 1898 nend Pyotr Smirnov (b.1831), Russian vodka manufacturer, died. In 2009 Linda Himelstein authored ?The King of Vodka: The Story of Pyotr Smirnov and the Upheaval of an Empire.? (SSFC, 5/31/09, Books p.J2) 1898 nend In Sierra Leone the imposition of a hut tax sparked an indigenous rebellion in which many settlers were killed. Britain declared a protectorate and assumed formal administration until independence. (WSJ, 5/31/00, p.A26) 1898 nend Joseph Silver (d.1918), a Polish-born Jew, arrived in Johannesburg fresh from a stint in Sing Sing for burglary and a stay in London a decade earlier. Shortly after arriving in Johannesburg, Silver set up a string of cafes, cigar shops and police-protected brothels. Silver was executed as a spy in Poland in 1918. In 2007 Charles van Onselen authored "The Fox and The Flies: The World of Joseph Silver,? in which he suggested that Silver was London?s ?Jack the Ripper.? (AP, 5/2/07) 1898 nend In South Africa Sir Thomas Cullinan discovered a prospect that contained kimberlite, a rock that can be rich in diamonds. A mine was established there in 1903 and became one of the world?s most valuable diamond resources. (Econ, 12/1/07, p.82) 1898 1900 Cezanne painted his sketchy red-ochre study "In the Quarry of Bibemus" and his lush green and linear "Woodland Scene." (WSJ, 2/8/96, p.A-12) 1898 1900 Theodore Roosevelt served as governor of New York. (ON, 12/99, p.12) 1898 1900 A 2-year battle against American troops was waged by the Filipinos who sought independence, not a new colonial ruler. (SFC, 6/9/97, p.A15) 1898 1902 Robert E. Peary led an expedition to Ellesmere Island. He lost some of his toes to frostbite during this expedition. (NG, 6/1988, p.764) 1898 1905 In the US over 3,000 major mergers took place in manufacturing and mining. (WSJ, 12/31/97, p.A10) 1898 1913 Heroin was marketed as a cough medicine. (NG, 10/04, Geog.) 1898 1920 In Guatemala Pres. Manuel Estrada Cabrera was one of the first Latin dictators to create his own secret police. He plundered the treasury, expanded the standing army and systematically oppressed his opponents. (WSJ, 3/3/99, p.A18) 1898 1928 12 million people in India died of the plague. (NG, 5/88, p.682) 1898 1937 Amelia Earhart, American aviator: "In soloing?as in other activities?it is far easier to start something than it is to finish it." "Courage is the price that life exacts for granting peace." (AP, 8/27/97)(AP, 10/20/97) 1898 1972 Maurits Corneille Escher, Dutch artist. He created a strange world of visual puns and distorted perspectives. In 1996 a CD-ROM retrospective of his work was produced. (Byron Preiss; Windows cd-rom; $49.95). (SFC, 6/16/96, BR p.7) 1898 1978 Golda Meir, Israeli prime minister: "Whether women are better than men, I cannot say?but I can say they are certainly no worse." (AP, 5/11/97) 1898 1982 George Miksch Sutton, ornithologist. He was associated with Cornell and the Univ. of Oklahoma. In 1998 Paul A. Johnsgard published "Baby Bird Portraits by George Miksch Sutton: Watercolors in the Field Museum." (NH, 10/98, p.14) 1898 1989 Malcolm Cowley, American author and critic: "Talent is what you possess; genius is what possesses you." (AP, 5/26/98) 1899 nend Jan 2, Alexander Tcherepnin, composer, was born in St Petersburg, Russia. (MC, 1/2/02) 1899 nend Jan 10, Filipino leader Emilio Aguinaldo renounced the Treaty of Paris, which annexed the Philippines to the United States. (HN, 1/10/00) 1899 nend Jan 17, Notorious gangster Al Capone was born in Brooklyn, N.Y. (AP, 1/17/99) 1899 nend Jan 17, US took possession of Wake Island in Pacific. (MC, 1/17/02) 1899 nend Jan 20, Alexander Tcherepnin, composer, was born. (MC, 1/20/02) 1899 nend Jan 20, President William McKinley appointed a Philippine Commission led by Jacob G. Schurman, president of Cornell University, to study the situation in the island and to submit a report to serve as a basis for setting up a civil government. The commission issued findings in June suggesting the ultimate independence for the islands but, for an indefinite period continued U.S. rule. (HNQ, 1/3/00) 1899 nend Jan 23, Humphrey Bogart, U.S. actor was born. He won an Oscar for African Queen and also starred in Casablanca and The Maltese Falcon. [see Dec 25, 1899] (HN, 1/23/99) 1899 nend Jan 24, The rubber heel was patented by Humphrey O'Sullivan. (MC, 1/24/02) 1899 nend Jan, William Franklin Miller (36) began offering an investment return of 10% per week to his neighbors in Brooklyn. His scheme was exposed after a year by E.L. Blake, who recognized the swindle after over $2 million was bilked from tens of thousands. Miller was jailed for 10 years. (WSJ, 7/23/99, p.A14) 1899 nend Feb 4, After an exchange of gunfire, fighting broke out between American troops and Filipinos near Manila, sparking the Philippine-American War (also referred to as the Philippine Insurrection of 1899). American soldiers patrolling in Santa Mesa opened fire on Filipino soldiers near a bridge over the San Juan River. (SFEC, 1/31/99, Z1p.1)(HN, 2/4/00) 1899 nend Feb 5, The devastation from the battle of Santa Ana was captured in photos by F. Tennyson Neely. The collection was published as "Fighting in the Philippines." (SFEC, 1/31/99, Z1 p.1) 1899 nend Feb 6, A peace treaty between the United States and Spain was ratified by the U.S. Senate. Spanish-American War ended. (AP, 2/6/97)(HN, 2/6/99) 1899 nend Feb 15, M Wolf & A Schwassmann discovered asteroid #442 Eichsfeldia. (440 Int'l., 2/15/99) 1899 nend Feb 18, Sir Arthur Bryant, English historian, was born. (HN, 2/18/98) 1899 nend Feb 18, Marius Sophus Lie (b.1842), a Norwegian-born mathematician, died. He largely created the theory of continuous symmetry, and applied it to the study of geometry and differential equations. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophus_Lie) 1899 nend Feb 20, Illinois Tel & Tel was granted a franchise for a Chicago freight tunnel system. (MC, 2/20/02) 1899 nend Feb 23, Erich Kastner (d.1974), German poet, novelist and children's author (Emil and the Detectives), was born. "The only people who attain power are those who crave it." (AP, 12/1/98)(HN, 2/23/01) 1899 nend Feb 25, Paul Julius Reuter (b.1816), founder of the British news agency that bears his name, died in Nice, France. In 2003 Brian Mooney and Barry Simpson authored "Breaking news: How the Wheels Came off at Reuters." (AP, 2/25/99)(Econ, 11/1/03, p.81) 1899 nend Feb 27, Charles H. Best, physiologist, co-discoverer of Insulin, was born in Maine. (MC, 2/27/02) 1899 nend Mar 2, Congress established Mount Rainier National Park in Washington state, the nation's 5th national park. (AP, 3/2/98)(SFC, 8/14/99, p.A6) 1899 nend Mar 3, Congress authorized the Lafayette silver dollar. (SC, 3/3/02) 1899 nend Mar 3, George Dewey became the 1st in US with rank of Admiral of the Navy. (SC, 3/3/02) 1899 nend Mar 5, Patrick Hadley, composer, was born. (MC, 3/5/02) 1899 nend Mar 5, 1st performance of Edward MacDowell's 2nd Concerto in D. (MC, 3/5/02) 1899 nend Mar 6, Richard Leo Simon, publisher, partner of Max Schuster, was born. (HN, 3/6/01) 1899 nend Mar 6, Aspirin was patented following Felix Hoffman?s discoveries about the properties of acetylsalicylic acid. Duisberg?s Bayer team released a drug they named aspirin. In 2004 Diarmuid Jeffreys authored ?Aspirin: The Remarkable Story of a Wonder Drug.? (HN, 3/6/01)(SSFC, 10/24/04, p.M6) 1899 nend Mar 11, Frederick IX, King of Denmark, was born. (HN, 3/11/98) 1899 nend Mar 18, Lavrenti Beria (d.1953), chief of Soviet secret police under Stalin, was born. (MC, 3/18/02) 1899 nend Mar 18, Phoebe, a moon of Saturn, was discovered by Pickering. (MC, 3/18/02) 1899 nend Mar 27, The first international radio transmission between England and France was achieved by the Italian inventor G. Marconi. (HN, 3/27/99) 1899 nend Apr 1, Gilbert Grosvenor, a soon-to-be son-in-law, was appointed by Alexander Graham Bell as assistant editor of the National Geographic Magazine. (SFEC, 9/14/97, p.T13) 1899 nend Apr 9, Stephen J. Field (b.1816), former US Supreme Court Justice (1863-1897), died. (www.oyez.org/oyez/resource/legal_entity/38/print) 1899 nend Apr 11, Percy L. Julian, chemist (drugs for treatment of arthritis), was born. (MC, 4/11/02) 1899 nend Apr 11, The Treaty of Paris ending the Spanish-American War was declared in effect. Spain ceded Puerto Rico to US. [see Apr 12, 1898] (AP, 4/11/97)(MC, 4/11/02) 1899 nend Apr 13, Alfred Moser Butts, inventor of the board game Scrabble, was born. (HN, 4/13/98)(MC, 4/13/02) 1899 nend Apr 21, Randall Thompson, composer, was born. (MC, 4/21/02) 1899 nend Apr 21, American Tobacco, Standard Rope & Twine and Laclede Gas Light Co. were removed as components of the Dow Jones. General Electric was re-instated and Continental Tobacco, American Steel & Wire and Federal Steel were added. (WSJ, 5/28/96, p.R-45,46) 1899 nend Apr 23, Edith Ngaio Marsh, Kiwi mystery writer (Black Beech & Honeydew), was born in NZ. (MC, 4/23/02) 1899 nend Apr 23, Vladimir Nabokov (d.1977), writer, was born in Russia. His work included "Lolita," "Pnin," and "Pale Fire." He was an avid butterfly collector. "There is no science without fancy, and no art without facts." (WSJ, 12/27/96, p.A5)(WSJ, 4/22/99,A20)(http://lib.ru/NABOKOW/nabokr.txt) 1899 nend Apr 23, Some 2000 people gathered to watch the lynching Sam Hose, a black man questionably accused of murdering a white planter and raping his wife. His ears, fingers, and genitals were cut off and his face was skinned before he was burned in kerosene soaked wood. His and other stories were later told in the 1998 book: "Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow" by Leon F. Litwack. (SFEC, 4/19/98, BR p.4) 1899 nend Apr 29, Edward Kennedy "Duke" Ellington (d.1975), jazz composer and musician was born in Washington D.C. A major influence in jazz, especially the big band sound, Ellington orchestrated over 1,000 pieces of music during his prolific career. Although some tunes most associated with Duke Ellington and 'His Famous Orchestra' were written by others (Billy Strayhorn wrote "Take the A Train"), Ellington capitalized on his outstanding ensemble by writing pieces emphasizing the talents of individual performers such as Johnny Hodges and Jimmy Blanton. In addition to big band pieces, he also wrote for film, ballet and opera. (HN, 4/4/98)(SFEC, 2/21/99, DB p.32)(AP, 4/29/99)(HNQ, 11/10/00) 1899 nend May 5, Freeman F. Gosden, radio comedy writer and performer (Amos 'n' Andy), was born in Richmond, Va. (HN, 5/5/01)(MC, 5/5/02) 1899 nend May 8, Friedrich August von Hayek (d.1992), Austrian-born British economist. He found solutions to problems proposed by Keynesian economics. He was dedicated to illuminating the problems of socialism and held that inflation, unemployment and recession result from governmental interference. He won a Nobel prize in 1974. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R20) 1899 nend May 9, A lawn mower was patented. (MC, 5/9/02) 1899 nend May 10, Fred Astaire (d.1987), movie musical star, was born in Omaha, Neb. His films included ?Easter Parade? (1948). (AP, 5/10/99)(HN, 5/10/99) 1899 nend May 18, The First Hague Peace Conference opened in the Netherlands as 26 nations met on World Goodwill Day. The destruction or seizure of enemy property with no military value was banned at the convention. The czar of Russia had called for a disarmament conference that, for reasons of diplomatic niceties and international rivalries, ended up in The Hague. (AP, 5/18/99)(SFC, 8/11/00, p.A15)(AP, 4/17/06) 1899 nend May 20, John M. Harlan, the 91st Supreme Court justice (1955-71), was born in Chicago. (MC, 5/20/02) 1899 nend May 24, The 1st US auto repair shop opened in Boston. (MC, 5/24/02) 1899 nend May 25, Marie-Rosalie "Rosa" Bonheur (68), French painter, died. (SC, 5/25/02) 1899 nend May 26, Pieter Menten, Dutch war criminal, was born. (MC, 5/26/02) 1899 nend May 29, Frantz Jehin-Prume (60), composer, died. (SC, 5/29/02) 1899 nend May 30, Irving G. Thalberg, legendary MGM production executive, was born in Brooklyn, N.Y. (AP, 5/30/99) 1899 nend May 30, Wilbur Wright (1867-1912), Ohio bicycle mechanic, wrote the Smithsonian Institution and affirmed his belief that human flight was possible. (NPub, 2002, p.5)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_Brothers) 1899 nend May, "The stock market is in the nature of a barometer which reflects the rise and fall of general conditions," so said Charles Dow in a WSJ column. (WSJ, 5/28/96, p. R-26) 1899 nend Jun 2, Black Americans observed a day of fasting to protest lynchings. (SC, 6/2/02) 1899 nend Jun 3, A French court overturned the 1894 guilty verdict against Capt. Dreyfus. (ON, 2/09, p.7) 1899 nend Jun 3, Johann Strauss (73), Jr., composer ("Waltz King"), died. (MC, 6/3/02) 1899 nend Jun 7, Elizabeth Bowen (d.1973), Irish-British novelist and short story writer (The Death of the Heart), was born in Dublin. "One can live in the shadow of an idea without grasping it." "The charm, one might say the genius of memory, is that it is choosy, chancy and temperamental: it rejects the edifying cathedral and indelibly photographs the small boy outside, chewing a hunk of melon in the dust." (AP, 4/19/97)(AP, 8/5/97)(HN, 6/7/01) 1899 nend Jun 11, Yasonari Kawabata (d.1972), Japanese novelist (Thousand Cranes)(Nobel 1968), was born in Osaka. (SC, 6/11/02) 1899 nend Jun 16, Nelson Doubleday, US publisher (Doubleday), was born. (MC, 6/16/02) 1899 nend Jun 16, Helen Traubel, soprano (Met Opera Walkure/Isolde), nightclubs, was born in St Louis, MO. (MC, 6/16/02) 1899 nend Jun 20, Jean Moulin, French Resistance fighter against Nazi Germany, was born. (HN, 6/20/98) 1899 nend Jun 27. The plague came ashore in San Francisco. Political leaders overrode health officials and denied its presence. The governor declared it a felony to publish its existence. By 1904 more than 100 people had died of "syphilitic septicemia," the official pseudonym of plague. (NG, 5/88, p.686) 1899 nend Jul 1, Reverend Thomas Dorsey, father of gospel music, was born. (HN, 7/1/98) 1899 nend Jul 1, Charles Laughton, actor (Mutiny on Bounty, Spartacus), was born in England. (MC, 7/1/02) 1899 nend Jul 1, Gideon Society was established to place bibles in hotels. (MC, 7/1/02) 1899 nend Jul 3, The nation's first juvenile court opened on the West Side after reformers like Jane Addams pushed the Illinois legislature to recognize that children were developmentally different from adults. (SFEC, 6/27/99, Z1 p.1) 1899 nend Jul 7, George Cukor (d.1983), film director, was born in New York City. (AP, 7/7/99)(MC, 7/7/02) 1899 nend Jul 11, E. B. White (Elwyn Brooks White, d.1985), writer, author of "Charlotte's Web" and "The Elements of Style," was born. (HN, 7/11/98)(PGA, 12/9/98)(MC, 7/11/02) 1899 nend Jul 17, James Cagney (d.1986), American actor famous for his role in "Yankee Doodle Dandy," was born. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Cagney) 1899 nend Jul 18, Horatio Alger Jr. (67), American clergyman, author (Disagreeable Woman), died. His books, reissued in cheaper editions, became huge bestsellers. In 1928 Herbert Mayes authored a biography that was highly fabricated. In 1985 Gary Scharnhorst and Jack Bales authored "The Lost Life of Horatio Alger, Jr." (WSJ, 8/27/03, p.B1)(MC, 7/18/02) 1899 nend Jul 21, Ernest Hemingway (d.1961), American novelist and short-story writer, was born in Oak Park, Ill. "Never confuse motion with action." (AP, 7/21/97)(HN, 7/21/98)(AP, 11/21/98) 1899 nend Jul 21, Hart Crane, American poet, was born. He died in 1932 by jumping off a ship in the Atlantic Ocean. His major epic poem is called "The Bridge." Brom Weber in 1952 published an edition of his letters: "Oh My Land, My Friends." This was updated in 1997 by Langdon Hammer. (WSJ, 8/19/97, p.A17) 1899 nend Jul 25, Ralph Dumke, actor (Movieland Quiz), was born in Indiana. (SC, 7/25/02) 1899 nend Jul 30, Gerald Moore, English pianist (Am I Too Loud), was born. (MC, 7/30/02) 1899 nend Aug 8, The first household refrigerating machine was patented. (SFEC, 8/8/99, Z1 p.8)(HN, 8/8/00) 1899 nend Aug 9, Pamela Lyndon Travers (P.L. Travers), author of the Mary Poppins books, was born. (HN, 8/9/00) 1899 nend Aug 13, Alfred Hitchcock (d.1980), movie director, was born in London. "A woman, I always say, should be like a good suspense movie: The more left to the imagination, the more excitement there is. This should be her aim -- to create suspense, to let a man discover things about her without her having to tell him." (AP, 8/13/97)(HN, 8/13/98)(AP, 8/13/99) 1899 nend Aug 15, Henry Ford (36) quit his job with the Edison Illuminating Company. He soon found backers and started the Detroit Automobile Company, with himself as chief engineer. (ON, 3/03, p.1) 1899 nend Aug 23, Albert Claude (d.1983), biologist, was born in Belgium. He never graduated from high school and won the 1974 Nobel for his work on the sub-structure of the cell. (www.belgium.be) 1899 nend Aug 24, Jorge Luis Borges (d.1986), Argentine poet and philosophical essayist, was born in Buenos Aires. (WUD, 1994, p.171)(WSJ, 9/21/98, p.A26)(AP, 8/24/99) 1899 nend Aug 27, C.S. Forester (Cecil Scott Forester), novelist, was born in England. He authored the "Horatio Hornblower" series. (HN, 8/27/00)(MC, 8/27/02) 1899 nend Aug 31, Paul E. Garber, US founder and 1st curator of National Air & Space Museum, was born. (MC, 8/31/01) 1899 nend Aug 31, Lynn Riggs, writer, was born. Her book "Green Grow the Lilacs" was adapted by Rodgers and Hammerstein to become "Oklahoma." (HN, 8/31/00) 1899 nend Sep 6, Billy Rose, songwriter famous for "It's Only a Paper Moon," and "Me and My Shadow," was born. (HN, 9/6/98) 1899 nend Sep 6, Carnation processed its 1st can of evaporated milk. (MC, 9/6/01) 1899 nend Sep 8, The British government sent an additional 10,000 troops to Natal South Africa. (MC, 9/8/01) 1899 nend Sep 9, Louis Cheslock, composer and author (Mencken on Music), was born. (MC, 9/9/01) 1899 nend Sep 13, Henry H. Bliss became the first person killed by an automobile, an electric taxi in Manhattan. (SFC, 10/10/97, p.A21) 1899 nend Sep 14, Hal B. Wallis (d.1986), film producer, was born in Chicago. His work included ?The Maltese Falcon, Casablanca.? (HN, 9/14/00)(www.britannica.com) 1899 nend Sep 17, The 1st British troops left Bombay for South Africa. (MC, 9/17/01) 1899 nend Sep 19, French Capt. Alfred Dreyfus won a pardon after a retrial was forced by public opinion and he was released from Devil's Island. (PCh, 1992, p.628)(Wikipedia) 1899 nend Sep, The USS Charleston engaged in shellfire upon Subic Bay in the Philippines. (G, Spring/98, p.5) 1899 nend Oct 3, J.S. Thurman patented a motor-driven vacuum cleaner. (MC, 10/3/01) 1899 nend Oct 9, Bruce Catton, U.S. historian and journalist, famous for his works on the Civil War, was born. (HN, 10/9/98) 1899 nend Oct 10, I.R. Johnson patented the bicycle frame. (MC, 10/10/01) 1899 nend Oct 11, Byron Bancroft Johnson, president of baseball?s Western League, renamed it as the American League. (ON, 6/09, p.11) 1899 nend Oct 11, South African Boers, settlers from the Netherlands, declared war on Great Britain. In the Boer War Dutch settlers of the South African Republic (the Traansvaal) under Pres. Paul Kruger and the Orange Free State refused to accept English rule in southern Africa. The Boers were the predominately Dutch inhabitants of the two republics, which had gained their independence from Great Britain in the 1850s. Years of tensions between British settlers and the Boer governments exploded into war. Eventual British victory resulted in the Boer republics becoming colonies of the British Empire and in 1910 part of the Union of South Africa. (V.D.-H.K.p.289)(HNQ, 7/12/99)(SFC, 10/8/99, p.D3) 1899 nend Oct 12, The Anglo-Boer War began. [see Oct 11] (HN, 10/12/98) 1899 nend Oct 14, Morning Post reporter Winston Churchill departed for South Africa. Shortly after his arrival he was caught in an ambush and taken prisoner in Pretoria from whence he escaped. In 1999 his granddaughter Celia Sandys authored "Churchill: Wanted Dead Or Alive." (WSJ, 12/29/99, p.A12)(MC, 10/14/01) 1899 nend Oct 30, In South Africa two battalions of British troops were cut off, surrounded and forced to surrender to General Petrus Joubert's Boers at Nicholson's Nek. (HN, 10/30/98) 1899 nend Oct 30, British Morning Post reporter Winston Churchill reached Capetown. (MC, 10/30/01) 1899 nend Oct, An int'l. tribunal in Paris ruled on a border dispute between Venezuela and British Guiana (Guyana). Britain received most of the claim for the Essequibo region, close to 111,000 square miles. Venezuela was represented by 2 US judges and the chairman of the panel was Russian jurist Frederic de Martens. Venezuela rejected this decision in the 1960s. (SFC, 10/26/99, p.A12)(Econ, 9/29/07, p.44) 1899 nend Nov 4, John Montgomery Ward delivered a manifesto on baseball that said in part: "There was a time when the League stood for integrity and fair dealing?" (SFEC, 10/3/99, BR p.4) 1899 nend Nov 11, Stuart-Rubens-Boyd-Jones' "Floradora," premiered in London. (MC, 11/11/01) 1899 nend Nov 15, Winston Churchill (24), war correspondent for London?s Morning Post, was captured by Boers in Natal, South Africa. He escaped prison in Pretoria on Dec 12 and after some days reached the English colony in Durban, Natal. (ON, 12/08, p1) 1899 nend Nov 16, Vincas Kudirka (d.1858), author of the Lithuanian national anthem, died. (LC, 1998, p.30)(LHC, 12/31/02) 1899 nend Nov 19, Allen Tate, Southern novelist, poet and critic, was born. (HN, 11/19/00) 1899 nend Nov 21, Vice President Garret A. Hobart, serving under President McKinley, died in Paterson, N.J., at age 55. (AP, 11/21/99) 1899 nend Nov 22, Hoagy Carmichael (d.1981), American composer, was born in Bloomington, Ind. His songs included "Georgia on My Mind" (1930) "Stardust" and over 600 other melodies. Lyrics for Georgia on my Mind were written by Stuart Gorrell. (WSJ, 9/9/99, p.A24)(SFC, 11/25/99, p.C22)(Econ, 7/3/04, p.16) 1899 nend Nov 24, Abdullah ibn Mohammed al-Ta'a'ishi, Mahdi of Sudan (1883-99), died. (MC, 11/24/01) 1899 nend Nov 28, The British were victorious over the Boers at Modder River. (HN, 11/28/98) 1899 nend Dec 1, Robert Welch, founder of the John Birch Society, was born. (MC, 12/1/01) 1899 nend Dec 2, John Barbirolli, English conductor (NY Philharmonic Orchestra), was born. (MC, 12/2/01) 1899 nend Dec 9, Jean de Brunhoff (d.1937), illustrator and author, creator of the Babar series of books, was born. (HN, 12/9/00)(SFC, 4/15/03, p.A16) 1899 nend Dec 12, George F. Bryant of Boston patented the wooden golf tee. (MC, 12/12/01) 1899 nend Dec 15, In South Africa the Boars defeated the British at the Battle of Colenso. (HN, 12/15/98) 1899 nend Dec 16, Sir Noel Coward (d.1973), the English actor, playwright and composer, was born in London. "I love criticism just so long as it's unqualified praise." (AP, 12/16/99) 1899 nend Dec 22, Wiley Post, aviation pioneer, was born in Texas. (MC, 12/22/01) 1899 nend Dec 25, Humphrey Bogart, actor ("Here's looking at you, kid" in Casablanca), was born in NYC. [see Jan 23, 1899] (MC, 12/25/01) 1899 nend Dec 30, The New York Times listed the most significant advances of the Industrial Revolution. 1st item on the list was friction matches (1827). (SFEC, 8/13/00, Z1 p.2) 1899 nend Dec 31, Silvestre Revueltas, composer (Sensemaya), was born in Santiago, Papasquiaro, Mexico. (MC, 12/31/01) 1899 nend Dec 31, Karl Millocker (57), Austrian conductor and composer, died. (MC, 12/31/01) 1899 nend Dec, Honolulu?s chief microbiologist reported that plague had arrived in Hawaii. The steamship Nippon Maru had docked there in the summer with a corpse that carried plague. (SSFC, 12/19/04, p.E2) 1899 nend Alfred Mosher Butts (d.1993), the inventor of the Scrabble game, was born in Poughkeepsie, NY. The game was initially called Lexico and then Criss-Cross Words. It was named Scrabble in 1947. Sales took off in 1952. (WSJ, 6/28/01, p.B1) 1899 nend The Cardwell triplets (Faith, Hope and Charity) were born near Waco, Texas. They later set a record by all living past age 95. (SFC, 1/18/97, p.A19) 1899 nend Eusebia Palomino Yenes (d.1935) was born in Spain. She became a nun of the Institute of the Daughters of Mary, Help of Christians and was beatified in 2004. (AP, 4/25/04) 1899 nend Paul Cezanne (1839-1906) painted ?Man with Crossed Arms.? (SSFC, 10/23/11, p.M5) 1899 nend Gustav Klimt painted "Nude Veritas." (WSJ, 7/11/01, p.A15) 1899 nend Edouard Vuillard painted "The Salon with Three Lamps, Rue St. Florentin." (WSJ, 2/8/96, p.A-12) 1899 nend The Awakening, a novel of loneliness and anomie by Kate Chopin was published. (WSJ, 7/31/96, p.A13) 1899 nend John Dewey, American education theorist, authored ?The School and Society,? in which he argued that schooling should reflect the lives of children as well as what they had to learn. (Econ, 9/17/11, p.24) 1899 nend Harry Graham, English versifier, authored "Ruthless Rhymes for Heartless Homes." (SFEC, 5/14/00, Z1 p.2) 1899 nend Rudyard Kipling authored his poem ?The White Man?s Burden.? (SSFC, 5/8/05, p.B1) 1899 nend Leo Tolstoy published his last big novel: "Resurrection." In 1999 composer Tod Machover debuted his opera "Resurrection" with the Houston Grand Opera. It was based on Tolstoy's work. (WSJ, 5/4/99, p.A20) 1899 nend Thorstein Veblen (1857-1929), a Norwegian-American academic, published "The Theory of the Leisure Class," which attacked the influence of laissez faire economics and big business on society. (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R20)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen) 1899 nend H.G. Wells authored "When the Sleeper Wakes," the story of a man who falls asleep for 200 years. (WSJ, 1/1/00, p.R8) 1899 nend Edith Wharton published her first collection of short fiction, "The Greater Inclination." (Hem, Dec. 94, p.71)(SSFC, 1/14/01, BR p.8) no_source 1899 nend In Alaska the White Pass & Yukon railroad, which led to the goldfields, was completed. (SFEC, 2/7/99, p.T4) 1899 nend Edward H. Harriman, chairman of the Union Pacific RR, led a survey expedition along the Alaska coast with 126 passengers aboard a luxury steamer. The 2-month, 9,000 mile journey from Seattle to Siberia included a stop at Cape Fox where the visitors gathered up a items from what looked like an abandoned Tlingit Indian settlement. Much of the plunder was returned in 2001. (WSJ, 8/31/01, p.W13) 1899 nend In Cambridge, Mass., the Semitic Museum of Harvard Univ. was founded. (AM, 7/97, p.68) 1899 nend The Univ. of Pennsylvania Museum of Archeology and Anthropology opened. (WSJ, 5/7/03, p.D10) 1899 nend The US Consumers League was founded to promote a fair marketplace for workers and consumers. (AH, 10/07, p.34)(www.nclnet.org/about/history.htm) 1899 nend In Le Roy, New York, Pearle Wait, a carpenter, and his wife May, sold their formula for Jell-O for $450 to neighbor Orator Frank Woodward. (SFEC, 7/27/97, p.A2) 1899 nend In New Orleans Oysters Rockefeller was invented at Antoine's restaurant. (SFEM, 6/14/98, p.8) 1899 nend Louis Henry Sullivan got the commission to design the Carson Pirie Scott department store in Chicago, at the corner of State and Madison in the heart of the Loop. (Hem., 7/95, p.82) 1899 nend Lucille Mulhall, reputed as the 1st cowgirl, first performed. (WSJ, 4/10/01, p.A20) 1899 nend A treaty between American, Germany and Britain gave Western Samoa to the Germans and Eastern Samoa to the Americans. In an Anglo-German treaty the UK renounced its rights to the Samoan Islands (HN, 1/16/99)(SFCM, 10/14/01, p.45) 1899 nend A federal law made it illegal to dump any waste in any US body of water. (SFEC, 3/28/99, Z1 p.8) 1899 nend The US Library of Congress introduced a classification system organized into 21 subject classes. (ON, 3/04, p.12) 1898 nend South Dakota became the first US state to allow voter initiatives. (Econ, 12/19/09, p.47) 1899 nend Acting UMWA Pres. John Mitchell (1870-1919) was elected as head of the United Mine Workers of America. (AH, 2/03,p.43)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mitchell_%28United_Mine_Workers%29) 1899 nend The Western Federation of mine workers demanded that only union workers be hired, but mine owners refused. In Wardner, Idaho, the Bunker Hill Co. mine was dynamited. Pres. McKinley sent in troops who gathered up thousands of miners and confined them in "bullpens." (SFC, 10/4/02, p.A17) 1899 nend The original Juvenile Court was established in Chicago. (SFC, 5/12/96, p.A-10) 1899 nend The 37-ton Tuolumne No.2 steam engine at Roaring Camp, Ca. was built. It is claimed to be the oldest of its type, a Heisler, and began service at Roaring Camp in 1963. (SFC, 5/12/96, p.T-3) 1899 nend The American Rice Food and Manufacturing Co. of New Jersey established a copyright for an advertising doll for Cook's Flaked Rice. (SFC, 3/11/98, Z1 p.5) 1899 nend John D. Rockefeller re-consolidated the Standard Oil of New Jersey as a holding company. In 1911, the Supreme Court upheld the dissolution of the company under the Sherman Antitrust Act, resulting in the break up of Standard Oil into 34 companies. (HNQ, 1/23/00) 1899 nend The first automobile parts and supply company opened in St. Louis, Mo. (WSJ, 6/19/96, Adv. Supl) 1889 nend Hendrik Baekeland (26), Belgian professor of natural science, sailed for America. (ON, 9/05, p.10) 1899 nend Hiram Percy Maxim, engineer for the Pope Manufacturing Co., raced the new Mark VIII against a Stanely Steamer in Branford and won. (ON, 7/00, p.6) 1899 nend R.E. Olds moved his Oldsmobile production plant from Lansing, Mich. to Detroit. (WSJ, 6/19/96, Adv. Supl) 1899 nend The US Packard automobile company was founded. (Sky, 9/97, p.97) 1899 nend The US Postal Service began using cars in large cities to speed delivery. (WSJ, 6/19/96, Adv. Supl) 1899 nend Sebastian Spering Kresge founded a store that developed into the Kmart Corp. The 1st Detroit store sold merchandise for either 5 or 10 cents. (Ind, 2/2/02, 5A) 1899 nend The vibrator was introduced as a home medical appliance. By 1904 it appeared in magazine advertisements. In 1918 a Sears Roebuck catalog described a $5.95 portable model. (SSFC, 7/22/07, p.F6) 1899 nend Coburn Haskell of Cleveland with the help of a BF Goodrich scientist came up with a liquid-center gutta-percha golf ball. [2nd source says 1898] (SFC, 6/21/97, p.E4) (WSJ, 6/15/00, p.A1) 1899 nend Johan Vaaler, Norwegian inventor, produced the first paper clip. It was initially called the Gem since it was first manufactured by Gem Ltd. (WSJ, 7/24/95, p.A-1) 1899 nend John Mast of Lititz, Pa., invented the snapping mousetrap called the "Victor." It was patented in 1903. (SFC, 11/30/96, p.B5) 1899 nend The US Navy built Quarters One as the Commandant?s residence on Yerba Buena Island in the San Francisco Bay. It later became known as the Nimitz House, the final home of Navy Adm. Chester Nimitz, who lived there from 1963-1966. (SFC, 9/18/10, p.C3)(www.nps.gov/nr/travel/wwiibayarea/qua.htm) 1899 nend The Los Angeles Oil Exchange was established to handle the securities of oil companies in southern California. (SSFC, 1/25/04, p.I3) 1899 nend In California wildcatters discovered oil along the Kern River in Bakersfield. (SSFC, 4/13/08, p.C1) 1899 nend Oakland Preserving Co. and 17 other firms combined to form the California Fruit Canners Association. They adopted the Del Monte brand name. In 1916-17 the canner?s association called itself Calpak and started advertising the Del Monte brand. (SFC, 3/1/97, p.B1)(SSFC, 10/3/04, p.J1) 1899 nend The Italian cemetery in Lawndale (Colma), Ca., was established. (Ind, 11/28/98, p.5A)(www.colmahistory.org/History.htm) 1899 nend In San Francisco the Letterman Army Hosp. opened to treat patients from the Spanish-American War and the Philippine Insurrection. (SFC, 6/26/96, p.A13) 1899 nend Scientists of the Univ. of Calif. Berkeley expedition uncovered hundreds of crocodile mummies encased and stuffed with papyrus covered with writings from the ruins of the city of Tebtunis. The site dated from the 3rd century BC when Ptolemy the Great ruled Egypt. The expedition was financed by Phoebe Apperson Hearst. (SFC, 12/4/96, p.A4) 1899 nend Dr. Charles Wardell Stiles, a zoologist from Hartford, Connecticut, identified "progressive pernicious anemia," seen in the southern United States, as caused by A. duodenale. He also identified the other important hookworm species: Necator americanus. Stiles had studied medical zoology in Europe in the late 19th century and learned about hookworms while helping with animal autopsies and studies. From 1909 to 1914, doctors, public health officials, and northern businessmen worked to destroy what they called the "germ of laziness." They believed such a germ caused many of the South's problems, poverty, a sickly population, and economic underdevelopment. But the germ these people were attacking wasn't a germ at all. It was a worm, the hookworm. no_source 9 nend /26/10, DB p.50) no_source 1899 nend George Reisner, American Egyptologist, began excavations. He directed excavations at Giza and elsewhere for the next 40 years. (WSJ, 12/27/95, p. A-8) 1899 nend La Paz became the seat of Bolivia?s legislative and executive branches after winning a brief civil war against Sucre, which retained the country?s high courts. (AP, 8/6/97)(Econ, 7/1/06, p.77)(AP, 7/21/07) 1899 nend The Landmark Hotel was built in London, England. (AP, 2/17/10) 1889 nend In the English League First Division match, the 1st professional league soccer championship, Preston North End won against the Aston Villa Football Club. Preston went through its 22-game season without losing a match. (Econ, 7/14/07,p.15)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1889_in_football_(soccer)) 1899 nend In Britain the bulk of the Bloomsbury group entered Trinity College, Cambridge. (SFEC, 9/22/96, BR p.3) 1899 nend Musicologist Cecil Sharp stumbled on a performance of Morris dancers at the Oxford Corn Exchange. He wrote down the songs, annotated the dances and begat a revival. Morris dancing had been banned as pagan by Oliver Cromwell in the 17th century. (WSJ, 5/17/04, p.A13) 1899 nend A telegraph cable connecting Britain to Cape Town came ashore on Ascension Island. (Econ, 12/18/10, p.160) 1899 nend Sir Arthur Evans discovered the center of Minoan civilization on the island of Crete. He erected a house overlooking the excavations and named it Villa Ariadne after the daughter of King Minos. As he unearthed a mound at Knossos he rebuilt parts of a 3,500 year-old palace in modernist style. In 2009 Cathy Gere authored ?Knossos and the Prophets of Modernism.? (WSJ, 6/26/98, p.W9)(WSJ, 2/8/02, p.AW9)(Econ, 5/16/09, p.91) 1899 nend Germany bought the Caroline Islands, a group of about 500 small coral islands east of the Philippines, from Spain for 25 million pesetas. (Econ, 11/19/11, p.64)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline_Islands) 1899 nend In Italy the Fiat automobile company was founded. (Sky, 9/97, p.97)(SFEC,12/14/97, p.D7) 1899 nend Japan passed a statute that discriminated against the northern Ainu people. It described them as aborigines in need of assimilation. The law was repealed in 1997. (SFC, 5/9/97, p.E3)(Econ, 7/12/08, p.54) 1899 nend When British engineers were building a railway from the coastal town of Mombasa to what is now Uganda, they chose the Masai's emergency watering hole as a watering point for their steam engines and it eventually became Nairobi, Kenya's capital. (AP, 2/19/06) 1899 nend Antonio Guzman Blanco, former president of Venezuela, died. He dominated Venezuela from 1870-1888, when a revolution destroyed his power. (www.bartleby.com/65/gu/GuzmanBl.html) 1899 1900 Claude Monet painted his first "Lily Pond" series. (WSJ, 7/1/99, p.A21) 1899 1902 With diamonds at Kimberley and gold in the Transvaal, the British got aggressive against the Dutch Boers in the Orange Free State and the Transvaal. The Boers lost their independence to the British in the Anglo-Boer War. 18-28,000 women and children died in British concentration camps as compared to 7,000 Boers who died in battle. (NG, Oct. 1988, p. 566) 1899 1902 In the Boer War some 12,000 blacks and 18,000 whites were killed from epidemics in British concentration camps. Some 25,000 blacks and 94,000 whites were herded into the world's first concentration camps. Thomas Packenham later authored "The Boer War." (SFC, 10/8/99, p.D3) 1899 1902 The Anglo-Boer War. Winston Churchill took part as a war correspondent for the Morning Post. [see Oct 14, 1899] (WSJ, 12/29/99, p.A12) 1899 1902 The civil war known as the War of the Thousand Days took place in Colombia, beginning in1899 and ending in 1902. Some 100,000 of Colombia's four million people perished in the conflict, mostly from disease. Colombia had been plunged into bankruptcy and subsequent civil war in 1899 after three years of steep declines in world coffee prices. (HNQ, 2/25/99) 1899 1909 Cipriano Castro served as president of Venezuela. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_state_leaders_in_1906) 1899 1944 Hans Krasa, composer. He was a Czech-born German Jew and composed the opera Betrothal in a Dream, which premiered in Prague in 1933 under Georg Szell. He was killed by the Nazis in Auschwitz in 1944. (WSJ, 1/31/96, p.A-16) 1899 1966 William C. Menninger, American scientist, physician, engineer: "It is difficult to give children a sense of security unless you have it yourself. If you have it, they catch it from you." (AP, 4/9/98) 1899 1974 Duke Ellington, American jazz artist: "Love is indescribable and unconditional. I could tell you a thousand things that it is not, but not one that it is." (AP, 7/15/97) 1899 1981 David E. Lilienthal, American public official: "A river has no politics." (AP, 8/17/98) 1899 1983 Chang Da-chien, Chinese painter, collector and forger. Some suspected that the 10th century work "Riverbank" attributed to Dong Yuan was actually a forgery by Chang. (WSJ, 12/13/99, p.A32) 1899 1985 E.B. White, American author and humorist: "People are, if anything, more touchy about being thought silly than they are about being thought unjust." "To perceive Christmas through its wrapping becomes more difficult with every year." (AP, 3/15/98)(AP, 12/24/98)